Tattoo Tribes by sofia gaspar

TATTOO TRIBES

THE HISTORY BEHIND EVERY LINE

Title: Tattoo Tribes Published by Anchor Books 2017 Editorial Materials © Lars Krutak Photography © Jimmy Nelson Tattoo Tribes edited by Sofia Gaspar Content are licended under a Creative Commons Attribuition - Non Commercial - Share Alike http://www.beforethey.com/ http://www.larskrutak.com/

FIRST ANCHOR BOOKS MASS-MARKET EDITION, JANUARY 2017 Copyright © 2017 Lars Krutak and Jimmy Nelson All rights reserved. Published in the United Stares by Anchor Books, a division of Random House, Inc., New York, and in Canada by Random House of Canada Limited, Toronto. Originally published in hardcover in the United States by Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc., New York in 2017

Anchor Books and colophon are registred trademarks of Random House, Inc. This is a work based on true stories. Names, places and techniques. Anchor ISBN: 978-0-307-74366-4 www.anchorbooks.com

lars krutak

Trained as an archaeologist and cultural anthropologist.

Jimmy nelson

Jimmy Nelson started working as photographer in 1987.

mentawai

The Mentawai are an ancient tribe that for thousands of years has lived on Siberut Island.

whang od

The the last Kalinga tattoo artist, 89-year-old Whangv-Od who learned the art of batok (tattoo) from her father.

Marquesan

The Marquesan world was sufficiently modified to the extent that property owners.

Konyak

Finding these men is not easy, but once located they stand out from the crowd.

136

maori

Before the 20th century, traditional Maori tattoo artists in New Zealand were called tohunga ti moko.

lars krutak, archaeologist and cultural anthropologis

Lars Krutak received his Ph.D. at Arizona State University’s School of Human Evolution & Social Change in 2009. Since 2003, he has been studying the socioeconomic impacts of tourism and tourism promotion on indigenous Rarámuri arts and crafts vendors living in the Copper Canyon region of Mexico for his dissertation. Krutak began tattoo research in 1996 as a graduate student at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Trained as an archaeologist and cultural anthropologist, he spent three years exploring the complex symbolism and practice of tattooing throughout the Arctic. Krutak’s tattoo research culminated in an unpublished Master’s thesis, One Stitch at a Time: Ivalu and Sivuqaq Tattoo, focusing on the traditional tattooing of the St. Lawrence Island Yupiit, as well as several freelance photojournalism jobs for leading tattoo magazines in Germany, England, and the United States for which Krutak continues to write.

Krutak worked for several years as a Repatriation Research Specialist at the National Museum of the American Indian, an Archaeologist in the Repatriation Office of the National Museum of Natural History, and today he is a Research Associate in the Department of Anthropology at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Between 1998 and 2003, he worked in several countries of the former Yugoslavia monitoring democratic reforms and elections for the OSCE. Lars also serves as a volunteer manuscript reviewer for these leading academic journals: Journal of Material Culture, Current Anthropology, Journal of Cultural Heritage, and Études/Inuit/Studies. And he is very active in the field of museum curation. In 2002, Krutak embarked on a world tour devoted to recording the lives, stories, and experiences of tattooed people around the globe. He has worked as an Anthropological Consultant for three National Geographic television documentaries. Also look for Lars’ published works on Native North American tattoo in “Drawing With Great Needles: Ancient Tattoo Traditions of North America”

jimmy nelson PHOTOGRAPHER OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE

Jimmy Nelson (UK, 1967) started working as a photographer in 1987. Having spent 10 years at a Jesuit boarding school in the North of England, he set off on his own to traverse the length of Tibet on foot (1985). The journey lasted a year and upon his return his unique visual diary, featuring revealing images of a previously inaccessible Tibet, was published to wide international acclaim. Soon after (1987) he was commissioned to cover a variety of culturally newsworthy themes for many of the world leading publications ranging from the Russian involvement in Afghanistan and the ongoing strife between India and Pakistan in Kashmir to the beginning of the war in former Yugoslavia. In early 1994 he and his Dutch wife Ashkaine Hora Adema produced “Literary Portraits of China”. A coffee table book about all indigenous cultures in China and their translated literature. The book was the result of a forty month project that took them to all the hidden corners of the newly opening People’s Republic. Upon its completion the images were exhibited in the People’s Palace on Tiananmen Square, Beijing, and then followed by a successful worldwide tour.

From 1997 onwards, Jimmy successfully undertook commercial advertising assignments for many of the world’s leading brands. At the same time he started accumulating images of remote and unique cultures photographed with a traditional 50-year-old plate camera and awards followed. In 2010 he began his journey to create the iconic artistic document that became “Before They pass Away”. After visiting 35 chosen Indigenous communities, part 1 was published to International acclaim at the beginning of 2014. Jimmy received many awards. Today Jimmy is still travelling and photographing to produce part 2 of the project. His communication and his passion are found on a far wider platform. He is exhibiting at International Museums, shows his work at the world’s leading Photographic Art galleries, speaking at international conferences and is at the moment setting up the Jimmy Nelson Foundation.

mentawai

The Mentawai are an ancient tribe that for thousands of years has lived on Siberut Island.

famous the world over as the “Last Frontier of Surfing”

SIBERUT ISLAND Siberut Island is an isolated jungle paradise lying some sixty miles west of Padang, Indonesia. Although Siberut is part of the Mentawai Archipelago, famous the world over as the “Last Frontier of Surfing,” it is extremely difficult to reach – especially if you want to visit the heavily tattooed Mentawai people who call the interior of this island home. To get here, you must first endure a bumpy, stomach-churning ferry ride lasting some ten hours.

The seas get so rough during the overnight passage, that by morning the ferry smells and looks like a Roman vomitorium after an all night dinner party! Then, just as you think you’ve survived the hardest part of the journey, a six-hour dugout canoe journey awaits you after reaching the Muslim and Christian port town of Muara Siberut. If it’s raining, which it does almost every day on Siberut, the dugout voyage can be misery. And if it’s sunny, you’ll bake like a Mentawai sago stick that has just come out of the oven! But if you want to witness some of the most amazing tattooing in the world and hang with some of its most incredible people, then this trip is definitely worth it. You’ll never forget it!

“But if you want to witness some of the most amazing tattooing in the world and hang with some of its most incredible people”

WELCOME TO THE JUNGLE The Mentawai are an ancient tribe that for thousands of years has lived on Siberut Island. Although 19th century Christian and Muslim missionaries converted most of the Mentawai living on the neighboring southern islands of Sipora and the Pagai’s (which are relatively flat), the traditional culture of the Mentawai living on rugged (and somewhat mountainous) Siberut has remained relatively intact; albeit just barely. With Indonesian independence in 1950, an aggressive government campaign was launched to modernize the Mentawaians of Siberut. Traditional cultural practices such as tattooing, tooth filing, and the wearing of loincloths were forbidden because they were considered “pagan” and “savage.” Moreover, every individual was forced to join either the Christian or Muslim faith.

Pagan

savage

“The Mentawai are an ancient tribe that for thousands of years has lived on Siberut Island.”

In the 1990s, cultural oppression against the Mentawai took on more brutal forms of forced relocation from jungle villages to resettlement sites in government-created villages. Mentawai religion (e.g., shamanism) was for all purposes outlawed, and police stripped practicing shamans (sikerei) of their medicine bundles, sacred objects, loincloths, and their long hair. Sadly, Mentawai shamans, the keepers of the rain forest and their peoples, were denied their basic human rights; even when these abuses occurred under the noses of international organizations like UNESCO, the World Wildlife Fund, and Friends of the Earth, who were more concerned about saving Siberut’s primates than their indigenous peoples!

THEY LIVED IN HARMONY WITH NATURE BY TAKING ONLY WHAT THE NEED. For the Mentawai, the jungle has always been a place where everything, from plants to rocks to animals and man, has a spirit (kina). Spirits are believed to live everywhere and in everything – under the earth, in the sky, in the water, in the treetops, in bamboo, in a dugout canoe – and they are spoken too because they speak and act as human beings do. Some spirits offer protection and help to humankind. But others are evil and hand out punishment in the form of sickness and disease. In the malaria infested jungles of Siberut, there is no doubt that human existence is constantly threatened by disease. For this reason, the population density has always been low. The Mentawaians attempt to explain the onslaught of illness as not living in harmony with oneself and the environment. To maintain this harmony, religious and everyday codes of conduct must be followed at all times because acting recklessly or breaking taboo will anger the spirits of disease that live in the jungle.

SPIRITUAL WORLD 24

“For these reasons alone, the Mentawai have developed an elaborate system of taboos that govern everything they do.”

For these reasons alone, the Mentawai have developed an elaborate system of taboos that govern everything they do. For example, they live in harmony with nature by taking only what they need; they only eat fruit when it is season, and they only eat meat during ceremonial occasions. At all other times of the year, they eat their staple food sago which comes from the sago palm, various types of greens, and rice. But taboos extend far beyond breakfast, lunch, and dinner. In the traditional longhouse or uma of the Mentawai people, sex is taboo. If you want to “get busy,” you and your companion must head out to the jungle and use one of the “love shacks” that dot the landscape. Before a hunt, men cannot wash their hair or else they will shoot their arrows poorly or they will become sick. When making arrow poison, men are forbidden to sleep or bathe that night. If they do, the monkeys they hunt will die high in the trees, or the poison will become diluted and ineffective.

SIKEREI KEEPER OF THE RAIN FOREST As noted, the religious beliefs of the Mentawai are centered on the importance of coexisting with the invisible spirits that inhabit the world and all the animate and inanimate objects in it. Health is seen as a state of balance or harmony, and for the Mentawaians it is something holy and beautiful. But if the balance is broken, the only way to restore it is by placating the spirits that have been offended or accidentally distressed. With the help of medicinal plants, these malevolent spirits can be “cooled down” by magical means, and then they are appeased with sacrifices. The intermediary in these contacts is always the Mentawai shaman, or sikerei, because only he can communicate with the spirits. Aman Lao Lao is a Mentawai sikerei, literally “one who has magic power.”

“Because the Mentawaian belief system is animistic and has many taboos limiting it,”

But he is not just a doctor. He is a leader, priest, herbalist, physician, psychologist, dancer, family and community man. Although Mentawaian society is egalitarian, shamans are considered to be the leaders of their people. They are the tribe’s connection to the spiritual world, but also to the outside world. Sometimes they travel to distant cities to meet with government officials to fight for their human and environmental rights.will die high in the trees, or the poison will become diluted and ineffective. During the hunt itself, hunters cannot strike their dogs; because if they do, it is believed that they will not catch any game. Because the Mentawaian belief system is animistic and has many taboos limiting it, it is the responsibility of shamans like Aman Lau Lau to maintain his people’s balance with the natural and spirit worlds. For Aman Lau Lau and the other Mentawai shamans of Butui village, nature is both religion and survival, and they must know the forest inside and out to successfully maintain the balance between these complex worlds.

He is a leader, priest, herbalist, physician, psychologist, dancer, family and community man. 25

Some spirits offer protection and help to humankind. Sickness may be treated with medicinal plants, but it is the intervention of the shaman on the spiritual plane that ultimately determines a patient’s fate. And for this reason, the sikerei must fly away on the wings of trance to work his deeds of magic rescue.

“Though the Mentawaians have many pasaksak” As in other indigenous cultures, the Mentawai believe that all disease is nothing but the loss of the soul, and if it abandons the body sickness or death will be the result. Soul-loss is usually attributed to the spirits of disease or of ancestral ghosts, and numerous ceremonies are carried out to appease them if taboos have been broken. One of the most important shamanic ceremonies held to mend broken taboos is the pasaksak. Once it begins, all work is taboo except for the necessary cooking and rituals. Though the Mentawaians have many pasaksak – for the cutting of trees, the building of canoes and longhouses, weddings, funerals, hunting expeditions, initiations, visiting strangers, healing rituals, and tattooing.

PASAKSAK However, another way the Mentawaians keep their souls “close” is by beautifying the body. Individuals, be they male or female, who neglect their bodies by not keeping them beautiful with beads, flowers, sharpened teeth, and especially tattoos will cease to be attractive to their souls. In such cases, the soul may decide to leave its human host and roam about the body free. But if the soul does not return to its home, it may decide to withdraw to the ancestral world at which point that person must die.

“However, another way the Mentawaians keep their souls “close” is by beautifying the body.”

But if the soul does not return to its home 31

THE “GRANDATHER” OF MENTAWAI TATTOOING Continual care for one’s soul is one of the guiding principles in the life of the Mentawai people. And permanent decoration of the body through tattooing keeps it near at hand. So does good food, music, and dance because each are a religious means of benefiting the members of the community and longhouse (uma) by pleasing their souls, as well as their “Grandfather.”

“Traditionally, tattooing was performed after a religious ceremony called punen lepa.” Traditionally, tattooing was performed after a religious ceremony called punen lepa. This was held to wipe out the evil influence of blood spilled in the village or longhouse (uma). A special porch was constructed in front of the uma, so that no blood would fall to the ground. If it did, Pagete Sabbau or Teteu (“Grandfather”) would be summoned, and an earthquake soon followed.

“This was held to wipe out the evil influence of blood spilled in the village or longhouse.” According to myth, Pagete Sabbau was the first Mentawai shaman and taught his people everything they know today – including tattooing. But the people became jealous of him because of his magic and determined to kill him. When they built their first uma they sent Teteu down to dig under the center post. Then they let the post down on his head, imprisoning him in the ground. In revenge,Teteu knocked the uma down with an earthquake.

“But the people became jealous of him because of his magic and determined to kill him.”

And permanent decoration of the body through tattooing keeps it near at hand

TITI SPIRIT TATTOOS OF THE MENTAWAI SHAMAN. Because the soul is pleased by beautiful and complete body tattoos, the Mentawai believe that it allows them to bring their material wealth into the afterlife. The Mentawai also say that their tattoos, TITI, allow their ancestors to recognize them after death. More importantly, however, many forms of tattooing are specifically believed to protect their owners from evil spirits lurking in the jungle.

“Tattoos are applied by a designated tattoo artist called asipaniti or “man who makes the needle” at specific stages in life.”

Tattoos are applied by a designated tattoo artist called asipaniti or “man who makes the needle” at specific stages in life. Traditionally, when a girl or boy reached the age of seven, they received their back tattoos, now this practice begins in the mid-teens, if at all.

“The Mentawai also say that their tattoos, TITI, allow their ancestors to recognize them after death.”

Then, after waiting one or two years, their upper arms and the backs of their hands were marked. Next, the tattooing of the upper thighs and legs was executed (note: traditionally these marks were made just before marriage), and followed by the intricate tattoos of the chest and neck. The final stage of tattooing, which usually commenced after the individual reached forty years of age, was completed when the calves, shins, and the forearms were tattooed.

tattooing are specifically believed to protect their owners from evil spirits

In the past great headhunters were easily distinguished by their markings

Of course, different Mentawai clans observed their own customs when it came to the different stages of tattooing. Bai Lau Lau, Aman Lau Lau’s wife, who is from a different region of Siberut told me that her hands were tattooed first (all in one day); then she waited one year and her chest and back were tattooed (all in one day)! Traditionally, Mentawai tattoo artists sometimes used a sharpened piece of bark taken from the karai tree as their skin-plying tool. Others used a lemon thorn set into a small bamboo stick which was hand-tapped into the skin with a wooden mallet. Among the indigenous Atayal and Paiwan of Taiwan, and the Kalinga of the Philippines, thorns of the mountain orange tree were used in this capacity. However, the coastal peoples of Papua New Guinea, who are essentially Polynesian, also used the lemon thorn as a tattooing tool.

“Mentawai tattoo artists sometimes used a sharpened piece of bark taken from the karai tree as their skin-plying tool.”

Anyone in the Mentawai community could become a tattoo artist, but only those people with sufficient skills and talent actually found work. Aman Bereta, who tattooed me and several of the Mentawai men living in Butui with and old brass nail, learned the art from his father who was a renowned artist. Unfortunately, there are not many practicing tattoo artists working on Siberut today, and the reason why Aman Bereta is not fully tattooed is because there is no one in his community that can properly tattoo him.

“Mentawai tattoo artists sometimes used a sharpened piece of bark taken from the karai tree as their skin-plying tool.”

Tattoo can distinguish people regionally, and I was amazed that the Mentawai with whom I lived with could tell me which community a man or woman was from by the style of their tattooing. In the past great headhunters were easily distinguished by their markings including tattoos of frogs on their torsos or shoulders.

tattoos of frogs on their torsos or shoulders. 43

whang do

The the last Kalinga tattoo artist, 89-year-old Whangv-Od who learned the art of batok (tattoo) from her father.

PERPETUALLY SHROUDED IN MIST the Kalinga village of Buscalan sits high up in the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines. Although all of the tattooed warriors are now gone, the village is teeming with tattooed elderly women that wear the artistry of the last Kalinga tattoo artist: 89-year-old Whang-Od who learned the art of batok (tattoo) from her father. Whang-Od is a graceful woman who despite her age continues to work in her familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rice fields nearly everyday. That may seem like nothing special, but then again Buscalan sits high atop the ridge of a mountain that dives 1,500 feet down towards a raging river that feeds numerous terraced rice fields below. Every morning at sunrise, Whang-Od scales down some one-thousand stairs that shimmer in morning dew passing waterfalls and lush foliage in her worn-out flip-flops that have lost their treads.

After reaching the river, she heads one mile upstream on a series of treacherous and muddy footpaths that eventually lead to her familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rice terraces. She works all day until the heat of the afternoon sun drains all of her strength. Just after 4pm, the trek back up the mountain begins and Whang-Od now has a fifty pound basket of rice attached to her forehead with a tumpline.

Singing a few melodies along the way, she takes care to not miss a step and slowly, and very methodically, she plods her way up the staircase that seems to have no end. Once she reaches her hut, the rice basket comes to rest on the creaky wooden floor and then she immediately begins to prepare her dinner consisting of rice, greens, and a little pork that was gifted to her.

Although all of the tattooed warriors are now gone 49

the last Kalinga tattoo artist: 89-year-old Whang-Od

the Kalinga village of Buscalan sits high up in the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines. Although all of the tattooed warriors are now gone, the village is teeming with tattooed elderly women that wear the artistry of the last Kalinga tattoo artist: 89-year-old Whang-Od who learned the art of batok (tattoo) from her father. Whang-Od is a graceful woman who despite her age continues to work in her family’s rice fields nearly everyday. That may seem like nothing special, but then again Buscalan sits high atop the ridge of a mountain that dives 1,500 feet down towards a raging river that feeds numerous terraced rice fields below. Every morning at sunrise, Whang-Od scales down some one-thousand stairs that shimmer in morning dew passing waterfalls and lush foliage in her worn-out flip-flops that have lost their treads.

“Singing a few melodies along the way, she takes care to not miss a step and slowly, and very methodically”

After reaching the river, she heads one mile upstream on a series of treacherous and muddy footpaths that eventually lead to her family’s rice terraces. She works all day until the heat of the afternoon sun drains all of her strength. Just after 4pm, the trek back up the mountain begins and Whang-Od now has a fifty pound basket of rice attached to her forehead with a tumpline.

“She works all day until the heat of the afternoon sun drains all of her strength”

Whang-Od is a graceful woman who despite her age continues to work 53

she offered to tattoo the brave warrior in the custom of his forefathers. His hometown of Bugnay is part of a cluster of several Kalinga villages that comprise a regional unit of trading and marriage partners including Whang-Od’s village of Buscalan. Having heard about his recent encounter, she offered to tattoo the brave warrior in the custom of his forefathers. And perhaps for the first time since WWII, a Kalinga man received abikking orwarrior’s chest tattoo that marked his status as a killer. Whang-Od keeps her tattooing tools under the floor boards of her stilted hut. Her hand-tapping kit is comprised of a coconut bowl to mix a pigment of soot and water, an orange thorn needle (siit) attached to the end of a small bamboo stick, and another short stick used to tap the thorn into the skin. She told me her father used a different tool called a kisi which was a water buffalo horn bent by fire that held four razor sharp orange or lemon needles at its base.

“And perhaps for the first time since WWII, a Kalinga man received abikking or warrior’s chest tattoo that marked his status as a killer.”

Sometimes he used a wooden stencil that held intricate patterns for the arms. She and her father both back-handed their tools, a style that is completely different from Polynesian hand-tappers practicing today.

“She and her father both back-handed their tools, a style that is completely different from Polynesian hand-tappers practicing today.”

kisi which was a water buffalo horn bent by fire 59

TATTOO: THE MAMBABATOK’S ART Although mengor were perhaps the most respected individuals of any Kalinga village, their masculine violence required acts of female mediation and spiritual guidance on behalf of the mandadawak. Of course, some Kalinga tattoo artists were also female and they permanently inscribed a man’s masculinity for all to see. In fact, tattoo artists were the only individuals that could make “real men” in the eyes of the community, since only they had the power to physically transform boys into men through painful tattooing rituals.

“I tattooed many of these older women before they reached puberty, because once their hormones kick in…we believe that the tattooing hurts more at that point.”

But mambabatok also transformed girls into women through the beautiful and intricate tattoos they created. Whang-Od told me an old myth that says that women should be tattooed to increase their fertility. That is why many of the women in her village are tattooed and have large families.

“I tattooed many of these older women before they reached puberty, because once their hormones kick in…we believe that the tattooing hurts more at that point. Women not only receive tattoos for fertility, but also for beauty, and some women can receive additional marks if their male relatives received some for success in war. Most of their designs came from nature, like rice bundles, ferns, steps or snake scales and especially centipedes which are powerful spiritual guides and friends of the warrior. Some of the women also have tattooed necklaces.” Other male and female individuals like Whang-Od wear small X’s on their faces either between the eyes, at the center of their cheeks, or at the tips of their nose. Some elders stated that these markings were placed on girls who struck (with family weapons) those human heads that were brought into the village. Others told me that they are simply beauty marks. For example, when a woman is walking in the village, a man will take notice of her facial features because these tattoos are strategically placed at the contour points and they grab visual attention.

Whang-Od’s other tattoos were given to her by her father.

Whang-Od’s other tattoos were given to her by her father. Upon closer inspection, her legs are completely covered with faint tattoo tracings which she said were her “practice marks.” She even compelled me to tattoo her on the back of her hand so that I could learn more about the art of Kalinga batok through active participation. After puncturing her heavily veined hand with a centipede design, I made a sipat gesture to remove any taboos associated with inadvertently drawing blood in the village. The sipat is similar to an exchange of peace tokens, and begins with the sacrifice of a chicken whose blood is rubbed near the injured body part. A brief chant is given to ward off any evil spirits, and then I placed a red carnelian bead on a string around her wrist. This bead is also a protective device against malevolent spirits; it “pays off” any spirit in the vicinity.

“Upon closer inspection, her legs are completely covered with faint tattoo tracings which she said were her “practice marks.” The mandadawak practice similar rituals when seeking to cure their sick patients of illness. In her attempts to determine which evil spirit is causing an affliction, the mandadawak sacrifices a chicken, pig or other animal. With a piece of green leaf, usually an orange leaf, soaked in the blood of the sacrifice, she sprinkles the crimson liquid on the hands and legs of the patient. She prays in a frightful manner over the head of the patient, and demands the evil spirit to accept the offering and to get out or remove the malady from the body.

The mandadawak practice similar rituals when seeking to cure their sick patients of illness

Marquesan

The Marquesan world was sufficiently modified to the extent that property owners.

The Marquesan archipelago consists of six inhabitable islands The Marquesan archipelago consists of six inhabitable islands and other islets located approximately nine-hundred miles northeast of Tahiti. The island nation is divided into a northwestern group (Nukuhiva, ‘Ua Pou, and ‘Ua Huka) and a south-eastern group (Hiva Oa, Tahuata, and Fatuhiva) where dialectical differences and tattooing styles evolved since the region was settled by ancient mariners about 100 B.C. The German explorer and ethnologist Karl von den Steinen, who visited the isles in 1891, listed over one hundred and seventy individually named tattooing motifs, which is remarkable since the tradition was “banned” by French officials approximately fifty years before that time. Unlike other regions of Polynesia where descent and genealogical heritage from gods were the primary avenues for status and political control, the sociopolitical milieu of the Marquesas was more relaxed, devolved, and egalitarian. For example, rather than a rigid, stratified society controlled by ruling chiefs, the Marquesan world was sufficiently modified to the extent that property owners, warriors, political leaders, and even female shamans (etua) could also achieve great influence

and power. In fact, on Fatuhiva – one of the most “democratic” of all the isles – a missionary that sought to know who was king was told: “You are king, I am king, we are all kings.”

Due to the nature of indigenous political organization in the Marquesas, tattooing was not confined to certain ranks, classes, or the sexes

Due to the nature of indigenous political organization in the Marquesas, tattooing was not confined to certain ranks, classes, or the sexes. In fact, certain sacred chiefs of the highest rank were not tattooed at all. However, fine work was widely enjoyed by other chiefs, their warriors, and wealthy individuals who could afford to employ the best artists. Furthermore, only they could withstand the attendant expenses associated with feeding the tattoo artist and his assistants as well as other individuals (ka’ioi) who built the special tattooing house (oho’au) for the occasion.

Unlike other regions of Polynesia where descent and genealogical heritage from gods

the father of the opou had prepared the tattooing pigment - hinu In the case of a chief’s first born son (opou), the chief prepared long in advance for paying and feeding his local tahuna. He raised pigs and had paper mulberry trees planted from which tapacloth garments could be later made and gifted. Payment also took the form of ornaments, war clubs, and, after European contact, guns. While the tuhuna was paid generously for work on an opou, because nothing other than perfection was to be expected, no payment was asked of the ka’ioi or the chief’s younger sons and daughters, who provided food during the lengthy ritual. Instead, they were free to have designs punctured upon them gratis when the opportunity presented itself, usually when the opou was resting or recuperating from the effects of the painful operation.

The chief then proclaimed that all relationships with women were taboo to attending males during the period that was about to commence

Payment also took the form of ornaments, war clubs, and, after European contact, guns.

The shells of the candlenut were heated so that they would open easily, and then the kernels were placed over a fire in a pocket of stones which allowed the smoke to ascend through a small passageway in order to collect on a smooth stone. Upon this stone a constant tapping was kept up while the soot collected to the depth of about an inch. The soot-covered stone was then placed on a banana leaf and left in the sun to dry, being kept this way until the tuhuna arrived for his work. Then the father mixed the soot with plain water in a small coconut shell and gave it to the artist.

Before the tuhuna arrived at the newly constructed oho’au itself, the father of the opou had prepared the tattooing pigment, hinu. The preparation was a very tapu operation, and it is said that a virgin assisted him in this delicate work.

The chief then proclaimed that all relationships with women were taboo to attending males during the period that was about to commence, and those men who entered the oho’auwere compelled to hide if women were even sighted at a distance.

it is said that a virgin assisted him in this delicate work 77

Marking the Opou The tuhuna, or more appropriately the tuhuna patu tiki (“one who strikes or marks designs”), worked under the protection of a patron deity whose contagious power also enveloped those who came into contact with him while he worked. One early writer stated that the office of tuhunawas hereditary, and that each great family had its own stable of tattooists that were trained from generation to generation.

“The tuhuna was aided in his work by four or five assistants called ou’a (“pupils” or “disciples”)”

The tuhuna carried his instruments in a bamboo case that measured seven or eight inches long. He laid out his tools on a piece of tapa spread on the ground and prepared himself for work. These instruments were generally known as ta (“to strike”). Like in other parts of Polynesia, there was always an assortment of these tools and the combs varied in fineness depending on the grade of work (linework, fill) that was to be performed. The flat instruments for straight lines and gradual curves were of human bone, sometimes acquired from the corpses of sacrificed enemies.

“while another stretched the skin to make a smooth surface upon which to work” Each were about three inches long, flat and slightly wedge-shaped, and toothed or comb-like at the end. Tools for the smaller curves were made from the leg or wingbones of a booby or another species of unidentified bird. The tuhuna was aided in his work by four or five assistants called ou’a (“pupils” or “disciples”). Like their counterparts elsewhere in Polynesia, each had a particular duty. Two or more ou’a held the arms and legs of the patient, while another stretched the skin to make a smooth surface upon which to work. Other ou’a fanned the flies from the bleeding wounds or filled-in the outlined designs.

“The flat instruments for straight lines and gradual curves were of human bone, sometimes acquired from the corpses of sacrificed enemies. “

from the bleeding wounds or filled-in the outlined designs. 79

The tattooing house itself was very tapu to outsiders and insiders alike The tattooing house itself was very tapu to outsiders and insiders alike. The tuhuna‘s assistants were especially tapu and could only eat special food. The opou and ka’ioi who were tattooed also observed food taboos, and for several days they were forbidden from eating pig meat and consuming kava beverages. These restrictions were intended to reduce the flowing of the blood and to diminish the inflammation that ensued from the wounds of the tattooing tool.

After each sitting, there were from eight to twelve days of local inflammation, followed by fever and sometimes swellings, which were at times fatal. The juice of the banana stem was used as an ointment to hasten healing. Sometimes, an emollient of hibiscus leaves or the healing fruits of thenoni (Indian mulberry) were used to relieve the inflammation. Typically speaking, the entire process of tattooing lasted two weeks to four months.

The duration of the operation depended largely upon the fortitude and health of the opou. A Nukuhiva man is reported to have been completely covered in three days; the legs and back of one man of Hiva Oa were done in seven days. But as a rule the designs were applied in a more leisurely fashion, a section of the body being covered at a sitting. In between each tattoo session were three-day rest periods called “days of blood.”

“The opou and ka’ioi who were tattooed also observed food taboos, and for several days they were forbidden from eating pig meat”

“In between each tattoo session were three-day rest periods called “days of blood.”

Meanwhile, relatives had prepared ornaments like tortoise shell crowns, girdles of tapa, feathered head ornaments, earrings, and other articles to be used in a public celebration honoring the newly marked. One very old account states that it was also at this time that a human victim was sacrificed and eaten. Presumably the bones of the deceased were used at this time to create new tattooing implements.

this time to create new tattooing implements. 87

punish those people who possessed the tabooed body modifications.

Over the course of a warrior’s lifetime in the Marquesas, a man’s epidermis was covered with layer upon layer of sacred protection until his body was black with designs. At death, however, these mana-infused markings were erased, so that the man could be reborn in a perfectly pure coat of godly skin. This ritual practice was significant, because it was an essential element in the making and unmaking of men, and the cosmic interplay between the ao and the po. The Marquesans believed in an afterworld divided into a melancholy realm occupied by past servants and common people, and an Eden ruled by the goddess Oupu into which the spirits of chiefs and other persons of status might be admitted. However, Oupu forbade tattooing in her abode, and particularly violent deities lingered here to punish those people who possessed the tabooed body modifications.

The Marquesans believed in an afterworld divided into a melancholy realm occupied by past servants and common people

Polynesians, as noted above, associated the divine realm with the concept of po or what could be called the “dark place.”

As a consequence of this perceived reality in the land of the dead, the wife or relatives of a tattooed individual were compelled to carefully rub away the corpse’s tattooed skin over a period of months. After which time the body was removed to sacred ground, from which the spirit was later understood to depart by canoe to the underworld. Polynesians, as noted above, associated the divine realm with the concept of po or what could be called the “dark place.” It is also from this tapu location that newborns emerged into the light of the living, and as they matured into adulthood they participated in various rituals of deconsecration and protection.

various rituals of deconsecration and protection. 91

Konyak

Finding these men is not easy, but once located they stand out from the crowd.

100

101

102

TIGER AND LEOPARD MEN OF THE NAGA

Less than fitfy years ago Naga Warriors of northeast India and neighboring Myanmar hunted for human heads in the mountainous terrain of their ancestral homelands. On my travels in this region I’ve met many inveterate warriors who can vividly remember those stressful and dangerous times like they were yesterday. Finding these men is not easy, but once located they stand out from the crowd because of the incredibly bold tattoos they wear across their bodies: symbols that bond them to tigers who are their powerful spirit companions, or special markings earned through their tiger-like combat skills, with designs inspired by the stripes on a tiger’s back or the patterns on its forehead.

Finding these men is not easy, but once located they stand out from the crowd because of the incredibly bold tattoos they wear across their bodies

There are over twenty Naga tribes in India and more than half of them tattooed.

There are over twenty Naga tribes in India and more than half of them tattooed. Naga tattooing is a visual language and if you know how to read this book of body art then you can begin to decipher the life history of the person before you. Sadly, however, tattooing is the most endangered of the Naga’s cultural practices. Today, traces of the indelible art can only be found on elders (many of whom are between eighty and one-hundred years of age) and on very old forms of sculpture that adorn men’s houses (morungs). Missionization, the cessation of tribal warfare and headhunting, the adoption of European dress and less permanent forms of body decoration all contributed to the decline of this once important custom that was intimately connected to rites of passage, social status, mythology, spirituality, religion, and therianthropy.

tattooing is the most endangered of the Naga’s cultural practices.

103

104

great warriors, who have tigers and leopards as their “companions.” What is therianthropy I hear you ask? It is a concept whereby humans are believed to be able to transform themselves into other animals; powerful animals that serve as spiritual protectors and guides. In the Naga universe these beliefs are still strong and I have met several men, usually old chiefs (anghs) or great warriors, who have tigers and leopards as their “companions.” When these men sleep, their soul travels out of their bodies and into that of their animal familiar.

“It is a concept whereby humans are believed to be able to transform themselves into other animals”

They can see through the eyes of their tiger or leopard friend, hear and smell what their animal companions encounter on the trail, and in the headhunting era warriors could employ the help of their protector to track the movements of their enemies. Men who possessed these spiritual assistants would become tiger-like or leopard-like in their actions and rarely were they defeated in battle.

“When these men sleep, their soul travels out of their bodies and into that of their animal familiar.”

But there were risks associated with having an animal counterpart. If a soul-animal was wounded or killed, then the human linked with it would experience a similar fate. Also, if your animal companion had a very powerful spirit and you could not control it, then it was very likely that you would become insane.

Men who have these powerful spirit companions are oftentimes tattooed with symbols of their animal friends to permanently bond themselves to each other. These types of tattoos are extremely rare today and the only place to find them is in one of the most remote and wild corners of India, the Patkoi Range which borders Myanmar – the homeland of the Chen Naga.

“Men who have these powerful spirit companions are oftentimes tattooed with symbols of their animal friends to permanently bond themselves to each other”

These types of tattoos are extremely rare today 105

106

107

108

handful of Naga men in India today who bears the symbolic tattoo of a tiger-man

The Chen region is extremely difficult to reach because road conditions are simply terrible! In the rainy season, the road is impassible and rock falls and landslides block traffic several times a year for months at a time. There are eight Chen villages in India and many more in Myanmar, and men are the primary gatekeepers and bearers of tattooing tradition here. Apart from tiger/leopard-man tattoos, Chen warriors who have killed more than two enemies are allowed to wear bold geometric designs that cover their upper chests and neck. The four elder men I met that were marked in this way (each also had dark goggle-like tattoos around their eyes indicating that they had participated in combat) were certainly considered to be great village heroes, but none of them had companion animals like other Chen men I would soon meet.

“man and tiger are regarded as siblings and when some Naga kill a tiger in the jungle they say they killed a “brother.”

Before heading to Chen territory I had read about one famous Chen chief, Angh Tolei of Chen Wetnu village, who owned distinctive back tattoos that were associated with his animal familiar – a tiger. As we drove up the mountain to his home village, we asked several people if he was still alive but I was saddened to learn that he had apparently died just months before. Our guide, sensing my despair, then told us that there was another man marked in this way: a warrior from his home village of Chen Loisho just up the road. Energized by this news, we sped up the winding and twisting road in our SUV for another three hours until we approached the residence of Wengkang. Wengkang is perhaps one of only a handful of Naga men in India today who bears the symbolic tattoo of a tiger-man. Wengkang stated he was over 100 years of age (!), although he looked hardly over 80, and his back was covered with circular tattoos representing the fur coat of his animal familiar, the indomitable tiger, that according to mythology was born from the same primal mother as man. In fact, man and tiger are regarded as siblings and when some Naga kill a tiger in the jungle they say they killed a “brother.”

his back was covered with circular tattoos representing the fur coat of his animal familiar 109

110

111

112

113

114

MEETING THE CHEN TIGER MEN

I began to think of all the many other tattooed elders I was not able to meet before they had passed into the afterlife After a few hearty cups of rice beer (zu) and heaping plates of ginger rice and stewed pork at Wengkang’s house, we eventually made our way to Chen Wetnyu, since I wanted to pay my respects to the family of Angh Tolei who I had so very much wanted to meet. As I stepped into our truck, I began to think of all the many other tattooed elders I was not able to meet before they had passed into the afterlife and how much traditional tattoo knowledge was being lost worldwide before it could be recorded. But then I recalled something I had been told before: “expect the unexpected because life is never what it seems.”

“how much traditional tattoo knowledge was being lost worldwide before it could be recorded”

The road from Loisho to Wetnyu is steep, abrupt, circuitous, and simply dangerous. Serious car sickness becomes a real possibility, but chewing local betel nut activated with lime is a great way to get through difficult moments like these. However, on this bumpy ride, when I spit out the bloodred residue it frequently misses its mark and by the time we reach our destination the back panel of the Landcruiser is splattered with the crimson liquid! At Chen Wetnyu, we spot a hand-painted sign for the “Angh’s Residence.” As we enter this immense house, huge wooden beams carved in relief with all sorts of jungle animals greet us, each one painted in various shades of color. It is early morning and a group of men and women are gathered about the central hearth of the kitchen enjoying hot tea, biscuits, and their breakfast meal. Through my translator, I make the necessary introductions and explain the purpose of my journey as well as my regret at arriving too late to meet the venerable Tolei. To my surprise, the chief’s wife looked up at me from her steaming cup of brew and called out.

At Chen Wetnyu, we spot a hand-painted sign for the “Angh’s Residence”

115

116

further questioning he reveals that his spirit-familiar was not, “Tolei, you have visitors here!” Suddenly, a short man emerges from his bathroom to be confronted by several dumbfounded travelers who, until that moment, had been certain that the Chief was dead! Overjoyed, we interview Tolei and upon further questioning he reveals that his spirit-familiar was not, as I had read, a tiger. It was a leopard. He also explained that, although other animals can act as someone’s familiar (for example boars and wildcats), only tigers and leopards are associated with tattoos. Near neighbors to the south of Chen territory, the Khiamniungen Naga also had tattoo traditions associated with tigers, but in a different way.

“Near neighbors to the south ofChen territory, the Khiamniungen Naga also had tattoo traditions associated with tigers, but in a different way.”

“Warriors who successfully brought back enemy heads were permitted to have their chest tattooed with what writers have variously described as “ostrich feathers”

Warriors who successfully brought back enemy heads were permitted to have their chest tattooed with what writers have variously described as “ostrich feathers,” a “V-shaped” chest marking, “fertility fountain,” or what the Khiamniungan call “tiger chest,” in reference to the belief they become “tiger-like” when hunting their enemy. After additional victories, tattoos of human figures could also be added to the chest (as they were among the Wancho, Lower Konyak, Chang, and Myanmar Naga groups). As more kills were tallied, tattooed human figures also came to adorn the arms, shoulders, calves, and back.

as I had read, a tiger. It was a leopard.

117

118

119

120

121

122

The necklace especially reinforces his status

Meat taboos were also observed by the Yimchungru. I met the last great warrior of this tribe, a hero named Lakiumong who has twenty kills to his credit! Lakiumong, who passed away in 2016, did not receive any tattoos until after his tenth kill, at which time he was over 35 years of age. His ear ornaments and brass necklace also indicate that he is a proven headhunter. The necklace especially reinforces his status since the circular elements symbolize that he “circled the enemy like a tiger and killed it.”

the circular elements symbolize that he “circled the enemy like a tiger and killed it.”

The final leg of my Naga trip brought me to the Tikhir village of Shamatore. Here, only one man wore the chest tattoo reserved for great warriors, but I did learn other interesting details about other body markings. One man, Khungkiu, did not take enemy heads but he did sever the hands and legs of at least one enemy. He also went to war with a crossbow, and for these reasons he was tattooed with the crossbow symbol on his upper right arm. He noted that men of his tribe had to take a head to receive the V-shaped chest design. However, brave men could also earn the right to receive a chest tattoo if they had killed a tiger in hand-to-hand combat. In essence, a tiger was equated to two human kills and, like men, was hunted with a crossbow.

a tiger was equated to two human kills and, like men, was hunted with a crossbow.

123

124

younger generations of Naga still have a keen interest in tattooing

With the arrival of Christianity in the early 1940s, Naga tattooing soon ceased across this remote region of India. The era of inter-tribal warfare was over, and male prowess and rites of passage were no longer expressed with indelible markings. Instead, new opportunities for social achievement emerged through education and forms of wage-labor as the countryside slowly opened to the outside world. More and more villagers migrated to towns and cities in search of jobs and college educations, further dislocating them from ancient traditions like tattooing that formerly were an integral part of their cultural and spiritual identities.

ancient traditions like tattooing that formerly were an integral part of their cultural and spiritual identities.

And Naga men no longer have tattoos linking them to their mythical brother, the tiger, who is himself nowadays nearly extinct in the Naga Hills of India.

Today, however, younger generations of Naga still have a keen interest in tattooing, albeit not typically in the tribal tattooing traditions of their ancestors, although a revival is underway.* Instead, Western-style tattoos â&#x20AC;&#x201C; barbed-wire armbands, Batman symbols and other kitsch designs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; have largely replaced timeworn patterns once associated with bravery and Naga identity. And Naga men no longer have tattoos linking them to their mythical brother, the tiger, who is himself nowadays nearly extinct in the Naga Hills of India.

in the tribal tattooing traditions of their ancestors

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

136

maori

Before the 20th century, traditional Maori tattoo artists in New Zealand were called tohunga ti moko.

134

135

136

The Maori technique was more distinct than other Polynesian forms

Before the 20th century, traditional Maori tattoo artists in New Zealand were called tohunga ti moko or “tattoo specialists” and were men. These “experts” were often craftsmen in other skills like wood carving, and their knowledge was transmitted through family lines – from grandfathers, mother’s brothers, or fathers – although some artisans had natural abilities that were cultivated. Tohunga used a range of uhi (chisels) made from albatross or whale bone, which were attached to a wooden handle, and struck with a mallet. The Maori technique was more distinct than other Polynesian forms of hand-tapped tattooing because the designs created looked like grooves carved into the skin. Thus, it is more appropriate to call Maori tattooing “skin-carving.”

“Maori tattoo artists in New Zealand were called tohunga ti moko or “tattoo specialists” and were men.”

“Accordingly, many sons requested that they be tattooed with pigment belonging to their fathers.

Tattoo pigments for the face were typically created from the soot of burnt kauri gum mixed with pigeon fat, but for body tattooing colors made from awheto (caterpillar fungus) were used. Pigments were stored in small ornately carved vessels called oko that were often buried when not in use.Oko were handed down in the family because ownership of the pigment was an important factor, as it was believed that the mana of the owner could be transferred to the next generation. Accordingly, many sons requested that they be tattooed with pigment belonging to their fathers. Oko are extremely rare and only six are known to exist in the world today.

Maori tattooing “skin-carving” 137

138

Among the Maori, tattooing was also called “the fire of tattooing" Among the Maori, tattooing was also called “the fire of tattooing.” This terminology referred to the intricate facial tattooing received by men called moko that, when chiseled into the epidermis, made the skin feel as if it was literally “on fire.” Tattooing was one of the great Maori arts, and many parts of the bodies of chiefs and warriors, especially their faces, were fully decorated. Women’s tattoos were more commonly confined to the lips and chin and served as fertility markings called whakatehe, from “tehe” or “the penis in an erect state.” Tattoo artists required that “perfect” work must be paid for accordingly, as in the following song that was chanted by the tattooist:

“He who pays well let him be beautifully ornamented; But he who forgets the operator let him be done carelessly.

Be the lines far apart, E hiki Tangaroa E hiki Tangaroa? Strike that, the chisel as it cuts along may sound. O Hiki Tangaroa? Men do not know the skill of the operator in driving his sounding chisel along, E hiki Tangaroa?”

This song was performed to not only remind the tattoo client of the divine origins of the art form, but that it was also the tattoo recipient’s duty to pay the tattooist well. The tattoo client was expected to not only feed the tattooist with the best food available, but to also gift him with presents. When the operator suspected he would not be compensated appropriately, he frequently became careless in his work. Thus, some mokos were very coarsely done, while others were completed with an artistic touch.

while others were completed with an artistic touch. 139

140

141

142

After the lips had been tattooed and the patient was recuperating Obtaining Maori facial tattoos was a long and painful operation, especially for chiefs and other members of aristocratic families. After the lips had been tattooed and the patient was recuperating, it was taboo for anyone to touch their skin. The head was regarded as having great tapu(holiness or sacredness), and cooked food had the property of removing or diminishing the tapu. Thus, if any food touched the lips of a great chief after he had been tattooed, this action would remove the tapu from the artwork and cause it “to fail.” Funnels were therefore used to feed semi-liquid food to such chiefs during and after the tattoo process. The funnels were the chiefs’ personal property and through continued use gained their own measure of tapu themselves.

“Obtaining Maori facial tattoos was a long and painful operation, especially for chiefs and other members of aristocratic families.”

“The funnels were the chiefs’ personal property and through continued use gained their own measure of tapu themselves.”

At the same time, the tattoo artist was not allowed to touch food with his hands because they weretapu from the spilled blood. In turn, tohunga were fed pieces of food on sticks by their assistant(s). Most of these feeding tubes were of conical shape, but others resembled bowls with carved faces inlaid with haliotis (paua) shell. The outer surfaces were covered with a series of contorted facial forms and bodies, and the familiar double-spiral and chevron motifs that comprise many Maori tattoo patterns were also carved into these sacred implements.

Maori tattoo patterns were also carved into these sacred implements. 143

144

She was also the goddess of war. Samoa is a major island group skirting the western boundary of Polynesia. Tattooing was highly valued here especially amongst individuals of high rank, and according to traditional Samoan tattoo artist Su’a Sulu’ape Petelo, only chiefs (matai) and their sons and daughters were originally allowed to be tattooed. The overall corpus of designs consisted of a series of bounded zones that were composed within a framework of abstract motifs derived from highly stylized designs taken from nature, like millipedes, shells, birds, and the flying fox or fruit bat. Some of these animals were held to be sacred by some families because they embodied ancestral spirits, and when worn as tattoos they enveloped the body in a sacred cloak of protection.

“Only chiefs (matai) and their sons and daughters were originally allowed to be tattooed.”

Another Samoan legend is believed by some writers to be the origin of the pe’a (“flying fox”) tattoo design, a motif that is at the very heart of Samoan male tattoo culture. Nafanua, a mythical ancestress of the chiefly house of Tonumaipe’a of Savai’i, was the daughter of the ruler of the underworld and her mother was Tilafainga who brought tattooing to Samoa. She was also the goddess of war.

“When worn as tattoos they enveloped the body in a sacred cloak of protection.” Once, when she was fleeing from a military expedition in Tonga, she became stranded on an inhospitable island. Here she was saved by flying foxes, whom the Tonumaipe’a honored by naming themselves after these revered animals. To this day, the flesh of the flying fox is tapu to everyone except for members of the highest rank. And according to Samoan tattooist Su’a Sulu’ape Petelo, the pe’aitself resembles a flying fox naturalistically hanging from a tree with its wings surrounding its body – the head being the male genitals.

Tattooing was highly valued here especially amongst individuals of high rank

145

146

147

148

Samoan tattoo masters Su’a Sulu’ape Petelo and Sua Sulu’ape Paulo II Samoan tattoo artists are called tufuga ta tau (ta tau,“correct, artfully done”), and tattooists with great manawere recognized by the symmetrical designs and finely balanced compositions and linework they executed for their clients. According to contemporary Samoan tattoo masters Su’a Sulu’ape Petelo and Sua Sulu’ape Paulo II, Samoan tattooing was many things to many people. Lines referred to genealogies, adventures, and accomplishments. Curved lines (‘aso faaifo) encircled your being, and served as a visual testament to an individual’s commitment to permanently incorporate their family’s lineage into his or her life. As a rite of initiation, ta tau not only transformed the self into a mature adult, but it also allowed a person to pay homage to their elders while also showing deference to them. In turn, the ta tau served as an emblem of inspiration for all of those who remain unmarked.

“but it also allowed a person to pay homage to their elders while also showing deference to them.”

Boys and girls were decorated between their fourteenth and eighteenth year. The father built a special shed in which the work was performed and after the tattooing had been completed the highlytapu structure was burned. The father housed and feasted the tufuga and his assistants with pork, taro, bananas, and fish during the lengthy operation – about two to three months on average – and paid the master in fine mats, waist garments (lavalava), and other articles of local value. The man, if he could afford it, also allowed his son or daughter to invite friends to come and share the skill of the practitioner.

“the work was performed and after the tattooing had been completed the highlytapu structure was burned.” The father’s child, for whom the artist was hired, set the pace for the work, indicating when, because of pain, the work must stop and the length of the rest periods. Usually the tufuga worked on the client during three periods over the course of a week and continued for as many weeks as was necessary to complete the bold designs.

Samoan tattooing was many things to many people. 149

150

151

152

153

154

155