EDUCATIONAL PLANNING by SONIHOPE

NOTES, COMMENTS...(CHILD, FAMILY, COMMUNITY) Digest No. XII

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS

AN ANDA W.P. GURUGE

and DIETER G. BERSTECHER

Reproduced from Basic Training Programme in Educational Planning and Management, September 1977 in consultation with Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand.

INTRODUCTION The book IV ÂŠf the Basic Training Programme in Educational Planning and Management, which was originally issued by the Educational Planning and Management Service of Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, is reissued in the form of a Digest in the Notes, Comments (Child, Family,Community) New Series as a companion volume to Digests. No.VIII and IX in order to meet the requests made by several UNICEF offices for multiple copies of this Training Programme for use in national training activities. To complete this set, a fourth digest will be issued with modules on Programming Techniques as Digest No.XIII. The cooperation of Mr.Raja Roy Singh,ADG who concurred with the proposal, is gratefully acknowledged. This Basic Training Programme in Seven volumes was jointly developed by the writer with the cooperation of Dieter G. Berstecher (now at H E P , Paris) over a period of four years from 1974 to 1977. It has be.en evaluated by successive groups of its users in Asia and the Pacific as well as others. An evaluation made by Dr. Anthony R. Kaye, Deputy Director, the Centre for International Cooperation and Services and the Professor of Educational Technology of the Open University of Britain contains the following observations: "Most readers of this report will undoubtedly have lad personal experience of training workshops which take people out of their normal working milieu for a period of intensive training, which seem -within that period- to have been successful, and yet appear to have little or no medium or long-term results when the trainees return to their working milieu. The lesson surely is that workshops and stages of this sort need to be seen within the framework of a longer term programme of independent learning, with preparatory and follow-up activities ocurring before and afterwards. In this respect the Basic Training Programme in Educational Planning and Management prepared by the Unesco Regional Office in Bangkok, with its combination of independent study, correspondence tuition and short, integrated, face to face workshops, is an exemplary model."

(i)

"Examples of texts showing these features (i.e. essential elements in self-instructional materials) . can be found in the correspondence texts of the British Open University, or of Costa Rica's National Distance Teaching University. More relevant to this project are the excellent selfinstructional texts which make up the Basic Training Programme in Educational Planning and Management produced by the Unesco Office in Bangkok (referred to from now on as the ''Bangkok Course'). Each of the lesson units is preceded by clear statements of learning objectives, are written in a stimulating style, and contain 'studentactive' self-assessment questions both in the next and at the end of each unit. Some even contain a simple 'branching' structure, where trainees are directed to different comment/answer section (yellow and green) at the end of the text, depending on the nature of their response to an in-text question." The reference in the last sentence in Dr. Kaye's comments is to the text of Digest No. VIII. HOW TO USE The lesson units may be used in two ways: (i) In a self-study programme, either at the learner's own initiative or as a prescribed task by an appropriate authority. Here, the learner may follow the sequence of lessons or select only those in which he is interested. He will also choose his own pace of study unless otherwise required. (ii)

In a correspondence tuition programme wherein all or selected lessons would be prescribed by the agency conducting the programme for selfstudy . (ii)

Here, the learner would adhere to a timetable for the despatch of set written work to the agency concerned. In either case the basic principle of the training programme is self-learning. The lesson units present selected facts and data relating to each subject, provide guidance in relating them to one's own experience and raise issues to generate analysis and investigation. The following steps are suggested: Step I

-Read the lesson unit at a stretch to get an overall idea of the subject covered by it.

Step ii

-Study the statement of objectives at the beginning of the lesson, asking one's self such questions as "Dp I know it? or "Can I do it?"

Step III -Undertake a detailed study of the lesson unit, taking a section at a time. (A lesson unit is divided into several, usually 5-7 self-contained sections. Each section would entail 20-30 minutes of study). In such a detailed study, special attention should be devoted to examples (both real and simulated) which are used to explain a particular point. Learner should analyse his own national experiences by asking such questions as the following: "Does this example apply to my country?" "What exceptions could I think of and what causes such exceptions?" "Is the point supported by the example valid in respect of my country?" "What evidence in support or against the point could I provide from my experience?"

(Hi)

Step IV

-Attempt answering the self-evaluation questionnaire at the end of the lesson either orally or in writing. The latter is preferred unless che learner has problems with time. In either case, the relevant sections of the lesson may be referred to.

Step V

-Compare the answers with those given.

Step VI

-Organize a programme of in-depth study with the aid of the recommended readings.

A bibliography is provided at the end of each unit to facilitate learners who wish to pursue further studies into the themes discussed in the Book.

Ananda W.P. Guruge Chief, Unit for Co-operation with UKICEF and WFP Education Sector

Paris, 15 October 1984

(iv)

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS

Contents I.

II. III.

Educational Planning Process - Objectives and Constraints by Ananda W. P. Gurugé Diagnostic Stock-Taking by Ananda W. P. Gurugé

Policy-Formulation and Assessment of Future Needs by Ananda W.P. Gurugé

IV. Establishing Priorities and Setting Targets by Ananda W.P. Gurugé V.

VI. VII.

Establishing Priorities Through Cost-Benefit Analysis by Dieter G. Berstecher

Feasibility Testing by Dieter G. Berstecher

113

Formulation of an Education Plan by Ananda W.P. Gurugé

129

I EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRAINTS

OBJECTIVES When you have gone through this unit, you should be able to analyse the educational planning proceS6 into various stages and elements; define "long-term or perspective plans", "mediumtertt plane", "short-term plans", "single purpose plans" and "rolling plans"; understand the challenges presented by objectiveÂŤ and constraints tc an educational planner; identify principles of action in dealing with objectives and constraints; understand the process of formulating objectives of educational development; and determine the role which an educational planner has to play in relation to constraints.

.../

I EDUCATIOMAL PLANNING PROCESS OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRAINTS

INTRODUCTION

1. Let us begin with a bird's eye view of the process of educational planning. For purposes of discussion, this process may be analysed into six stages, namely (i) (ii)

Pre-planning Planning

(iii)

Plan Formulation

(iv)

Plan Elaboration

(v) (vi)

Plan Implementation Evaluation, Revision and Replanning

They are diagrammatically represented in Chart I (see opposite page). We shall briefly discuss the main elements of each of these stages, before we proceed to a more detailed discussion of some of the more important ones. (i)

Pre-Planninq Stage - Formulation of Objectives; Almost all countries of the Asian Region have some sort of organization to plan education. If they did not, the pre-planning stage would begin with (i) the creation of a suitable planning organization, (ii) the establishment of planning procedures, (iii) the structural reorganization of the educational administrative machinery to participate in the formulation and implementation of plans and (iv) setting up the machinery and the procedures for the collection and analysis of the statistical and other data required for planning. Where these have already been accomplished, the principal pre-planning activity is to have the national educational objectives defined bv the appropriate authority.

.../

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(ii)

Planning Stage: steps: (a)

This stage comprises six principal

Diagnosis - Once the national educational objectives are defined, the first step to be taken by the educational planner is to ascertain whether the current educational effort of the country is adequateâ&#x20AC;˘ relevant and conducive to their achievement. This is done by matching the output of the educational effort with the objectives and noting the salient divergencies. This exercise is called diagnosis and it leads to the identification of weaknesses and shortfalls in nature, magnitude, quality, organization and level of performance of the national educational activities. The criteria for this diagnosis are dictated by national educational objectives. But the emerging pattern in the Asian Region is to stress on the three criteria of relevance, effectiveness and efficiency, i.e.: Relevance to national and social aspirations. Effectiveness in achieving national objectives in full. Efficiency in the best use of resources to achieve maximum results.

(b)

Formulation of Policy - The diagnosis of the existing educational situation would highlight defects and deficiencies which are to be corrected so as to enhance relevance, effectiveness and efficiency. Corrective action has to be based on a policy which has to be spelled out to indicate the general framework within which detailed decisions are to be made. A set of policies framed to remedy each of the defects and deficiencies revealed by the diagnosis will form the national educational policy. Each new policy seeks to reform education and, therefore, policy formulation is an instrument of educational reform.

.../

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(iii)

(d)

Costing of Future Needs - The next step in the planning stage is to cost the future needs. Using the best available cost data, each group of needs is costed with due consideration to fluctuations in prices. At the conclusion of this exercise, the planner knows the total financial outlay which Bhould be available if all needs are to be satisfied.

(e)

Establishment of Priorities and Target Setting - At the time of analysing data for planning purposes, the educational planner would have taken stock of the resources available to educational development from various sources, both governmental and nongovernmental, national and foreign. If these data are extrapolated into the future, he would get an idea of the resources which could be reasonably anticipated on the basis of past trends. But in most countries, the financial outlay for education would have, already, been indicated in a macro-economic plan. This would give at least the governmental share in the anticipated expenditure on education. With data from either of these sources, the educational planner reviews the future needs, establishes priorities among competing candidates for resources and sets the targets which can realistically be achieved with the anticipated investment of resources. This is the stage when alternative means of achieving the objectives are examined in order to determine the most relevant and effective ones within the allowable cost.

<f)

Feasibility Testina - The targets are set according to needs that have been identified and the priorities csci;-..^. Eut another serious look at the targets is necessary to ensure whether they are consistent and feasible.

Plan Formulation Stage: is primarily two fold:

The purpose of planning

(a)

to present a set of decisions to the appropriate national authorities for approval: and

(b)

to provide a blue-print for action by the various agencies responsible for implementing those decisions.

.../

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For both purposes, the authorities or the agencies concerned require a clear statement of what is proposed, why it is proposed and how the proposals are going to be implemented. What is called on Education Plan is that statement. Preparation of Euch a statement is referred to as Plan Formulation. It calls for certain skills as the statement has to be brief, succinct and, at the same time, adequate. (iv)

Plan Elaboration Stage: The Education Plan, it was emphasized, is a brief and succinct statement. So, before it can be implemented, it has to be elaborated, that is, expanded up to the point that individual action units become clearly identifiable. The process of elaboration is in two steps: (a)

Programming - that is, dividing up the Plan into broad action areas each of which aims at accomplishing a specific objective. Each action area is called a programme. Usually a programme comprises all activities which are supervised by the same administrative unit jor. which are so interdependent and complementary that all have to be done simultaneously or sequentially.

(b)

Project Identification and Formulation - Each programme consists of activities which can be grouped together to form a unit for administrative or accounting purposes. Such a unit is called a Project. A project usually aims at achieving a specific sub-objective or target within the main objective of the programme. Projects have to be identified and formulated so as to enable them to be executed. Project formulation is the task of working out the details of agency, costs, time schedules etc. for a project. Until a Plan has been subjected to Programming and Project Identification and Formulation, the actual implementation cannot be undertaken. Hence, this is a very important stage. In most countries the problem of nonimplementation of plans has been traced to weaknesses in this link of the planning process.

There is a further step in the elaboration of a plan which is optional. That is Regionalization. Regionalization means the distribution of the provisions of a plan to geographically identifiable units, such as States, Provinces, Regions, Districts, Municiaplities, Villages etc. Regionalization applies to the plan as a whole when it is prepared for the entire country. It can also apply to a Programme or a Project.

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(v)

(vi)

Plan Implementation Staoe: The implementation of an education plan begins when individual projects are taken up for execution. Here, i-he planning process merges with the management process of the national educational effort. Using the annual budget or the annual plan as the principal instrument, an organizational framework is developed for the various projects. The resources (men, money and materials), needed for each project, are allocated. The time within which it is to be completed ie indicated. Moreover, such other operational details as delegation of authority, lines of communication and consultation, assignment of responsibility and installation of feedback and control mechanisms axe also developed. Generally, the entire educational administrative organization of the nation participates in the Plan Implementation Stage. Evaluation. Revision and Replanning Stage: As the education plan is being implemented, the machinery to evaluate the rate of progress and detect deviations is set in motion. While evaluation is normally a continuous operation, simultaneous with plan implementation, the preparation of reports may be at fixed points (e.g. annually, mid-term or half-way point of the plan period or end-of-term). Evaluation serves two specific purposes: (a)

It highlights weaknesses in the plan (e.g. unrealistic targets, inadequate financial provisions, improper phasing) and throws up matters for revision of the Plan for the balance of the plan period. Where the practice of "rolling plans" is adopted, each year's rolling plan embodies revisions as necessitated by impleroentational experience.

(b)

It takes the place of Diagnosis of the Planning Stage (see para ii(a)) in providing the basis for replanning. Thus, it becomes the beginning of the next cycle of planning.

With the revision of a current plan and the commencement cf replanning for the next cycle, the educational planning process should continue without a break. 2. What is briefly discussed above is a series of complex and interlocking activities which constitute the process of educational planning. The principal task of the educational planner is to elaborate the national strategy of educational development into a plan of action over a selected time horizon. A plan may be long-term or perspective extending from 10 to 20 or even

- 8 -

25 years. It may be medium-term, usually 4 to 7 years. Short-term plans of 1 to 3 years are also possible, while a single-purpose plan (that is, a plan of action to achieve an identified goal in a short time) may extend from a few days to a couple of years. The determination of the time horizon of an education plan is, often, a political decision. But a few technical consideration such as the following must be borne in mind. 3. Education, in the widest sense as conceived for purposes of educational development, is a social activity whose results become measurable only after a considerable time span. In some aspects, the results of education may be measured in a relatively short time (e.g. higher education; professional training). But the results of the activity as a whole may be visible only after several decades. For example, the success or otherwise of current educational operations will be reflected in the quality of the national labour force and political, intellectual and social leadership of about 2000 A.D. A long-term or perspective plan, which marks out and pinpoints the major highlights and landmarks, is, therefore, a very useful instrument. 4. Medium-term plans of 4-5 years, prepared against the back-drop of a long-term perspective plan, have operationally proved to be the most efficient. These define the goals and targets with greater clarity and provide a definite basis for action. Earlier the practice has been to prepare a series of four- or five-year plans in succession: that is, First FiveYear Plan (say 1960-64), Second Five-Year Plan (1965-69), Third Five-Year Plan (1970-74) and so on. Today one observes in many countries a new tendency which has much merit: namely to prepare medium-term plans on a rolling basis, that' is, extending the plan by one year at a time and revising the targets according to implementational experience. Thus a country which prepares five-year plans will produce a "rolling plan" every year in the following manner : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

1970-74 1971-75 1972-76 1973-77 1974-78

The continuous revision of targets according to performance and the maintenance of a constant plan period into the future contribute immensely to the quality of such medium-term plans.

-../

- 9-

5. Short-term planning needs to be adopted only as an inevitable alternative to medium-term planning and that too on an emergency basis. The introduction of "rolling plans" has eliminated the need for short-term planning. 6. Single-purpose planning is an administrative operation, which is usefully adopted when a particular objective like implementing a reform measure, building an institution or piloting legislation is to be achieved. 7. Whatever the time horizon of an education plan, the function of preparing it is characterized by: (a)

an attempt to bring about a balanced development of all sectors of the educational system as well as learning opportunities provided outside the system;

(b)

the correlation of the educational effort with the national policy for economic and social development;

(c)

an effort to coordinate quantitative expansion with qualitative improvements in structure, content and methods; and

(d)

the determination to ensure that the investment in education brings good dividends both to the society and the individual.

In all these respects, the educational planner has to be forward-looking, innovative and pioneering. Two factors with which he is most concerned in his functions are objectives and constraints. Let us take a closer look at them because (i). objectives and constraints provide the challenge for the educational planner's work. They tax his ingenuity and test his capacity to achieve predetermined results in the face of difficulties, and (ii)

they also determine the direction and scope of his work. Objectives as intentions are constantly circumscribed by constraints which represent realities of the situation. How far one wants to go and how far one can actually go would both separately and jointly set limits to how far one really goes. They would similarly determine the direction in which one goes â&#x20AC;&#x201D; on the easy path of least resistance or on a more difficult path overcoming obstacles and barriers. .../

- 10 -

A detailed discussion on these two important elements is desirable as the educational planner's position relating to them has to be clearly defined and understood at the very outset. II.

THE CHALLENGE OF OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRAINTS

8. Objectives and constraints place before the planner a wide range of choices. Let us elaborate this point through a simple analogy which could be illustrated. The planner of a railway line to connect one city with another has an objective assigned to him. That is to connect the centre of the first city with the centre of the second city. To accomplish this objective he has to overcome a formidable list of constraints such as the following: (a)

natural resources

- availability of vacant land in the centre of the two cities for stations,- availability of vacent land for the railway within and between the cities;

(b) human resources

supply of personnel with requisite technical sltills and experience and managerial capacity;

availability of equipment, machines and supplies in requisite quantities at the time and place they are needed;

(d)

financial resources - supply of adequate funds to purchase the goods and services as and when needed;

(e) natural barriers

a steep range of mountains between the cities and a broad river virtually encircling the second city.

What are the choices before the planner of this railway line? Let us consider only a few illustrative choices: (i) Assuming that vacant land cannot be obtained for stations in the centre of the cities, he could (a) vary the objective and locate the stations at the periphery of the cities;

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(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(b)

acquire and demolish buildings in a least developed spot in each city;

(c)

dig up the central plaza in each city and construct underground stations.

Assuming that vacant land is not available for the line within the cities, he could (a)

locate the stations outside;

(b)

run an underground line from the centre of each city to the periphery;

(c)

acquire and demolish buildings on the way.

To cross the range of mountains, he could (a)

take a winding line up through the passes (distance would nearly be doubled);

(b)

reduce the length of the line by constructing a series of short tunnels;

(c)

construct a long tunnel almost as the crow flies between the cities.

To cope with the river around the city, he could (a)

locate the station on the nearer bank of the river and avoid crossing it;

(b)

construct a bridge;

(c)

construct a tunnel.

Straightaway one important observation could be made on the nature of the choices. Some of them are in the nature of m o difications of the objective itself. Instead of achieving the objective exactly in the manner it is formulated, choices of the best possible approximations are contemplated. One could start with the firm premise that the objective would not be tampered with in any way. If that be the case, all choices modifying it would cease to be avaj/lable. But is that a realistic approach? 9. Choices cease to exist as they are evaluated and found impracticable in the face of relevant constraints, continuing our analogy, a constraint like the unsuitability of the soil for underground constructions or the lack o f technical capacity to undertake such constructions, would immediately .../

- 12 -

remove all the choices relating to underground stations, railway lines and tunnels. Lack of funds to acquire built property in cities or stiff opposition from their owners could similarly eliminate the choices relating to acquisition of land for stations and railway lines in the cities. The high cost of steel and cement could render the construction of the bridge impracticable. 10. The challenge to the planner is that he is neither daunted nor discouraged by the reduction of his choices. The last thing our planner of the railway line is expected to do is to run away from his assigned task on the ground that constraints are overwhelming. In the first place, a planner is called in because constraints are always overwhelming. If there were not so many constraints resulting in so many choices to be evaluated, the railway authorities would simply get the skilled labourers to lay the line. III.

OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRAINTS AS DETERMINANTS OF SCOPE AND DIRECTION OF PLANNING

11. While the objectives dictate where one should ultimately go. the constraints determine how and how far and in how long a time one could go there. Our analogy of the railway line illustrates this fact. When all the constraints ate evaluated our planner may find that the best he could do at the present moment is to build a winding narrow-gauge railway from the periphery of one city to that of the other with no tunnels or bridges, no underground constructions or acquisition of private land. Now comes an important consideration. Is the planner justified in saddling the country with a narrow-gauge railway simply because that was the best he could do at the present moment? 12. No constraint is permanent or everlasting. This is a very important fact to be remembered by a planner. Whether a constraint is man-made or natural, it does not remain a constraint for ever. Funds and personnel not available now would be available at a later time. Natural barriers now insurmountable will be overcome in the future with the development of technology. Resistances of today may cease tomorrow. Even value systems restraining a particular kind "of action now would change over years. What does this imply in relation to the direction and scope of planning? 13. The nature of objectives and constraints, as we have so far enunciated, suggests a number of significant principles which a planner would adopt to his advantage. They are: (i)

The planner should focus his attention on longrange objectives to determine the final goal of

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his efforts. These must be clearly defined on the premise that all existing constraints are only temporary. (ii)

The comparison of lonq-range objectives against the current constraints in time, resources or socio-cultural barriers should not result in the whole-sale rejection of long-range objectives. They would still be achievable at a later date with planned action to overcome the constraints.

(iii) When long-range objectives cannot be immediately achieved due to existing constraints, two courses of action must be initiated: First; a set of immediate or intermediate objectives achievable within the constraints should be formulated; Second: action to overcome the constraints must be planned and put into operation simultaneously with action to accomplish immediate or intermediate objectives. (iv)

(v)

In planning action to accomplish immediate or intermediate objectives, care must be taken to avoid (a)

rigidity in organization and procedures which would hamper the eventual accomplishment of long-range objectives; and

(b)

investments in buildings and facilities which are not flexible and adaptable as required ultimately when the long-range objective is achieved.

The planner's attitude towards constraints should be that (a)

they are challenges to be faced;

(b)

setbacks, both temporary and long-term, have to be anticipated and provided for in "contingency" plans; and

(c)

one should not hesitate to "take one step backward to take two steps forward".

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IV.

OBJECTIVEE AND CONSTRAINTS IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

14. The principles, discussed above, apply with equal validity to educational development. With that in mind, we shall examine a few issues specific to objectives and constraints relevant to education. As regards objectives, one may raise the following questions; (i) (ii) (iii)

Is there a distinction between educational objectives and objectives of educational development? Who sets these objectives? With what objectives is the educational planner primarily concerned?

15. It is observed that educational planners and administrators do make a definite â&#x20AC;&#x201D; even if subtle â&#x20AC;&#x201D; distinction between educational objectives and objectives of educational development. By educational objectives is meant a set of perennial aims of education such as (a)

the physical, mental and emotional adjustment of the individual to the social unit in which he is brought up;

(b)

the economic viability of the individual and the social unit; and

(c)

the preservation of the cultural identity of the social unit.

These may be elaborated with varying degrees of emphasis on certain specific aspects. For example, some would lay stress more on the physical, mental and emotional development and well-being of the individual than on his obligations vis-avis society. When examining educational considerations of educational planning, we addressed our minds to a set of educational objectives, which elaborate the three aims mentioned above. (see Lesson Unit No. 7) This type of objectives has evolved out of the socio-cultural value systems of the society concerned. They have not been consciously set by anybody although both philosophers and educators figure among those who made serious efforts to formulate them systematically. 16. As different from such self-evolved and widely applicable educational objectives, there are objectives which are formulated from time to time usually by policy-making authorities of government as applicable to a particular plan of educational development. Here are three such lists of objectives from recent education plans of three Asian countries. .../

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These are objectives of educational development, formulated for a specific country to reflect specific national requirements. These are in fact called the national educational objectives. I.

Malaysia (i) (ii)

(iii)

(iv)

II.

consolidation of the education system to promote national integration and unity; orientation and expansion of education and training programmes towards meeting the manpower needs of the country; improvement of the quality of education for the building of a progressive society oriented towards modern science and technology; and improvement of the research, planning and implementation capability to meet the above objectives.

Sri Lanka (i)

(Second Malaysia Plan)

(Medium-term Education Plan 197 3-1977)

Working towards a better 'fit' between the education system and the needs of the country at all levels of education and in both general and technical education by getting the structure and content of education to sponsor those outcomes of education needed for accelerated growth of the country's economy. This has to be done without violating the broader objectives of education.

(ii)

Achieving greater internal Quality and effectiveness within the education system by; (a)

reducing repetitions and drop-outs while maintaining educational standards;

(b)

upgrading the skills of the personnel engaged in education by having more and better teacher training, both pre-service and in-service/ and also by organising training programmes to meet the ne^ds of the administrative and management personnel;

.../

-leand

(iii)

le)

consolidating and extending quality improvement work of the last 10 years in respect of curriculum development, examination reform etc.

Furthering the equality of access to education; (a) by reducing area-wise imbalances in the provision of education facilities; and (b} by effecting changes in the structure of the school system with a view to removing the disabilities suffered by some pupils.

III.

Philippines (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv) (v)

(Ten Year Plan 1976-85)

Provide all citizens with broad general education; Develop the nation's manpower in the middlelevel skills necessary in the socio-economic development of the country; Develop high-level professionals in the areas where they are needed; Promote desirable cultural values; and Respond to changing needs and conditions through a system of planning and evaluation.

17. One important characteristic to be noted in these lists of national educational objectives is that they differ so much from one another in both content and mode of presentation. Based on national needs and aspirations, they are the basic guidelines on which the educational planner is required to operate. As such, the educational planner's primary concern is with these specific objectives of educational development. 18. We noted that they are usually framed by the educational policy-making authority of the country. It is undoubtedly a political function. The educational planner still has a role to play. The minimum is to ensure that the objectives are formulated or revised in time for the planning or the replanning exercise. But the more appropriate role would be to be involved in the process of preparing the draft objectives. In some countries, the initial draft actually originates in the educational planning unit. When this happens, the objectives reflect a proper combination of both political and professional considerations. Moreover, their interpretation in the preparation of the plan becomes more reliable.

.../

- 17 19. The objectives, as given in the three lists above, are couched in general terms. They can even be called vague. Although they are formulated for accomplishment over a particular plan period, they are more in the nature of long-term objectives. They have to be interpreted and elaborated before planning could commence. For example, take objective No. 1 of the Malaysian list. It reads as follows : "Consolidation of the education system to promote national integration and unity." It has to be more detailed for future action to be planned. So the authorities have developed it into a set of programmeoriented sub-objectives in the following manner. (i) (ii) (iii)

the implementation, in stages, of Bahasa Malaysia as the main medium of instruction in school; closing the gap in educational opportunities among regions and races; and the eventual integration of the education systems of the East Malaysian States with the national system.

Let us take another example from the Ten Year Plan of the Philippines. Here the Objective No. 3 (i.e. To develop high-level professionals in the areas where they are needed) is elaborated into what are called in that document the specific objectives; 1)

To further strengthen and develop higher education in the disciplines needed in the country's economy;

To provide the mechanism towards a greater coordination between government and private higher institutions;

To democratize access to education;

To develop financing schemes to aid private education institutions to enable them to relate their programmes to socio-economic development of the country;

To improve physical plant and facilities to provide better learning conditions and to enhance socializing values;

To upgrade the competencies of instructors/ professors in higher education.

- 18 20. Just as there are different ways of formulating objectives, their elaboration also can vary from country to country or even organization to organization. There is no one right way. The only criterion of adequacy is that the formulation and the elaboration provide a clear and unambiguous direction to be followed in the planning exercise. V.

CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING'FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES

21. Constraints affecting educational development are of different types. Some of the major constraints such as political and economic ideologies would have already exerted their impact on the form and content bf the objectives. The manner in which the objectives are formulated and promulgated would also reflect such ideological constraints. 22. Other kinds of constraints, which would influence the formulation of objectives, include (a)

Socio-cultural constraints when the prevalent social value system determines the overall priorities in educational development, (For details, study Lesson Unit No. 6 ) .

(b)

Educational and administrative ethos of the country, where certain patterns and practices in education and administration are assumed to remain unchanged in the foreseeable future, (For details, study Lesson Unit No. 7 ) .

23. These are constraints which have begun to affect educational development even before the educational planner enters the scene officially. So what can he do about them? There are several points of view expressed on the position of the educational planner and administrator in relation to such constraints. For example: (a)

Some say: "He should work within the existing socio-political system with all its limitations. The task of reforming them belongs to others and particularly to politicians and social reformers."

(b)

Another group says: "He may have no alternative b u t to work within the political system represented by the government as long as he is a government servant. But he should be alive to the changes which are demanded in socio-cultural value systems, as well as educational and administrative patterns and practices. He should look for opportunities to support reforms in them, even if he does not actually initiate them." .../

- 19 (c)

Yet another group says: "When the educational planner eeeB in these constraints elements which hamper educational development, he should b e bold enough to say it where it matters and use his professional knowledge and skills to minimize their impact on objectives and policies. His commitment to educational development should b e paramount. He should actively fight every impediment affecting it."

Which of them is valid or acceptable in a given situation? Much depends on the professional status, the personality and the intellectual calibre of the particular educational planner o r administrator. Some could exercise greater influence than others. But all can do at least one thing: identify elements in such constraints which can be modified or eliminated gradually without drastic or radical changes and initiate action towards their modification and elimination. The action suggested here could range from making proposals to appropriate authorities for changes in existing structures, procedures and attitudes .to. undertaking (and playing a leading role in) activities of public information. Public information activities have a particular reference when social and cultural attitudes impinge on educational development. VI.

CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

24. In this category of constraints, we would once again find all those w e have already discussed as affecting the formulation of objectives in addition to the following which are more frequently mentioned:

1) Time 2)

Resources

Operational barriers -

financial human technical natural material etc. etc. legal organizational procedural informational methodological etc. etc.

.../

- 20 4)

Absorptive capacity

Resistance to change.

inadequate infrastructure calibre and number of personnel etc.

As regards constraints which affect the accomplishment of already formulated objectives of educational development, the role of the educational planner or administrator should be clearer. 25. As planning is the preparation of decisions for action in the future, the identification of steps to deal with impediments to such action is also a part of the planning exercise. Let us recall the analogy which we considered at the beginning of this Lesson Unit (See Section II). As all constraints are eventually surmountable, the educational planner has to make choices. One of the choices would be to extend the time target for the final accomplishment of a given objective and adopt, for purposes of action, one or more intermediate objectives leading in stages to the final objective. Example: An objective given to a certain planner is to achieve universal primary education of eight years within the plan period. Analysis of resources , operational barriers and so forth shows that such an objective could not be achieved during the given period. The planner has no alternative but to evolve intermediate targets in relation to either number of years of Universal primary education, or the percentage of population covered. When these intermediate objectives are progressively achieved, they contribute towards the eventual fulfilment of the objective of universal primary education. 26. The educational planner is actually provided with an opportunity to set such intermediate objectives, at the stage of setting targets. (See Lesson Unit No. 25 on target-setting). This is an appropriate point to deal with constraints. But a caution has to be sounded. In target-setting, the tendency is normally to submit to the overwhelming oppression of the constraints. One almost says: "This is the best we can do under the circumstances. Do not expect any more." The educational planner has to be careful not to adopt such an attitude of resignation. It would be appropriate to go back to the five

- 21 -

principles we evolved in Para 13. Particular reference should be made to the third principle. According to it. the target-setting (formulating immediate or intermediate objectives) must be accompanied by planned action to overcome constraints which restrict targets. The importance of such an approach in planning the educational development of a country is indeed paramount. VII.

CONCLUSION

27. This discussion of objectives and constraints in educational planning has shown that the educational planner has a number of significant responsibilities in the formulation of objectives, the analysis of constraints and in coping with constraints to achieve specified objectives. His involvement in the formulation of objectives has the advantage of making them more realistic and professionally feasible. It would eliminate the need to develop practicable intermediate objectives for purposes of planned action. As regards constraints, the educational planner's role is a wide one. Regarding each constraint as a challenge to be met and surmounted, he has to play more vigorously his role of the stimulator and promoter of reform and innovation.

-../

- 23 -

TEST AND APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Why is it important that the educational planner's position vis-a-vis objectives and constraints be defined and understood at the very outset? How do objectives and constraints determine the scope and direction of planning? What are immediate or intermediate objectives? What is the practical purpose of establishing them? What does it mean to "take one step backwards to take two steps forward"? Could you distinguish between educational objectives and objectives of educational development? What is generally meant by the term "national educational objectives"? What are the major constraints affecting the formulation of objectives of educational development? How should they be dealt with? What constraints are most frequently confronted in the accomplishment of objectives of educational development? How should they be dealt with?

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAF

- 25 -

SUGGESTED ANSWERS

A common tendency for an educational planner is to allow objectives and constraints to limit his area of discretion and action. He tends to assume that objectives, once prescribed by the appropriate national authorities, leave him no option but to adopt them as they are into his plans. He also is often daunted and discouraged by constraints. It is, therefore, important that the educational planner ponders a bit on the actual operation of objectives and constraints in his work with a view to developing a positive attitude towards the way in which they are dealt with. It is also important for him to recognize that he could play a role in the formulation and revision of objectives. It is even more important that he should learn to look upon constraints as challenges. Objectives, whether accepted in the form laid down by higher authorities or modified to suit the realities of the existing situation, determine what has to be ultimately achieved. Thus they lay down the direction of action which should take the organization to their accomplishment. They also dictate the scope of that action. Constraints, onâ&#x20AC;˘the other hand, determine how much and in how long a time these objectives could really be achieved. The nature and the magnitude of constraints depend on the objectives. If the objectives are radical in nature, the constraints would be more complex than if the objectives were directed at the preservation of the status quo. Thus together, objectives and constraints determine the direction and scope of planning. More often than not, objectives are set in a highly idealistic form. They are formulated without adequate analysis of operational difficultues or shortcomings. Sometimes, they even tend to have a demagogic flavour in the sense that the way they sound as slogans is considered more important than their practicability. The educational planner who receives such a set of objectives, would find it difficult to translate them into operational terms. His first reaction would be that only a fraction of a given objective is actually achievable within the plan period. So he would evolve this fraction in terms of an immediate or intermediate objective for purposes of the plan. The advantage of this practice is that the educational planner embarks on framing a feasible set of .../

- 26 decisions insteau of starting a fruitless argument on the objectives themselves. It should be noted that target-setting, in real terms, is a process of establishing immediate or intermediate objectives. In the ordinary coursei of one's work, whether it be planning, management or any other, constraints bring about setbacks usually hampering the organizational movement towards the achievement of objectives. The usual repercussions are delays leading to modification of the phasing of work or changes in the procedures or even objectives. Such setbacks are always discouraging. One way to fight the sense of discouragement is to develop the attitude embodied in this famous dictum. Objectives of educational development are only a selection made out of perennial educational objectives for purposes of action in a given situation over a given period. What is often meant by the term "national educational objectives" is the set of objectives for educational development, as promulgated by the government. The major constraints affecting the formulation of objectives of educational development are (a)

the political and economic ideology of the particular government (e.g. attitude toward the private sector; acceptance of principles of market economy or centralized economic planning etc.)

(b)

Socio-cultural value systems, norms, customs, taboos etc.

(c)

Educational ethos (e.g, attitude towards education of masses; elitism in education; structure of the educational system; equivalences maintained with other systems; examination patterns etc.).

(d)

Administrative ethos (e.g. power structure; lines of consultation and communication; bureaucracy etc.) .

As regards the manner in which they are to be dealt with b y the educational planner or administrator, three positions, as advocated by different groups, are discussed in para 23. The preferred position would be (c). But such an approach calls for a repertoire of skills and qualities which are also discussed in this para.

.../

- 27 7.

Constraints most frequently encountered in the accomplishment of objectives are: (a)

the objectives, themselves, to the extent that they have been affected by the four constraints discussed in the answer to Question 6.

(b)

Time limits laid down by higher authorities.

(c)

Financial, human, technical, natural, material and other resources;

(d)

legal, organizational, procedural, informational, methodological and other operational barriers.

(e)

absorptive capacity of the country as a whole or the system of education or the institutions.

(f)

resistance to change.

There are two ways to deal with them and both have to be pursued simultaneously. Firstly, what is immediately feasible must be defined in terms of immediate or intermediate objectives and implemented as effectively as possible. Secondly, planned action to overcome the constraints must be set in motion.

.../

- 29 -

ADDITIONAL READING

OECD: Curriculum Improvement and Educational Development (Modernizing our Schools), Paris 1966. Eleanor T. Elequin: A New Loo>: on Educational Objectives of South East Asia (SEAMES Seminar Report: Strategies for Curriculum Development in Southeast Asia - RECSAM) Penang, 197 2. Martin Levit (ed): Curriculum (Readings in the Philosophy of Education), University of Illinois, Chicago, 1971: Part I - Aims of Education: Criteria and Intellectual and Moral Objectives. Elizabeth Richardson: The Environment of Learning (Heinemann Educational Boolcs) London 197 3: Chapter 5 (The Physical Setting and its influence).

.../

- 31 -

II DIAGNOSTIC STOCK-TAKING

OBJECTIVES When you have gone through this unit, you will recognize the need for a diagnostic stocktaking of the educational system as a prelude to planning; be familiar with methods currently employed for the purpose; understand the concept and practice of educational mapping ; be able to decide on a minimum package of essential learning needs; -

develop the capacity to conduct a reasonably wellorganized exercise in educational mapping.

.../

33 -

II DIAGNOSTIC STOCK-TAKING

INTRODUCTION

1. No educational planner or administrator begins his work afresh. Even in a situation where planning is just introduced as a formal official activity, it has to deal with a system of education which has already evolved over a long period of time. Such a system has a number of well-established features: First.

it has adopted a certain structure, usually expressed in terms of (i)

levels and types of education;

(ii) grades and years; (iii) examinations and academic awards. It may either be limited only to the formal system or may incorporate elements of informal and nonformal education; Second, it has institutions (schools, colleges, universities) or organizations (research bureaus, curriculum or textbook centres etc.) which are entrusted with specialized functions; Third.

the institutions and organizations have their facilities in the form of land, buildings, fittings and furniture, equipment etc.

Fourth, a body of personnel of different skills, experiences and capabilities are in employment; Fifth.

laws, rules and regulations, precedents and conventions governing the operations of the system are in existence;

Sixth.

a policy-making and administrative machinery, of which the educational planner is a part, manages and guides the system.

.../

- 34 -

2. Planning as a process of making decisions for action in the future has to take into consideration two initial questions : (1)

What does the educational system consist of in terms of the items mentioned above?

(2)

Are they adequate and suitable for the accomplishment of the assigned objectives of educational development?

The process of finding answers to our first question is what we have called STOCKTAKING. The answers to the second question are to be found through DIAGNOSIS. Both are really a combined investigation and form an essential element of the planning process. II.

PROCESSES OF STOCKTAKING AND DIAGNOSIS

3. Some kind of monitoring of the educational system takes place in every country. Basic statistics relating to numbers of institutions, pupils, teachers etc. are collected periodically. But this kind of monitoring really does not constitute a stocktaking due to several reasons: One of them is that they cover only a few limited items of data. But the graver deficiency is that the data so collected show only what the system does at present. They do not show its potentiality in terms of unused and underutilized resources, and their distribution in the country. Often, they also do not show clearly the shortcomings and defects of the system, particularly in relation to qualitative aspects. The educational planner does require detailed and elaborate data if he is to perform his task satisfactorily. But all the data he needs cannot be covered in the regular monitoring exercise of collecting statistical data. Therefore, a more elaborate operation has to be undertaken from time to time. 4. Examples of this kind of a stocktaking and diagnosis operation could be found in several Asian countries. Most undertake an assessment of the educational system by appointing special commissions or committees of inquiry to study educational problems in depth, consult public opinion and present a detailed report. In addition, detailed studies or surveys are also undertaken. To cite only a few: Indonesia undertook in 1970-72 a national assessment of the entire educational system. Bangladesh carried out surveys of the location of educational facilities (called the educational geography) and the system of educational management. India has conducted its Educational Surveys in substantial detail and the Third Survey, which is designed to cover a much wider range of investigations, is in progress. The results of such national assessments or surveys provide the benchmark or the baseline from which future educational development is to be measured.

- 35 -

5. A question that has been asked seriously by both policymakers and planners is whether such assessments or surveys combining stocktaking and diagnosis could be built into the regular operations of the educational system. A procedure for doing this has been proposed and it is called EDUCATIONAL MAPPING. III.

WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL MAPPING?

6. Educational mapping may be defined as a diagnostic stocktaking of the educational system of a country with the specific component of determining what types and stocks of resources and facilities are needed for the future and where. It has three special characteristics:(i) Educational mapping concerns itself with the total educational system â&#x20AC;&#x201D; informal, formal and nonformal. In that it goes far beyond schooling. (ii)

It is an exercise set at the grass-root level. It is the education of a geographically identifiable unit of area that it subjects to a diagnostic stocktaking.

(iii)

It is future-oriented and seeks a basis for action over an extended time horizon.

7. The investigation relating to each area would basically be an effort to find answers to the following questions:(i) What are the essential learning needs of the people of the given area? (Note: people and not children. People include children, youth and adults). (ii) What modalities and methods are adopted in meeting those learning needs? (iii) What resources (human, financial and material) and facilities (sites, buildings, furniture and fittings, equipment) exist for this purpose? And where? (iv) Are these resources and facilities adequate. functionally suitable and evenly distributed? (v) Are there, in the area, resources and facilities which are unutilized and underutilized?

.../

- 36 (vi)

(vii)

If the existing resources and facilities as well as those that can be pressed into service are inadequate or unsatisfactory to meet the needs, what additional resources and facilities are needed? Where exactly should these resources and facilities be located?

Answers to question (iii), (iv) and (vii), which are vital for decision-making at the local level, call for graphical representation on a MAP. 8. What is usually done even in most surveys is to give merely a verbal description of the facilities and their locations. This is of limited use particularly as the rationale for the location Of the future facilities cannot be made clear simply with words. On the other hand, a map, wherein the locations of existing and proposed facilities are shown along with topographical features, land use, population densities, industrial complexes, road and railway network etc. etc. demonstrates the centralitv and optimum use of the facilities. Thus such a map becomes an invaluable tool for decision-making in educational planning. 9. The end-product of educational mapping is a series of maps - virtually an atlas â&#x20AC;&#x201D; on existing and proposed educational facilities of a country. Each map in such a series or atlas will represent, in all the above-mentioned details, the position relating to the unit of geographical area chosen for the investigation. 10. Educational mapping, as a systematic exercise in diagnostic stocktaking, is opportune in all Asian countries due to a number of cogent reasons:First.

the sheer impossibility of providing educational resources/facilities to keep pace with the increase of population and the resulting pupil flood demands that every available facility for learning be pressed into service and that they be put into optimum use:

Second, the learning needs of the people are so diverse and directly related to their life as farmers and workers that the formal system alone can hardly satisfy them;

.../

- 37 -

Third.

little is known of the actual nature of these learning needs ox the different modalities which may be adopted to satisfy them ;

Fourth, a balance sheet has to be struck between what is needed as resources/facilities to satisfy identified learning needs and what is already available in the country; Fifth,

IV.

e planned development of education needs as a prerequisite a clear idea of what additional resources/facilities are needed and where.

OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL MAPPING

11. The objectives of educational mapping, therefore, would be as follows : (i)

(ii)

(iii) (iv)

12.

to identify the minimum learning needs of each unit of area as the initial pre-planning step for micro-planning the educational system of the country; to inventorize the existing resources/ facilities for education - formal, nonformal and informal as well as hybrids constituting them - and, in the process, to identify unutilized and underutilized facilities and resources; to identify in physical and quantitative terms gaps in resources/facilities; to determine in terms of villages or habitations where new facilities, if and when feasible on financial grounds, may be located.

The outcomes of the exercise would be two-fold: (a)

Optimization of the use of available resources/ facilities for serving the widest possible range of educational needs;

(b)

a blue-print for action at the planning stage in the provision <^f educational resources/ facilities on a national basis with due regard being given to (i) the correction of regional imbalances and (ii) the fulfilment of specific local needs.

- 38 Both these outcomee, it has to be emphasized, are most relevant to the efforts currently being undertaken for the educational development of Asia, A comprehensive stocktaking of education in relation to needs, resources and facilities and their distribution is an essential step for effective planning. A critical assessment of all of then is indispensable for educational development. V.

APPLICATION OF EDUCATIONAL MAPPING

13. Suggested below is an eight-step procedure for the application of educational mapping to a selected geographical unit: Step I - Define the learning needs of the unit of area, taking into consideration that they vary according to socio-economic factors of each area. N.B.

Learning needs should be defined realistically and in the widest sense. There are basic or minimum learning needs applicable to all. Over and above these, there are special needs of specific clienteles. Several attempts have been made in identifying basic or minimum learning needs applicable to all. One of such lists includes: 1.

Literacy and numeracy?

Academic knowledge (history, geography and elementary social and natural sciences) to enable the pupil to think for himself analytically and logically;

Training in occupational skills ;

Knowledge of the environment and ways of utilising it to human advantage ;

Knowledge of the different types of economic activity found in the area with special reference to the knowledge and the skills by which these activities can be made more efficient, more productive and more profitable;

Knowledge of the working of legislation and institutions both governmental and non-governmental, which are relevant to economic activity and the ways in which they could be used for bettering production and incomes ;

- 39 -

Knowledge of civic rights and responsibilities and community living, including political rights and duties, local, state, and national;

Knowledge that can improve the quality of life such as nutrition, hygiene, sports, aesthetics, family life and welfare and moral and spiritual values; and

Positive attitude to life such as cooperativeness, discipline, dignity of labour, pride in one's work, persistence, scientific temper, self-reliance and self-confidence.

Another attempt at identifying a "minimum package of essential learning needs" includes the following: (a)

Positive Attitudes towards cooperation with and help to one's family and fellow men, toward work and community and national development, and not least of all toward continued learning and toward the development of ethical values ;

(b)

Functional literacy and numeracy, sufficient (i) to read with comprehension a national newspaper or magazine, useful c.gricultural, health, and other "how-to-do-it" bulletins, or manufacturers instruction sheet; (ii) to v.-rite a legible better to, for example, a friend or to a government bureau requesting information; and (iii) to handle important common computations - such as measurement of land and buildings, calculation of agricultural input costs and revenues, interest charges on credit and rental rates on land;

(c)

A scientific outlook ?nd an elementary understanding of the processes of nature in the particular area, as tney pertain, rOr ex-ajuple, to health and sanitation, to raising crops end animals to nutrition, food storage and preparation and to the environment and its protection;

(d)

Functional knowledge and skills for raising a family and operating a household, including the essential elements of protecting family health, family planning where appropriate, good child care, nutrition and sanitation; cultural activities and recreation; care of the injured and sick; intelligent shopping and usa of money; making clothes and other consumpticr goods, house repairs and environmental improvements; growing and preserving food xcr family consumotion.

- 40 (e)

Functional knowledge and skills for earning a living, including not only the skills required for a particular local occupation, but al6o a knowledge of a variety of locally useful common skills for agriculture and nonfarm use.

(f)

Functional knowledge and skills for civic participation, including some knowledge of national and local history and ideology, and understanding of one's society; awareness of government structure ar.d functions; taxes and public expenditures; available social services; rights and obligations of individual citizens; principles, aims and functioning of co-operatives and of local voluntary associations.

Special educational needs of specific clienteles include, for example, learning opportunities for those persons who, due to both their aptitudes and wishes, would proceed to higher levels of education and equip themselves for positions of leadership in various professions. In other words, the function which the formal school system now performs as an instrument of taking people up to different levels of intellectual attainments and associated employment possibilities cannot be over-looked. But one has still to consider carefully how the present waste in education resulting from uncontrolled competition for limited positions in the modern sector of the economy, can b e checked.

Step II - Determine who needs what and where? The learning needs of people vary according to their present levels of achievement. Individual choice, whether made on rational grounds or not, has also to be considered. What is listed as minimum learning needs, therefore has to be elaborated in terms of: (a)

the different learning experiences which would fulfill them;

(b)

the number of people who would need each type of learning experiences;

.../

- 41 -

(c)

their geographical distribution in the unit of area; and

(d)

their socio-economic character-

As a result of this step, the following information would become available in respect of each area: (i)

(ii) (iii)

educational programmes to be provided in terms of formal, non-formal, and informal modalities and hybrids combining them; the clientele for each educational programme; the geographical distribution of the clienteles, with data on their concentration.

Step III - Assess the resources/facilities needed to implement the identified educational programmes: Here the term "resources/facilities" includes every form of human and material resources that may be needed to implement a particular programme. The formal system of education (schools, colleges, universities, and such other educational institutions), non-formal educational efforts (organizations, institutions, workplaces, local initiatives etc.) and informal means of education (books, newspapers, periodicals, radio, television, community movements etc.) are all to be considered as available facilities in various combinations. When the needs of resources/ facilities are enumerated it is important to estimate or project these needs over at least five years.

Step IV - Inventorize the resources and facilities already available in the area. The inventory of available resources/facilities so prepared would include: (a)

the number, qualifications and capacity of persons available as teachers, change-agents, organizational leaders, volunteers etc.;

(b)

the institutional and organizational infrastructure utilizable for education whether currently used for that purpose or not;

- 42 (c)

land, buildings, equipment etc., which are currently used .or utilizable in the future for education, and

(d)

sources of support - financial, advisory, material etc. - available in the area.

Step V - Strike a balance sheet between resources/facilities needed and resources/facilities available. Assuming that the needs of resources/facilities are estimated on the basis of at least five-year projection, their comparison with available resources/ facilities would provide a guide-line for what a plan of development should seek to accomplish. If there is a surplus as, sometimes, seen in a particular institution or urban locality, it should be noted to design ways and means of optimizing their use. Each deficit - which is the more likely result - would indicate what resources/facilities have to be provided in each area. Step VI - Determine where exactly each type of resource/facility is to be provided. This is the most important part of the educational mapping exercise. Usually a building/institution/ organization serves several villages or habitations. In the case of such institutions as universities, colleges, teacher training institutions, the coverage will even extend beyond the unit of area on which educational mapping is undertaken. Some educational programmes like radio broadcasting will cover the whole country. Leaving such facilities which go beyond the unit of area for consideration on a collective basis, the educational mapping exercise will proceed to locate the projected resources/ facilities of each area. The aim is to optimize the use of the facilities by determining their best possible location and distribution, taking into full consideration the following:(a)

population concentrations;

(b)

numbers served or facilitated; .../

- 43 (c)

transport facilities (roads, railwaysÂť bus services, etc.);

(d) geographical barriers (rivers, mountains, forests,' etc.) ; (e) distance from existing facilities; (f)

nearness to work experience opportunities.

Step VII - Prepare the map of the unit of area. along with a report on the rationale for decisions and priorities. The report would deal mainly with the following:(a)

identified educational needs of each area with details of clientele envisaged and, where possible, with an indication of priority needs;

(b) present condition of available resources/ facilities; (c) action required to optimize the use of existing resources/facilities, including the utilization of those that are presently unused or underutilized; (d)

the nature and quantity of resources/facilities required to fill gaps observed, along with an indication of priority requirements (i.e. phased programme for supply of needed resources/ facilities should be developed);

(e) where such new resources/facilities are to be located. The map would indicate the location of existing resources/facilities as well as the proposed location of future ones. Step VIII - Follow-up on Educational Mapping Educational mapping, as so far elaborated, is a diagnostic stock-taking exercise with the additional component of determining what stocks of educational facilities are needed for the future and where. The regional planning process has to take over from this point and plan for the provision of the needed facilities, according to resource constraints.

- 44 VI.

SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATIONAL MAPPING

14. Periodical Re-enactment; A diagnostic stocktaking of the educational system i6 required everytime before its planning is undertaken.- As such an educational mapping exercise is not something to be done just once. It has to be periodically re-enacted, before every, panning or- replanning cycle. Once in 5-7 years is reasonable. 15. Geographical coverage: It is desirable if a diagnostic stocktaking is available to the educational planner in respect of: the entire country. He would, however, be satisfied if a representative sample of areas are surveyed and conclusions, applicable to the entire country, are derived. But when the stocktaking exercise is refined into the process of educational mapping, the periodical survey of the entire country becomes very important. The reason is that one cannot really deal with location of facilities on the basis of a sample. 16. Who should undertake Educational Mapping? In view of the wide-ranging practical uses of the diagnostic data collected from this exercise, it should be a part of the regular duties of the regional or local administrator of the educational system. Even if it is not so assigned to him officially, he should do it is a means of studying comprehensively the educational needs and problems of his area. For example, an inspector or supervisor, when assigned to a circuit or district, would conduct a quick educational mapping exercise as his method of understanding his area. Assuming that such officers are transferred in about three to four years, every succeeding inspector or supervisor could revise and refine what had been done by the predecessor. The result would be that in a few years, the needs, resources and facilities of the area would be so clearly defined as to facilitate the planned development of education. VII.

CONCLUSION

17. We have, in the foregoing discussion, recognized the importance and the utility value of a diagnostic stocktaking. As a methodology of doing it, we have elaborated the concept of Educational Mapping and shown how it should be an initial activity of every officer assuming responsibility for the educational system of a locality. It is emphasized that the periodical Educational Mapping of the Region or District should form an integral part of the duties of the Regional or District head of the educational administrative machinery.

.../

- 45 -

18. The results of educational mapping when combined with the periodical diagnosis of the educational system will pinpoint the disparity between intentions and achievements. In particular, our attention will be drawn to those aspects which need remedying and strengthening if the objectives we set for ourselves are to be achieved.

- 47

TEST AND APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

What do you understand by a diagnostic stocktaking of the educational system? Why is such a step necessary before educational planning could commence? What is the main difference you observe between monitoring and educational mapping? What are the main characteristics of educational mapping? Why is educational mapping relevant and important to Asian countries at the present time? What would you include in an inventory of resources/facilities needed for educational development of a given locality? What should the outcome of an educational mapping exercise be?

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAF

.../

- 49 -

SUGGESTED ANSWERS

A diagnostic stocktaking would mean the preparation of an inventory of certain things not merely as a list of things but with the additional investigation whether the thing concerned is suitable for the purpose for which it is meant. Stocktaking answers the question: "What is available or what exists?" Diagnosis is based on the question: "Is that functionally suitable and adequate?" In educational planning, such a step as diagnostic stocktaking is essential because the system of education that is subjected to planning already exists in the form of objectives, inputs, processes and outputs. In para 1 is listed what an educational system usually comprises. It is necessary for the planner to know what actually existe and, moreover, whether they are suitable to meet the changing challenges of educational development. He must know both what is available and why they need to be reformed, modified or eliminated. Monitoring, in the sense of collecting data on the progress of an activity is also a form of stocktaking. It records what is or what has happened. It represents the status quo. Educational mapping on the other hand, is future-oriented and comprehensive. It combines both stocktaking and diagnosis. It relates to all learning needs of the people and encompasses all forms of education - informal, formal and non-formal. It also seeks to project future needs in educational resources and facilities. Further, it deals with a geographically identifiable area. Main characteristics of educational mapping

are:-

(1)

Combination of stocktaking with diagnosis.

(2)

Coverage extended to the total educational system.

(3)

Main concern with resources and facilities.

(4)

Located at grass-root level.

(5)

Future-oriented. .../

- 50 -

The questions raised in para 7 seek answers which are essential to establish the baseline from which planning is to begin. In respect of most Asian countries, such diagnostic stocktaking exercises have not been conducted or information so collected has not been revised and updated periodically. Five reasons are given in the text to show how opportune educational planning is in the present Asian context. See para 10. An inventory of resources/facilities should include as a minimum the four categories of resources/facilities listed under Step IV of the Educational Mapping Process. They should be listed not only in relation to the formal system consisting of schools, colleges, universities and other educational institutions. They must also include those relating to organizations, institutions, workplaces, local initiatives etc. relevant to non-formal educational efforts and books, newspapers, periodicals, radio, television, community movements etc. contributing as informal means of education. Two outcomes are expected of educational mapping:(i) (ii)

Optimization of the use of available resources/ facilities; A blue-print for action at the Planning Stage.

See para 12. What is called the blue print for action is a comprehensive report, accompanied by a series of maps, whose contents are outlined under Step VII of the Educational Mapping Process.

.../

- 51 -

ADDITIONAL READING

India National Council of Educational Research and Training: Second All-India Educational Survey. New Delhi 1967 - Introduction (pp. 1-3) and Summary of Findings (pp. 94-100) / /Philippine^ Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education: Education for National Development - New Patterns. New Directions. Manila 1970 - Terras of Reference (pp. VII-XIV) Part I (pp. 1-22) and Chapts i, ii and vii of Part II. /Tndonesia7 Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development (BP3k): The Education Sector - A Review of Fact and comment Regarding the Current Status of Education in Asia, Jakarta, 1976. pp. 1-16.

- 53 -

III POLICY-FORMULATION AND ASSESSMENT OF FUTURE NEEDS

OBJECTIVES When you have gone through this unit, you should be able to understand the importance of policy formulation; analyse through quick and simple calculations the implications of achieving determined objectives; -

perform the functions of an educational planner in preparing or drafting policy; identify the needs in goods and services for achieving objectives as guided by policy; calculate in quantitative terms the various kinds of needs; compare the increases in needs and decide on objectives and policies which need reconsideration;

cost the needs; and

prepare the groundwork for the next step of establishing priorities and setting targets.

.../

- 55 -

III POLICY-FORMULATION AND ASSESSMENT OF FUTURE NEEDS

INTRODUCTION

1. The objectives would show the extent to which and the direction in which the country envisages the development of education. The diagnosis would reveal the defects and deficiencies which are to be corrected if the objectives are to be achieved. These defects and deficiencies reflect the gap between what a country wishes to achieve and the wherewithal it has at its disposal for that purpose. How is this gap to be bridged? 2. Let us take a concrete example. A country decides as one of its objectives of educational development that science and mathematics be made a core element of the curriculum in all schools during the next five years. A diagnosis of the current situation relating to the teaching of science and mathematics reveals such defects and deficiencies as -

out-moded syllabi and methods of teaching;

no suitable textbooks ; only 40% of the school children receive any instruction in mathematics and science;

only 30% of the schools h&re at least a science room and some basic science equipment;

only 60% of the schools have teachers capable of teaching mathematics;

only 40% of the schools have teachers capable of teaching science;

the maximum capacity of teachers' colleges could only produce enough teachers per year to meet the annual wastage and 5% of the number needed to make mathematics and science compulsory (taking into account the growing enrolments).

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- 56 It i6 clear that the gap between what objectives this country needs to achieve and what it has at its disposal is quite a large one. If we start calculating what it needs in the immediate future, we would proceed to prepare a list like the following:~ 1.

Revision of the curriculum in science and mathematics;

Provision of in-service training to all teachers of the two subjects;

Production and publication of necessary text-books;

Equipping 70% of the schools with science rooms and basic science equipment;

Expanding the cadre of mathematics teachers by 40% and science teachers by 60% and recruiting them for schools with vacancies;

Ă&#x2021;.

Increasing the capacity of training colleges by four times to ensure that all the teachers needed are produced in five years.

3. But does an educational planner actually proceed to prepare such a list of future needs as soon as the diagnosis of the current situation is completed? If he does for what purpose is it done? Here, we come to a crucial point in the educational process which we analyse into two steps as (i)

Policy-formulaticn; and

(ii) Assessment of Future Needs. These are two sequential steps: that means, policy-formulation precedes the assessment of future needs. But the policyformulation step cannot be undertaken unless the planner has some idea of the magnitude of the needs. II.

THUMB-NAIL CALCULATIONS AS A PRE-REQUISITE FOR POLICYFORMULATION

4. To make detailed calculations of future needs as soon as the diagnosis has revealed a gap between what the system needs and it has would be a time-consuming task. What is. worse is that the entire effort would be wasted if the gap is too large and the policy-makers are compelled to revise the objectives. So with a view to saving unnecessary work at this stage, the educational planner resorts to what we would

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- 57

call thumb-nail* calculations â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that is, calculations which coula be done quickly but would be enough to show whethei the objectives are realistic. 5. The six points which we identified as needs in para 2 to implement an objective of compulsory mathematics and science teaching constitute such a calculation. We did not go into all the details of men, materials and money. But we identified the extent of the increases to ask ourselves the question whether such an expansion is within our reach. Here, we need to be careful. When we consider whether the expansion is within our reach or not we strictly go on the assumption that the methods and procedures currently in use would continue to be applied. So in our calculation of percentages we have assumed that these needs would have to be met under the existing ways of teaching science and mathematics. If at the conclusion of such a calculation, we say that the objectives are unrealistic we only make it as a qualified statement. It would only mean "unrealistic in terms of the existing practices, procedures and methods". 6. Sometimes, we would not make our thumb-nail calculations in an analytical manner as we did in para 2. We adopt a simpler method. We work with available cost data. Let us assume that the recurrent unit cost per pupil for teaching science and mathematics is $40 dollars per year over and above $50 for rest of the subjects. We proceed to calculate on this basis that -

40% of the school children cost $90 each per year. 60% cost $50 each per year.

The cost per 100 children in the above proportions would be 40 x 90 60 x 50

= =

$ 3,600 $ 3.000 $ 6,600

The objective of compulsory science and mathematics would mean that the cost per 100 children should go upto $9,000 (i.e. an increase of $2,400). That means the recurrent cost of education would go U F by 36%. A similar quick calculation would be made for the capital expenditure required for science rooms and equipment.

Thumb-nail is an expression which means "small but essentially complete".

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7. This kind of thumb-nail calculation using unit costs are quite handy in scrutinizing objectives, relating to the expansion of enrolments. Say, a country decides that its current primary enrolment ratio of 60% be increased to 90% during the next five years: the enrolments for y 0 = 6,000. Here, we can make two alternative decisions: (i)

increase 6,000 in y Q to 9,000 in y+c by means of arithmetical progression (i.e. 9.000-6.000 = 600 per year). 5

(ii)

increase 6,000 in y p to roughly 9,000 in y+g by means of geometrical progression (i.e. an annual compound growth rate of 0.85%).

The calculation? will give the following enrolment figures:Year

Arithmetical Progression

Geometric Progression

V+1

6,600

6,510

y+2

7,200

7,060

y+3

7,800

7,660

8,400

8,310

9,000

9,020

39,000

38,560

y+4 y+5 Total

If the unit cost is $50 the total investment needed in the five year plan period would be as follows:(i) Arithmetical progression: (ii) Geometrical progression : Difference :

$ 1;950,000 $ 1.928,000 $ 22,000

This would show not only how much the additional enrolments would cost but also which pattern of growth would cost less. S_. These thumb-nail calculations are required to advise the policy-makers on the overall impact of the objectives in terms of needs. The purpose of this advice is to enable them to take certain broad decisions relating to the objectives. These decisions can be of the following nature:-

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(i) Narrow down or re-Interpret the objectives; ÂŁr (ii)

Spell out alternative ways and means of accomplishing' objectives;

or (iii) both. Let us go back to the example of introducing science and mathematics. On the discovery that it would mean a 36% increase in the annual recurrent cost plus capital expenditure to build and equip science rooms in 70% of the schools, the policy-makers might decide to:(i) concentrate on the second level only; (ii)

(iii)

construct central laboratories to which students from several neighbouring schools would go for their practical work; expand teacher education facilities with a target of having the required number of teachers trained in ten years

and so forth. These decisions constitute the policy. In the process, the objectives are ~econsidered and principles of action are evolved in the form of strategies. Policies relate to each aspect of education and cover all objectives. A6 a body they constitute the national educational policy. 9. What is the educational planner's role in policyformulation? Strictly, it is a political function and is performed by the political policy-makers of the country (e.g. Minister, Cabinet or Council of Ministers, Chief Executive of the State). The educational planner is expected to play the key role of a technical adviser to such authorities. His function, therefore, is twofold:(i) He has to analyse the objectives with appropriate recourse to thumb-nail calculations and present a concise picture of the implications of each objective. In this, he would indicate the magnitude of the constraints in relation to men, materials and money. (ii) He would present alternative methods of achieving as much of the objectives as possible for consideration by political authorities. Each alternative would also be analysed to show its needs in men, materials and money. .../

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10. In performing this role, the educational planner has to remember that policy is the instrument of educational reform. It is through policy that reform measures are initiated and innovations installed. As such, this is the most creative step in the process of educational planning and its results are by far the most far-reaching. The importance of mobilizing all available technical and professional expertise and experience for this purpose cannot be over-emphasized. 11. In some countries, the educational planner's role does not end with the offer of advice. He is actually involved in drafting the policy. Then he cannot step with the presentation and evaluation of various alternatives. He has to choose one of the alternatives and develop it in detail in the form of a draft policy statement. This phase of work requires very close consultation with the policy-makers on one side and the professional colleagues of the national educational system on the other. It is a critical task in which the educational planner is called upon to rely on his skills of negotiation. III.

ASSESSMENT OF FUTURE NEEDS

12. Once the objectives are modified and the principles of action laid down by policy, the educational planner proceeds -to assess the future needs of the educational system to achieve such objectives in the manner envisaged. Now he is on a firmer footing than when he had only the objectives. A greater degree of realism and feasibility would have resulted in the process of formulating the policy. So, he could proceed with the calculation of needs more confidently. 13. The needs of the educational system are in the form of services and goods or, in other words, men and materials. As goods and services are ultimately purchased with money, the needs in the final analysis have to be expressed in terms of funds required. But we do not consider money in the initial steps of assessing future needs. This is to be postponed until we have a clear picture of all our needs in terms of men and materials â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the latter term extending to include land, buildings, equipment, machines, besides expendable or consumable materials. 14. Let us analyse in seven steps a procedure for assessing the future needs :Step I;

Calculate, on the basis of the national educational policy, the number of persons to be served. Where applicable and possible, this clientele should be expressed in terms of their needs, preferences and geographical distribution.

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Step II:

Estimate the number and size of different types of institutions or programmes required to serve the clientele. Here again, a clear idea of the nature of these institutions and programmes as well as of their geographical distribution Í6 very necessary. With the changing concept of education, this task Í6 becoming more complicated. When educational planning was confined to schools, all that was needed was to estimate the number of different types of schools and the number of school places or class-rooms. With the wide variety of teaching/learning situations — both formal, nonformal and informal — which are now considered, their nature, size and distribution have to be systematically worked out.

N.B.

This step is a critical one, because the results of all other steps are determined by this.

Step III: Determine the number, competencies and job descriptions of persons who would organize and conduct the requisite teaching-learning situations, worked out under step II. Personnel required fall into various grades and levels: teachers for different levels and types of education, with different subject specializations ; para-teachers or teaching aides who are involved mostly in nonformal programmes of education, supervisors, specialists in various professional functions like curriculum development, evaluation etc; administrators of different grades. Step IV:

Calculate the material needs such as text-books, teaching aids and materials, apparatus, equipment.

Step V:

Determine the needs in buildings, furniture, fittings and other facilities.

Step VI:

Identify and estimate the needs in incentives and assistance to students in the form of scholarships, grants or loans etc.

Step VII:

Identify and estimate the needs, if any, of ancillary services like transport, medical and dental care, placement in employment etc.

If all these steps are undertaken within an educational planning unit, one important requirement must be borne in mind: That is, to involve the various specialized units and divisions which are responsible for each aspect of education in the assessment of future needs, consultations with them should be considered indispensable. .../

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15. In this exercise, the quantitative techniques, discussed in lesson units 15-21, would be of use to the educational planner. Future needs, calculated in the manner described above, would be for the entire plan period. It is not necessary at this stage to think in terms of annual requirements. We are still in the process of determining how big an operation we could realistically undertake. It must be remembered that, at a later stage of the educational planning process, we would spell out the targets which we would actually try to achieve. Therefore, the assessment of future needs, done at this stage, is e means of developing essential information which would guide us in later decisions. This being the purpose of this exercise, we could adopt a useful and convenient short cut. Instead of working out the needs for every year of the plan period, we could project the situation as it would be in the last year of the plan period. Example:

We are in the process of developing an education plan for the period 1980-1984. On the basis of the policy, we project the size, nature and distribution of the clientele as in 1984. Say, we are dealing with the school level: by 1984 our enrolments are expected to be 14,300 boys and 10,200 girls in primary schools; 4,800 boys and 2,100 girls in secondary schools; 1,200 boys and 200 girls in technical schools. On the basis on standards and norms which are either existing or determined as new policy, we would work out our needs for 1984 as indicated below.

Item

Norm* or standard Primary Secondary Technical Schools per number Schools Schools Of P U D Ă&#x153; S

Class-room

Pr. 40 Sec. 35 Tech. 2 5

Science laboratories Workshops Teachers (male) Teachers (female)

612

197

Sec. 200 Tech. 120

Sec. 120 Tech. 80

192 84

67 11

(Pr. [Sec. (Tech.

32 25 18

447 319

These are purely arbitrary and given as example. They are not worked out on any logical basis. Each country has its own standards and norms. ,

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Norm* or standard Primary Secondary Technical Schools per number Schools Schools of pupils Pr.4 per pupil Sec. 8 per 8,400 98,000 55,200 pupil Tech.6 per pupil

Item

Text-books

Scholarsnips

Sec. 20% 1,380 560 Tech. 40% (We could go on to cover all other items) .

Now, these figures show us what we should have by 1984. 16. Once we know our needs as in the last year of our plan period, we should find out what we are required to acquire during the plan period. Here, we begin to compare what we have in the base year with what is needed. We prepare a balance sheet between what we have and what we will need. Example:

Returning to our example in the previous paragraph, we would prepare a balance sheet in the following manner:

Item

Needs during Plan Period

1980

1984

Class-rooms: Primary Secondary Technical

380 108 24

612 197 56

332 89 32

Science Labs Secondary Technical

12 4

34 12

22 8

Workshops Secondary Technical

30 4

58 18

28 14

342 128 36

447 192 67

105 64 31

Teachers (male) Primary Secondary Technical

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Item Teachers (female) Primary Secondary Technical Text-books Primary Secondary Technical Scholarships Secondary Technical

Heeds during Plan Period

1980

1984

123 32 1

319 84 11

196 52 10

36,500 14,300 1,080

98,000 55,200 6,400

61,500 40,900 7,320

420 75

1,380 560

960 485

Analysing these figures further, it would be found that the percentage increase over the 1980 stock during the plan period is as follows:Class-rooms 169% Science Labs 288% Workshops 224% Teachers (male) 140% Teachers (female) 265% Text-books 311% Scholarships 392% 17. The increases, when calculated both in absolute numbers and percentages, show whether they are too ambitious or not. Some anticipated increases would appear unrealistic. If these are clear enough we could make our decisions at this stage on whether further changes in objectives and principles of action are necessary. It would be perfectly in order to refer the problem back to the policy-making authorities and indicate why the policy, as formulated, needs to be reconsidered. But, sometimes, the increases might not be too ambitious and the objectives and the principles of action, embodied in the policy, would appear feasible. In that case, we proceed to the next step of costing the needs so that we could express them in terms of money. IV.

COSTING FUTURE NEEDS

18. For the same reasons discussed in para 15, we could cost the total costs of the needs of the system in the last year of plan period. It is assumed that the necessary cost data are available. If the data are not complete or reliable, the educational planner has to devote adequate attention to

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preparing a reasonably accurate set of cost data both on the basis of past trends and analysis of current costs. Analytical estimation of costs by determining the quantum of labour and materials called for every identifiable operation gives the most reliable cost data. For convenience of application, we reduce the cost data to unit costs â&#x20AC;&#x201D; i.e. per pupil, per teacher, per school place, per laboratory, per workshop, per textbook, per scholarship etc. Before we apply them to calculate the cost of our projected needs in the last year of the plan period, we muet consider one more refinement. Salaries of people or prices of materials do not remain 6tatic. They always go higher and higher. The cost data on the current rates will not be valid in the last year of the plan period which would be six to seven years away. Therefore, the unit costs have to be adjusted according to anticipated increases. The rates of such increases could be worked out on past trends or fixed on the basis of an educated guess. 19. Applying such adjusted unit costs, we would cost each set of activities we propose to take up during the plan period. When we know the cost of each set of activities and the total financial outlay which the plan would require for its final year, we compare the increase with the current expenditure. It should not be surprising if the increase appears quite ambitious. It is always useful to compare this increase with the past trends. What has been the rate of growth of educational expenditure during the last five, ten or fifteen years? If the anticipated growth rate is much higher than the past rates we are in for a very difficult time when we proceed to the next step of the educational planning process, which is the establishment of priorities and setting targets.

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TEST AND APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Why is policy-formulation an essential intermediate step between the establishment of objectives and the assessment of future needs? Why does the planner resort to "thumb-nail calculations" before any policy is recommended? If after such a calrulation he says that the objectives are unrealistic, what does he really mean? What is the role of the educational planner in the formulation of the national educational policy? Assess the contribution you or your unit has made in the formulation of the educational policy of your country. Prepare a pro forma which you will use in getting all concerned units and divisions to report to you on the future needs as assessed by them. What information will you supply to ensure accuracy of the estimates? Why is costing of future needs important? What are the pre-requisites for a satisfactory costing exercise?

COMPASE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAF

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SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Objectives generally state what the authorities wish or want to accomplish. They embody Âżesired results or outcomes usually over a long-term perspective. The attainment of objectives XB conditioned by limitations of resources, socio-political and cultural constraints and such other factors. After matching the objectives with such limitations and constraints, the highest level of authorities have to modify the objectives and spell out "the ways and means by which the modified objectives are to be accomplished. This is done by means of policy. Future needs for educational development cannot be assessed unless and until the modified objectives and the principles of action are known. That is why policy-formulation is an essential intermediate step. What we call thumb-nail calculations are simple methods of estimating the limitations of resources one is likely to encounter in implementing a particular objective. The extent of the modifications sind the nature of the principles of action are determined by the resource position. So these calculations are of direct use in recommending changes in existing policy or a new policy. When, after such a calculation, a particular objective is declared unrealistic.it only means that it is "unrealistic in terms of the current practices and principles of actionV This means that an objective can still be justified if the authorities adopt appropriate modifications in the current practices and adhere to innovative principles of action. The role of the educational planner in policy-formulation is as described in paras 9-11. See how much of the activities mentioned in this account are being performed by you or your unit. Your guide in drawing up a pro forma for this purpose are the seven steps described in para 14. Each step would suggest a separate table. The table for step I (the clientele) will be a key table because it has to be referred to in working out the others. The rest of the tables will embody the needs on each of the detailed items or descriptors under

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- 70 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

Institutions and programmes, Personnel, Textbooks and Teaching Materials and Aids, Buildings and Facilities. Scholarships and Assistance to Students. Ancillary

Services.

To maintain uniformity and ensure accuracy, you have to supply the following:-

(a)

A clear statement of the policy explaining its implications in terms of the objective and principles of action;

(b)

Norms or standards applicable to each category of needs.

Future needs when expressed in terms of numbers and quantities cannot be evaluated in comparison with anticipated resources. For purposes of this comparison all items have to be expressed in a common denomination. We use money as this common denomination. Hence thĂŠ necessity to cost the assessed needs. Comprehensive and accurate cost data, obtained through .financial analysis, are a "must" for this exercise. What is needed most are reliable unit costs for all kinds of activities.

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ADDITIONAL READING

Y. Dror: Public Policy-maKing Re-examined. Scranton, Penn., Chandler, 1968. Part V (On Improving Public Policymaking). W.L. RenwicX and L.J. Ingham (ed.): Educational Planning in New Zealand. Wellington Government Printer, 1974 (Papers by L.V. Castle, L.J. Ingham and G.A. Vignaux). J.D. Chesswas; Methodologies of Educational Planning for Developing Countries. Paris, H E P , 1969 (pages 38-79). E. Schiefelbein and RĂźssel G. Davis: Development of Educational Planning Models and Application in the Chilean School Reform, Lexington, Mass., Lexington, 1974 (pages 1-42).

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IV ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES AND SETTING TARGETS

OBJECTIVES When you have gone through this unit, you should be able to -

analyse the identified future needs according to their contribution to'the objectives;

determine priorities assignable to objectives, programmes, projects and activities;

understand the concept of global and sectoral or detailed targets;

work out targets on the basis of resources available and priorities assigned.

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INTRODUCTION

1. We have, in our discussion qf the educational planning process, come to a point where we conclude a preparatory phase and start on the phase of making hard choices. Upto now, we have seen how the process which began with the establishment of objectives progressed to the stage when we had assessed the future needs and costed them approximatelyThrough these preparatory phases, we have amassed all of the relevant information which would help us to answer 6uch questions as the following:1. How much of the goods and services, which we have identified as our future needs to achieve the objectives of educational development, can the country actually provide? 2. As needs are bound to be in excess of the resources, which of the objectives should receive priority consideration? 3. What shall we actually achieve under each objective? How can we -specify our selected level of achievement in quantitative terms? What we aim to achieve wLth such a line of questioning is a set of decisions specifying the targets of our plan. It is a process of narrowing down what we like to achieve into what we must actually achieve. 2. Realistic targets form the very foundation of a plan. A target, it may be emphasized is not a statement of intentions in a vague form. A target is a fixed quantity or a measurable level. It has been defined as an objective to which a number is attached either in the form of a quantity or a date or both. Por instance, "providing universal primary education as early as possible" is an objective, which becomes a target when it is presented in a form like "80% of children of agegroup x-y to be enrolled in school by 1985; 90% in 1990 and 100% in 2000". An example of a target with only a date would be "the revision of primary school curricula to include work experience by 1980". Even in this case, one could say that a quantity is implied because all curricula are required to be revised by this data.

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3. Setting targets brings us to the level of concrete action. We are no longer considering our wants and wishes in an exploratory manner. What we select now as our targets is what we really think to be within our capacity and resources — what we concentrate on achieving to bring us closer to the ultimate accomplishment of our objectives. We cannot afford to be over-ambitious or over-cautious. We can neither aim too high nor too low. II.

ESTABLISHING PRÍORITIES

4. In planning and management, priority means the grading of the claim for resource allocation. Objectives, programmes, projects, agencies etc. are all competitors for resources. The resources being always scarce and limited, each has to malte a claim for its share of resources and justify it. The authority concerned with each objective, programme, project or agency would, quite naturally, consider their own activity to be of foremost importance and justify it accordingly. Each one of them would be correct in what they say and their justifications would be no doubt tenable. But everyone cannot get all the resources which are justified as required by them. Someone has to undertake the unpleasant task of not only telling that but grading each one's claim in an order of importance from the point of view of overall needs or policy. This someone is, often, the planner. How does he proceed to ensure that the place he assigns to something in an order of importance or priority is reasonable, if not correct? 5. Assigning importance or priority to a group of things would mean that they are immediately put into three broad categories:i. ii. iii.

"Dispensable" — i.e. not urgent and hence could be abandoned or postponed for the present. "Wants" —

i.e. desirable but not essential.

"Musts" — i.e. essential and cannot be postponed or abandoned. "Musts" include, above all, commitments made in the past which, therefore, have to be provided for until the conclusion of such comitment (e.g. salaries and salary increments of personnel in service; operational costs of institutions; funds for on-going projects).

The first task of the educational planner, when he proceed» to establish priorities, is to identify that part of the assessed future needs which fall in the category of commitments . It would be found that as much as 80% of the needs would belong to this category. He has no alternative but to accept them as his first priority. /

- 77 6. To assign the rest of the needs into the categories "musts" "wants" and "dispensables", he should have a carefully prepared 6et of criteria. From where does he derive his criteria? The principal source of these criteria is the statement of objectives and thr national educational policy. But in using them one has to be careful. The order in which the objectives or policies are listed may not necessarily toe an order of priority. Most statements of objectives and policies adopt a logical order more or less in the following form: (i) considerations of quantitatively expanding the educational system to serve increasing clienteles due to demograohic factors or social demand for education : (ii) (iii)

considerations of improving the quality of services rendered by the educations1 system; considerations of gearing education to needs of socio-economic development in terms of meeting human resource requi' --ments on cultural and intellectual needs.

Sometimes, they adhere to the division of the educational system into levels and type* of education. In others, it could be combinations of the above two arrangements. Thus, one has to examine the statements thoroughly to ensure whether they already indicate the priority which national authorities would assign to various objectives. In case the statements are not helpful, it would be necessary to consult the policymaking authorities and obtain a clear directive from them. This is our first criterion: we adopt the priority assigned to each objective of educational development by the policymaking authorities. 7. Now, we take into consideration under each of the objectives the needs which we have identified and costed according to procedures discussed in the previous lesson unit. Our attempt is to put them into the three categories of "musts' "wants" and "dispensables". The main criterion in this task is the importance of the corrective action for which the needs are identified. As we would recall, we identified our needs on the basis of a diagnosis of the existing situation. The diagnosis highlights the defects and deficiencies to be remedied through corrective action. So the corrective action â&#x20AC;&#x201D; which is reform of the existing situation â&#x20AC;&#x201D; deserves high priority as "musts". Where several corrective actions under the same objective are competitors for resources, we have to evaluate them further to identify an order of priority among them. .../

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Under the objective of improving science education, the following corrective actions are identified with costs as for the five-year plan period:(i)

increase the number of pupils studying science through a system of incentives; ($400,000)

(ii)

revise the curricula in science subjects to make contents relevant to the needs of the country ($120,000) and replace the textbooks currently in use: ($6,000,000)

(iii)

provide in-service training to teachers to improve methods of instruction; ($250,000)

(iv)

award scholarships annually to ten science teachers and supervisors for study abroad; ($300,000).

(v)

(vi)

publish popular books on science and hold frequent exhibitions to develop an awareness among people on science and technology ($300,000) give subsidies to newspapers to publish special supplements on science ($100,000)

(vii)

construct science laboratories in 4,000 schools through a ten-year project; ($28,000,000)

On assignment of priority to this objective, the "ceiling" for it has been fixed at $20,000,000 for the plan period. Now the task of the educational planner is to evaluate'this list of 7 items and determine the priority among them in the allocation of the provision of $20 million. The first step is to analyse them into the three categories : Dispensable:

items (i) and (vi): (Reasons: facilities by themselves would be adequate incentives. There is no need to provide any other incentives; subsidies to newspapers for popularizing science is an activity which should be taken up only if resources are plentiful.)

Wants

: items (iv) and (v)

Musts

: items (ii) , (iii) and (vii)

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Among the "musts" which are the most urgent? Items (ii) and (iii) would qualify to be regarded the most far-reaching in their impact. ($6,370,000) -

Item (vii) would be the last.

($28,000,000)

On this basis we would assign priorities as follows :-• Priority 1

Items ii and iii

Item

vii

v )(Decision made similarly j on which has a greater Item iv J impact)

Item

Item vi

8. Our list of needs would not include any corrective actions. There would also be needs listed as requirements of growth — for expanding the system. Here, one has to examine whether such needs had not been already included among the "musts" as a commitment. If requirements for growth had not gone into that category, it means that the expansion for which needs have been identified is for desirable growth and not for obligatory growth. Once this distinction is made, such needs would find their place in the order of priority after the needs for corrective action. 9. We may summarize our discussion on the establishment of priorities as follows:(i)

(ii)

The order of priority among objectives is either indicated by the policy-making authorities or settled in consultation with them. The priority among needs under each objective is worked out first by analysing them into the two broad areas of (a) needs to fulfil or continue on-going commitments and (b) needs for future development — i.e. growth and change. Needs to meet commitments would receive highest priority.

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(iii)

Needs for future development will again be considered in two groups: (a)

those needed for corrective action â&#x20AC;&#x201D; reform and improvement;

for

(t>) those needed for growth or expansion. Here the first group would have preference over the second. To set right what is wrong is important than expanding the services or facilities. (iv)

In each of the above groups, the needs will be analysed into three categories:dispensable - to be given lowest priority wants

- to be considered if resources permit

musts

- to be given highest priority.

Inside each category, the needs will be arranged according to their importance in relation to the objectives. Those which bring about the most far-reaching results would receive higher priority. 10. We have approached the establishment of priorities as a mental-intensive operation. We have highlighted logical thinking as its basis and would emphasize that the involvement of as many informed persons as possible in a participatory effort would substantially enrich the results. There are also some mathematical techniques which could be used in this exercise. One of them, namely Cost-Benefit Analysis, is discussed in some detail in the next lesson unit. (See lesson unit No. 26) Another is the technique of Operations Research, which includes such methods as linear programmingi simplex technique, dynamic programming and queues. Unless a problem is serious enough to justify the time, effort and resources necessary for these techniques, their application is not recommended. III.

SETTING TARGETS

11. A target is a fixed quantity or level which the planner aims at attaining within a specified period. It is fixed because he must have a firm basis on which to determine how much of his resources would be allocated towards its achievement. The planner may revise his targets upwards or downwards from time to time. But during the intervals between such revisions, the targets remain fixed as a guide to implementing agencies. It is this particular characteristic of

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being a fixed point for a certain length of time which makes target setting a very important step in the planning process. The target for the time being becomes the point of concentration of the efforts of an organization. 12. Target setting is the final phase of a gradual process of choosing what should be undertaken during the plan period. We observed how oojectives are elaborated and modified through policies and how policies enabled, the assessment of future needs. In establishing priorities among the identified needsÂŤ we choose those items which are "musts". At the target setting phase, we decide how much of the "musts" we should aim at and for which resources are to be alioted. The decision of how much is determined by the availability of resources. 13. In lesson unit no. 21 we discussed how the resources available to education could be projected with the help of relevant data. A reliable estimate of the quantity and the nature of the resources is the first step in setting targets. 14. Targets in education are of two types: global targets and sectoral or detailed targets. Global targets are in the form of the number of persons served by the educational system. The total enrolments to be attained in different levels and types of education or educational institutions or programmes represent such global targets. These could be expressed in actual numbers (e.g. 2.5 million children in primary schools, 0.7 million in secondary schools, etc) or as percentages of corresponding age groups (e.g. 85% of children in age-group 6-14) or in terms of growth rates. On the basis of some thumbnail calculations (see lesson unit no. 24, paras 4-8), we would decide on a set of global targets of this nature as a tentative framework for the consideration of sectoral or detailed targets. We call it a tentative framework because we may have to revise it several times as we work out the detailed targets. But we cannot work out the detailed targets unless we have a global target to guide us. (Here again, we have an illustration of the -reiterative nature of the educational planning process. At various stages of this process, we have to go back to stages we have already completed, make revisions in them and re-do the whole exercise all over again. This would take place several times before a satisfactory plan could be evolved). 15. We proceed to set the sectoral or detailed targets on the basis of the priorities we have assigned to the future needs. Let us consider the procedure by going back to the example we worked out in para 7.

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With $20 million as resources estimated to be available, we have to set targets for the priorities we had identified: Item ii

How much of the activity?

Item iii

How many teachers to be given inservice training?

Item vii

How many science laboratories to be constructed?

Item v

How many books and exhibitions or how much of funds to be allotted?

Item iv

How many teachers and supervisors to be sent abroad?

Item i

What incentives, in what form, for how many?

Item vi

How much to be allotted as subsidies?

Here, again, we need our cost data. Unit costs would be required for items like (iii), (vii), (v) and (vi). Assuming that we have these data, we could set targets like the following:Item ii â&#x20AC;&#x201D; As this is considered the highest priority in this activity, take up the entire activity of revising curricula and providing texts books - $6,120,000. Item iii â&#x20AC;&#x201D; On a unit cost of $100 per teacher set a target of 500 teachers per year for the five years - $250,000. We have thus provided for what we considered to be the most important activities. We have five more items and a sum of $13,630,000. Item vii (with a unit cost of $14,000 per laboratory) is the largest and the needs identified come upto 2,000 laboratories. It is clear that funds are not available to meet the full needs. This means that what was proposed as a ten year project would have to be extended. Suer a decision being unavoidable, we could postpone considering this item, until we have examined the rest of the items. Here, we may start from the lowest priority:

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Itera vi â&#x20AC;&#x201D; we may decide to drop this item altogether. So we make no allocation for it. Itera i â&#x20AC;&#x201D; we may be inclined to drop it. But we may have- advice from the relevant units or divisions that a system of incentives should be tried out. We may, therefore, agree to an experimental or pilot project and provide a lump sum of $50,000. Item iv â&#x20AC;&#x201D; we may have the same experience as in item i. So in deference to the units or divisions concerned, we allow five scholarships per year for the five-year period $125,000. Now we find the balance available for further allocations as $13,455,000. This has to give us targets in items vii and v. If this whole amount is set aside for science laboratories we could set a target of 960. On negotiations with the units or divisions responsible for item v, we may decide to reduce the science laboratories to 950 and allow an allocation of 150,000 for item v. On such a basis we could conclude a set of targets as follows:Item ii - full activity Item iii - 500 teachers per year Item vii - 190 science laboratories per year Item v - 50% of identified needs Item iv - 5 per year Item i - Pilot project Item vi - dropped Total

$ 6,,120,000 $ 250,000 $13,,300,000 $ 150,000 $ 125,000 50,000 $

$19,,995,000

At this stage, it is possible that the school buildings division comes with a proposal based on its latest research that a science laboratory could be constructed with changes in design and materials to cost $10,000. So we may increase the target from 190 per year to 266, thus expediting the project. 16. Just as the establishment of priorities, target setting is also a mental-intensive activity. In the above example, it was shown how the relevant unit or division would agitate for a higher target. So, this phase involves consultations and negotiations. A unit or division would revise its proposals, change the strategy or method of operation and urge for a higher target (as the school building division did in our example). The educational planner has to consider each

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of these on its own merits, it should be emphasized that the educational planner's responsibility is in no way different from those of the concerned units or divisions. The achievement of the objectives as efficiently as possible is a joint responsibility of the entire organization. The planner makes sure that the claims of various units and divisions are considered as a whole in a harmonious manner to get the best results for the resources. IV.

MODELS AND COMPUTERS IN TARGET-SETTING

17. A significant step in improving the efficiency of target-setting is the technique of model-building and the use of computers. Models are mathematical expressions which represent the relationship among the various needs of the educational system. T

ยง*s

T E C S

= = = -

teacher cost enrolments average class size unit salary per teacher

As a highly simplified example of a model, this has four variables. They are called variables because different values could be assigned to them. We assign values according to policy. Say, for example, we are working on a policy that T should not exceed 80% of the total education budget. With this T becomes fixed and we have three variables which have to be manipulated to get the best possible results. If T is very low, we could limit E (= reduce enrolments) and/or increase C (= lay down a higher average class size) and/or reduce S (= reduce unit salary of teachers by such means as recruiting teachers with lower qualifications and consequently receiving lower salaries). What is the best combination of these possible courses of action? Another way to ask this question is: What targets would we set for E, C and S? To arrive at the best combination we have to work out a variety of combinations and evaluate the results of each combination. This is the reiterative process to which we had already made reference. 18. The advantage of a model is that the process of working out a wide range of results from different combinations of targets can be computerized. A computer could calculate thousands of combinations within minutes. It will take each variable and give a range of values and produce the resulting picture. With a large number of such alternative combinations and their results, the educational planner's task of picking out the most acceptable combination becomes both simple and reliable. z

- 85 V.

CONCLUSION

19. Establishing priorities and setting targets marks the penultimate step of what lesson unit 22 called the "planning stage" proper within the entire educational planning process. The next lesson unit will acquaint you with a special technique used in establishing priorities, namely with Cost-Benefit Analysis.

- 87

TEST AND APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Question 1: Why do we describe the establishment of priorities and target-setting as a phase of making hard choices? Question 2:

Is it justifiable to assume that needs as assessed in relation to policies have once again to be evaluated in terms of "dispensables", "wants" and "musts"?

Question 3: Why should needs identified for corrective action have precedence over those identified for growth or expansion? Question 4; What modern techniques could the educational planner employ in establishing priorities and setting targets? What considerations should he keep in mind when employing such techniques? Question 5:

What is the advantage of models in targetsetting?

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAF

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SUGGESTED ANSWERS

At the point of establishing priorities and setting targets, we proceed from a preparatory phase of amassing relevant information to the phase of making important planning decisions. Every planning decision is one of choice. Choices are hard because (a) the competing candidate needs are many; (b) most of them relate to very urgent action; and (c) every choice results in exclusion of all or some parts of another urgent activity. Yes. Experience shows that needs when identified by various authorities in various agencies do not always signify the same degree of urgency. There are instances when some needs are identified merely for cosmetic purposes â&#x20AC;&#x201D; to make things tidy, to improve the appearance, to give an impression of modernness. It is therefore important to evaluate them very carefully. The number that would fall outside the category of "musts" could be quite substantial. The system must be corrected and put right before its grov'th or expansion is considered. Reform should receive a higher priority for this reason. Several techniques falling within the overall description of Operations Research could be utilized in establishing priorities and setting targets. See paras 10 and 16. These techniques are highly sophisticated and demand data of very reliable quality and services of specialized personnel. Before a technique is proposed for adoption, it is important to verify whether the magnitude of the problem justifies the costs and the effort. Models, which could be applied through computer, en?ble the reiterative process of experimenting with a wide range of alternative targets to be undertaken with speed, accuracy and comprehensiveness. This is of invaluable assistance in target-setting. Already several models, representing mathematically the relationships among the main components of the educational system, are in use. Unesco has evolved an Education Simulation Model, which has been tried out in several countries including Iran, Philippines and Sri Lanka in Asia. .../

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ADDITIONAL READING

J.D. Chesswas: Methodologies of Educational Planning for Developing Countries. Paris, HEP, 1969 (Pages 80T92) .

E. Schiefelbein and RĂźssel G. Davis: Development of Educational Planning Models and Application in the Chilean School' Reform, Lexington, Mass., Lexington, 1974 (Chapter III).

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93 -

V ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES THROUGH COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVES When you have gone through this unit, you should be able to understand in what way Cost-Benefit-Analysis can contribute to a more rational determination of priorities between educational strategies« programmes, and projects; point out the difference between 'Cost-Effectiveness Analysis' and 'Cost-Benefit-Analysis• proper; say in what manner Cost-Benefit-Analysis measures the costs and benefits of an educational project; calculate the discounted present value of future income and cost flows of a particular educational project; name the chief limitations of applying Cost-BenefitAnalysis in the actual practice oí educational planning.

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V ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES THROUGH COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

1. As we have seen in unit B', educational planning must establish priorities among the virtually unlimited range of future needs, and must translate lofty and ambitious goals into concrete plan targets. The need to determine priorities pervades all levels at which educational planning is undertaken: 2. On the most global scale, education itself must vie to be given proper priority in the national budget. It must prove its worth, and permit a critical look at its costs, in comparison with such other agents of national development as agriculture, roads and communications, improved systems of health care, industrialization, and so on. 3. Below this level, priorities have to De established between the main levels and types of education. Given the constraints of time, men, and money, what relative emphasis should the educational planner accord to the expansion and improvement of primary, as opposed to secondary and higher education? What priority should the area of non-formal and adult education receive? 4. Then, with these 'strategic' priorities determined, comes the arduous task of deciding on priority programmes and projects within each level and type of education. In secondary education, for example, should we pursue the strategic goal of a more workoriented education by opening up more technical/vocational schools, or develop a more 'vocationalized' curriculum for all secondary schools? In adult education, are literacy courses or employmentoriented training programmes the wiser choice? In teacher training, is better teaching equipment or refresher training for master teachers the more urgent project? 5. At all these levels, priorities have to be established and hard choices have to be made. In so doing, educational planners can no longer bank on intuition and experience alone. Education has grown into an extremely complex and costly enterprise which can less than ever afford mal-investments and wrongly chosen thrusts. Objective and rational decision-making techniques must be employed whenever possible. Cost-Benefit Analysis is one such techniqueâ&#x20AC;˘

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CoEt-Benefit-Analysis (CBA) systematically compares the costs and expected benefits of each of a number of competing strategies, programmes, and projects. By assessing their economic profitability, it gives the planner an important yardstick to determine priorities rationally rather than by intuition.

II.

PRIORITIES BETWEEN PROJECTS WITH THE ÂżAME OBJECTIVE

6. The logic of CBA is perhaps best illustrated by considering a Bimple case first. Suppose the planner has to establish priorities among several projects, all of which purport to meet the same kind of objective. His task of weighing the respective costs and benefits will, in this instance, be much easier than if he were to compare projects whose objectives are entirely different. Let us see how CBA can be applied to the following case : Government X has established the objective of reducing educational wastage at the primary level. There are a variety of possible projects which may serve this objective. The planning division is therefore charged with the job of selecting that particular project for which the relationship between costs and benefits is optimal. After a preliminary screening of project proposals, four remain for detailed examination: Project A : Provision of school-meals In the poorest regions of the country free daily schoolmeals will be provided for the children in order to improve their nutritional status. Children will be induced to remain in school because of the provision of free meals, and their parents will be partly relieved of the burden of support. Scope and Costs : 500,000 students each school-year will receive free school-meals. The total cost over the five-year plan period is estimated at US S 1 million. Expected benefits:It is hoped that, as a result of this project, 6,000 students per year will be retained in school who would otherwise have dropped out. Over the full plan period of 5 years, therefore, 30,000 students will be retained.

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- 97 Project B : Provision of free textbooks The purchase of textbooks is a costly affair for poor families. A project is designed to provide children from poor families with free textbooks. Scope

and

Costs : 50,000 students will receive 3 free textbooks each. The total costs over the Plan period are estimated at US S 150,000.

Expected benefits : Per year 1,500 potential drop-outs will be retained. Over the full plan period 7,500 students will be retained. Project C : Improvement of pupil-teacher ratio In the base year of the plan, there are 55,265 teachers, making for a pupil-teacher ratio of 38 : proposed to increase the quality of instruction by improving the pupil-teacher ratio to 33 : 1 in the year of the plan. Scope

and

primary 1. It is gradually final

Costs : The costs of gradually lowering the pupil-teacher ratio by providing additional teachers are estimated at US $ 870,000 during this plan period.

Expected benefits : It is expected that, due to better teaching conditions in the school, 15,000 potential dropouts will be retained over the full five-year plan period. Project D : Introduction of vocational subjects Instruction in and practical work on subjects of direct relevance to the day-to-day life of the children may increase the productivity of education and make the school a more attractive place to stay. If parents feel that their children are obtaining useful skills in school they may keep their children there. Therefore, it is proposed to introduce technical subjects in urban schools and agricultural ones in rural schools. Scope

and

Costs : Over the plan period an increasing number of schools will be included in the experimental programme of technical/ agricultural subjects. Textbooks will be produced and teachers will receive in-service training. Laboratories and workshops will be constructed and equipment distributed. The total cost is US $ 275,000.

- 98 Expected benefits : It is envisaged that, due to the more relevant programme, 13,000 potential drop-outs will decide to remain in the school. 7« In summary, the costs and expected benefits of all four suggested projects are as follows :

Pro grammt

Project A

¡ Reduction of education wasta 3 e

Costs

Benefits

Be nefit per

(US$)

(No . of retained students)

1, 000 US $

1,000,000.-

30,000

30 50

Project B

150,000.-

7,500

Project C

870,000.-

15,000

17.2

Project D

275,000.-

13,000

^7.3

All four pro jects 2,295,000.-

65,500

8. The total programme for the reduction ui wastage will cost US i 2,295 million over five years and it is expected that in these five years about 65,500 students who otherwise would have dropped out may be retained in primary schools. You should be reminded, however, that this estimated target of 65,500 may not be reached due to the possible limit of effectiveness as discussed in para.11. The Planning Division of the Ministry of Education presents this programme to the Central Plan Organization and, after long discussions, it is decided that for this programme only US S 1,600,000.- will be available. Thus, not the full programme can be implemented. Vhat to do? There are two alternatives: (a) drop some of the projects, and implement the others in full. (b) reduce the scale of the projects. • ../

- 99 How should the planner decide which project to drop, or which one to reduce in size? What should be his criteria?

According to the logic of cost-benefit analysis, the criterion for selection of projects should be the contribution each project makes to the achievement of the programme objective per each unit of inputs. This contribution is measured through the "cost-benefit ratio', i.e. the total amount of expected benefits divided by the total costs of a project.

9. In our example, the position will be as follows: Project B (free textbooks) and D (vocational subjects) are about equally effective in retaining potential dropouts. Their cost-benefit ratios of 50 and 47.5 are about the same. Project A (school Deals) is less effective, as shown by its less favourable costbenefit ratio of 30. Finally, Project C (pupil-teacher ratio) contributes least to the achievement of the programme objective, when measured per unit of inputs (i.e. per 1,000 US $) . It has a very modest cost-benefit ratio of 17.2 and should therefore be discarded. 10. Without Project C, the remaining programme will cost US $ 1,425,000.-, that is just about the amount made available by the Plan Organization for the anti-vastage programme in toto. But now one final question arises: Vhy not straightaway allocate all funds to Project B as the most effective one, by stepping up its scale and sacrificing Projects A and D in addition to Project C? 11. Th s seemingly logical decision may, howe- jr, be totally wrong. The reason is that the effectiveness of the project at its present size will not necessarily be maintained if the scale of the project is increased. Now, the project providss free textbooks to 50,000 students. These students are supposed to be from the poorest families. If expanded the project would include children from somewhat less deprived families as well, and it is quite arguable if free-text books for these better-off children would in any way bring down the dropout-rate. The very expansion of the textbook-project may, in fact, jeopardize its effectiveness.

In general, before any project ia> to be cut down or expanded in scale, a careful investigation in to the effectiveness of the project at its new scale is called for. Cost -Benefit Ratios usua uy vary with the size of a proj ect â&#x20AC;˘

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- 100 -

12. The exercise we have just concluded highlights the logic of cost-benefit analysis in its least sopîii sticated form. In fact, the term "cost-effecti veness-analysis" is often used to distinguish this from the much more complicated cade where priorities have to be determined araony projects, programmes or whole plans with seemingly quite different objectives. 13. In the above example, the criterion for project selection vas the contribution each of them made to achieving the overall programme objective, i.e. retention of dropouts, per unit of the inputs each project would consume. It should be noted that the exercise required the obje'etives of all four projects not only to be the same, but also to be expressed in measurable terms« The concrete result expected from each project had, therefore, to be indicated very clearly - a requirement which ir. reality nay present the greatest difficulty. 14. Furthermore, cost-effectiveness analysis as in our example requires that projects have only one- major objective. If, for instance, besides reducing wastage- {objective l) the planner were also asked to speed up educational progress in backward areas (objective 2 ) , he may have to decido to retain less effective projects - from the point of view of wastage reduction - because they nay have a specific impact on backward areas.

III.

PRIORITIES BETWEEN PROJECTS WITH DIFFERENT OBJECTIVES : COST-BENEFIT-AKALYSIS

PROPER

Economic and other Objectives of- Education 15» While priorities among projects with one and the same overarching objective may not always be easy to establish, the problems encountered will by no means be insurmontable. But soon the planner is bound to find a much binger stumbling block in his way : how can he assess the costs and benefits of projects with vastly different objectives? How to determine priorities between larger programmes, aimed at different clienteles, addressed to a variety of learning needs, many of them supposed to serve a diverse set of educational objectives at a time? Are we not trying to compare the incomparable ? l6. This is where Cost-Benefit-Analysis steps in by offering a common denominator which will enable comparison and choice even between projects with, at first glance, very different objectives* The cost-benefi t analyst will argue as follows : "1 admit your adult education project and my plan to put up 5 new technical colleges seem worlds apart. It's not easy to decide which of the two deserves priority. But there is one thing they do have in

• ••/

- 101 common: Both try to enhance the earning capacity of their respective graduates, and both seek to strengthen the economic productivity of our people. Let us see which of the two projects is likely to be more effective in that respect, and we have a solid yardstick to settle the question of priorities". The measurable economic benefits of any educational project, on which Cost-Benefit-Analysis solely concentrates, provide a common denominator for objective choice between alternative educational projects, programmes or plans. 17* Thus, Cost-Benefit-Analysis is focussed only on measurable economic benefits of education. But this is not to deny that education generates other, non-economic benefits as wellÂť Some of these may be more of an "investment", others more of a "consumption" type. Some accrue in the social and cultural realms, others may be of essentially political nature, and still others may be felt by the individual only. Seen from the educational planner's angle, an educational plan has many objectives, and improved economic performance may not necessarily be the most important one. Therefore, while CBA can be an important element in decision-making, it takes only some of the relevant factors into account, and can never replace the planner's independent final judgement. Individual vs. Societal Choices 18. CBA is being presented in this unit as an analytical tool for educ .tional planners to be used in determining priorities between alternative projects. In making such choices, the ultimate interest planners will have in mind is the well-being and progress of society. CBA, in other words, can serve as a tool for societal decision-making. 19. But the costs and benefits of educational projects or programmes can also be assessed from the viewpoint of a private individual. Questions sucb as whether to join a certain specialized stream of education, or whether or not to enter a university, present individuals with choice problems of tremendous significance. Just like the educational planner, the individual will weigh the costs and benefits of each alternative, but he will do so from an entirely different point of view. What governs his choice are his own individual interests, not those of the society. CBA, therefore, can also provide a tool for individual decision-making. 20. The actual differences between CBA in societal and in individual decision-making will become clear as we discuss below the question of how costs and benefits are to be measured. Evidently, what counts as costs for the society may not be costs for the individual at all, and certain benefits may accrue to society which the individual does not register. One important observation follows from this: the educational choices made by individuals according to their own rationale, and the choices made by planners which are embodied in the educational plan, may often be inconsistent.

102 -

The logic of CBA can bÂŤ applied to social as well as to individual deciaion-makin g in education. However, society and individuals ere likely to have different notions of costs and benefits Th*s can result in a nie match of societt ' and individual priorities in educational matters. The Measurement of Costs 21. The measurement of the costs of education, for purposes of CBA, involves more than a simple calculation of money expenditures* It requires an estimate of the total cost of a particular educational choice, in terms of alternative opportunities foregone either by society, or by the private individual. 22. From the educational planner's point of view, the, relevant coat concept is the total resource cost to the economy ot the particular project or programme under consideration. This includes the recurrent cost on salaries and other recurrent items I it includes an estimate of the annual amortization of buildings over their expected life-span; it finally includes the opportunity costs of students' time who, by joining this particular educational programme, forego the chance to enter the labour force now and to contribute to production. 23. From the individual's point of view, fees and the cost of books, school uniforms, transport, etc. are the most obvious cost elements. If students receive scholarships, their value oust be deducted from the costs of fees. Opportunity costs are, of courseÂŤ another cost element as the individual is likely to think twice before sacrificing his chance to immediately earn an income rather than invest unpaid time into more education. The Meas renient of Benefits 2km The planner, from a societal viewpoint, is interested in the likely economic benefits that will accrue to society as a result of â&#x20AC;˘ particular educational project or programme. He will look beyond the immediate programme objectives (e.g., turning out so and so many graduates with a particular type of qualification) to the economic contribution these people will ultimately make to the national product. The economic benefit expected from a particular educational programme is given by the additional lifetime earnings of a person who undergoes that programme, over the lifetime earnings of a person who does not enroll in that programme.

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- 103 -

25« The same indicator - additional lifetime earnings - will also be used by an individual considering whether or not to take up a certain educational programme. The only technical difference is that the planner will be interested in earnings before taxation, whereas the individual will make earnings after taxation the basis for his calculation. 26. How can future lifetime earnings be estimated? The standard method used in CBA is to use cross-sectional data to determine typical age-education-earning profiles for workers of different age and with different educational backgrounds. Admittedly, this •ethod reflects today's income and labour market conditions instead of future ones; it is a poor substitute for what the planner would really like to know, but it seems to be the only practical solution. The Weaknesses of Cost-Benefit-Analysis 27» Is the method of measuring benefits of education through earning differentials valid at all? Isn't a person's income also dependent on many factors other than his educational level? Here lies, in fact, a major conceptual weakness of CBA: it is unable to single out the influences of "intervenino" variables, such as sex, natural ability, social status, practical experience, etc», on a person's level of income, and instead ascribes everything to education. 26. A further weakness of the manner in wh ch CBA estimates ho benefits of education lies in its neglect of the so-called "spillover" benefits: for example, fellow-workers with little education nay find their productivity enhanced by working in a team with colleagues who have undergone a special educational programmeBenefits will accrue to them as well as to those who "directly" benefitted from this education. There are many examples of such "spill-over" benefits. CBA, unfortunately, does not account for any of them. The result is a systematic under-estimation,of the sum of all benefits, direct and "spill-over", which society is likely to derive from education. 29» A last critical point is this: what if the person who undergoes a certain educational programme does not find employment, and thus contributes nothing to the economy, at least temporarily? How do we assess the benefits of education in this case, which is all too common in many Asian countries? Again, CBA is souewhat helpless when faced with this difficulty. The technical solution which CBA analysts have cone up with is to adjust lifetime earning differentials for the probability of remaining unemployed. When this is done the "adjusted" benefits from education tend to become much smaller -, at least in countries experiencing the problem of unemployment of the educated.

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- 104 Comparing Costs and BenefitB : the Rate of Return 30. Once the costs and expected benefits of project or programme are determined, all that comparison between the. two which will enable the economic desirability or profitability of

a given educational is needed will be a the planner to judge this project.

31. One further step, however, is necessary before a comparison of costs and benefits can be made. This step is based on the recognition that the costs of an educational project have to be incurred within the 4 or 5 years covered by the plan, whereas the benefits will be spread out over a long future timespan. Clearly, the present value of earnings of, say Rs.100,000 which will accrue in 10 or 20 years time, is much less than Rs.100,000. Were these earnings to be received now instead of later, they could immediately be invested at a positive interest rate, and would have increased considerably in 10 or 20 years time. 32. It is this simple idea which underlies the calculation of discounted present values of future flows of income, and it is that figure which is used for the comparison of costs and benefits. The present value of the entire future income flow is given by the formula: n V ^

Et t = 1

Where "n" is the life-span of the project, "E" denotes expected incomes, r is the rate of interest, and t denotes the years in which"incomes will accrue. 3. Likewise, costs that nay have to be incurred only 2, 3i or 4 years from now, have a lower value today. Their present value is therefore determined by the same process of discounting future costs, with the same formula as above being applied,.except that we talk about costs ("C") instead of incomes ("E"). 34. We are now ready to present the comparison which enables the planner to assess the economic desirability of a given educational programme. The key concept in that comparison is the socalled "rate of return":

- 105 -

The rate of return of a g i ven educational project or programme is simply that particular rate of interest at which the discounted present value of expect ed benefits and the discounted pre sent value of costs vi 11 be equal. 35The above statement can of course be expressed through a mathematical formula. But the formula itself is not so important. All you h'ave to understand is this : for any given educational project or programme CBA will enable you to compute a particular interest rate, which is called the rate of return of that project or programme. When you compare alternative projects or programmes, they will all have their own specific rate of return. But where does that lead us? 36. To the economist, a high rate of return of a particular investment project will indicate that the productive potential of this project has not yet been fully utilized. He will therefore invest more resources, into that project - until eventually its rate of return may start diminishing. On the other hand, if a project has a low rate of return, it can be concluded that too much has already been invested into that project, and that investing more will only diminish the rate of return further. 37* Comparing the rates of return of alternative educational projects or programmes will, therefore, enable the planner to draw up a priority list of projects. The project with the highest rate of return will be given highest priority, while the one wi+h the lowest rate of return will be considered last. This is, in a nutshell, the kind of objective guideline which planners can expect from Cost-Benefit-Analysis. IV.

CONCLUSION

38. The possibilities of applying CBA as a practical tool in educational planning are limited. It is strongest when used to determine priorities between projects that' have basically the same objective (see section B of this unit). That variant of CBA is often called 'Cost-Effectiveness-Analysis'. But when it comes to projects that aim at different objectives i their comparison and priority-ranking through CBA becomes decidedly more difficult. Apart from the various problems of measuring costs and benefits satisfactorily, we should always remember that CBA is only one of the many elements to be considered in establishing priorities between different educational projects. This will remain so as long as education also seeks to achieve ends other than economic.

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- 106 39. Another thing we should not expect from CBA is..that it tells exactly how much to invest in a particular educational programme. CBA iĂ&#x; useful in pointing out priorities between projects, but is of no help in setting precise targets. It will at best serve as a'"go-ahead indicator",' based on the comparison of project-specific rates of returnÂŤ But rates of return cannot be expected to remain constant, if, for instance, a project were suddenly to be doubled in size. The very process of educational growth and change will make a continuous re-ordering of investment priorities necessary.

107 -

TEST AND APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Question 1:

We said that Cost-Benefit-Analysis is an important tool for the educational planner. A tool for what?

Question 2i

What is the difference between Cost-Benefit-Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness-Analysis?

Question 3:

Cost-Benefit-Analysis takes into account only the economic benefits and it neglects the social, political, and other objectives (and advantages) of education. In what way is it still useful?

Question 4:

Are 'earnings foregone' real costs of one's education?

Question 5:

What are the differences between social costs and individual costs of educational projects?

Question 6:

Earning differentials are used as indicators of the benefits of education* Some corrections, however, will have to be made. Which ones?

Question 7 'â&#x20AC;˘ Why are future earnings discounted?

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAF

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SUGGESTED ANSWERS

The planner can make use of CBA at the plan formulation stage, vhen he has to choose between different projects and programmes. CBA can help him to determine priorities not by rule-of-thethumb, but in an objective, scientific manner. Note, however, that CBA cannot be used as a tool for target setting. It tells you in what direction to go, but not how far.

Cost-Effectiveness-Analysis is actually the simpler form of Cost-Benefit-Analysis where the effectiveness of one project can. be directly compared to the effectiveness of alternative projects, because all of them are intended to achieve the sane objective. The range of projects to which Cost-EffectivenessAnalysis can be applied is naturally quite small.

In a decision-making process the educational authorities have to take into account social, cultural, as well as economic factors. Cost-Benefit-Analysis can provide detailed information on one of these, namely the economic aspect of education. Furthermore, some projects clearly have a major economic orientation, e.g. technical education and training. In cases like this, evaluation of the economic performance of the projects may be decisive. In some other cases, it may be assumed that the contribution of the projects to non-economic objectives will be more or less equal for all those projects so that differences in their rate of return will be the only distinctive factor. This may be the case when we compare different fields of study within higher education.

Earnings foregone do not lead to actual expenditures. They represent something you 'could have had' if you had not gone to school. Economists call them 'opportunity costs', iie. the cost of foregoing an opportunity to earn money.

Social costs are the consumption of the national resources used in education. This includes all actual expenditures, but also opportunity costs. Individual or private costs are only part of the social costs because the individual student bears only a fraction of the total costs, the rest being subsidized by the Government.

Future earning differentials should be corrected for (i) differences in innate ability that are independent of the education received, (ii) 'Spillover' benefits which accrue not only to the educated person but to all those with whom he associates, (iiil the risk of not finding gainful employment.

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110 7.

Because future earnings are always uncertain and people tend to have a short time horizon, a promise of $100*- to be received sometime in the future is given leas value than having the same $100.- now.

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ADDITIONAL READING

When you have read and understood the 37 pages of Maureen Woodhall's little book on Cost-Benefit-Analysis, you'll have a perfectly sufficient grounding in CBA: 1. Maureen Woodhall: Cost-Benefit Analysis in Educational Planning Âť Fundamentals of Educational Planning, No. 13, Unesco: International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, 1970. For an application of CBA to educational planning in an Asian country, you nay like to go through this one: 2.

M. Blaug, R. Layard, M. Woodhall: The Causes of Graduate Unemployment in India, Allan Lane, The Penguin Press, London, 19&9.

And finally, it may be useful for you to examine in more detail the merits of cost-effectiveness, as opposed to cost-benefit, analysis'3.

Wolfe, J.N. (ed): Cost-Benefit and Cost-Effectiveness: Studies and Analysis, Allen & Unwin, London, 1973ÂŤ

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VI FEASIBILITY TESTING

OBJECTIVES When you have gone through this Unit, you should be able to t

define the place of feasibility testing within the educational planning process; justify the need for feasibility testing; distinguish between external and internal aspects of plan feasibility, giving concrete examples of bath; outline suitable procedures whereby the public gets involved in the task of feasibility testing.

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VI FEASIBILITY TESTING

PLACE OF FEASIBILITY TESTING IN THE PLANNING PROCESS 1. Feasibility testing as discussed in this unit is closexy related to, but not identical with the concept of plan evaluation that we shall take up later. Both concepts have the critical assessment and possible revision of an educational plan as their main objectives. But they differ in that they come to be applied at different stages in the planning process. 2. A look at the graphic representation of the planning cycle will make this distinction immediately clear:

Collection ana Processing of DafĂŻ

Revision and Replanning Formulation of Policy

\ Assessment of Future Needs

Costing of Needs / Target Setting / Plan Implementation

FEASIBILITY TESTING

Plan Formulation

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3. Feasibility testing occurs somewhere between the target setting and the plan formulation stages of the planning cycle. It is a working step that can be completed within a rather short period of time, as opposed to the continuing activity of plan evaluation which accompanies the planning process over a substantial portion of the total plan period. B.

THE NEED FOR FEASIBILITY TESTING

4. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines feasible as practicable, possible, manageable, serviceable and plausible. It is obvious that any educational plan should possess all these properties. But this is not to claim that, through feasibility testing or any other device, we can make our educational plans completely watertight. No amount of feasibility testing can exclude the eventuality of failure in part or whole altogether. Too many of the factors wnich an educational plan . incorporates lie outside the jurisdiction and control of educational authorities. The points cf contact between education and the world around it are too numerous to pelâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; mit the kind of precise planning that is possible with the "closed systems" we encounter in the natural sciences. And in this we are fortunate, despite the headaches it causes the planners! 5ÂŤ Thus educational plans are based on a vast set of assumptions -- on future conditions and situations which we anticipate, on the actions and reactions of groups and individuals on which we count to achieve our plan targets, on resources we believe will be available, on support and co-operation we expect to mobilize, etc. If our plan is a bad one, we will probably not be aware of all these assumptions; if our plan is reasonably well thought-out, we will try to spell out these assumptions and make sure they are possible; if it is a good plan, they will for the most part be plausible and practicable, too; but it is only when we have listed all these assumptions including the "hidden" ones, singled out those that are critical or questionable, revised or tuned them down (revising our targets in the process), replaced them with more manageable and serviceable ones, that we can truly hope to have produced a FEASIBLE plan. 6. Feasibility testing may therefore be defined as the systematic scrutiny of all those built-in assumptions on which the achievement or non-achievement of the plan targets will depend. For a plan to be feasible it is not enough to spell out objectives and targets, while leaving the whole range of management, logistics, and personnel problems, as well as the public's likely views and reactions, shrouded behind the general assumption that everything is going to work out.

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EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ASPECTS OF PLAN FEASIBILITY

Í The questions that we must examine when testing a plan for its feasibility fall into two broad categories : (i) On the one hand, one would examine the interface between the educational system and its environment• How will the educational plan targets affect the different systems "surrounding" education, i.e. the political, economic, socio-cultural subsystems of society7 Are we reasonably sure that there won't be adverse feedback reactions from those other systems which might impede the achievement of plan targets? Perhaps the very achievement of one or the other educational target may trigger off undesirable political, economic or social reactions? Experienced educational planners certainly know many examples of plans which proved unfeasible because such feedback reactions from "outside" were not taken into account. The questions that we have to examine in this connection may be called external aspects of plan feasibility. (ii) On the other hand, an educational plan may in itself contain a number of inconsistencies and bottlenecks that went undetected at the targetsetting stage. Even if there are no adverse feedback reactions from "outside", these inconsistencies "within" a plan can cause serious failures. Are we sure that our targets for curriculum reform and teacher training tally? Is what we try to achieve in secondary education consistent with our targets for primary education? Vill our scheme of hardship allowances for teachers lend the expected support to the plan target of strengthening education in far-flung rural areas? Such questions are concerned with the relationships among different elements of the plan. They deal, in other words, with the internal aspects of plan feasibility. 8. Very often it is the kind of "hidden angle that nobody thought of", some unforeseen difficulty quite outside the plan itself, which makes the planner realize his beautiful plan was externally not feasible. Groups of people, business interests, other Government agencies, etc., find they are affected by the plan, and they react to it — quite legitimately and in their

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own beBt interest, but taking Ihis element of surprise will reduced if, at an early stage systematically considers four lity : (i)

the planner completely by surprise. be hard to eliminate i but it may be of the planning process, the planner dimensions of external plan feasibi-

reactions which stem from Bocio-cultural attitudes and values;

(ii)

pressures from political interests and power groups;

(iii)

lack of support from the administrative/bureaucratic machinery ;

(iv)

incompatibility with economic conditions and market forces.

Let us illustrate

each of these with an example :

9. The educational plan of country A calls for the setting up of a new type of village schools with a strongly 'ruralized' curriculum and a terminal structure of 6 grades without the possibility of proceeding to conventional secondary schools. Quite unexpectedly, however, parents show violent opposition to this plan. They prefer to send their children to urban schools because they look upon the new schools as second-class institutions barring their children from an urban career.. Planners are forced to realize that their programme, despite its good intentions, is not feasible as it comes up against established socio-cultural attitudes and values. 10. Another example which illustrates adverse feedbacks from political interests and pressures : the plan of country B proposes a systematic stock-taking, co-ordination and recasting of out-ofschool education under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education; but other government departments oppose this part of the plan, out of fear that they might loose some of their existing programmes. The planner, reluctantly, realizes that the political support so vital to his plan is not forthcoming. 11. An example where the administrative machinery is unable to lend the necessary support : Country C has launched a massive textbook production programme. Free books are to be distributed to the country's 257 islands, to all district offices and from there to even the remotest village school. But the logistics involved are more than what the administrative machinery is able to handle : transport is not ready in time, no one thought of storage facilities, district supervisors complain of insufficient travel allowances. The books get stuck in port warehouses and district offices, some reach the urban schools, but very few trickle down to the villages for which they were meant. The plan was much too ambitious in its reliance on the administrative machinery.

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- 119 12. And a fourth example, highlighting the case where an educational plan collides with economic conditions and market forces : Country D, realizing the need for more agricultural teachers, sets up special teacher training colleges and provides generous fellowships in an effort to boost enrolments. All seems to go veil, until the planners realize that $5% of the newly graduated agricultural teachers are spirited away by private companies offering much higher salaries* The plan, it seems, fails because it ignore . prevailina -~~"omic conditions and market forces.

WITH REGARD TO EXTERNAL PLAN FEASIBILITY, THE PLANNER HAS TO | CONSIDER SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES, POLITICAL PRESSURES, ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, AND THE CAPACITY OF THE ADMINISTRATION AS POSSIBLĂ&#x2021; STUKBLING BLOCKS IN THE WAY OF PLAN IMPLEMENTATION. 13. Testing an educational plan for internal feasibility is, fortunately, a less complex undertaking. As long as the plan is comprehensive, i.e. covers all levels and types of education, and the full spectrum of qualitative as well as quantitative programmer the planner should find it possible to rule out the kind of unpleasant surprises so characteristic of external feasibility problems. Yet, a comprehensive plan is not necessarily a coherent and consistent plan. A great deal of crosschecking between different plan elements remains to be done, .f situations suc.i as the following are to be avoided : 14. Country E plans a vigorous campaign to reduce dropout of students at the elementary school level. The campaign is successfully implemented and, as a result, the number of elementary fchst1' graduates seeking to continue in secondary schools rises drastically; the plan for expansion of secondary education, unfortunately, has failed to take this additional demand for school places into account; admission restrictions, disgruntled parents, and student unrest are the inevitable consequence. 15. The forward-looking and ambitious education plan of country F entails the target of upgrading the qualification of al) primary teachers through a massive in-service training programme. Planners have made sure that the costs of this training can be met from the plan budget; but they have overlooked one fact : te' s of thousands of upgraded, fully qualified teachers will move up into higher salary grades, involving an additional charge on the educational budget which can simply not be met during this plan period. The programme is financially not feasible. 16. Country G considers the radical transformation of primary education curricula as the centre-piece of its educational plan. While the new syllabi for grade I students are scheduled to be introduced after one year, it is suddenly found out that the

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country's teacher training colleges will require at least 3 years revising their own curricula, re-orienting their master teachers, adding- the necessary workshops to instruct future teachers in practical arts, etc., before they can hope to turn out the kinds of new teachers which the new primary curriculum requires. The target of launching this new curriculum within one year is, therefore, internally not feasible. 17* Frequently, lack of internal feasibility is caused by poor co-ordination of the draft plans of different departments within a Ministry of Education. Where planners restrict their job to just piecing the different departmental submissions together, adding a global price-tag, and passing on the product as "the educational plan", inconsistencies of the kind ve illustrated above are practically unavoidable.

WITH REGARD TO INTERNAL PLAN FEASIBILITY, THE PLANNER'S MAIN TASK IS TO ASCERTAIN CONSISTENCY BETWEEN DIFFERENT SUB-PROGRAMMES OF THE PLAN. INCONSISTENCIES FREQUENTLY OCCUR BETWEEN THE PLANNED OUTPUT OF ONE CYCLE AND THE PLANNED INTAKE OF ANOTHER, BETWEEN CURRICULAR CHANGES AND THE NECESSARY RE-ORIENTATION OF TEACHERS, OR BETWEEN FINANCIAL FORECASTS AND THE «HIDDEN' COSTS OF SOME PROGRAMMES.

FEASIBILITY TESTING ; A SIMULATED PRE-RUN OF THE PLAN

18. We have now understood the need for feasibility testing, and have illustrated some of the more common feasibility problems, distinguishing between 'internal' and 'external' aspects of plan feasibility. Where in the educational planning process the task of feasibility testing has its place, should also be clear: it is after the 'target setting' stage, but before you proceed to a more detailed 'plan formulation', that a plan must be tested for feasibility. 19« What remains to be clarified, however, is how best a planner or an educational planning unit should go about the task of feasibility testing. There are two possible approaches, a 'closed' and an 'open' one J 20. In the closed approach, discussions and brainstorming sessions among the staff of an educational planning unit are the chief modality of tackling feasibility problems. Their purpose is to clear up and rectify any inconsistencies between different elements or sub-programmes of the plan, and to anticipate the reactions of the public, once the plan is presented for implementation.

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- 121 21. As for the first of these two purposes, i.e. the clearing up of internal plan inconsistencies, the 'closed' approach usually gives good results. But it is much weaker in correctly anticipating the reactions of that very vide spectrum of groups and people that ve call 'the public*. Discussions behind closed doors only serve to further accentuate the isolation of planners, and leave then in the false belief that citizens are ready to accept any change, or undergo any reorganization, if the resultant system is more 'efficient' in technical or economic terms. AN 'OPEN' APPROACH TO FEASIBILITY TESTING IS THEREFORE TO BE ADVOCATED: ALL THOSE AFFECTED BĂ? THE PLAN, THOSE BENEFITTING ALONG WITH THOSE EXPECTED TO MAKE SACRIFICES, THOSE WHOSE POLITICAL SUPPORT OF THE PLAN WILL 3E VITAL, AND THOSE WHO ARE TO CARRY THE BURDEN OF ITS IMPLEMENTATION, SHOULD BE BROUGHT TOGETHER IN ORDER TO "TEST OUT" THEIR REACTIONS. 22. The forum on which this 'open' approach to feasibility testing can be practiced is usually that of a public hearing. Representatives of all those sections of the public concerned with the acceptance and implementation of a plan should be invited to such hearings. In their presence, the plan will be put on the test stand for a first, simulated pre-run: if these are the objectives and targets of our new education plan, are you, representatives of parents associations, employers, teacher nions, political parties, etc., ready to accept and support them? If these are the new curricular guidelines, will you, leaders of religious organizations, representatives of private schools, parents, etc., co-operate? If these are our requirements in new textbooks, will you, representatives of the paper and printing industry, have the capacity to produce them? If these are the additional administrative and supervisory tasks which our plan requires, are you, educational administrators, ready to undertake them? 24. These are the kind of questions that would be raised in a public hearing of the draft educational plan. The planner's role in such hearings is to argue "as if" the plan had already been launched for implementation, to help all parties around the table realize the challenges involved for each of them, to test out their reactions, and to identify the points of resistance likely to obstruct the implementation of the plan. 25* In this manner, plan hearings serve an important critical function. Not only will they pinpoint feasibility problems that planners by themselves would never have thought of, but they would also bring out the kinds of changes required to make the plan acceptable, practicable or, in short, feasible.

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26, Behind this immedĂate purpose lies, of course, the broader concern of gaining maximum popular support tor a plan which, after all, will not only claim a very large share of the nation's resources, but will also involve and commit more people than most other Government services taken together. Feasibility testing through public hearings is but one aspect of the important task of 'opening up' the educational planning process. Indeed, if the public gets involved in educational planning from the very start, many impracticable or unacceptable proposals would have been screened out by the time the plan is tested for feasibility. E.

CONCLUSION

27. Feasibility testing must occupy an important place in the educational planning process. The need to ensure that all the assumptions built into an educational plan are practicable, possible, manageable, serviceable, and plausible gets more pronounced as planning orients itself towards change and reform, and affects the values, interests, and attitudes of increasingly larger sections of the society. 28. Internal and external aspects of feasibility have to be considered side by side and in all their ramifications. But planners cannot treat this task as a mere drawing-board exercise. They have to 'open up' the planning process either through public hearings on the draft education plan or, better still, by involving the public from the very start. Feasibility testing is, in this sense, just one aspect of the broader imperative of basing educational plans on what the people really want.

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TEST ANÂť APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Question !â&#x20AC;˘

Please determine at which stage of the educational planning process the plan should be tested foi feasibility. What steps have to precede this activity, and what other steps should follow only after the plan has been tested for feasibility?

Question 2:

What problems do you examine when looking into external aspects of plan feasibility?

Question 3'

Internal aspects of plan feasibility revolve mostly around "inconsistencies" between different plan components. What is meant by this?

Question 4:

Whom should the planner involve in feasibility testing?

Question 5>

Do you see any links between 'feasibility testing' and 'participatory planning'? If so, what are these links?

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAF

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SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Please see the diagram which represents the educational planning process! on the first page of Unit VI. External feasibility problems comprise â&#x20AC;˘(i) resistances and reactions prompted by socio-cultural attitudes and values; (ii) pressures from political interests and power groups; (iii) the capability and commitment of the administrative/ bureaucratic machinery; and (iv) economic conditions and market forces which may run counter to certain plan targets. Different components or sub-programmes of an educational plan lack "consistency1 if planners have failed to take into account that component A depends on component B, or vice versa. In an educational plan, such dependencies abound: for examples, see paragraphs l4-17 of Unit VI. Feasibility testing should, ideally, involve representatives of all those groups in society which are likely to be affected by the educational plan. Educational planners who try to test out the feasibility of a plan without consulting these groups are liable to overlook or misjudge their attitudes towards the plan. Participatory planning and management is a broader concept which includes feasibility testing through public hearings or similar forums as one of its aspects. It assigns to the public an active role at virtually all stages of the educational planning process.

â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘ - /

127 -

ADDITIONAL READING

R. McKinnon. Realistic Educational Planning. Fundamentals of Educational Planning, No. 20, Unesco: International Institute for Educational Pl-anning, Paris, 1973This little book, written by an experienced educational administrator, includes practical examples from Papua New Guinea. Copies should be easily available in most Ministries of Education. V.P. Guruge. A Functional Analysis of Educational Administration in Relation to Educational Planning. Occasional Papers, No. l6, Unesco: International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, 19&9

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VII FORMULATION OF AK EDUCATION PLAN

OBJECTIVES When you have studied this unit, you should be able understand the practical use of the education plan document and the importance of brevity, clarity and comprehensiveness as its main characteristics; recognize the need to make the education plan document self-contained and how it could be achieved; to select, out of the suggested outline in the unit, the contents applicable to the education plan of your country; to choose the format for your education plan and the methods of presentation; and to use graphical aids and statistical summaries to enhance the communicational effectiveness of the education plan.

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VII FORMULATION OF AN EDUCATION PIAN

INTRODUCTION

1. The concepts we have so far discussed, and the techniques studied, should ultimately help us in gaining skills for the crucial function of formulating an education plan. This is a crucial function because it represents the logical presentation of all the analysis, the thinking, the evaluation of problems, and choices among alternative solution, which the policy-makers, planners, administrators and their advisers had been engaged in for months or even years. The quality of all this cogitational and technical work is to be judged through a mere hundred pages (quite often, much less). 2. This brief document, called the education plan, has also to set out the principal arguments, constraints, strategies and policies as well as the basic reasons for major policy decisions. This has to be done with such comprehensiveness as to enable the legislators of the country to evaluate the appropriateness of what is proposed and the justification for the resources requested. Finally, it must also be clear enough for the implementors to know how the action proposed in it is to be initiated and executed. The preparation of a document, comprehensive and clear, to serve all these purposes requires great care and expertise. We shall consider some of the basic factors which the education planner should take into consideration when formulating an education plan. II.

IMPORTANCE OF BREVITY AND CLARITY

3. By the time an educational planner settles down to formulate his plan â&#x20AC;&#x201D; whether it be for the entire nation, a State or Province or a Region or even an institution â&#x20AC;&#x201D; he has completed all the major steps in the planning process; he would have /

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collected and processed the data; -

diagnosed the present situation and identified problems to be solved;

assisted the policy-makers in the formulation of the policy and obtained the necessary policy directions from the appropriate authority; assessed the future needs to accomplish the set objectives according to the prescribed policy;

costed the needs and compared with probable resource availability;

made the necessary adjustments in needs, to b e fulfilled, to match with resources and 6et the targets for the plan period; and tested the consistency and the feasibility of targets and made the final choices.

Now his task is to put his findings and conclusions in a suitable format so that he obtains the authorization of the appropriate authorities. In the case of a national plan, this authority could be the supreme legislature of the country. To reach the final authorizing agency, his submissions have to pass through several echelons and channels of the administrative machinery. None of the concerned authorities would have the time to go through a detailed document. But still they want to know every salient argument, choice and decision with supporting evidence for claims made in respect of targets and justification for resources asked. Without such information, they would not be able to approve the plan or make useful suggestions for its improvement. 4. To get an idea of the complexity of this task, we may examine the average length of education plans currently formulated in Asian countries: (i)

National Education Plans (5-7 years) (a)

As a chapter in a National Development Plan 30-50 standard pages

(b)

As an independent plan for education only 100-150 standard pages

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(ii)

State/Provincial Education Plans about the same size as national education plans,

(iii)

Regional Education Plans (a)

As a part of an integrated regional development plan - 10-20 standard pages

(b)

As a separate document - 40-60

Considering what an educational planner would wish to communicate first to his approving authorities and then to the plan implementors, these are very short documents. He has to develop techniques of conveying the most amount of information within the least confines of space. And that, too, has to b e clear. Let us consider them on the basis that w e are entrusted with the formulation of a national or State/ Provincial Plan as an independent document (i.e. 100-150 pages) 5. Clarity is not merely a linguistic problem, although that can be a very important one in formulating an education plan. A plan document is not the place for one to show off his professional and technical abilities with either pedantic jargon or abstruse mathematical formulae. The plan is meant to be approved by policy-makers and legislators, who are not expected to be professional educators, economists or planners. Further, a plan is meant for mass consumption â&#x20AC;&#x201D; for the public to know and get involved' in what is done for the development of education. The average reader needs plain and lucid statements. Nor could one expect its final audience, the implementors, to be familiar with technical jargon and notations. A clear, straightforward, non-technical style of language is a great asset. 6. The major problem of clarity is one of logic. The need for a logical selection of contents, a logical sequence in presenting relevant facts and figures and a systematic well-thought-out marshalling of arguments in support of decisions cannot be over-emphasized. A disjointed, incoherent and factually unsupported plan document can bring years of valuable work to naught.

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III.

NEED FOR SELF-CONTAINED COMPREHENSIVENESS

7. As important as brevity and clarity is the need to make a plan document self-contained and comprehensive. A plan must stand by itself and be self-explanatory in the sens3 that the reader, whether he reads it for purposes of signifying approval or for information or to obtain directives for action, should be able to get all the salient information without having to go elsewhere. This is often a very difficult task and, therefore, it is not altogether rare to find a companion volume of data, mostly statistical data, presented with a plan. Even then, a person who does not refer to the companion volume should be able to gain an adequate picture of what is planned, why and how the planned action is to be accomplished. 8. Just as a plan document should be self-contained, it must also be comprehensive. -

â&#x20AC;˘

It should cover with equal emphasis and attention the total ground to which the plan relate 3. NOt only should the analysis of the whole educational system into components be clear but the interrelation. interd spendence and interaction of components must also be v ividly depicted. If this is done carefully, the consistency and interdependence of the various proposals, and the composite nature of the final objectives, aimed at, would become very clear. IV.

CONTENTS AND ORDER OF PRESENTATION

9. Noting the above qualities of brevity,. clarity_and self-contained comprehensiveness as essential attributes of an education plan, let us examine the contents which would be most desirable. 10. The stipulation that a plan should be self-contained necessitates the first chapter to be an INTRODUCTION in which the basic information of the country/state/province and its educational system, with relevant aspects of the economic situation, is given. The following topics may be considered for inclusion according to their relevance to the subsequent plan proposals:

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General (i) Location, area, geographical and administrative divisions, major geographical features; (ii) Main historical events as relevant to development of education or as affecting the current socio-political value system; (iii)

Population, vital statistics, urban-rural distribution; and ethnic/linguistic distribution, if relevant to education: Demographic bases identified for consideration in the Plan.

(iv) Main features of the Economy — national accounts (GNP/GDP/NI); growth rates; sectors of the economy and distribution of the economically active population; productivity by sectors ; educational profile of the labour force; employment and unemployment; personpower supply: Economic bases identified for consideration in the Plan. (v)

Socio-cultural features, highlighted in the Plan, if any.

Educational (i) Landmarks in the evolution of modern education. (ii)

Legal base for education — National objectives of education — Constitutional directives, if any; Education laws etc.

(iii)

The structure of the educational system with appropriate graphical representation of levels, types and forms of education.

(iv)

(v)

Basic educational statistics relating to number of institutions, enrolments, outputs (graduates), and teachers — preferably in a well-constructed table. The national expenditure on education — sources; by levels and types, government and private institutions; total expenditure — trends in percentages of GNP, Government revenue and annual budget. Unit costs by levels and types.

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ThiB background should not exceed l/10th of the total length of the plan document. When this introductory chapter is written out, one question should be repeatedly asked before any item of information is added: Is this information essential to understand the socio-economic backdrop against which the proposals for the development of education are formulated? If the answer cannot be an unreserved YES, that information can 6afely be dropped. This caution is sounded because experience shows that one is apt to devote more time and energy to this Chapter, not only because it is the first but also because the general information is more readily available for reproduction. 11. The Second Chapter has to advance all the reasons and arguments to support the proposals which would be made further on. This Chapter may be in the form of a GLOBAL DIAGNOSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SITUATION. The following topics may be appropriate for inclusion: (i)

(ii)

the legal, administrative and professional arrangements made for the control of education in relation to (a)

the diversity of public sector agencies responsible for education;

(b)

the role of the private sector in education;

(c)

academic standards of private educational institutions ;

(d)

the involvement of the private sector as well as different agencies of the public sector in planned development of education.

the structure and curriculum in the light of (a)

relevance to national development

(b)

broad national objectives of education

(c)

current agitations or proposals for reform (if any)

(d)

estimated manpower needs of the country and

(e)

rural unemployment and migration to urban areas

(f)

regional imbalances.

(iii)

(iv)

137 -

the position and problems relating to (a)

methods of teaching and educational technology

(b)

text-books and educational materials and

(c)

educational research

the past trends and present situation as regards enrolment in different levels and types of education in relation to:

(a)

participation rates of corresponding age-groups

(b) retention (c)

repeaters

(d) drop-outs (e) graduates and (f) (v)

(vi) (vii)

the level-wise internal efficiency of the educational system.

the situation with regard to the teaching profession (i.e. teachers, instructional personnel and teacher educators) (a)

age and sex distribution

(b)

regional imbalances in teacher-pupil ratio

(c)

qualifications and professional competence

(d)

salaries, service conditions and status

(e)

facilities for pre-service training and the gap, if any, between the output of teacher training institutions and additional teachers employed

(f)

facilities for in-service training and professional growth.

the structure, curriculum and methods of instruction of teacher training institutions; the position as regards adequacy, functional suitability and utilization of

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(viii)

(ix)

(x) (xi)

(xii)

(xiii)

(a)

instructional space

(b)

science laboratories

(c)

workshops

(d)

libraries

(e)

residential and office accommodation

(f)

sanitary facilities

(g)

playgrounds, gymnasia, etc.

(h)

furniture, fittings and equipment;

the position regarding scholarships, bursaries and such other forms of assistance to needy and deserving students; the nature, objectives, organization, adequacy and suitability of ancillary services (e.g. transportation, 'health, midday meals, etc.) the organizational and procedural aspects of educational administration; the organization, the concept and methods relating to school supervision from the point of view of organisational efficiency, functional adequacy and professional competence; adequacy and suitability of arrangements for recruitment, training and professional growth of educational administrators and supervisors; the infrastructural requisites of educational administration (e.g. buildings, furniture, fittings and equipment, transport and communications, management aids and tools).

In each case the diagnosis of the particular aspect of the educational system should highlight the wealtnesses-, deficiencies and problems, which are to be remedied by means of planned development. 12. The next chapter should logically be the assessment of future needs. But it is recommended that the results of this particular step in the planning process should not go into the Plan. The reason is that the assessment of future needs .../

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would present such an enormous list oĂ goods and 6ervices which have to be provided to develop s satisfactory level of education. But such a list would he totally outside the implementing capacity of any nation. It is not only because of the resource constraint. There is also the problem of the absorptive capacity of a system. Future needs once assessed would be cos ted for comparison with foreseeable resources and tested for feasibility. The result of this complex exercise â&#x20AC;&#x201D; which really is the heart of planning â&#x20AC;&#x201D; is the setting of targets. Targets are set on the basis of national objectives and policy as well as the strategies selected for the purpose of accomplishing the targets. The Third Chapter on P O L I C Y . STRATEGY AND TARGETS could thus be developed, (a)

stating the objectives of education on which the plan is based ;

(b)

highlighting changes ir. the educational policy, envisaged:

(c)

explaining the strategies to be utilized in the achievement of the objectives;

(d)

embodying the proposed structure for the educational system;

(e)

outlining the recommended reforms in curriculum, educational technology and methods ;

(f)

containing recommendations for the improvement of school supervision and administration;

(g)

presenting quantitative targets in respect of the following for the plan period, explaining how estimates were made and apportioning them "between public and private sectors:(i)

(ii)

(iii)

enrolments in different levels and types of education (by grade or class or year) as well as in programmes of nonformal education, the number of teachers and instructional personnel for different levels, types and forms of education and subject specializations, enrolments in teacher training institutions and Education Departments of Universities,

.../

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(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii) (h)

the number of teacher educators for different teacher training institutions and subject specializations, scholarships, bursaries and other assistance to students at different levels of education the personnel required for educational supervision and administration and supporting services, including ancillary services, and requirements in plant and facilities for both instruction and administration; and

describing steps and projects for qualitative improvement.

Thus prepared with quantitative information suitably displayed in tables, this chapter could constitute the bulk of the plan and offer a complete picture of what is planned to be done and achieved. 13. The Fourth Chapter must necessarily be on the FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE PLAN and it would (a)

analyse the cost of education and sources of financing,

(b)

examine trends and anticipated developments in the unit costs,

(c)

explain the basis of computation of costs in respect of projects for which unit costs are not applicable,

(d)

discuss the major assumptions and policy decisions on which the financial provisions of the plan will be based, and

(e)

outline the constraints and limitations which led to the revision of targets, if applicable.

14. The last two chapters are the most important. In fact, when a central planning organization prepares the education sector plan for inclusion in a national development plan or.when a Ministry of Education incorporates different regional plans into an integrated national education plan, these two chapters tend to be reproduced in toto or in suitable summary form.

.../

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VISUAL PRESENTATIONS AND SUMMARY TABLES

15. In spite of all the care and trouble which the educational planner would take to write up a concise plan document with detailed information as spelled out above, he has to remember that the most important authorities handling the plan would rarely read it. With practice, they have developed ways and means of picking up the main trends and highlights of a plan by concentrating on charts, graphs and tables. The planner stands to benefit if he sprinkles his document with relevant visual presentations (but not too much to be confusing). There are a few aspects of the plan, which are vital and those busy approving authorities 6hould have their attention drawn to them. A very effective way is to append to the four chapters a series of summary tables. Well-prepared tables depicting the following would be appropriate and useful:(a)

Enrolment targets, level-wise and type-wise, with comparisons relating to age and sex composition, urban-rural distribution etc.

(b)

Personnel requirements to achieve the targets of the plan (e.g. teachers, other instructional personnel, teacher educators, supervisors and inspectors, administrators, specialists in supporting and ancillary services, etc.)

(c)

Important Projects such as for qualitative improvement or nonformal education with details of: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(v)

Objective of the project Target for the Plan period Personnel required (available and additional) Financial outlay (a)

total

(b)

for each year of the Plan Period

Proposed date of commencement .../

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(vi) (vii) (d)

Proposals for follow-up action on termination of project.

Plant and facilities, with details of quantity and cost, needed in the form of: (i) (ii)

VI.

Duration

Additional plant and facilities for each year, and Replacement for each year.

(e)

Annual statements of targets, financial outlay and phasing of projects, with details on the basis of computing costs.

(f)

A summary of the total financial outlay according to levels, types and forms of education and items of expenditure to give a bird's eve view of the Plan; and

(g)

Sources of finances for the implementation of the Plan.

EDUCATION PLAN AS A "FINANCIAL STATEMENT"

16. Though implied in the list of contents and also in the series of summary tables, one very important aspect of a Plan has to be underscored. The Plan is ultimately a financial statement. The most vital information, which an education plan containts, pertains to:(i)

(ii) (iii)

The total financial outlay which the authorities are prepared to allocate to educational development over the plan period; The apportionment of the total outlay into budget periods - e.g. biennial or annual; The distribution of the total outlay to various levels and types of education and related technical and supporting services.

At two very significant points in the planning process, this information becomes vitally important:

.../

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First,

when the plan is examined by appropriate authorities, whose approval is to be obtained.

Second, when the plan is to be implemented. 17. The approving authorities, specially at the ministeria] and parliamentary levels, tend to concentrate more on the financial implications of a plan than even its objectives anc targets. The most thumbed pages of a plan passing through such authorities are the ones containing the financial summai 18. Similarly, when a plan is to be elaborated into programmes and projects in preparation for implementation it is the financial information that plays a major role. It is the usual experience of an administrator that the main constraining factor in plan implementation is the financial allocatior If a plan is correctly costed and each project supported by a realistic financial allocation, has a better change of being implemented. But tion plans are known to suffer from both these

is properly that plan most educadefects.

19. On account of the importance of financial information at both these vital points, one cannot overemphasize the neec for reliable cost data, on the one hand, and the complete an** accurate posting of all anticipated plan activities on the other. A simple dictum to remembered by a planner is: "Mo money - no project, and no pro-iects - no plan". Experience has shown that activities, unsupported by adequate allocatior. of resources, rarely â&#x20AC;&#x201D; if at all â&#x20AC;&#x201D; take off the ground. VII.

GUIDELINES ON IMPLEMENTATION

20. In some countries, the plan document proceeds to discus how the targets of the Plan are to be implemented. Such guide lines would identify the requirements of new laws, new organi zations, reforms to existing procedures etc. We have left it as optional. It would be quite appropriate for a plan document to incorporate useful hints for managing the implementation, particularly where legislative and organizational changes are adumbrated. VIII.

CONCLUSION

21. To summarize: The education plan, as a document, repre sents years of work done by the planners and as such has to i presented in a manner that brings out the most salient aspect of the proposed course of action. The topics for inclusion. .../

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as well BE the Chapter division, discussed in this Unit are only suggestive. Each planner would have to develop his own outline according to the needs of each situation. But due care must be taken to ensure that all vital information is logically and lucidly incorporated in a document whose principal qualities must be brevity, clarity and self-contained comprehensiveness.

.../

1^5

TEST AND APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Why is plan formulation a crucial function? What are the principal characteristics of an education plan? In what different forms do countries present their education plans? What is the format used in your country? What are the broad headings under which an education plan is usually presented? Compare this format with what was adopted in the current education plan of your country. Analyse the summary tables in the current education plan of your country? Are they adequate? To what extent is it correct to consider an education plan as a "financial statement"? Can there be a plan without reference to financial implications?

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OVERLEAP

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SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Because it represents the logical presentation of all the analysis, the thinking, the evaluation of problems, and choices among alternatives solutions which the policy-makers, planners, administrators and their advisers had been engaged in for months or even years. Plan formulation is the final outcome of the planning process. The implementation is guided by the effectiveness of this presentation. See para 4, which shows the forms in which education plans are presented. Obtain a copy of the current education plan of your country. The broad headings are:I. II. III. IV.

Introduction - basic background information. Global Diagnosis of the Educational System. Policy, Strategy and Targets. Financial Implications.

Compare with these the headings under which the current education plan of your country is developed. See para 15 where seven sets of summary tables are suggested. Compare with your plan. See paras 16-19. A plan relates to how resources are to be used efficiently to achieve objectives. The most convenient way to allocate resources is in terms of money with which the necessary goods and services are purchased.