Turning Industry

TURNING INDUSTRY Negotiating labour, policy and innovation in the Jute Mills of Kolkata, India

TURNING INDUSTRY Negotiating labour, policy and innovation in Jute Mills of Kolkata, India

Copyright © University of Virginia School of Architecture Somrita Bandyopadhyay M. Arch Candidate 2021 email: sb7eh@virginia.edu All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of either the author or the University of Virginia, School of Architecture, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.

December 2020

In fulfillment of the requirements for Thesis Research ARCH8100 At the University of Virginia, School of Architecture

Guide : Prof. Shiqiao Li Weedon Professor in Asian Architecture Director of the PhD in the Constructed Environment Program Prof. Ghazal Jafari Assistant Professor Department of Landscape Architecture

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Prof.

Shiqiao Li and Prof. Ghazal Jafari for their guidance, my classmates and especially Colin, Adam and McKenna for their unique insights into the project and Rebecca for some great conversations and interesting new directions.

This book wouldn’t have been possible with you all, thank you for being there!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART 1 REVEALING

PART 2 DISMANTLING

Fragile lead

20

A decade of shutdowns

22

Industrial cores of Kolkata

24

Mapping productivity

26

How jute became an industry

34

Bibliography of Indian voices

40

Global network of industry

42

Hinterlands

44

Reframing the city through industry

46

PART 3 A CASE FOR INDUSTRY Expanding cultivation

54

Urban structure of industry

56

Institutional structure

60

Flow of capital

62

Speculations

64

Bibliography

66

Decolonization of Jute

Revealing

Dismantling

Premise

New Institution Future Projection

Background Reserach

Counter Cartograpy

Global network of jute export and consumption

Regional cultivation of Jute

Conclusion

Mapping of Colonial industry over present day industry

Location of Industry and Infrastructure

Commentary on colonial inheritance of jute industry

Innovation as Decolonization

Empowering the agency of workers

Sustainable production

Recovering the River

P D

Jute fibre testing - Birth of Jute industry in Scotland

Managing Agent system of Kolkata Jute mills History of Jute from a colonial speculation to an Indian industry

Competition with Plastic

Indian govt research to make jute a global commodity

Textile Policy of Bengal

Owned by British descendants

Land Ownership

Licensee System Owned by Indian Government

Labour

Coolie Lines (Labour housing colonial era)

Present state of Industry

Product Diversification

Descendants of Migrant Labour

Machinery

Management

100 yr old machines New Chinese Machinery Colonial structures (Management offices in Business district)

RESEARCH DIAGRAM

Bihar Orissa UP

PREFACE

In August 2019, the Chittivalasa Jute Mill, one of the oldest mills in the state of Andhra Pradesh, was stated to be sold as real estate. The mill had been under lockout for the past nine years and against strong pressures to reopen from both the workers and the State, the management of the mill have decided to convert its 70 acres of prime real estate. Today 25 of India’s 98 jute mills are closed and another 24 are running at a hazardously low capacity. The case of Chittivalasa Jute Mill paints the picture of an impending future for these dying mills. Once the single largest item of export and one of the largest employer in the country, the jute industry is at a critical juncture of the future of manufacturing in India.

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The present day industry of jute is in many ways defined by the stagnation of its colonial inheritance. Jute was one of many materials recognized for its capacity to sustain British industries. The city of Calcutta, the erstwhile capital of the British Empire in India, became the focus of funnelling raw jute to the industries in Scotland and later to the proliferation of jute mills within the city. Finding use in the packaging of goods, jute became a lucrative business that sustained a global network of trade and consumption.

After over 140 years, the mechanisms of production are still the same. In a literal sense, most factories still use centuries’ old machinery and production technology. They operate of

the factories established in the early 20th century, without concerns for safety or ethical working conditions, causing acute respiratory diseases.

The labour intensive nature of manufacturing that was once profitable because a colonial government wasn’t obliged to pay fair wages has grown to point of great contention with militant labour unions in most factories. Use of labour without incurring profits has also cut back investment in the benefits for workers, forcing them into living conditions that are just as inhumane as the colonial era “coolie line” housing. The massive amounts of waste generated is incinerated causing great harm to the environment.

This ancient cottage industry of Bengal has grown into this behemoth through the innovations of industrial revolution. It is poetic that it must be innovation that leads it towards a sustainable future where it is able to discard the invisible shackles of colonial thought and embrace an outlook that is holistic. In defining decolonization, scholar Helene Von Bismark says “History cannot be reversed, it can only evolve”.

The process of reindustrialization of the manufacturing industry is being actively embraced in countries like India and China. Through programs like Make in India and Make in China 2025, governments of both countries THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 13

are in creating new policies and schemes to support industry through the construction of infrastructure, increased ease of business, generate investment and innovation. At their core, both of them seem to seek a transformation to gain a new identity that is rooted in the present and in the future.

The city of Calcutta served as the stage of a capitalist industry that extended from the sites of production in the hinterland, the central business district, the network of transport infrastructure including railways and waterways, and the jute mills; the point of convergence of this territorial mechanism.

The industrial landscape of jute occurred along the entire stretch of the river Hooghly as it passed through the city. They are large tracts of land that include the mills, quarters, informal colonies, railway stations, jetties, and warehouses. Conceived as the apparatus of exploitation of people and natural resources it in turn shaped the city through the influx of capital, migrants, communal divide, and culture.

14 | TURNING INDUSTRY

For 170 years, as India was colonized, partitioned, and ultimately gained independence, these sites have aged as industrial cores within larger settlements that have been subsumed to create the new city of Kolkata. Post-independence, in the absence of ruthless colonial policy, the jute industry started to strain under the forces of powerful labor unions, corrupt management, and lack of technological advancement and were ultimately outmoded as jute was replaced by plastic as the new packaging material.

During this period of decline, the industry changed from single ownership to large corporations that acquired a series of failing jute mills. These agglomerations held extensive land and infrastructure and employed many thousands of people each.

In recent decades, there has been a pattern of jute mills shutting down for long periods due to worker militancy or bankruptcy, interspersed with very brief periods of operations. Though there is ample government support to revive the industry, there is no incentive by the mill owners themselves to revive any

of the centuries’ old machinery and organization structure.

Rendered derelict and obsolete, what was once the core of the settlement is now a void within the urban fabric; forgotten and invisible.

These vestiges of colonial industry are important sites of collective memory, employment, identity, and aspirations.

By countering the forces of demolition to give way to gentrification and imitative preservation stemming from colonial nostalgia, these sites can be reconceived through the process of reindustrialization to explore the possibilities of jute as a sustainable commodity, as retribution to the environment, and as new spaces of employment and aspiration for the communities that have sustained them.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 15

The sites of industry are the bridge between the economy and the people.

By this very nature, they are unique sites of a painful memory of extraction, yet markers of progress and hope.

Most of these industries are now in decay and are voids within the urban fabric .

They are sites that need to be returned to the city, to the people.

How can they become sites of Decolonisation through Innovation?

PART 1 Revealing Investigating the State of Industry

FRAGILE LEADS

20 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Statistics reveal that India has a leading position in the global jute market. However, it is a fragile position because of its unsustainable industrial framework and shifting demands for jute.

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A DECADE OF SHUTDOWNS

22 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Based on data from the 2017 report by the Textile Ministry, most jute mills in the country are running at a hazardously low capacity and every year more mills are shutting down

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 23

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INDUSTRIAL CORES OF KOLKATA

The map of jute mills in the city of Kolkata show patterns of aggregation that support satellite settlements contributing to the linear of the city along the river Hooghly, interconnected through territorial networks of road and rail and waterways.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 25

MAPPING PRODUCTIVITY

The present pattern of industrial cores reveal a clear difference in the outcome of ownership. Many privately owned mills that have invested in innovation are doing better that those under older management structures.

The strong connection between the mill clusters and their immediate settlements also has implications for future livelihood and societal structures that develop as a direct outcome of these different patterns of management.

The northernmost mill.

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These are some of the oldest mills, showing a marked difference in thriving industry versus ones that have shut down.

The Jagaddal mill cluster is the oldest and largest in the city, comprising of privately owned mills

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The a continuation of Jagaddal mills, showing aggregation of privately owned mills on the west bank.

The Titagarh cluster of mills in a diverse industrial core that are government owned and presently shutdown.

28 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Further south, a group of struggling mills.

The Jagaddal industrial core is the largest in the city, comprising of privately owned mills

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 29

The only mill in the heart of city, facing the business district.

Abandoned mills in the south of the city.

30 | TURNING INDUSTRY

A group of thriving privately owned mills invested in innovation.

The last mill in the city, one of the first Indian owned mills, now shutdown.

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PART 2 Dismantling The colonial inheritance of Jute

Early 16th CE Jute is a craft industry based in the villages of Bengal with hand spun jute products like ropes, sacks, cloth and mats

1600

Late 16 Jute is an componen economy export of jute bags to ne Southea coun

1620

1640

FIRST BRITISH EMPIRE [16th CE - 1783 ]

34 | TURNING INDUSTRY

1660

1680

17

HOW JUTE BECAME AN INDUSTRY

The manufacture of jute existed as a handloom industry in the villages and was an important export. The Battle of Plassey fought in Bengal marks the first act of acquiring territory and sets the foundation for British rule in India that is a divergence from their initial mercantile presence.

As the position of Britain grows stronger in Bengal with the establishment of fortifications, in the late 18th century British manufacturers decide to experiment with a range of

Indian raw material as a way to feed industries in Britain, jute is one such speculative material.

This speculation leads to the growth of the jute manufacturing industry in Dundee Scotland, where jute is used in the old hemp manufacturing machines.

Dundee consumed raw jute in the vertical integration mechanism from India at an unprecedented pace and become a booming industrial economy.

It is interesting to note that America was the largest buyer

6th CE important nt of Indian including e sacks and eighbouring ast Asian ntries

700

Late 17th CE The representatives of the East India Company trading in Bengal begin exploring the possible uses of jute in Britain

1720

1740

1760

1780

1793 A consignment of jute (Indian grass) is sent to England for experimention in carpet making

1800 SECOND

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1820 Thomas Nash a merchant, introduces jute fibres as a substitute for flax and hemp manufacturing to the textile mills in Dundee.

1800

1810

2nd EMPIRE [ 1783 - 1815 ]

36 | TURNING INDUSTRY

1820

1833 Failure of flax crop in England leads to the widespread use of jute and birth of jute industry in Dundee.

1830

1851 The Crystal Palace Exhibition proveS the popularity of hessian (fine jute fabrics) and jute carpeting from Dundee

1840

185 The Crim creates demand products, industrial Dundee jute from

18

THE IMPERIAL CENTURY [ 1815 - 1914 ]

54 mean War s great d for jute , leads to boom in with raw m India.

850

of jute from Dundee and it in turn invested heavily in land speculation and the development of railways in America. However, political conflicts between these two countries, combined with the pressures of a growing manufacturing center in Bengal ultimately shut down this industry.

With the first mill opening in 1855, soon the city of Kolkata becomes a hub for jute manufacturing. This is due to the proximity of raw materials and labor and coal supply. The establishment of managing agencies monitor the entire process of jute cultivation to product supply. It becomes an extremely profitable trade and British merchants usually buy mills for 2-3 years, make huge

1863 Vertical integration of jute trade with packagin plants in Calcutta and manufacturing in Dundee by Cox Brothers

1860

1865 Dundee manufacturers (Juteocracy) make their fortunes by supplying goods during American Civil War (1961 1965)

1870

profits, and sell it off.

In 1910, in an attempt to break freedom movements taking place all over India, Britain begins the Partition of India that is done to create easier management but is conducted on a religious divide based on the divide and rule policy. It leads to an exodus of millions of people in Punjab and Bengal and the jute industries become the hotspots of these new refugee settlements. The Partition is very detrimental to the jute industry since 80% of jute cultivation is placed in East Pakistan and all the mills are placed in India. It takes another 20 years before India can achieve self-sufficiency in jute.

Around the 1960s the industry recovers for a brief period and

1876 Dundee Morgage and Trust company marks increased investment of capital in railway and land speculation in US

1880

1880s Flow of capital away from Dundee leads to closure of many jute mills and warehouses.

1890

Late 1890s Losses in American investment and political crises with Britain add to decline of Dundee.

1900

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1900s Instances of organised labour strikes concerning conditions of work, long hours, low wage, organised labour unions are created

1900

1910 Partition creates a barrier, 80% cultivation is in Pakistan, all the mills are in India, results in tarifs, decline of supply and qulaity

1910

IMPERIAL CENTURY

38 | TURNING INDUSTRY

1920 89 mills make 25% of Indian export, 15% of the Calcutta worked in jute. Establishmnt. of Bengal Peasants and Workers Party and Industrial Council

1920

Late 1920s Years after the partition, districts with high migrant populations are new suppliers of raw jute

1930

1940s Increases frequency of strikes across Bengal, religious division in strikes

1940

Late 1 East Pa emerge competiti

19

IN

1950s akistan es as a ior in jute

950

we see a proliferation of new research and global initiatives.

However, progress is crippled by continued disruption from trade unions due to terrible working conditions since the industry was founded as a very labor-intensive process and hadn’t modernized.

This combined with the falling popularity of jute in packaging leads to the approaching end of the industry.

From 1990’s to 2010’s there were a number of government acts and legislation that was passed to enable demand for jute within government operations. This was followed by monetary incentive to redevelop the jute mills.

However, due to rising prices of jute, government demand was curtailed by cost. The funds allocated for development were

1960s India finally achieves sefl sufficiency in jute production

1960

Late 1960s Jute is the single largest export earner in India.

Establishment of the Indian Jute Industries Research Association

1970

also consumed by private owners who followed in the footsteps of low liability short term ownership.

The jute industry has not had a significant expansion with the closure of many mills rendered uneconomic due to lack of purchases from the Government and the rising price of raw jute.

The rapacious economy that was created by these networked sites was inherently unsustainable and have collapsed in recent years. The few remaining mills have been hit hard by a recent typhoon and the losses due to pandemic. This coupled with a history of malpractices has forced most of these mills to shut down. The biggest hit is and has always been the workers.

1970s The industry faces steep problems with recurring power cuts, labour problems and popularity of synthetics as packaging

1980

1987 Jute Packaging Materials Act by GOI to counter unstabele export economy with dometsic consumption

1990

2000

NDEPENDANT INDIA

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 39

Labour History Nirban Basu

Capitalism Arjan de Haan

1994, The working class movement: A study of jute mills of Bengal, 1937-47

1997, Unsettled Se and Industrial Cap

History of labour unrest in Calcutta

Theoretical study of the u

Amal Das

Parimal Ghosh

1994, Urban Politics in an Industrial Area

2017, What Happ

On aspects of municipal and labour politics in Howrah in Bengal

Reshaping of Kolkata by from the rural middle cla

Dipesh Chakraborty 2000, Rethinking Working-Class History: Bengal 1890-1940 Marxist discourse on class solidarity and revolutionary action in the Jute Mills of Kolkata

Architecture of Jute Industry 40 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Ranajit Dasgup

2019, Some Aspec Bengal in the Nin Views

Working-class consciousn morality of labour, histor intervention

Garner, JS. 1992, The Company Town: society in the early ind

Hasan, T. et al, 2020 Heritage Architecture Revitalisation of Ada

m

ettlers: Migrant Workers pitalism in Calcutta

urban labour market of Kolkata

pened to the Bhadralok?

y the new conusmer class drawn ass in their Left liberal views

pta

cts of Labour History of eteenth Century: Two

ness in Bengal in relation to the ry of peasant revolts and capitalist

Architecture and dustrial age

, e: Conservation and amjee Jute Mill

Race and Gender Leela Pernandes 1997, Producing Workers: The Politics of Gender, Class, and Culture in the Calcutta Jute Mills Interconnections between religion, ethnicity, gender and race in the representation and politcal actions of workers

Shubho Basu 2004, Does Class Matter?: Colonial Capital and Workers' Resistance in Bengal, 1890 - 1937 Creates interconnections between the politics of jute workers, nationalist movements and the colonial state.

Samita Sen 2008, Women & Labour Late Colonial India: The Bengal Jute Industry History of laboring women in Bengal and constuction of gender roles, urban migration and social evils

Bibliography for an Indian

Di Domenico, C &History Di Domenico, 2007, of theM.Jute Industry Heritage and urban renewal in Dundee: Learning from the past when planning for the future of a post-industrial city Bhattacharyya, S. 2020, THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 Navigating the anarchy of the debris: Observing the loss of materia sovereignty

| 41

GLOBAL NETWORK OF INDUSTRY

42 | TURNING INDUSTRY

The city of Kolkata as a nexus of global trade during British rule of India.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 43

HINTERLANDS

44 | TURNING INDUSTRY

The hinterlands of jute are sustained by riverine topography of India.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 45

46 | TURNING INDUSTRY

REFRAMING THE CITY THROUGH INDUSTRY

Kolkata served as the stage of capitalist industry that extended from the sites of production in the hinterland, the sites of management in the business district in the heart of the city, the sites of transfer in the network of transport infrastructure that included the railways and the waterways and the sites of manufacture in the jute mills, the point of convergence of this mechanism.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 47

Jute

Surveillance

48 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Promenade

Worker Slums

e Mill

Pavillions

The River

Jetty

The sites of manufacturing in the Jute Mill

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 49

The River as an industrial corridor

Monocrop Agriculture

50 | TURNING INDUSTRY

The Railways system

The Central Business District

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 51

PART 3 A Case for Industry Changing structures and the way forward

EXPANDING CULTIVATION

54 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Map showing the new regions of jute cultivation expanding from older cores. Also shown are the investment cities recieving government funding for upgrading agricultural techonlogy THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 55

URBAN STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRY

56 | TURNING INDUSTRY

The Titagarh mill cluster is a group of government owned mills that are struggling to stay afloat. Located in a core surrounded by a range of industries, the urban structure has grown to support industry

through the connectivity to power, railway systems, highways and workers. Due to its direct management by the government, it has a greater potential for hosting innovations in new structures of manufacturing.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 57

58 | TURNING INDUSTRY

The Jagaddal mill cluster has some of the oldest mills in the city. Many of them have been closed for decades. Due to its historic significance as a site for many workers protests, Jagaddal has the potential to

become a symbolic site for the restructuring of industry. Its large riverfront stretch has the capacity to house intervention to remediate the riverine ecology.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 59

Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare

1936

National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology

Ministry of Textiles

1884

Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres

1937

expansion of jute area and development of high yielding varieties

1966

The Directorate of Jute Development

The Jute Corporation of India

Indian Jute Industries Research Association industrial research and development, technical services, consultancy and testing services for mills

1951

overall development of the nodal crops in the country and major crops in assigned states

1971

Institute of Jute Technology research, scientific work and training related to jute trade industries

1956

Jute Manufacturers Development Council promotion and marketing of jute products for both domestic and export

to stabilize prices, create a buffer stock for the mills and ensure that farmers received a fair return.

1980

National Jute Manufactures Corporation Ltd. apex body for the management of all nationalised jute mills

INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE

60 | TURNING INDUSTRY

2003

communication with Central and State govts and member jute mills and promote trade, public relation and research

research on variable uses of jute fibres at different stages of cultivation and production

1953

Indian Jute Mills Association

2009

2016

3

9

6

Non Govt. Corporations

National Centre for Jute Diversification run jute service centresand material banks to provide market access to small entrpreneurs and micro units

1918

Trade Unions

Bengal Jute Mill Workers' Union

Jute Baler's Association recognized association in developing and trading of raw jute at Kolkata

1925

Gunny Traders Association

Bengal Chatkal Mazdoor Union

National Jute Board of India regulate the business in manufactured jute goods and to arbitrate in matter of dispute relating to this trade

research and human resource development programmes to explore new uses of jute

Office of Jute Commission

1927

to advice govt. and industry on matters relating to the development of jute industry and to implement the government policies

Office of Development Commissioner (Handloom) development of the handloom sector in India

The East India Jute & Hessian Exchange Ltd recognised association to regulate forward trading in raw jute and jute goods.

1959

Kolkata Jute Fibers Shippers Association

Bengal Provincial Chatkal Mazdoor Union

National Union of Jute Workers

All India Jute Textile Workers' Federation

representative body of the Indian Shippers of jute goods

The structure of institution involved in the jute industry shows a proliferation of government bodies, each dealing with a nuanced aspect of industry. This presents a case for the aggregation and cooperation within these bodies in a unified project.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 61

Issues Inadequate post harvest management leads to poor quality of fibres.

59%

Labour intensive, largest expenditure is in labour cost

14%

Tedious rocessing of jute fibres by retting technological gap

Fragmented landholdings reduce econimic scale

43%

Raw material cost, prices keep fluctuating, posing chalenges to production

15%

Manpower cost should be higher and shows underpaid labor

11%

Concentration of mills in specifc region creates difficulty in procurement of raw material for different MSMEs

Industries in Kolkata are too reliant on govt. purchase of jute (JPM Act) and lack diversified marketting strategies Global trade experinces key constriants from Tariff measures

FLOW OF CAPITAL

62 | TURNING INDUSTRY

Power cost Mills reliant on non renewable energy and production is not energy efficient

Cultivation

Intermediaries of raw jute

Raw Jute Exporters

Foreign Buyers

Composite Jute Mill

Small & Medium Industries

Exporters

Small & Medium Enterprises

Traders

Wholesalers

manufacture of jute porducts like bags, sacks, floor coverings, handicrafts, etc

Wholesale Suppliers

Small scale retailers

Export Companies

E- Marketting

distributors at regional, national and global scale

marketting and sales

This diagram shows the connection between the fiscal crises facing the industry and the flow of capital through the stages of production.

THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 63

SPECULATIONS

Research is the most important change that the jute industry needs. Research is also a metaphor for decolonization because research in jute as fibre was what encouraged the British to test it in their hemp industries and served as gateway for its extraction. Thus research today is symbolic of India writing her own destiny of her own natural resources.

Presently, jute research is quite disconnected from the centres of production. Research can open pathways for jute into newer industries to increase demand for new products and encourage private investment.

The proposal is to develop an institutional/cultural typology that will be situated in one of the jute producing industry clusters. The program will include research into new applications of jute as fibre, utilization of jute wastes in a format that serves as an 64 | TURNING INDUSTRY

example of sustainable industry and engages and uplifts the community.

It can be a project in the typology of a tech start up cum research organization that popular in companies like Google where the companies private research cells run alongside co- working spaces for start-up. Both share the same resources and technology that

is centrally located. This also creates a pathway for promising start-ups to get absorbed into the company. In case of the jute mills, a similar format can occur where government funded research cells are working alongside small businesses and start-ups that working on jute.

This also forms a bridge between the community and the industry and decentralizes its power structure to a small extent.

Presently, jute wastes are being tested to grow mushrooms which is a high yield product also being encouraged by the state government and ties in to the food production industry being promoted by the state.

There is also research towards collaborations with schools of design to develop a range of products that can be produced through jute.

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