Ancient Greece
7th Grade Great Civilizations "Ancient Greece." Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 28 Oct. 2021. school.eb.com/levels/middle/article/ancient-Greece/274648. Accessed 30 Jan. 2024.
From: Britannica
Ancient Greece Various Types of Government The government of many city-states, notably Athens, passed through four stages from the time of Homer to historical times. During the 8th and 7th centuries BC the kings disappeared. Monarchy gave way to oligarchy—that is, ruled by a few. The oligarchic successors of the kings were the wealthy landowning nobles, the “eupatridae,” or wellborn. However, the rivalry among these nobles and the discontent of the oppressed masses was so great that soon a third stage appeared. The third type of government was known as tyranny. Some eupatrids would seize absolute power, usually by promising the people to right the wrongs inflicted upon them by the other landholding eupatridae. He was known as a “tyrant.” Among the Greeks this was not a term of reproach but merely meant one who had seized kingly power without the qualification of royal descent. The tyrants of the 7th century were a stepping-stone to democracy, or the rule of the people, which was established nearly everywhere in the 6th and 5th centuries. It was the tyrants who taught the people their rights and power. By the beginning of the 5th century BC, Athens had gone through these stages and emerged as the first democracy in the history of the world. Between two and three centuries before this, the Athenian kings had made way for officials called “archons,” elected by the nobles. Thus an aristocratic form of government was established. About 621 BC an important step in the direction of democracy was taken, when the first written laws in Greece were compiled from the existing traditional laws. This reform was forced by the peasants to relieve them from the oppression of the nobles. The new code was so severe, however, that the adjective draconian, derived from the name of the code’s compiler, Draco, is still a synonym for “harsh.” Unfortunately, Draco’s code did not give the peasants sufficient relief. A revolution was averted only by the wise reforms of Solon, about a generation later. Solon’s reforms only delayed the overthrow of the aristocracy. About 561 BC Pisistratus, supported by the discontented populace, made himself tyrant.
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From: Britannica
With two interruptions, Pisistratus ruled for more than 30 years, fostering commerce, agriculture, and the arts and laying the foundation for much of Athens’ future greatness. His sons Hippias and Hipparchus attempted to continue their father’s power. One of them was slain by two youths, Harmodius and Aristogiton, who lived on in Greek tradition as themes for sculptors and poets. By the reforms of Clisthenes, about 509 BC, the rule of the people was firmly established. Very different was the course of events in Sparta, which by this time had established itself as the most powerful military state in Greece. Under the strict laws of Lycurgus it had maintained its primitive monarchical form of government with little change. Nearly the whole of the Peloponnesus had been brought under its iron heel, and it was now jealousy eyeing the rising power of its democratic rival in central Greece. During this period the intellectual and artistic culture of the Greeks centered among the Ionions of Asia Minor. Thales, called “the first Greek philosopher,” was a citizen of Miletus. He became famous for predicting an eclipse of the Sun in 585 bc. Suddenly there loomed in the east a power that threatened to sweep away the whole promising structure of the new European civilization. Persia, the great Asian empire of the day, had been awakened to the existence of the free peoples of Greece by the aid which the Athenians had sent to their oppressed kinsmen in Asia Minor. The Persian empire mobilized its gigantic resources in an effort to conquer the Greek city-states. The scanty forces of the Greeks succeeded in driving out the invaders (see Persian Wars). Let’s Review! 1.
What were the four stages that the government of many city-states, including Athens, passed through from the time of Homer to historical times?
2.
Reflect on the overall progression of political changes in Athens from Draco's code to the reforms of Clisthenes, highlighting the key events and turning points.
3.
How did Athens differ from Sparta in regards to government?
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From: Britannica
Geography Skills: The Persian War
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From: Britannica
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From: Britannica
Athens’s Rise to Power From this momentous conflict Athens emerged a blackened ruin yet the richest and most powerful city-state in Greece. It owed this position chiefly to the shrewd policies of the statesman Themistocles, who had seen that naval strength, not land strength, would in the future be the key to power. “Whoso can hold the sea has command of the situation,” he said. He persuaded his fellow Athenians to build a strong fleet—larger than the combined fleets of all the rest of Greece—and to fortify the harbor at Piraeus.
The Athenian fleet became the instrument by which the Persians were finally defeated, at the battle of Salamis in 480 bc. The fleet also enabled Athens to dominate the Aegean area. Within three years after Salamis, Athens had united the Greek cities of the Asian coast and of the Aegean islands into a confederacy for defense against Persia. It was called the Delian League because the treasury was at first on the island of Delos. In another generation this confederacy became an Athenian empire. Almost at a stride Athens was transformed from a provincial city into an imperial capital. Wealth beyond the dreams of any other Greek state flowed into its coffers—tribute from subject and allied states, customs duties on the flood of commerce that poured through Piraeus, and revenues from the Attic silver mines. The population increased fourfold or more, as foreigners streamed in to share in the prosperity. The learning that had been the creation of a few “wise men” throughout the Greek world now became fashionable. Painters and sculptors vied in beautifying Athens with the works of their genius. Even today, battered and defaced by time and people, these art treasures remain among the greatest surviving achievements of human skill. The period in which Athens flourished, one of the most remarkable and brilliant in the world’s history, reached its culmination in the age of Pericles, 460–430 bc. Under the
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From: Britannica
stimulus of wealth and power, with abundant leisure and free institutions, the citizen body of Athens attained a higher average of intellectual interests than any other society before or since. Let’s Review! 1.
Who played a crucial role in Athens' rise to become the richest and most powerful city-state in ancient Greece?
2.
What strategic decision regarding naval strength proved instrumental in Athens' success, and who advocated for it?
3.
What was the initial purpose of the Delian League, and how did it transform over time?
4. What factors led to Athens transforming from a provincial city into an imperial capital, and what were the consequences of this transformation on the city's population and culture?
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From: Britannica
Slavery in Ancient Greece It must be remembered, however, that a very large part of the population was not free, that the Athenian state rested on a foundation of slavery. Two-fifths (some authorities say four-fifths) of the population were slaves. Slave labor produced much of the wealth that gave the citizens of Athens time and money to pursue art and learning and to serve the state. Slavery in Greece was a peculiar institution. When a city was conquered, its inhabitants were often sold as slaves. Kidnapping boys and men in “barbarian,” or non-Greek, lands and even in other Greek city-states was another steady source of supply. If a slave was well educated or could be trained to a craft, he was in great demand. An Athenian slave often had a chance to obtain his freedom, for quite frequently he was paid for his work, and this gave him a chance to save money. After he had bought his freedom or had been set free by a grateful master, he became a metic—a resident alien. Many of the slaves, however, had a miserable lot. They were sent in gangs to the silver mines at Laurium, working in narrow underground corridors by the dim light of little lamps. Let’s Review! 1.
What proportion of the Athenian population consisted of slaves, and how did their labor contribute to the wealth of the city?
2.
How was slavery different in Greece compared to other societies, and what were the common sources of slaves in ancient Greece?
3.
In what circumstances would an Athenian slave hope to obtain freedom, and what was their status after gaining freedom?
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From: Britannica
Daily Life in the Age of Pericles Although slavery freed the Athenians from drudgery, they led simple lives. They ate two meals a day, usually consisting of bread, vegetable broth, fruit, and wine. Olives, olive oil, and honey were common foods. Cheese was often eaten in place of meat. Fish was a delicacy. The two-story houses of the Athenians were made of sun-dried brick and stood on narrow, winding streets. Even in the cold months the houses were heated only with a brazier, or dish, of burning charcoal. The houses had no chimneys, only a hole in the roof to let out the smoke from the stove in the tiny kitchen. There were no windows on the first floor, but in the center of the house was a broad, open court, such as is found in Spanish and Chinese homes today. Clustered about the court were the men’s apartment, the women’s apartment, and tiny bedrooms. There was no plumbing. Refuse was thrown in the streets. The real life of the city went on outdoors. The men spent their time talking politics and philosophy in the agora, or marketplace. They exercised in the athletic fields, performed military duty, and took part in state festivals. Some sat in the Assembly or the Council of 500 or served on juries. There were 6,000 jurors on call at all times in Athens, for the allied cities were forced to bring cases to Athens for trial. Daily salaries were paid for jury service and service on the Council. These made up a considerable part of the income of the poorer citizens. The women stayed at home, spinning and weaving and doing household chores. They never acted as hostesses when their husbands had parties and were seen in public only at the theater—where they might attend tragedy but not comedy—and at certain religious festivals.
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From: Britannica
Let’s Review! 1.
Describe daily life in Athens during the Age of Pericles.
2.
What were the common foods in Athenian households, and how did the availability of certain items like fish and olive oil impact their diet?
3.
How did the daily life of Athenian men differ from that of women, and what activities occupied their time in the agora and elsewhere?
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From: Britannica
The Decline of Athens The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) The growth of Athenian power aroused the jealousy of Sparta and other independent Greek states and the discontent of Athens’s subject states. The result was a war that put an end to the power of Athens. The long struggle, called the Peloponnesian War, began in 431 bc. It was a contest between a great sea power, Athens and its empire, and a great land power, Sparta and the military coalition it led, called the Peloponnesian League. The plan of Pericles in the beginning was not to fight at all, but to let Corinth and Sparta spend their money and energies while Athens conserved both. He had all the inhabitants of Attica come inside the walls of Athens and let their enemies ravage the plain year after year, while Athens, without losses, harried their lands by sea. However, the bubonic plague broke out in besieged and overcrowded Athens. It killed one-fourth of the population, including Pericles, and left the rest without spirit and without a leader. The first phase of the Peloponnesian War ended with the outcome undecided. Almost before they knew it, the Athenians were whirled by the unscrupulous politician Alcibiades, a nephew of Pericles, into the second phase of the war (414–404 BC). Wishing for a brilliant military career, Alcibiades persuaded Athens to undertake a large-scale expedition against Syracuse, a Corinthian colony in Sicily. The Athenian armada was destroyed in 413 BC, and the captives were sold into slavery. This disaster sealed the fate of Athens. The allied Aegean cities that had remained faithful to Athens now deserted to Sparta, and the Spartan armies laid Athens under siege. In 405 bc the whole remaining Athenian fleet of 180 triremes (oar-powered three-decked warships) was captured in the Hellespont at the battle of Aegospotami. Besieged by land and powerless by sea, Athens could neither raise grain nor import it, and in 404 BC its empire came to an end. The fortifications and long walls connecting Athens with Piraeus were destroyed, and Athens became a vassal, or subject state, of triumphant Sparta. Let’s Review! 1.
What factors led to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, and what were the main opposing forces in the conflict?
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From: Britannica
2.
Describe the initial strategy of Pericles at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War and its impact on Athens and its enemies.
3.
How did the bubonic plague affect Athens during the first phase of the Peloponnesian War, and what were its consequences on the population and leadership?
4. Who played a significant role in initiating the second phase of the Peloponnesian War, and what ill-fated expedition did Athens undertake under his influence?
5.
What event marked a turning point in the Peloponnesian War, sealing the fate of Athens, and how did the city eventually succumb to Sparta in 404 BC?
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From: Britannica
Geography Skills: The Peloponnesian War
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From: Britannica
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From: Britannica
The End of the Greek City-States Sparta tried to maintain its supremacy by keeping garrisons in many of the Greek cities. This custom, together with Sparta’s hatred of democracy, made its domination unpopular. At the battle of Leuctra, in 371 BC, the Thebans (under their gifted commander Epaminondas) put an end to the power of Sparta. Theban leadership was short-lived, however, for it depended on the skill of Epaminondas. When he was killed in the battle of Mantinea, in 362 BC, Thebes had really suffered a defeat in spite of its apparent victory. The age of the powerful city-states was at an end, and a prostrated Greece had become easy prey for a would-be conqueror. Such a conqueror was found in the young and strong country of Macedon, which lay just to the north of Classical Greece. Its King Philip II, who came into power in 360 bc, had had a Greek education. Seeing the weakness of the disunited cities, he made up his mind to take possession of the Greek world. Demosthenes saw the danger that threatened and by a series of fiery speeches against Philip sought to unite the Greeks as they had once been united against Persia. The military might of Philip proved too strong for the disunited city-states, and at the battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) he established his leadership over Greece. Before he could carry his conquests to Asia Minor, however, he was killed and his power fell to his son Alexander, then not quite 20 years old. Alexander firmly entrenched his rule throughout Greece and then overthrew the vast power of Persia, building up an empire that embraced nearly the entire world known to the Mediterranean peoples. Alexander’s conquest of the Greek city-states spread Greek ideas and culture widely throughout the empire. Let’s Review! 1.
How did Sparta try to stay in control, and why did other Greek cities not like Sparta's way of ruling?
2.
What big event led to the end of Sparta's power, and who was the important person that helped Thebes win?
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From: Britannica
3.
Even though Thebes seemed to win at the Battle of Mantinea, why did they actually lose, and what happened when Epaminondas died?
4. What caused the powerful city-states in Greece to become weaker, and why were they easily attacked by others?
5.
How did King Philip II of Macedon use the problems between Greek cities to his advantage, and what did Demosthenes do to try to stop him?
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From: Britannica
Spotlight: Alexander the Great, how great was he? Directions: Use the documents A-F from these slides to help you complete the chart, then answer the question at the bottom of the page.
Document Information
Does this document provide evidence that Alexander the Great was in fact “great”?
What makes you say that?
A: Alexander’s Empire Map
B: The Campaigns of Alexander, circa 130 BC C: Alexander of Macedon, 1991
D: The Campaigns of Alexander, circa 130 BC E: Alexander’s Legacy Chart
F: Footsteps of Alexander the Great, 1997
How Great Was Alexander the Great?
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From: Britannica
The Hellenistic Age of Greece The Hellenistic Age and Roman Conquest The three centuries that followed the death of Alexander are known as the Hellenistic Age, for their products were no longer pure Greek, but Greek plus the characteristics of the conquered nations. The age was a time of great wealth and splendor. Art, science, and letters flourished and developed. The private citizens no longer lived crudely, but in a beautiful and comfortable house, and many cities adorned themselves with fine public buildings and sculptures. The Hellenistic Age came to an end with another conquest—that of Rome. On the field of Cynoscephalae (“dogs’ heads”), in Thessaly, the Romans defeated Macedonia in 197 BC and gave the Greek cities their freedom as allies. The Greeks caused Rome a great deal of trouble, and in 146 BC Corinth was burned. The Greeks became vassals of Rome. Athens alone was revered and given some freedom. To its schools went many Romans, Cicero among them. When the seat of the Roman Empire was transferred to the east, Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) became the center of culture and learning and Athens sank to the position of an unimportant country town (see Byzantine Empire). In the 4th century ad Greece was devastated by the Visigoths under Alaric; in the 6th century it was overrun by the Slavs; and in the 10th century it was raided by the Bulgars. In 1453 the Turks seized Constantinople, and within a few years practically all Greece was in their hands. Only in the 19th century, after a protracted struggle against their foreign rulers, did the Greeks finally regain their independence. Let’s Review! 1.
What is the Hellenistic Age, and why is it called that?
2.
How did the Hellenistic Age come to an end, and what was the role of Rome in this transition?
3.
What significant event in 197 BC led to the freedom of Greek cities from Macedonian rule?
4. How did Athens fare during the Roman period, and what happened to Greece in the centuries that followed, including the 19th century struggle for independence?
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From: Britannica
The Heritage of the Ancient Greeks The glorious culture of the Greeks had its beginnings before the rise of the city-states to wealth and power and survived long after the Greeks had lost their independence. The men of genius who left their stamp on the golden age of Greece seemed to live a life apart from the tumultuous politics and wars of their era. They sprang up everywhere, in scattered colonies as well as on the Greek peninsula. When the great creative age had passed its peak, Greek artists and philosophers were sought as teachers in other lands, where they spread the wisdom of their masters. What were these ideas for which the world reached out so eagerly? First was the determination to be guided by reason, to follow the truth wherever it led. In their sculpture and architecture, in their literature and philosophy, the Greeks were above all else reasonable. “Nothing to excess” (meden agan) was their central doctrine, a doctrine that the Roman poet Horace later interpreted as “the golden mean.” The art of the Greeks was singularly free from exaggeration. Virtue was for them a path between two extremes—only by temperance, they believed, could humankind attain happiness. Since this belief included maintaining a balanced life of the mind and body, they provided time for play as well as work (see Olympic Games). Let’s Review! 1.
When did the glorious culture of the Greeks begin, and how did it endure beyond the peak of the golden age?
2.
What were the key ideas and values that characterized Greek culture, especially in areas such as sculpture, architecture, literature, and philosophy?
3.
Explain the concept of "Nothing to excess" (meden agan) as a central doctrine for the Greeks, and how did it contribute to their understanding of virtue and happiness?
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From: Britannica
The Progress of Science in the Hellenistic Age Alexander died in 323 bc. The spread of Greek learning that resulted from his conquests, however, laid the foundation for much of the cultural progress of the Hellenistic Age. Alexandria, the city founded by Alexander at the mouth of the Nile River in Egypt, became the intellectual capital of the world and a center of Greek scholarship. Its famous library, founded by Ptolemy I, was said to have contained 700,000 rolls of papyrus manuscripts. In the 5th century BC, with the rise of Athens as a wealthy democratic state, the center of Greek culture passed to the peninsula. Here the Greeks reached the peak of their extraordinary creative energy. This was the great period of Greek literature, architecture, and sculpture, a period that reached its culmination in the age of Pericles. Philosophers now turned their thoughts from the study of matter to the study of humankind. Toward the end of the century Socrates ushered in what is considered to be the most brilliant period of Greek philosophy, passing on his wisdom to his pupil Plato. Plato in turn handed it on to “the master of those who know,” the great Aristotle.
In literature and art the Hellenistic Age was imitative, looking to the masterpieces of earlier days for inspiration. In science, however, much brilliant and original work was done. Archimedes put mechanics on a sound footing, and Euclid established geometry as a science. Eratosthenes made maps and calculated Earth’s circumference.
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From: Britannica
Aristarchus put forward the hypothesis that Earth revolves around the Sun. Ptolemy, or Claudius Ptolemaeus, believed all the heavenly bodies circled Earth, and his views prevailed throughout the Middle Ages. Let’s Review! 1.
When did Alexander die, and how did his conquests contribute to the spread of Greek learning?
2.
What role did Alexandria play in the Hellenistic Age, and how did its famous library become a center of Greek scholarship?
3.
During the rise of Athens in the 5th century BC, what cultural achievements marked the peak of Greek creative energy?
4. Who played a key role in the brilliant period of Greek philosophy, and how did knowledge pass from Socrates to Plato and then to Aristotle?
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From: Britannica
How Greek Culture Survived The Hellenistic Age ended with the establishment of the Roman Empire in 31 bc. The Romans borrowed from the art and science of the Greeks and drew upon their philosophy of Stoicism. As Christianity grew and spread, it was profoundly influenced by Greek thought. Throughout the period of the barbarian invasions, Greek learning was preserved by Christians in Constantinople and by Muslims in Cairo, Egypt. Its light shone again in the Middle Ages with the founding of the great universities in Italy, France, and England. During the Renaissance it provided an impetus for the rebirth of art and literature. Modern science rests on the Greek idea of humankind’s capacity to solve problems by rational methods. In almost every phase of life the quickening impulse of Greek thought can be seen among the peoples who inherited this priceless legacy. Let’s Review! 1.
When did the Hellenistic Age come to an end, and how did the Romans interact with Greek culture during this period?
2.
How did Greek thought continue to influence various aspects of human civilization, including Christianity, during the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and the development of modern science?
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From: Britannica
MYP Connection Directions: Answer the following extended response question in complete sentences. Use evidence and examples from the text to support your answer. For this unit your statement of inquiry is “Civilizations change, resulting in significant societal turning points”. What does this statement mean and how is it reflected throughout this unit? Type your response below.
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