LAND OF NAGAS
CONTENTS
PROLOUGE
3
THE NAGA & WOOD CARVING
20
INTRODUCTION
4-6
SYMBOLISM IN CARVING
21
VILLAGE COMMUNITY
7
THE ANIMAL WORLD
22
ORIGIN LEGEND
8
SYMBOLISM OF ANIMALS
23-24
FEASTS OF MERIT
9
CLASSIFICATION
25
FOOD & DRINK
10
THE NORTHERN GROUP
26-30
MARRIAGE & MORALS
10
THE CENTRAL GROUP
31-37
NAGA CULTURE
11-12
THE SOUTHERN GROUP
38-42
ORIGIN OF EARTHQUAKE
13
EPILOUGE
43
RELIGION
14
BIBLIOGRAPHY
44
RITUALS
15
THE THEZUKEPRU
16
HEAD HUNTING
17-18
DANCE
19
CRAFTS
19
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PROLOUGE
This assignment is a part of our fiber and yarn course. In this assignment we had to study the
North-Eastern states of India. Amongst the seven sisters i chose to study the State of Nagaland. We had to categorise our study in the cultural, economical and craft related aspects. I looked upon to the cultural aspect of Naga Tribes. This document contains all the 14 major tribes of Nagaland and their culture.
Smriti Prasad Course- Fiber and Yarn Textile Design, 3rd sem
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INTRODUCTION
Nagaland, is the 16th state of the Indian State, born on December 1, 1963.
It is bound by Assam in the west and North. The Tirap District of Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA) in North-East. In south the boundary is marked by Manipur. While the eastern limits are coterminous with the international boundary between India and Myanmar. The state is divided in 7 districts- Kohima, Phek, Mokokchung, Wokha, Zunheboto, Tsuensang and Mon. The 14 major tribes of Nagaland are- Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khemungan, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sema, Yimchunger and Zeliang. Chakhesang is a combination of Chakri, Khezha and Sangtam sub tribes. Nagas belong to the Indo- Mongoloids family. These Indo- Mongoloids are the Kiratas who are mentioned in the Yajurveda. The origin of the word Naga is shrouded in mysteries. According to S.E. Peal, the word is probably derived from NOGA. And NOGA is itself derived from NOK which means ‘folk’. L. W Shakespeare and Robert Reid thin that Naga just means ‘NANGA- NAKED’. According to Sanskrit Nag is a mountain so the dwellers of mountain are called NAGAS meaning Hillman. The Men of Mezoma, Khonoma, Kohima and Jotosoma call themselves TENGIMAS. Nagas have no recorded history of their own. They have a legend to explain this- It is said that at the beginning of creation God gave the knowledge of reading and writing both to the Hillman as well as the Plainsman. The plainsman was given paper to write upon while the Hillman was given skin. The Hillman ate the skin when he found it edible. As a result the Nagas have no record of their past.
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Village Community Originally Nagas were divided into- Kilted and Non –Kilted. In earlier days the villages were built on a commanding feature which usually used to be the top of the hill. The selection of the site was also based on the defensive strategy. Name of these villages was based on the peculiarity of the site itself. Example—Kidima meaning- big house, was so named because of the big houses built by its inhabitants. The Semas generally name their villages after the chief person of their tribe. A village is divided into two or more Khels depending upon its size and population. A village is not only defensively situated but it was well fortified with stone walls, bamboos spikes, wooden gates etc. Social evils like infanticide, slavery and prostitution existed in the Naga society. Infanticide was resorted to by the Angamis in the case of children born of unmarried girls. It was believed that if such children are born, they would bring misfortune to the village. So the girls were sent to the jungle at the time of delivery and there the new born was strangled. Slavery was universal throughout the Ao tribe. Feasts of merit---It is the hallmark of social distinction for a Naga villager. There are a series of feasts each one costlier than the previous. Every feast entitles the host to social distinction and increases progressively his standing and position in the community. It also entitles him to wear special dress and ornaments and decorate his house in a particular manner. Examples---The Sema series include- Shikusho, Apisa, Akikyeghe and Inami Kusa. The Angami series includes Thesa which is done twice followed by Zhachu and Leishu. The wife plays a very important part in the Genna, so only a married man may host a Feast of Merit. There is a feast of Friendship also. It is given to strengthen the bonds of friendship between two persons.
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Origin Legend The Naga's have different stories about their origin. The Angamis, Semas,
Rengams and the Lotha's subscribe to the Kheza-Kenoma legend. It is said that the village had a large stone slab having magical properties. Paddy spread on it to be dried doubled in quantity by evening. The three sons of the couple who owned the stone used it by rotation. One day there was a quarrel between the sons as to whose turn it was. The couple, fearing bloodshed, set fire to the stone which as a result cracked. It is believed that the spirit in the stone went to heaven and the stone lost its miraculous properties. The three sons thereafter left Kheza-Kenoma, went in different directions and became the forefathers of the Angami, Sema and the Lotha tribes. According to another legend, to which the western Angamis subscribe, the first man evolved from a lake called Themiakelku zie near Khonoma. The Rengmas believe that until recently they and Lothas formed one tribe. The Aos and the Phoms trace their origin to the Lungterok (six stones) on the Chongliemdi hill. Some people believe that these Indo-Mongoloids are 'kiratas' frequently mentioned in the old Sanskrit literature of whom 'Nagas' were a sub-tribe. Nagaland, ia a state in extreme northeastern India, bordered on the west and north by Assam state, on the east by Myanmar (formerly known as Burma), on the north by Arunachal Pradesh state, and on the south by Manipur state.
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Feasts of merit It is the hallmark of social distinction for a Naga villager. There are a series of feasts each one costlier than the previous. Every feast entitles the host to social distinction and increases progressively his standing and position in the community. It also entitles him to wear special dress and ornaments and decorate his house in a particular manner. The Sema series include- Shikusho, Apisa, Akikyeghe and Inami Kusa. The Angami series includes Thesa which is done twice followed by Zhachu and Leishu. The wife plays a very important part in the Genna, so only a married man may host a Feast of Merit. There is a feast of Friendship also. It is given to strengthen the bonds of friendship between two persons.
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Food and Drink The staple food of Naga tribes is rice. Generally rice is taken with meat or vegetables. They are very fond of chillies. Meat could be of any description--- beef, pork, chicken, dogs, cats, fish, birds etc. They also eat elephant. An animal killed by pig should not be eaten. Monkeys should not be eaten by women lest they become extravagant. Bear is regarded as a stupid animal so, a pregnant woman should not eat it or the offspring would become imbecile. The tiger should not be eaten. Rice beer is the main drink. It is taken by all including the very young. It’s of three kinds- Zutho, Ruhi, Dzutse.
Marriage and Morals The Naga tribes follow the exogamous principle. Persons of the same clan do not inter-marry and any kind of sexual relations between them is strictly forbidden. The only exception is the Konyak chiefs who are considered to be so sacrosanct that their principle wife must be a woman of the same clan, though not from among the agnates. The Angamis are monogamous. The Semas are polygamous and take as many wives as they can afford. Divorce is very common among these tribes.
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Naga Culture The most prominent item of Naga dress is the shawl. It varies from tribe to tribe and further is can be segregated in sub varieties. The common pattern among the Angamis is red and yellow bands on black cloth called Lohe. The Lothas have a streamlined gradation of shawls indicating the number of Gennas performed by the wearer. A man who has performed the first Genna wears the Phangrhup, its stripes being widened after the second Genna. The third Genna entitles the man to wear Ethasu, while after a series is completed and the stone dragging is done the man can wear the Lungpensu, which is a dark blue cloth with five stripes of light blue and with narrow marginal stripes on each side. The Ao warrior shawl is called Tsungkotepsu with figures of mithun, tiger, elephant, human head, cock, dao and spear. Each of these is symbolic. Mithun- wealth of the wearer Elephant and Tiger- denote his prowess in hunting. Human head - success in taking heads. These patterns are painted in black on a white band. While the cloth is itself blue in colour.
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Among the Changs, the unmarried boys and girls wear the Kaksi nei, while newly married couple wear the Silang nei. Another variety of the same tribe, Tobu nei, has zig-zag patterns in alternate red and black on blue band.The popular Yimchunger shawls are the Aneak khim which is black, and the Mokhok khim is white. Rongkhim is only worn by the one who has taken heads in war. It has prominent red rectangle designs, signifying blood of enemy. Apart from the shawl, the normal working dress is a kilt which is generally of black in colour. It may be embroidered by cowries which makes it a male dress. The cowries are stitched only by the men and no one else. Before it is embroidered it is rubbed on a stone. Use of cowries is very popular among the Nagas and it imparts to the kilt the character of Toga virilis, signifying his success in love or war. The ornaments are pretty and simple. A necklace of beads is generally worn round the neck. These are some kind of shells or stones. The ears are decorated with tuft of cotton or red paper. The armlets are of ivory or brass. On the legs, rings of cane are worn by the Angamis and Konyaks. These are not just ornaments but it also helps in climbing. All Naga tribes use hair for decoration. Tattooing is very common among the Naga tribes. Among the Konyaks, Changs and Phoms both men and women are tattooed. Among the Aos and Sangtams, only women are tattooed. The Konyaks usually tattoo their faces. A girl after she is tattooed becomes the member of the clan and she is allowed to grow her hair and see the restrictions of the food. The Dao is quite a formidable weapon with a triangular blade about 20 centimetres long, straight at the back,10 centimetres wide at the top, narrowing towards the handle which itself is about half metre long and gaily ornamented with tufts of coloured hair.
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Origin of the Earthquake Once when a great Raja died, he went to the abode of gods and married Sab-
rai’s daughter. This gave him ideas and this set him to become a rival of Sabrai. So a wrestling contest was held to resolve this issue. When the result seemed to hang in balance, the Raja’s wife in sympathy with her father, managed to tie up her husband’s legs with her hair holding him helplessly to the ground. The agreement between the two contestants was that the vanquished would be confined to the middle of the Earth. Whenever the internee struggles to free himself from his confines, the Earth gets a big jolt. The Earthquake to Nagas is also an omen, for if it occurs early morning or late evening, it is considered unlucky, if it is later in the day, it signifies good omen.
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Religion A certain section of the Nagas of Nagaland now follows the Christian
religion. The ancient Naga religion seems fairly simple. They are free from too much preoccupation with religion. They believe in a supreme being, the creator, kindly and benevolent who demands no propitiation. They also believe in the existence of spirits. They have no established form of worship, no temples and no priests. The fact that they bury the dead in good clothes and keep food and liquor besides the body proves that they believe in Life after Death. Some of them do have pantheon, Semo, the God of riches and Kuchimpai, the God of harvest.
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Rituals The observance of Genna is common to all the Nagas. It means two things-
Abstaining from work either because of a festival or because of the occurrence of some unusual thing. A Genna can be applicable to the whole village, to a khel or to the individual household. A household comes under a Gena when a child is born or an animal gives birth to young ones. The Sekrengi Genna which falls on the second day of the full moon in February marks commencement of the working year. It has prevention of illness in the coming year as one of its objects. The Thehrangi is a harvest and celebrated on the completion of the harvest and marks the end of the working year. This celebration includes singing and dancing and the participants are unmarried boys and girls or married but have no children. They gather around the Ka Ki and then perform the dance.
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The Thezukepru This is a very different kind of Genna. It is marked by the throwing off a
field rat, known as “telling off the rat�. On the festival eve, young men catch a mouse called Zukrano which they shut inside a bamboo section placed outside the Morung. One person is chosen from the lot who will throw the mouse. The mouse, when it is taken out has its ears pierced and cotton wool stuffed into the holes. The man selected for the task stripes himself, runs with the mouse along with other men and climbs to a height and then throws the mouse away down the village path directing it to go to some remote village. After this that person has to run back towards the Morung and climb the Machan and stay there for 24 hours.
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Head Hunting As an agricultural community, the Naga linked sacrifice closely with agricul-
tural growth and fertility. Their sacrifices were meant to enlist the aid of benevolent spirits and appease malevolent ones. Securing and increasing fertility, or life essence, and handing it on to the community are central to Naga culture. And the best way of enhancing personal fertility was by taking another person’s fertility. For the Naga, this fertile “potency” resides in a person’s head, which is why headhunting was practiced. By taking a head, that person’s fertile power becomes an accessible source that the victor can direct at will. Their life essence diffuses to the villagers, their crops and their livestock; their fertility can be channeled successfully to the fields so that the crops may ripen well. Headhunting for the Naga was the path to becoming entitled to wear certain status ornaments and to getting married: if a man had not “touched meat” he was not nearly as likely to beget a child as there was no surplus life around him. A headhunt was also necessary to inaugurate a new log drum, a magical instrument kept in the Morung. The act of killing excited envy and admiration among other youths and increased a man’s reputation among the elders. Head hunting was also believed to be ritually essential for clan survival.
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The necks of victims are chopped off using däos (traditional hatchets) and the heads are brought back to the village as trophies. These heads are hung in front of the warrior’s house revealing his status in society. During those days, it was quite difficult to find a bride for a young man who had not brought back an enemy’s head as a trophy. There were rules about who could be killed. Most important was that the victim did not belong to the same clan or family, even if he or she lived in a different village. Certain Naga groups valued taking a long haired woman’s head more than a man’s, because with it the female soul-substance would be acquired which had the highest fertility value. Among certain groups the highest value was placed on a child’s head, male or female, because to obtain it the warrior had practically to enter the enemy’s village. Infirm and insane people were taboo.
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Dance It is a passion with the Nagas. The War dance is the most character-
istic of their dance mood and styles in movement. This dance is performed by the men alone with spear and hatchet in hand. All the battle movements are made. Here the women move only in an inner circle in slow steps, whilst the men holding up their weapons in their hands dance.
Crafts The very characteristic of the Nagas are their drinking vessel. The
commonest ones are from the Mithun bones or from other wild animals. Buffalo horns are also converted into drinking vessels. Some are also made from bamboo and wood. A popular one is a tall and straight bamboo, shaved thin towards the top and the bottom, leaving a thick body in the middle. Other items in this line are spoons, cone shaped bowls. Wooden platters of various sizes and patterns are also made. The Jappas are a kind of larger baskets, narrow at the bottom and swelling at the top. These are used for keeping clothes and other household articles.
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The Naga & Woodcarving The Naga are amongst the best weavers and woodworkers in the world.
Woodcarving was done with an axe and primitive tools such as an adze and a chisel and working with such limited tools resulted in the typically crude, strong style of Naga carvings. The large or even life size motifs carved in high relief on Morung pillars, crossbeams and front panels of rich men’s houses are extremely varied. Many local forest trees are used for wood, including the Nahor palm wood -the ironwood of the Naga hills, and oak. Carvings are done on the Morung and on feast-giver’s and chief’s houses as well as on granary doors, village gates, Y posts, certain furniture items and funeral statues. Village gates were often carved with motifs symbolizing an increase in population of the people and their mithun. They also displayed a clan’s valor and prowess by depicting tigers, human heads and warriors and were thus intended to instill respect in and protection from enemies. At time heads are stylized into patterns of squares, signifying successful headhunts. Y posts, either supporting the cross beam in houses or those erected for a feast of merit, have been said to represent a simple genealogical tree, where the left branch represents the maternal heritage and the right the paternal. They often have a carved mithun head (which represents the fertility needed for the growth of the family) and carved depictions of enemy teeth. Other themes are gongs, seats and guns, as well as breasts or genitals.
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Symbolism in carving Carvings of full-size human figures usually represent house owners -one fig-
ure for each feast they have given. Carvings of humans upside down indicate warriors who died bravely on the battlefields and whose heads were taken. When shown with heads in hands it means they were able to decapitate enemies before their own deaths. Carved female breasts are a symbol of fertility and prosperity and peaceful, stable, harmonious family/community life. Erotic themes of couples engaged in intercourse were common on Konyak and Wancho Morungs. Similarly couples were also depicted with exaggerated sexual organs, underlining once again the theme of fertility. It is also common to depict children as smaller heads between or above a couple. The meaning of carved rows of human figures varies. They may represent a dance, e.g. a commemoration of the house-warming ceremony. Rows of carved skulls on elevated crossbeams of houses indicate high community esteem for the hero who has taken many heads. Depicted lower down, they reflect the correspondingly lower esteem in which the victorious community holds the defeated and decapitated enemies. Skulls on circles signify the custom of keeping enemy skulls on troughs. Bunches of grass and thatch hung from the apex of the Morung signify wealth, as do bamboo containers along the roof’s ridge. Cane balls hung from the eaves represent heads of slain enemies. Many different forms of lunar and solar disks and stars are found on Naga morungs. Often these carvings commemorate ritual celebrations of an eclipse.
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The Animal World The Naga feel intimately related to the animal world around them. These
animals include tigers, leopards, Asian black bears, hoolock gibbons, wild mithun buffaloes and gayals, wild boar and wild mountain goats, the great Indian Hornbill and the pied Hornbill. Lycanthropy, the belief that humans can metamorphosis into an animal such as a tiger or a mithun, is a curious Naga belief still alive today. The fact that the tiger has five claws on each foot is said to indicate that it can receive a human soul. This metamorphosis of soul is most likely to occur between old and new moons, coming at the bidding of spirits that cannot be denied. The human soul usually enters the tiger during sleep, returning to the human body at daybreak. But it may also remain in the animal for several days, during which time the human body is conscious but lethargic. In northern Naga groups there exist lizard, tiger and frog clans. All Naga groups seem to regard the ancestry of man and tiger (or leopard) as intimately related and man and tiger are seen to be brothers with the same primal mother. After killing a tiger or leopard the Angami tribe would wedge its mouth open with a stick and lay the head in running water, so that if the animal tried to tell the spirits who killed it, nothing but the sound of water could be heard. Even today the belief prevails that in killing an animal its qualities and powers pass on to the hunter. As a consequence hunters adorn themselves and their houses with hunting trophies. Fate and the future can be read from animals’ intestines and animal sacrifice is practiced to appease the spirits and gods.
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Symbolism of animals
Mithun (pronounced"meetoon"), a semi domesticated type of buffalo, is the
most prestigious animal sacrifice, and has great spiritual power, because of the mithun's massive appearance, large horns and its longstanding association with fertility. Its horns, in particular, have symbolic fertility powers. Both on the Morung and on the house posts and house fronts of wealthy men and chiefs they symbolized fertility and wealth. Nobility and royalty are attributed to the Hornbill -the king of birds- by most Naga groups. For the Naga the hornbill’s strength equals that of the tiger because of its tiger- like call and the sound it makes while flying. They also see the breeding habits and social behavior of hornbills as resembling human behavior, which associates it closely with humans. Carved hornbills on Morungs indicate fertility and beauty and signify status when carved on furniture. According to JD Saul, “a carving of hornbills signified that ‘the enemies that came were like hornbills’” (Saul, 2005, p. 146) and “hornbills were seen as representing warfare and bravery” (idem p. 38). Hornbill beaks signify beauty and are highly valued. Traditionally, one tail feather of the Hornbill was considered equal to a mithun head. Real Hornbill feathers were reserved for successful headhunters. Boar tusk collars or hat ornaments are the insignia of the successful warrior who had taken an enemy head, speared a victim or killed a tiger. The horns of the Himalayan goat antelope, often used as ear ornaments, have status because of the difficulty of acquisition.
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Monkey skulls generally symbolize beheaded enemies amongst northern Naga groups, and are used to decorate head-takers’ baskets and hats. Monkey hands and tails are also valued and are kept as trophies. Monkeys carved on Morungs symbolize smartness and cunning of the men living within and their skill in warfare. Carved tigers on Morungs indicate that inmates will become fierce and are also a symbol of intelligence and strength. They are usually carved A long row of tiger teeth on the chinstrap speaks for the bravery of its wearer. The wearing of tiger ornaments such as claws and teeth is surrounded by numerous taboos and regulations. Tiger, leopard and bear claws are worn in the belief that the animal’s strength will be imparted to the wearer. Most Naga groups still swear oaths by tiger teeth. Snakes are avoided by the Naga if possible, especially pythons and cobras. Fear of pythons has led to them being depicted on front posts of Morungs. Carved snakes symbolize both beauty and danger. The carved cobra symbolizes fierceness. Bearskin is used to make a coronet headdress with hornbill feathers attached to the top. Bearskin is used for leggings by the central Naga groups; these may only be worn by those who themselves have slain a bear. It is believed that the wearer will be made into a strong runner. The souls of the dead are said to enter insects such as beetles and butterflies. As a consequence, wing cases are used to embody the souls of departed ancestors.
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Classification
Naga can be classified geographically into three groups:
Northern Tangsa Nocte Tutsa Wancho
Central Upper Konyak Phom Chang Khiamniungan Yimchunger Sangtam
Southern Ao Lhota Rengma Sema Angami
THE NORTHERN GROUP
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Tangsa The Tangsa meaning “hillmen� inhabit the slopes of the upper Patkoi Range
in both Burmese and Indian Naga regions. There are 32 subgroups in this tribe which spread from Assamese Nao Dihing through Chaglang district of Arunachal Pradesh to Burmese Hukawng Valley. Their dressing has been greatly influenced by Kachin traditions. They usually wear a Lungi (in Burmese style), a shirt and a turban. The Tangsa used to be head-hunters. The Tangsa live in joint families with up to twenty or more members. Clan exogamy is practised. There is a council of elders presided over by a chief. Their animistic religion includes Shamans who are responsible for appeasing spirits. Human sacrifice used to be part of the most important rituals such as sun and stone worship.
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The Nocte or Hashik Nocte – means “village dwellers”. Their chief habitat is the Tirap District of
Arunachal Pradesh. The villages are divided into Sums or clan quarters. Each Sum has a Morung (paa). The village chief occupies a prominent position in the Nocte society which is divided into two classes- Lowang (the chief and his relations) and Sana (the commoners). Their dress is colourful, thatched long houses accommodate joint families. Among the older Nocte tattoos are still found. They had a reputation in trading of salt from the remote rivers.
The Tutsa Administratively regarded as a subgroup of the Nocte, they have their separate identity on the basis of their language. They dwell in Chaglang/Tirap areas.
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The Wancho The Wancho inhabit the western part of the Tirap district of Arunachal
Pradesh beyond the Tisa River and they were formerly called Konyak. The ruling chief (Wangham) has a high level of autocracy in his own family, but at village and inter-village levels is assisted by an informal council of elders. Under the Wangham are the Wangsu (small chiefs), followed by the Wangsa (intermediates) and the Wangpens (commoners). The Wangham’s house is exceptionally unusual, looking somewhat like giant turtles, their thatched roofs reaching almost to the ground; they cover large areas and comprise living quarters for the chief’s many wives and children. Characteristics of the Wancho are the way they cut their hair above the ears, draping it into a ponytail into which they insert wooden combs. Ancient head-hunting, symbols and traditional funerary rites of erecting soul effigies on graves are still highly valued. Tattooing also remains a common practice.
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The Lower Konyak The name Konyak derives from two root words:
Khau “head” and nyak -“black”, referring to the Konyak customs of tattooing their faces and blackening their teeth with soot. The lower Konyak area, part of the Mon district of Nagaland, is rich in natural beauty, its mushroom-like houses are spectacular to see. The Angs, the Konyak chiefs, still hold a king like position in society and are entitled to numerous wives. They are endogamous; they also head the traditional village councils (Wang Hamyen), which consists of the representatives from all the Morungs of the village. Opium culture is still practised in Konyaks at household level.
THE CENTRAL GROUP
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The Upper Konyak The upper Konyak inhabit the southern parts of Mon district to the northern part of Tuensang. Male tattoo patterns shift increasingly from the face to the chest. Powerful Upper Konyak villages are Tobu, Maniakshu, Ukha, Yonghong, Longching, Longmein and Chen.
The Lainong Formerly known as Htangan, they occupy the Namcharing Hka watershed and foothills near Heinsum and Kaunghein villages on the Chindwin River.
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The Macham They are probably related to the Lainong, but have developed their own culture. They were formerly known as the Lacham or Lasam.
The Haime It is divided into east and west sections; it starts south of Nawng Yang Lake, extending to the west of the Nampuk Hka. They have a tradition of Human sacrifice as a substitute for head hunting. The biggest Haime villages are Hachum, Yangno, Nahen Nauknyo and Rangsi.
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The Yonkon and the Kuku These are smaller Naga groups whose settlements lie among Lainong, Macham and Haime villages. The women wear a special tattoo pattern.
The Ponyo Also called Ponyo or Pounyu-Makon, they themselves claim to originate from
a village called Thang. Their reputation is the most impressive of all Naga warriors.
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The Gongvan They inhabit the villages of Tsawlaw and Tsaplaw, culturally and linguisti-
cally they are very close to Ponyo villages. They are notorious head-hunters.
The Khiamniungan Under the British colonial rule they were called Kalyo Kengu- “slate house
dwellers”, because they roofed their houses with slate. More recently they have started using the name “Khiamniungan”, meaning “source of water”. They are considered to be the most coherent group of all Naga tribes. Their villages are Nokyen, Nokhu, Pessu, Pangsha and Panso. They are considered to be the noted distributors of weapons acquired from their Burmese relatives. Growing cotton on large scale, they supplied popular body cloth, such as the cowrie shell ornamented Nechet. Youth dormitories (Poh) still exist in Khiamniungan. Though they are not synonymous with the Kamnoi, which would be the equivalent to Morung.
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The Chang The Chang trace their origin to the mythical site Changsang, where “the
original banyan tree (their birthplace) grew”; The Changs are divided into four major exogamous clans (Phang) occupying different social positions in society. Kangshau is the headman/village-founder clan, Ong the priests, the Hongang clan are responsible for the proper celebration of the festivals, and the Lomou organize agricultural activities. The clan division is based on certain totemistic beliefs in which animals have become clan spirits. Skilful carvings, especially unique poker-drinking mugs, as well as cowrie- ornamented clothing and houses full of symbolic meaning all demonstrate the highly developed aesthetic sense of the Changs.
The Phom This is a group between the Konyak in the north-east, the Ao in the west and
the Chang in the south. Phom means “cloud”. The name was given by their territory- hilly terrain in the Longleng area. The Phom called themselves Yinguli, referring to their legendary origin on the peak of Mount Yingnyushang. With five clans (pangs) and their respective Morungs (bang), Yongyah is the largest Phom village. The Phom also has dormitories for girls (Yow). In case of clothing they resemble more to the Konyaks. They wear unique bark loincloths beautifully painted with primitive designs on top of which cane rings are worn. They are exceptional woodcarvers.
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The Sangtam They occupy the narrow stripe in the west of the Tuensang District/Chare
and Kiphire sub-district. Culturally influenced by the Yimchunger, Chang, Sema, Ao, they comprise two territorial groups. Their name signifies “one who is self contained and lives in peace”. They consist of several lineages and the villages are divided into three or four clearly demarcated wards each dominated by one clan. Informal council of elders (Yukhaba-ka) are constituted according to the lineage and clan. Headhunting and warfare largely isolated the Sangtam villages. Barter system still prevails in these villages. Near Chungliyimti village are the “six stones” (Lung trek), a sacred spot from which the ancestors of the Sangtam are supposed to have emerged, a belief shared by Ao.
The Yimchunger The Yimchunger live south of the Khiamniungan and Chang, and east of the
Sangtam. They occupy a vast area divided into nine zones of the Tuensang District. The Yimchunger- meaning “the ones who have reached their place of choice”- used to be called Yachumi, a name adopted from Sema word. A special position is held by the Limpuru and Mahtsaru, a kind of peacemaker exempted from all headhunting raids by unwritten law. They are divided into the Tikhir, Makuri, Minir and Chirr subgroups. Uniquely, the Yimchunger of the Minir subgroup used to smoke the corpses of their dead and preserve them in caves with the aid of salt.
The Southern Group
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The Sema It is one of the main Nagaland groups. As a semi-nomadic tribe these peo-
ple, started calling themselves Sumi. Clan exogamy is a rule, but cross-cousin marriages are permitted after three generations, polygamy being possible among rich families. By means of peace making feasts (Gwatho), the Sema have managed to establish friendly relations with other clans. Christianity and Animism coexist in the villages.
The Ao One of the major Naga groups, the name means “those who come”, refer-
ring to their migration across the Dikhu River. The Ao comprise three distinct language groups- Chongli, Mongsen and Changki. The important villages are Longkhum, Ungma, and Impur. Every three years, Ao elders meet in Ungma to tell traditional stories and sing songs. Men’s attire in Aos is the best among all Nagas. The women wear rock- crystal earrings and carnelian beads. The Ao were the first to adopt a monetary currency made of iron sticks (chabili) to replace the barter system.
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The Lhota They inhabit the Wokha District of Nagaland. They call themselves Khyon,
meaning “man”. Consisting of northern and southern Lhota, the community is divided into Phratries and Clans. Clan exogamy is common; in southern group only kindered exogamy is practised, owing to the lack of suitable wives.
The Rengma They inhabit the Tseminyu Administrative District of the Kohima District.
They are divided into northern and southern groups, their former eastern group, formerly also called the “naked Rengma”, having renamed as Pochuri. The married women have long hairs while unmarried shave their heads. The villages are governed by a chief (Kegyugu) whose post is hereditary in his clan, but not in his family.
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The Pochuri or Para Formerly known as the eastern or “naked Rengma”. They are divided into
fourteen exogamous clans with distinctive social heirarchization. The Tsori clan provides the supreme village chief (Kaiiry). They are Christianized. The marriage takes place at the time of Nazu Khuo with a bride price system in kind (weapons, baskets, etc.) the status of women is good in the Pochuri society. The Nyimzariku Shepie- the “first reaper”- for instance being one significant position being held by a woman always.
The Chakhesang It is an amalgamation of Chakri, Kheza and certain Sangtam groups. For-
merly known as “Eastern Angami”. The Chakri and Kheza are especially close culturally to the Angami, with whom they share the practise of wetrice cultivation. The distribution of the property is mostly among the elder son; sometimes daughters also get their share. Large areas are reserved in many villages for wrestling, spear throwing, stone etc.
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The Angami They played a dominant role in the Naga society. They are divided into three
main groups. The Tengima group in the west, the northern Angami in the north, and a group called Zouno Keyhouno in the south. Because of the cultivation the land forms the main property among the Angami. Next to pigs and fowl the bride-price system still prevalent among the Angami invariably includes a pair of shoes- in return a, member of the groom’s clan or lineage receives a spear, signifying a quasi political alliance of the two groups. Property is equally divided into sons and daughters. The Chapi, the traditional council of Angami villages, is still important. Each Chapi is headed by the oldest male of the village and consists of one representative from each village’s clan. The Morung system does not exist in Angami.
The Zeliangrong Former entities Zeme, Liangmei, Poumai, and Rongmei form Zeliangrong.
Their main villages are Peren and Poilwa. At Poilwa beautiful carvings are still found on the village gates. A distinct section of Peren village is called the Heraka quarter, home of one of the first initiatives towards Naga identity and unity the so-called “Zeliangrong movement”.
EPILOUGE
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This document was not an assignment. It was an experience which helped me to look through the lives of the Nagas. after reading about Nagaland and its people I could connect with their lives. I think this document has helped me alot to improve my reaserch ,compilation and thinking abilities. I thank Sakthi for giving us this assignment, also to my friend Prerna S for her help and support. I really enjoyed doing this document. The best thing while doing this document was that I was able to connect with these people though in reality i was not present with them. Thank you all!!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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TRIBALISM IN INDIA,by Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay THE HIDDEN WORLD OF THE NAGA, by Aglaja Stirn and Peter van Ham THE NAGA OF BURMA -Their Festivals, Customs and Way of Life, J.D. Saul THE NAGAS - Hill Peoples of Northeast India, Julian Jacobs www.google.com (pictures) www.purpleonion.com