iSSues Explorer Social Studies (Secondary) Unit July 2016
Developing Our Students as Informed, Concerned and Participative Citizens
Selection of the Month Discussion-based Pedagogies — Strategies to consolidate multiple perspectives
Guest Writer: Mr Lloyd Yeo Master Teacher (History), Academy of Singapore Teachers
Discussion-based pedagogies are important because they contrast starkly with traditional teacher-centric delivery of uncontestable content knowledge which can implicitly reinforce dominant system beliefs and practices (Apple, 1979).
Soc ial Studie s fre que ntly advocate discussion-based pedagogies and the use of dialogue to view social issues from multiple perspectives (Davies, 2004). In our classrooms, this may take the form of looking at different perspectives from stakeholders (E.g. government policy makers and citizens from different segments of society) or from the lenses of different disciplines (E.g. History, Sociology, Psychology and Economics). The field is quite diverse. Discussion-based pedagogies are important because they contrast starkly with traditional teachercentric delivery of uncontestable content knowledge which can implicitly reinforce dominant system beliefs and practices (Apple, 1979). More importantly, discussion-based pedagogies also provide potential and opportunities to educate students for “multicultural literacy” (Banks 2003), to read the word and the world from different perspec tive s by questioning assumptions (Freire and Macedo
1987), and encourage students to become agents for social change (Freire 1998). Yet despite our thorough subject matter preparation and intense use of source-based materials which present diverse perspectives, we often end up with traditional examinationoriented assessment practices – the use of source-based question practices or essay-type a ssig nme nts. Ou r de brie f sometimes end up with very general teacher comments about what we think is the ‘best way forward’ to resolve society’s various social ills with our students sometimes leaving our classrooms feeling that multiple perspectives are subjective in nature and merely a ‘paper exercise’ on getting voices heard. Is there a better way to consolidate different perspectives? What are some strategies that we can use? These questions frame the discussion in this article.
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Thinking deeper about concepts and values Using discussion-based pedagogies highlights intent listening and facilitation skills which require teacher confidence in handling teaching strategies which encourage consultation, dissent and dialogue among peers (Bickmore, 2005). They can degenerate into a giant ‘blob’ of information if we do not explicitly think about a coherent framework of concepts which pull those discussions to a higher level of thinking.
That framework could include the following concepts:
differentiating between compatible and incompatible needs and wants
surfacing uncritical assumptions and values
responding with options, interests and consequences
focusing on decision-making processes like negotiation, mediation and decisionmaking matrices
Understanding multiple perspectives deeper One approach to consolidate diverse perspectives is to examine the sources and triggers of what people disagree or compete over. The suggestion is to focus on human needs and wants which sometimes differ and conflict. This leads to various groups viewing problems and issues from different perspectives. Other more enduring understandings or big ideas could include enabling students to understand that controversy is inevitable when people talk about things that matter to them but the danger is that it slides down the slippery trajectory of stereotypes, prejudice, hatred, violence or apathy.
Anchoring multiple perspectives on values is also another way to enrich classroom discussions beyond the Social Studies teacher as a “sage on the stage” who preaches values as generalised statements. We could focus on how intangible personal needs and desires such as friendship, respect and inclusion could make lessons more meaningful when students discuss and apply issues of global social conflicts. For example, when dealing with issues about assimilation and integration of new citizens into a particular country, we could look at interpersonal conflicts. We could also focus on how such concepts are applicable to making a new classmate or neighbour feel more welcome in the community and why does this matter.
Listening and using diverse views The value of listening and using diverse views to inform and create new solutions to problems could also be better utilised as a separate activity to complement discussion-based pedagogies.
First developed by Peter Elbow and called the Believing Game, this activity has six stages, which are elaborated in the diagram on the next page.
Anchoring multiple perspectives on values is also another way to enrich classroom discussions beyond the Social Studies teacher as a “sage on the stage” who preaches values as generalised statements.
iSSues Explorer Social Studies (Secondary) Unit
Good discussion depends on active listening. Otherwise, the discussion would simply be a series of already held and unchanged views.
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Such an activity places value on hearing multiple and dissenting views. It emphasizes open-ended questioning and active listening skills. The Believing Game also distinguishes between listening, agreeing and doing what another prefers as a key communicative skill.
The idea is to also avoid ‘middle class consensus’ which instead of
opening up real debate, can simply endorse or promote one viewpoint or another. Good discussion depends on active listening. Otherwise, the discussion would simply be a series of already held and unchanged views. Freire (1997) even went as far as to argue, “Only those who listen, speak. Those who do not listen end up merely yelling, barking out the language while imposing their ideas”.
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Creative thinking and critical thinking I believe that we are also sometimes so intent in getting all views heard that we forget the process of consensus building and decision-making. These processes go beyond just putting a social issue to a general class vote.
In the book, Getting to Yes, Fisher, Ury and Patton (1992) emphasize the importance of creative thinking to imagine and invent a wide range of options for dealing with a problem before critical thinking to assess those options. The process involves predicting an option’s viability based on its logical and even ‘unseen’ consequences. It also involves taking into account the desires and needs of stakeholders. By ‘inventing before
deciding’, we create powerful options that satisfy multiple interest groups to resolve a problem.
By ‘inventing before deciding’, we create powerful options that
Class activities which get students to share their various responses and to brainstorm possible options for handling a social issue could be discussed. Various scenarios could be embedded as case studies into the social issues to give it an authentic and meaningful narrative experience. Some scenarios for Issue 2 - Living in a Diverse Society could involve a North African citizen in France who has difficulty assimilating or a Singapore PR child who has to decide at age 16 whether he wants to serve National Service or return to his home country.
satisfy multiple interest groups to resolve a
Decision-making process Other pedagogies involve teaching students the importance of negotiation, mediation and use of decision-making matrices.
Stage 3: Dialogue to help each side understand the other side’s perspectives and underlying interests.
Mediation
Stage 5: Facilitate negotiation by revisiting stages 1 to 4. The purpose is to assess, synthesise and choose a solution.
Mediation is a voluntary negotiation between different parties which involve a third-party facilitator or mediator who is NOT a decision maker on the issue being discussed. Rather, mediators are guides for the dialogue process. The novice mediator could be involved in a series of basic steps: Stage 1: Prepare and establish ground rules. Get consent to participate. Stage 2: Tell perspectives, each in turn, on the problem.
Stage 4: Brainstorm to suggest possible solutions.
Stage 6: Affirm the agreement, plan the follow-up and close. Rather than let a teacher be the mediator, have students do it. This is because a peer mediator has limited authority to ensure that less powerful participants or interest groups are not re-victimised, mediation is said to work best when all parties have equal status (Bickmore, 2007).
problem.
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Decision-making matrices The Diamond Nine Matrix is another strategy which can be used to achieve consensus and to negotiate disagreements. Student groups should be no more than four or five for this class activity to work. The 4 stages of this strategy are as follows:
Stage 1 The teacher or student group could prepare nine cards with statements on an issue which are as diverse and wide-ranging as possible.
Stage 3
Stage 2 In small groups of no more than four or five, the nine cards are read and discussed.
The group must arrange the cards in a diamond shape with the statements they agree with most at the top and those which they agree with least at the bottom.
Retrieved from: http:// www.tidegloballearning.net/ sites/default/files/uploads/rankdiamond.gif
Stage 4 Whole class discussion and presentation.
This Diamond Nine shape cannot be altered to any other geometric variations, forcing decision-making and disagreement. The idea is to get participants to weigh up arguments, listen to one another and to exercise logical thinking and even come up with solutions in dealing with dissent.
Win, Lose or Draw Strategies could be evaluated on whether they benefit all stakeholders: 
Win-win; win-lose; lose-lose
The key skill practised is to brainstorm amusing options and contexts as a common object, and then predict which option could improve, worsen or resolve an issue based on thinking through their logical and even unseen consequences.
iSSues Explorer Social Studies (Secondary) Unit
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Criteria
Surfacing Values Other decision-making matrices, such as the one shown in the table on the right, could be used to focus on the values which underpin various decisions.
Which solution costs the least amount
Value proposition Cost-effectiveness, thrift
of money? Which solution takes the least amount
Efficiency, time, quick gains
of time? Which solution would reach the most
Impact, reach, quantitative
people?
importance
Which solution would have the fewest
Administrative ease, popularity
roadblocks or obstacles? Which solution would be the most fun?
Enjoyment
Conclusion Discussion-based pedagogies have tremendous value in engaging students. However, amidst the hundreds of societal issues and diverse perspectives which can be raised, the skillful Social Studies teacher emphasises not resolution of those issues but education – foregrounding the problems and conflicting viewpoints as
Amidst the hundreds of societal
important processes for the best solutions to be generated and for effective decision-making. Learning is designed around learning and generating strategies based on active listening and investigating issues with an eye towards understanding and deliberation, not winning or reinforcing close-minded or uninformed viewpoints.
issues and diverse perspectives which can be raised, the skillful Social Studies teacher emphasises not resolution of those issues but education – foregrounding the problems and conflicting viewpoints as important processes for the best solutions to be generated and for effective decision-making.
References
Apple, M. (1979). Ideology and Curriculum. London: Routledge.
Banks, J. A. (2003). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Davies, L. (2004). Education and conflict: Complexity and chaos. London: Routledge Falmer.
Bickmore, K. (2005). Foundations of peacebuilding and discursive peacekeeping: Infusion and exclusion of conflict in Canadian public school curricula, Journal of Peace Education, 2 (2), 198-216.
Bickmore, K. (2007). Taking risks, building peace: Teaching conflict strategies and skills to students aged 6 to 16. In H. Claire and C. Holden (Eds), The challenge of teaching controversial issues (pp. 131-145). London: Trentham Books Limited.
Fisher, R., Ury, W. and Patton, B. (1991). Getting to yes. New York: Penguin Books.
Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, democracy and civic courage. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Freire, P. and Macedo,D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word and the world. South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey.
Hargreaves, S. (1997). Peace education: Politics in the classroom? In R. Case and P. Clark (Eds), The Canadian anthology of Social Studies (pp. 109-121). Burnaby, BC: Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University.
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Dice It Up Meandering through Meritocracy recent criticism. One criticism is that there has been an overreliance on academic credentials as a proxy for merit (Desker, 2016).
Widely considered an integral reason for Singapore’s success and development, meritocracy as a principle and its effects are now the subject of much discussion. Meritocracy is generally understood as a broad principle that recognises indi vi dua l me ri t by providing everybody in society an opportunity to achieve their best and be rewarded for their performance regardless of race, religion and socioeconomic background. Meritocracy is practised in the areas of education and employment, particularly employment in the civil service, where qualified and deserving individuals have an equal chance of achieving success on their own merit, usually through a mixture of effort and talent.
However, meritocracy has become the subject of
Some have raised concerns about how the emphasis on academic credentials has resulted in the negligence of nonacademic talents, such as sports or the arts. Others question the true merit of individuals in light of the widening income gap in Singapore. Students from stable and affluent families who have more resources at their disposal, used to enhance their natural talent and ability, gain an advantage over those who have fewer resources as a result of their family circumstances. Critics argue that because meritocracy overlooks the contribution of economic and social capital towards one’s academic achievements, less affluent students continue to get ‘left behind’ relative to their well-todo peers, thus affecting their social mobility (Rahim, 2014).
Various modifications to society’s understanding of meritocracy have been developed. The first is ‘compassionate meritocracy’, mentioned by Emeritus Senior Minister Goh
Chok Tong in 2013, where Singaporeans who have benefitted from the system contribute back to society and assist the less able and less fortunate. This can be regularly carried out through donations, skills-sharing, or spending time with those in need to encourage them to do better. ‘Meritocracy through life’, proposed by Deputy Prime Minister Tharman Shanmugaratnam in 2014, puts forth the idea of individuals being assessed at different phases in their fields of work regardless of educational qualifications. This allows more recognition for different niches and would ensure that talents are measured by meaningful yardsticks. Finally, and more recently, Acting Minister for Education (Higher Education and Skills) Ong Ye Kung has proposed a more inclusive slant to meritocracy where individuals collectively pursue and achieve mastery across various fields, thus altering our collective notion of what defines success in the long term.
It is important as teachers to keep these varied perspectives in mind when organising and facilitating discussion about meritocracy and social mobility.
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References
Prakash, P. (2014, June 25). Understanding Meritocracy. Today Online. Retrieved from http://www.todayonline.com/singapore/understanding-meritocracy.
Desker, T. (2016, February). Meritocracy: Time for an update?. Ethos, 14. Retrieved from https://www.cscollege.gov.sg/Knowledge/Ethos/Ethos%202016/Pages/Meritocracy%20Time%20For%20An% 20Update.aspx
Rahim, D. (2014, April 4). Meritocracy as Myth. Retrieved from http://poskod.sg/Posts/2014/4/4/MeritocracyasMyth
Tan, K. P. (2008), Meritocracy and elitism in a global city: Ideological shifts in Singapore. International Political Science Review, 29, 7–27.
Ong, Y. K. (2016, April 21). What SkillsFuture is about. The Straits Times. Retrieved from http://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/what-skillsfuture-is-about
Tan, E. S. (2015). Social Mobility in Singapore. In Chan, D. (Eds), 50 years of Social Issues in Singapore (pp. 119 – 131). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.
Further Readings - explore the evolving understanding of meritocracy Description
Link
‘Meritocracy’ was first coined by Michael Young, a British politician, when he wrote the satire, “The Rise of the Meritocracy 1870-2033” in 1958. The book describes a dystopian society in a future United Kingdom in which intelligence and merit become the central tenet of society, replacing previous divisions of social class. In the book, Young mocked the stratification between a merited power-holding elite and a less merited disenfranchised underclass.
Young, M. (2001, June 29). Down with Meritocracy. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/ politics/2001/jun/29/comment
The article is a critique by the writer himself (Michael Young) about the Blair government’s misuse of ‘Meritocracy’. In this piece, he weaves in key ideas from his 1958 satire to criticise the Blair government.
‘Meritocracy’ was first surfaced by S. Rajaratnam during the 1950s in debates over the Malayanisation of the civil service. In this context, meritocracy was about replacing British officers in the civil service with capable local officers so that the Malaya civil service could transit from one designed to serve the interests of the colonial power to one designed to serve the citizen.
Desker, T. (2016, February). Meritocracy: Time for an update?. Ethos, 14. Retrieved from
https://www.cscollege.gov.sg/ Knowledge/Ethos/Ethos% 202016/Pages/Meritocracy% 20Time%20For%20An% During post-independent Singapore, meritocracy was re-introduced as an underlying 20Update.aspx
principle to guard against a culture of patronage to build a clean and effective public service. Then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was adamant that public servants should advance on the basis of merit, not connections, and built in place an open recruitment and appraisal system where public servants were remunerated based on performance.
While this article explores how Singapore’s meritocracy is functioning in practice after 50 years of nationhood and calls for the re-examining of society’s definition of meritocracy, it also provides the historical context in which the term was first used in Singapore.
iSSues Explorer Social Studies (Secondary) Unit
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What’s Simmering? Societal issues to pay attention to “To facilitate participation during a discussion, teachers ask open-ended questions that enable longer, more varied student responses, require more varied teacher responses, and encourage more student-to-student interaction” (Henning, 2008).
A good discussion is one that involves participants bringing to the table different perspectives about a particular issue and explaining why they hold a particular view. Thus, this section aims to uncover some of the perspectives surrounding three societal issues and provide suggestions on possible discussion questions that teachers can use in the Social Studies classroom.
Issue 1 — Exploring Citizenship and Governance Knowledge outcomes: Students will be able to understand:
the functions of government and how governments work for the good of society; and
how citizens and organised groups can participate in working for the good of society. What are your views on the proposed reforms to the Elected Presidency system in Singapore? 1.
What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of having the Elected Presidency system in Singapore?
2.
Having considered the advantages and disadvantages of such a system in Q1, suggest some reforms to improve the system.
To access possible perspectives regarding this issue, please click on this link (pg 1-2).
Issue 2 — Living in a Diverse Society Knowledge outcomes: Students will be able to understand:
the experiences and effects of living in a diverse society; and
the various ways in which governments and individuals can respond to the effects of living in a diverse society. While social mobility has enabled many Singaporeans to achieve success, can social mobility be sustained in the future? 1.
What strategies have been adopted by the government to ensure that Singapore remains a fluid society?
2.
How effective are these strategies?
3.
What more can be done to ensure that social mobility is sustained in the future?
To access possible perspectives regarding this issue, please click on this link (pg 3-4).
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Issue 3 — Being Part of a Globalised World Knowledge outcomes: Students will be able to understand:
how technology has made the world more connected; and
different responses to tensions arising from some security impacts of globalisation.
What are the tensions governments may face should they allow for the sale of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in their countries? 1.
How did globalisation contribute to the rise of Genetically Modified Organisms?
2.
What are some of the ‘promises’ of Genetically Modified Organisms in alleviating world hunger?
3.
Do you think governments should allow for the sale of Genetically Modified Organisms in their countries? Why do you think this is so?
To access possible perspectives regarding this issue, please click on this link (pg 5-6).
What’s Cooking What’s cooking in the area of professional development
Practice Papers (Issue 2) We hoped you found the practice papers we uploaded previously for Issue 1 useful. Please continue to engage in discussions on the papers in the OPAL group, so that we can learn from and build on one another’s experiences.
Please refer to this document for more details on how to register for the session.
The practice papers for Issue 2, set at the Project Assessment Crafting Exercise (PACE) are now ready for your use! Please click on the following link to join the OPAL group and access the papers: PACE practice papers (Issue 2)
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Here, you can find links to content updates relevant for either/both the Express/Normal (Academic) or Normal Technical syllabuses. These updates will support you in bringing in dynamic content to support understanding of core content in the syllabuses. There are also links to readings that will deepen teachers’ understanding of societal issues in Singapore and the world, as well as useful resources that teachers can explore for their lessons. A series of infographics regarding key initiatives announced by the various ministries during the Committee of Supply Debate for Budget 2016 was shared. Click on the links below to access them.
Upper Secondary Social Studies Coursebook (Express and Normal Academic) - page 50
MHA, MinLaw, MFA and MINDEF: Keeping Singapore Safe and Secure
MND, MOT and MEWR: Transforming our Urban Landscape
MSF and MOH: Fostering a more Caring Society
MTI, MOE, MOM, MOF and MCI: Renewing our Economy, Providing Opportunities for All
PMO and MCCY: Partnering Singaporeans in Nation-Building
Updates to data quoted in the paragraph below Figure 6.20 “Although the unemployment rate of residents in Singapore (citizens and PRs) was at 2.6 per cent as of 2015, some Singaporeans continued to express frustration and resentment over immigration and its impact on jobs.” Update: The percentage quoted in the sentence was based on the first quarter of 2015. The percentage was revised to 2.8% by the end of 2015. With reference from: Ministry of Manpower (This website provides the latest
Upper Secondary Social Studies Coursebook (Express and Normal Academic) - page 178
information about employment and other manpower related data.)
To read more about the unemployment rate for the first quarter of 2016, please click on the following link: The Straits Times
Updates to ‘Did You Know’ feature Para 2: “Stage 2 of the development of the Semakau Landfill is expected to be completed by 2015. This will provide more landfill space for waste disposal.” Update: Stage 2 of the development of the Semakau Landfill has been completed and will provide an additional 16.7 million cubic metres of landfill capacity (the equivalent of nearly 6700 Olympic-size swimming pools) to meet the waste disposal needs of Singapore to 2035 and beyond.
Social Studies Normal (Technical) Secondary 2B Coursebook - page 53
With reference from: AsiaOne To find out more about the Semakau Landfill, please click on the following link: National Environment Agency
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Some Useful Resources to Explore
To access the 4 May edition, please click on this link.
To access the 18 May edition, please click on this link.
To access the list of flipped classroom tools, please click on this link.
To explore the affordances of this discussion site, please visit the following website: www.dialectic.sg
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Other Useful Readings Learning to See Things from Another’s Perspective (The Straits Times - Opinion Piece)
Access Wanted: Good Citizens to Watch Parliament (The Middle Ground)
Access Social Media’s Influence in Politics Here to Stay (IPSCommons)
Access No Shame in Being Poor (The Middle Ground)
Access
Social Integration: Regardless of Race, Language or Religion (Inconvenient Questions)
Access Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Religio-Political Fault Lines in Secular Democracies (RSIS)
Access How Robust is Singapore’s Recipe for Security in an Age of Terror To view the document - The Year in Review: Policy and Political Developments in 2015, which was also shared in the May E-newsletter, please click on this link.
(IPSCommons)
Access