TURNING INDUSTRY Negotiating labour, policy and innovation in the Jute Mills of Kolkata, India
TURNING INDUSTRY Negotiating labour, policy and innovation in Jute Mills of Kolkata, India
Copyright © University of Virginia School of Architecture Somrita Bandyopadhyay M. Arch Candidate 2021 email: sb7eh@virginia.edu All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of either the author or the University of Virginia, School of Architecture, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.
December 2020
In fulfillment of the requirements for Thesis Research ARCH8100 At the University of Virginia, School of Architecture
Guide : Prof. Shiqiao Li Weedon Professor in Asian Architecture Director of the PhD in the Constructed Environment Program Prof. Ghazal Jafari Assistant Professor Department of Landscape Architecture
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Prof. Shiqiao Li and Prof. Ghazal Jafari for their guidance, my classmates and especially Colin, Adam and McKenna for their unique insights into the project and Rebecca for some great conversations and interesting new directions. This book wouldn’t have been possible with you all, thank you for being there!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART 1 REVEALING
PART 2 DISMANTLING
Fragile lead
20
A decade of shutdowns
22
Industrial cores of Kolkata
24
Mapping productivity
26
How jute became an industry
34
Bibliography of Indian voices
40
Global network of industry
42
Hinterlands
44
Reframing the city through industry
46
PART 3 A CASE FOR INDUSTRY Expanding cultivation
54
Urban structure of industry
56
Institutional structure
60
Flow of capital
62
Speculations
64
Bibliography
66
Decolonization of Jute
Revealing
Dismantling
Premise
New Institution Future Projection
Background Reserach
Counter Cartograpy
Global network of jute export and consumption
Regional cultivation of Jute
Conclusion
Mapping of Colonial industry over present day industry
Location of Industry and Infrastructure
Commentary on colonial inheritance of jute industry
Innovation as Decolonization
Empowering the agency of workers
Sustainable production
Recovering the River
P D
Jute fibre testing - Birth of Jute industry in Scotland
Managing Agent system of Kolkata Jute mills History of Jute from a colonial speculation to an Indian industry
Competition with Plastic
Indian govt research to make jute a global commodity
Textile Policy of Bengal
Owned by British descendants
Land Ownership
Licensee System Owned by Indian Government
Labour
Coolie Lines (Labour housing colonial era)
Present state of Industry
Product Diversification
Descendants of Migrant Labour
Machinery
Management
100 yr old machines New Chinese Machinery Colonial structures (Management offices in Business district)
RESEARCH DIAGRAM
Bihar Orissa UP
PREFACE
In August 2019, the Chittivalasa Jute Mill, one of the oldest mills in the state of Andhra Pradesh, was stated to be sold as real estate. The mill had been under lockout for the past nine years and against strong pressures to reopen from both the workers and the State, the management of the mill have decided to convert its 70 acres of prime real estate. Today 25 of India’s 98 jute mills are closed and another 24 are running at a hazardously low capacity. The case of Chittivalasa Jute Mill paints the picture of an impending future for these dying mills. Once the single largest item of export and one of the largest employer in the country, the jute industry is at a critical juncture of the future of manufacturing in India.
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The present day industry of jute is in many ways defined by the stagnation of its colonial inheritance. Jute was one of many materials recognized for its capacity to sustain British industries. The city of Calcutta, the erstwhile capital of the British Empire in India, became the focus of funnelling raw jute to the industries in Scotland and later to the proliferation of jute mills within the city. Finding use in the packaging of goods, jute became a lucrative business that sustained a global network of trade and consumption. After over 140 years, the mechanisms of production are still the same. In a literal sense, most factories still use centuries’ old machinery and production technology. They operate of
the factories established in the early 20th century, without concerns for safety or ethical working conditions, causing acute respiratory diseases. The labour intensive nature of manufacturing that was once profitable because a colonial government wasn’t obliged to pay fair wages has grown to point of great contention with militant labour unions in most factories. Use of labour without incurring profits has also cut back investment in the benefits for workers, forcing them into living conditions that are just as inhumane as the colonial era “coolie line” housing. The massive amounts of waste generated is incinerated causing great harm to the environment.
This ancient cottage industry of Bengal has grown into this behemoth through the innovations of industrial revolution. It is poetic that it must be innovation that leads it towards a sustainable future where it is able to discard the invisible shackles of colonial thought and embrace an outlook that is holistic. In defining decolonization, scholar Helene Von Bismark says “History cannot be reversed, it can only evolve”. The process of reindustrialization of the manufacturing industry is being actively embraced in countries like India and China. Through programs like Make in India and Make in China 2025, governments of both countries THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 13
are in creating new policies and schemes to support industry through the construction of infrastructure, increased ease of business, generate investment and innovation. At their core, both of them seem to seek a transformation to gain a new identity that is rooted in the present and in the future. The city of Calcutta served as the stage of a capitalist industry that extended from the sites of production in the hinterland, the central business district, the network of transport infrastructure including railways and waterways, and the jute mills; the point of convergence of this territorial mechanism. The industrial landscape of jute occurred along the entire stretch of the river Hooghly as it passed through the city. They are large tracts of land that include the mills, quarters, informal colonies, railway stations, jetties, and warehouses. Conceived as the apparatus of exploitation of people and natural resources it in turn shaped the city through the influx of capital, migrants, communal divide, and culture.
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For 170 years, as India was colonized, partitioned, and ultimately gained independence, these sites have aged as industrial cores within larger settlements that have been subsumed to create the new city of Kolkata. Post-independence, in the absence of ruthless colonial policy, the jute industry started to strain under the forces of powerful labor unions, corrupt management, and lack of technological advancement and were ultimately outmoded as jute was replaced by plastic as the new packaging material. During this period of decline, the industry changed from single ownership to large corporations that acquired a series of failing jute mills. These agglomerations held extensive land and infrastructure and employed many thousands of people each. In recent decades, there has been a pattern of jute mills shutting down for long periods due to worker militancy or bankruptcy, interspersed with very brief periods of operations. Though there is ample government support to revive the industry, there is no incentive by the mill owners themselves to revive any
of the centuries’ old machinery and organization structure. Rendered derelict and obsolete, what was once the core of the settlement is now a void within the urban fabric; forgotten and invisible. These vestiges of colonial industry are important sites of collective memory, employment, identity, and aspirations. By countering the forces of demolition to give way to gentrification and imitative preservation stemming from colonial nostalgia, these sites can be reconceived through the process of reindustrialization to explore the possibilities of jute as a sustainable commodity, as retribution to the environment, and as new spaces of employment and aspiration for the communities that have sustained them.
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The sites of industry are the bridge between the economy and the people. By this very nature, they are unique sites of a painful memory of extraction, yet markers of progress and hope. Most of these industries are now in decay and are voids within the urban fabric . They are sites that need to be returned to the city, to the people.
How can they become sites of Decolonisation through Innovation?
PART 1 Revealing Investigating the State of Industry
FRAGILE LEADS
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Statistics reveal that India has a leading position in the global jute market. However, it is a fragile position because of its unsustainable industrial framework and shifting demands for jute.
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A DECADE OF SHUTDOWNS
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Based on data from the 2017 report by the Textile Ministry, most jute mills in the country are running at a hazardously low capacity and every year more mills are shutting down
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INDUSTRIAL CORES OF KOLKATA
The map of jute mills in the city of Kolkata show patterns of aggregation that support satellite settlements contributing to the linear of the city along the river Hooghly, interconnected through territorial networks of road and rail and waterways.
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MAPPING PRODUCTIVITY
The present pattern of industrial cores reveal a clear difference in the outcome of ownership. Many privately owned mills that have invested in innovation are doing better that those under older management structures. The strong connection between the mill clusters and their immediate settlements also has implications for future livelihood and societal structures that develop as a direct outcome of these different patterns of management.
The northernmost mill.
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These are some of the oldest mills, showing a marked difference in thriving industry versus ones that have shut down.
The Jagaddal mill cluster is the oldest and largest in the city, comprising of privately owned mills
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The a continuation of Jagaddal mills, showing aggregation of privately owned mills on the west bank.
The Titagarh cluster of mills in a diverse industrial core that are government owned and presently shutdown.
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Further south, a group of struggling mills.
The Jagaddal industrial core is the largest in the city, comprising of privately owned mills
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The only mill in the heart of city, facing the business district.
Abandoned mills in the south of the city.
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A group of thriving privately owned mills invested in innovation.
The last mill in the city, one of the first Indian owned mills, now shutdown.
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PART 2 Dismantling The colonial inheritance of Jute
Early 16th CE Jute is a craft industry based in the villages of Bengal with hand spun jute products like ropes, sacks, cloth and mats
1600
Late 16 Jute is an componen economy export of jute bags to ne Southea coun
1620
1640
FIRST BRITISH EMPIRE [16th CE - 1783 ]
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1660
1680
17
HOW JUTE BECAME AN INDUSTRY
The manufacture of jute existed as a handloom industry in the villages and was an important export. The Battle of Plassey fought in Bengal marks the first act of acquiring territory and sets the foundation for British rule in India that is a divergence from their initial mercantile presence. As the position of Britain grows stronger in Bengal with the establishment of fortifications, in the late 18th century British manufacturers decide to experiment with a range of
Indian raw material as a way to feed industries in Britain, jute is one such speculative material. This speculation leads to the growth of the jute manufacturing industry in Dundee Scotland, where jute is used in the old hemp manufacturing machines. Dundee consumed raw jute in the vertical integration mechanism from India at an unprecedented pace and become a booming industrial economy. It is interesting to note that America was the largest buyer
6th CE important nt of Indian including e sacks and eighbouring ast Asian ntries
700
Late 17th CE The representatives of the East India Company trading in Bengal begin exploring the possible uses of jute in Britain
1720
1740
1760
1780
1793 A consignment of jute (Indian grass) is sent to England for experimention in carpet making
1800 SECOND
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1820 Thomas Nash a merchant, introduces jute fibres as a substitute for flax and hemp manufacturing to the textile mills in Dundee.
1800
1810
2nd EMPIRE [ 1783 - 1815 ]
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1820
1833 Failure of flax crop in England leads to the widespread use of jute and birth of jute industry in Dundee.
1830
1851 The Crystal Palace Exhibition proveS the popularity of hessian (fine jute fabrics) and jute carpeting from Dundee
1840
185 The Crim creates demand products, industrial Dundee jute from
18
THE IMPERIAL CENTURY [ 1815 - 1914 ]
54 mean War s great d for jute , leads to boom in with raw m India.
850
of jute from Dundee and it in turn invested heavily in land speculation and the development of railways in America. However, political conflicts between these two countries, combined with the pressures of a growing manufacturing center in Bengal ultimately shut down this industry. With the first mill opening in 1855, soon the city of Kolkata becomes a hub for jute manufacturing. This is due to the proximity of raw materials and labor and coal supply. The establishment of managing agencies monitor the entire process of jute cultivation to product supply. It becomes an extremely profitable trade and British merchants usually buy mills for 2-3 years, make huge
1863 Vertical integration of jute trade with packagin plants in Calcutta and manufacturing in Dundee by Cox Brothers
1860
1865 Dundee manufacturers (Juteocracy) make their fortunes by supplying goods during American Civil War (1961 1965)
1870
profits, and sell it off. In 1910, in an attempt to break freedom movements taking place all over India, Britain begins the Partition of India that is done to create easier management but is conducted on a religious divide based on the divide and rule policy. It leads to an exodus of millions of people in Punjab and Bengal and the jute industries become the hotspots of these new refugee settlements. The Partition is very detrimental to the jute industry since 80% of jute cultivation is placed in East Pakistan and all the mills are placed in India. It takes another 20 years before India can achieve self-sufficiency in jute. Around the 1960s the industry recovers for a brief period and
1876 Dundee Morgage and Trust company marks increased investment of capital in railway and land speculation in US
1880
1880s Flow of capital away from Dundee leads to closure of many jute mills and warehouses.
1890
Late 1890s Losses in American investment and political crises with Britain add to decline of Dundee.
1900
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1900s Instances of organised labour strikes concerning conditions of work, long hours, low wage, organised labour unions are created
1900
1910 Partition creates a barrier, 80% cultivation is in Pakistan, all the mills are in India, results in tarifs, decline of supply and qulaity
1910
IMPERIAL CENTURY
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1920 89 mills make 25% of Indian export, 15% of the Calcutta worked in jute. Establishmnt. of Bengal Peasants and Workers Party and Industrial Council
1920
Late 1920s Years after the partition, districts with high migrant populations are new suppliers of raw jute
1930
1940s Increases frequency of strikes across Bengal, religious division in strikes
1940
Late 1 East Pa emerge competiti
19
IN
1950s akistan es as a ior in jute
950
we see a proliferation of new research and global initiatives. However, progress is crippled by continued disruption from trade unions due to terrible working conditions since the industry was founded as a very labor-intensive process and hadn’t modernized. This combined with the falling popularity of jute in packaging leads to the approaching end of the industry. From 1990’s to 2010’s there were a number of government acts and legislation that was passed to enable demand for jute within government operations. This was followed by monetary incentive to redevelop the jute mills. However, due to rising prices of jute, government demand was curtailed by cost. The funds allocated for development were
1960s India finally achieves sefl sufficiency in jute production
1960
Late 1960s Jute is the single largest export earner in India. Establishment of the Indian Jute Industries Research Association
1970
also consumed by private owners who followed in the footsteps of low liability short term ownership. The jute industry has not had a significant expansion with the closure of many mills rendered uneconomic due to lack of purchases from the Government and the rising price of raw jute. The rapacious economy that was created by these networked sites was inherently unsustainable and have collapsed in recent years. The few remaining mills have been hit hard by a recent typhoon and the losses due to pandemic. This coupled with a history of malpractices has forced most of these mills to shut down. The biggest hit is and has always been the workers.
1970s The industry faces steep problems with recurring power cuts, labour problems and popularity of synthetics as packaging
1980
1987 Jute Packaging Materials Act by GOI to counter unstabele export economy with dometsic consumption
1990
2000
NDEPENDANT INDIA
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Labour History Nirban Basu
Capitalism Arjan de Haan
1994, The working class movement: A study of jute mills of Bengal, 1937-47
1997, Unsettled Se and Industrial Cap
History of labour unrest in Calcutta
Theoretical study of the u
Amal Das
Parimal Ghosh
1994, Urban Politics in an Industrial Area
2017, What Happ
On aspects of municipal and labour politics in Howrah in Bengal
Reshaping of Kolkata by from the rural middle cla
Dipesh Chakraborty 2000, Rethinking Working-Class History: Bengal 1890-1940 Marxist discourse on class solidarity and revolutionary action in the Jute Mills of Kolkata
Architecture of Jute Industry 40 | TURNING INDUSTRY
Ranajit Dasgup
2019, Some Aspec Bengal in the Nin Views
Working-class consciousn morality of labour, histor intervention
Garner, JS. 1992, The Company Town: society in the early ind
Hasan, T. et al, 2020 Heritage Architecture Revitalisation of Ada
m
ettlers: Migrant Workers pitalism in Calcutta
urban labour market of Kolkata
pened to the Bhadralok?
y the new conusmer class drawn ass in their Left liberal views
pta
cts of Labour History of eteenth Century: Two
ness in Bengal in relation to the ry of peasant revolts and capitalist
Architecture and dustrial age
, e: Conservation and amjee Jute Mill
Race and Gender Leela Pernandes 1997, Producing Workers: The Politics of Gender, Class, and Culture in the Calcutta Jute Mills Interconnections between religion, ethnicity, gender and race in the representation and politcal actions of workers
Shubho Basu 2004, Does Class Matter?: Colonial Capital and Workers' Resistance in Bengal, 1890 - 1937 Creates interconnections between the politics of jute workers, nationalist movements and the colonial state.
Samita Sen 2008, Women & Labour Late Colonial India: The Bengal Jute Industry History of laboring women in Bengal and constuction of gender roles, urban migration and social evils
Bibliography for an Indian
Di Domenico, C &History Di Domenico, 2007, of theM.Jute Industry Heritage and urban renewal in Dundee: Learning from the past when planning for the future of a post-industrial city Bhattacharyya, S. 2020, THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 Navigating the anarchy of the debris: Observing the loss of materia sovereignty
| 41
GLOBAL NETWORK OF INDUSTRY
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The city of Kolkata as a nexus of global trade during British rule of India.
THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 43
HINTERLANDS
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The hinterlands of jute are sustained by riverine topography of India.
THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 45
46 | TURNING INDUSTRY
REFRAMING THE CITY THROUGH INDUSTRY
Kolkata served as the stage of capitalist industry that extended from the sites of production in the hinterland, the sites of management in the business district in the heart of the city, the sites of transfer in the network of transport infrastructure that included the railways and the waterways and the sites of manufacture in the jute mills, the point of convergence of this mechanism.
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Jute
Surveillance
48 | TURNING INDUSTRY
Promenade
Worker Slums
e Mill
Pavillions
The River
Jetty
The sites of manufacturing in the Jute Mill
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The River as an industrial corridor
Monocrop Agriculture
50 | TURNING INDUSTRY
The Railways system
The Central Business District
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PART 3 A Case for Industry Changing structures and the way forward
EXPANDING CULTIVATION
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Map showing the new regions of jute cultivation expanding from older cores. Also shown are the investment cities recieving government funding for upgrading agricultural techonlogy THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 55
URBAN STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRY
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The Titagarh mill cluster is a group of government owned mills that are struggling to stay afloat. Located in a core surrounded by a range of industries, the urban structure has grown to support industry
through the connectivity to power, railway systems, highways and workers. Due to its direct management by the government, it has a greater potential for hosting innovations in new structures of manufacturing. THESIS RESEARCH | ARCH 8100 | 57
58 | TURNING INDUSTRY
The Jagaddal mill cluster has some of the oldest mills in the city. Many of them have been closed for decades. Due to its historic significance as a site for many workers protests, Jagaddal has the potential to
become a symbolic site for the restructuring of industry. Its large riverfront stretch has the capacity to house intervention to remediate the riverine ecology.
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Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare
1936
National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology
Ministry of Textiles
1884
Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres
1937
expansion of jute area and development of high yielding varieties
1966
The Directorate of Jute Development
The Jute Corporation of India
Indian Jute Industries Research Association industrial research and development, technical services, consultancy and testing services for mills
1951
overall development of the nodal crops in the country and major crops in assigned states
1971
Institute of Jute Technology research, scientific work and training related to jute trade industries
1956
Jute Manufacturers Development Council promotion and marketing of jute products for both domestic and export
to stabilize prices, create a buffer stock for the mills and ensure that farmers received a fair return.
1980
National Jute Manufactures Corporation Ltd. apex body for the management of all nationalised jute mills
INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE
60 | TURNING INDUSTRY
2003
communication with Central and State govts and member jute mills and promote trade, public relation and research
research on variable uses of jute fibres at different stages of cultivation and production
1953
Indian Jute Mills Association
2009
2016
3
9
6
Non Govt. Corporations
National Centre for Jute Diversification run jute service centresand material banks to provide market access to small entrpreneurs and micro units
1918
Trade Unions
Bengal Jute Mill Workers' Union
Jute Baler's Association recognized association in developing and trading of raw jute at Kolkata
1925
Gunny Traders Association
Bengal Chatkal Mazdoor Union
National Jute Board of India regulate the business in manufactured jute goods and to arbitrate in matter of dispute relating to this trade
research and human resource development programmes to explore new uses of jute
Office of Jute Commission
1927
to advice govt. and industry on matters relating to the development of jute industry and to implement the government policies
Office of Development Commissioner (Handloom) development of the handloom sector in India
The East India Jute & Hessian Exchange Ltd recognised association to regulate forward trading in raw jute and jute goods.
1959
Kolkata Jute Fibers Shippers Association
Bengal Provincial Chatkal Mazdoor Union
National Union of Jute Workers
All India Jute Textile Workers' Federation
representative body of the Indian Shippers of jute goods
The structure of institution involved in the jute industry shows a proliferation of government bodies, each dealing with a nuanced aspect of industry. This presents a case for the aggregation and cooperation within these bodies in a unified project.
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Issues Inadequate post harvest management leads to poor quality of fibres.
59%
Labour intensive, largest expenditure is in labour cost
14%
Tedious rocessing of jute fibres by retting technological gap
Fragmented landholdings reduce econimic scale
43%
Raw material cost, prices keep fluctuating, posing chalenges to production
15%
Manpower cost should be higher and shows underpaid labor
11%
Concentration of mills in specifc region creates difficulty in procurement of raw material for different MSMEs
Industries in Kolkata are too reliant on govt. purchase of jute (JPM Act) and lack diversified marketting strategies Global trade experinces key constriants from Tariff measures
FLOW OF CAPITAL
62 | TURNING INDUSTRY
Power cost Mills reliant on non renewable energy and production is not energy efficient
Cultivation
Intermediaries of raw jute
Raw Jute Exporters
Foreign Buyers
Composite Jute Mill
Small & Medium Industries
Exporters
Small & Medium Enterprises
Traders
Wholesalers
manufacture of jute porducts like bags, sacks, floor coverings, handicrafts, etc
Wholesale Suppliers
Small scale retailers
Export Companies
E- Marketting
distributors at regional, national and global scale
marketting and sales
This diagram shows the connection between the fiscal crises facing the industry and the flow of capital through the stages of production.
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SPECULATIONS
Research is the most important change that the jute industry needs. Research is also a metaphor for decolonization because research in jute as fibre was what encouraged the British to test it in their hemp industries and served as gateway for its extraction. Thus research today is symbolic of India writing her own destiny of her own natural resources. Presently, jute research is quite disconnected from the centres of production. Research can open pathways for jute into newer industries to increase demand for new products and encourage private investment. The proposal is to develop an institutional/cultural typology that will be situated in one of the jute producing industry clusters. The program will include research into new applications of jute as fibre, utilization of jute wastes in a format that serves as an 64 | TURNING INDUSTRY
example of sustainable industry and engages and uplifts the community. It can be a project in the typology of a tech start up cum research organization that popular in companies like Google where the companies private research cells run alongside co- working spaces for start-up. Both share the same resources and technology that
is centrally located. This also creates a pathway for promising start-ups to get absorbed into the company. In case of the jute mills, a similar format can occur where government funded research cells are working alongside small businesses and start-ups that working on jute. This also forms a bridge between the community and the industry and decentralizes its power structure to a small extent.
Presently, jute wastes are being tested to grow mushrooms which is a high yield product also being encouraged by the state government and ties in to the food production industry being promoted by the state. There is also research towards collaborations with schools of design to develop a range of products that can be produced through jute.
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