THE TRIBAL TALES - Banjara Silver Jewelry by SOUMYA VISHWAKARMA

The Tribal Tales

Akanksha Singh Soumya Vishwakarma Tripti Bajaj

The Image on the cover: A Banjara woman adorned with Tribal Silver Jewellery, Jodhpur Source: Clicked by our Team Lifestyle Accessory Design National Institute of Design, Gandhinagar This craft documentation â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Tribal Talesâ&#x20AC;? is written, edited, illustrated and photographed by the student researchers Akanksha Singh, Soumya Vishwakarma and Tripti Bajaj. Guide: Krishna Amin Patel Dean, NID, Gandhinagar Campus. All rights reserved under international copyright convention. No part of this documentation may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, or mechanical including a photocopy or any other information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the institute. Published in 2019 Processed at National Institute of Design Digitally printed at Chaap, Ahmedabad.

The Tribal Tales (Tribal Silver Jewellery, Rajasthan)

Guided by: Krishna Amin Patel Documented by: Akanksha Singh Soumya Vishwakarma Tripti Bajaj Lifestyle Accessory Design 2017 National Institute of Design, Gandhinagar

Acknowledgement

Consistent endeavors for depicting the exquisite craft of tribal jewellery in India has been the most important aspect throughout our journey. We are grateful to all the people who have helped us in collecting all the information and supporting us throughout our journey of understanding the true essence of the tribal culture of our country. We would like to thank the National Institute of Design, Gandhinagar, for providing us with an enlightening opportunity which helped us in understanding the true spirit of craft in India. The diligent guidance of Ms. Krishna Amin Patel enabled us in understanding the core aspect of our study. The discussions were highly informative and gave us a clear insight about different aspects related to our research. Constant support and guidance of our Discipline lead Mrs. Shimul Mehta Vyas and our course coordinator Mr. Amresh Panigrahi has given us the strength to work meticulously throughout the craft research and documentation. We would like to express deep gratitude to the UJAS Foundation, Jodhpur, for providing us with valuable information during our field visit and to all the craftsmen who have effortlessly shared their knowledge and enriched us with all the precious information. The consistent support of our friends and family members have also played an eminent role in the successful accomplishment of this document.

Preface National Institute of Design has always given emphasis to the craft sector of India. The Institute recognizes the importance of this sector and helps in the preservation and expansion of different craft practices through rigorous research and documentation. The department of Lifestyle Accessory Design (LAD) aims to evolve the crafts that are being practiced in India by working on numerous crafts prevailing in the country and doing research and documentation for preserving such precious examples of craftsmanship of our country. Craft gives identity to an individual and gives definition to the livelihood of many citizens of our country, this is the reason behind this sector being the second largest industry, economically, in India. Thus, its preservation and sensitizing people about the rich heritage associated with it is essential. This document aims to depict the importance and different aspects of the Tribal Jewellery of Rajasthan. The underlying meaning it carries and the emotions associated with it. A detailed description of the craft, right from the origin, manufacturing, process, marketing and all other factors are elaborated clearly for the complete understanding of this craft. We completed the field visit in 14 days and worked meticulously throughout the visit in collecting and validating the data. Documenting the craft has been an exciting experience, especially interacting with the tribal people and understanding their lifestyle gave us a completely different perspective towards their cultural practices, traditions, rituals, livelihood, etc. We hope that this document and the information contained in it helps in educating and spreading the information about this craft.

About NID LAD@NID Brief on Craft Documentation

1. 1. 1.1

1.2.

3 Introduction Indian Jewellery â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Tremendous Tradition Gold and Silver The Quintessential Metals of Indian Jewellery

2-7 4 6

2. 2. 2.1

2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.2.9 2.2.10 2.2.11 2.2.12 2.2.13 2.2.14 2.2.15 2.2.16 2.2.17 2.2.18 2.2.19 2.2.20 2.2.21 2.2.22 2.2.23 2.2.24

Glimpse into the Region Rajasthan - The Incredible State of India Jodhpur â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Blue City History Location Language Demographics Climate Topography Geology and Minerals Quarrying and Mining Crops Rivers and Water resources Flora and Fauna Economy Transport Tourist places Cuisine Social Life People Clothing Sports Religion Fairs and Festivals Arts and Crafts Architecture Administration

8-27 10 12 12 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 21 22 22 22 23 23 24 25 26 26 27

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.10.1 3.10.2 3.10.3 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14

The Banjara Community Introduction History People Language Social Setup Lifestyle Dwellings Costume Food Work Tattoos Dance and Music Festivals Family and Marriage Women and Livelihood Widow Marriage Divorce Pattern Religious System Death Superstitions and Beliefs Political System

28-39 31 31 32 33 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 38 38 38 39 39 39

4. 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

Field Visits Visit to Sarafa Bazaar Visit to the UJAS Foundation Visit to Girdharilal Jewellers Visit to Banjara Community in Jodhpur Visit to Kali Beri Visit to Masuriya Pahadi, Jodhpur Visit to Maa Krupa Jewellers in Masuriya, Jodhpur Visit to Sangariya Village, Jodhpur Visit to Pachpadra Village Visit to Banjara community in Pachpadra Village Insights

6. 6. 6.1 6.2

40-91 42 48 50 52 56 58 60 62 76 80 91

5. 5. 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.3

Raw Materials Silver History Properties Types Uses Gold History Properties Types Uses Other Raw-Materials

Tools and Machineries Overview Tools for Work

106-121 109 110

92-105 94 95 96 97 99 100 101 101 102 103 104

CONTENTS

8. 8. 8.1 8.2 8.3

7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

The Making Process of Melting Silver Process of Making Silver Wires Process of Stamping and Punching Process of Filing Process of Braiding Process of making Ghunghroo Process of Filling Lac in Jewellery Pieces Process of Making the Iconic Kadla

122-143 124 127 128 130 131 132 134 136

Types of Ornaments Introduction Jewellery Pieces Types of Jewellery Pieces

144-181 146 146 146

9. 9. 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

The Artisans Soni Community Beliefs and Practises Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Involvement Clients Education Skill Level Business and Market

182-187 184 185 186 186 186 187 187

10. 10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6

Craftsmanship Workspace Environment Around Artisans Elements of Workspace Ergonomics Posture Study Government Initiatives

188-195 190 191 192 192 193 194

11. 11. 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4

The Markets Local Markets Marketing in India and Overseas Online Markets Market Challenges

12. 12. 12.1 12.2

Insights Challenges Conclusion

Point of Contact Bibliography Project Team

196-201 198 199 200 200

202-208 205 207

Lifestyle Accessory Design `17 with their guide, Krishna Amin Patel National Institute of Design

About NID National Institute of Design functions as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India. It is one of the reputed educational institutes in India, established in 1961, to serve as an aid for small industries in India. It has been declared the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Institution of National Importanceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, by the National Institute of Design Act 2014, by the Indian Parliament. NID focusses on learning from exploration and development of skills for creating design professionals will would cater to the needs of a diverse nation like India and would will simultaneously focus on each individual citizen as well. NID is regularly involved in outreach programme and various field interventions where all the students, faculty and staff are involved, thus NID believes in consistent learning and progress. The whole team of NID works diligently for the betterment of the society and upliftment of the economic status of the country.

LAD@NID Lifestyle Accessory Design (LAD), a post graduate programme, amalgamates numerous lifestyle accessories and systems for creating professionals who can not only design various products but also the entire system using different materials, techniques and processes. It focuses on consumers belonging to different strata of society and fulfil their need. It focusses on understanding the lifestyle of an individual and implement design thinking by providing appropriate solutions for diverse range of problems faced by the people and providing them required products and services for the same. The design solutions are based after gaining in-depth knowledge of the socio-cultural values, beliefs, practices, cultural diversity, which helps in building contemporary perspective for a global audience. A lifestyle accessory designer works in various fields including jewellery, bags, footwear, lighting, furniture, space accessories, trend research, colors and trims, etc. The students are educated to develop empathetic values and implement it. Conceptualization of the products and services involve building an emotional connection which is experienced by the consumer through the products.

Brief on Craft Documentation Documentation of a Traditional Craft is important for preserving its identity, the Research and Documentation enables the students to learn through this process about the history, socio-economic background, cultural practises and other things which help in developing the ability to work with the artisans for co-creation of the craft in a contemporary style for its survival which helps in generating income for the artisans and improving their quality of lives as well, along with communicating its details to the audience, therefore NID focusses on studying the craft to the core through primary and secondary research and representing the information in a detailed manner depicting the present situation of the craft. The process of craft documentation involves field visits to the areas where the craft is practiced, collecting data, validating data and representing it through written medium. It involves studying in detail the entire process of the craft including the tools, techniques, raw materials, profile of the craftsmen, their lifestyle, beliefs and practices, the consumers, their lifestyle beliefs and practices, and the application and importance of the craft in the society. Craft documentation is essential as it stimulates a designer towards craft which is an eminent part of our culture. It develops an understanding of the present situation of the craftsmen, the difficulties faced by them and the use and importance of the traditional techniques and practices. It also develops an understanding of the importance of collecting information, the correct method of documenting data, content development, importance of visuals and pictorial representation. It develops the ability to generate a flow of content and representing large amount of information vividly.

INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 Indian Jewellery â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Tremendous Tradition Jewellery is a priceless craft of our precious heritage. India is the only country that has an ongoing heritage of jewellery for more than 5,000 years. The physical traces of ancient Indian jewellery are found from the Indus Valley civilization. There is an extraordinary range of materials used in Indian jewellery. During Stone Age, technology in India did not include metals but used natural materials such as flowers and beads, carved wood, shell, bone and stone manipulated in ornaments suited to the inherent character of people. Later, people of the Indus Valley region learnt to make ornaments and jewellery from metals as well. With time the material used for making changed to ivory, copper and semiprecious stones and then to silver, gold and precious, semi-precious stones. The new metal technology of the Bronze Age included the more use of precious metals like gold and silver with specialization and interdependence among the artisans which led to a greater degree of refinement in the jewellery. One can see a wide range of jewellery on the sculptures at Bharhut, Sanchi and Amaravati and the paintings at Ajanta. The temples of South India, Bengal, Orissa and Central India present the elaborated Indian jewels of the time. 19-century old text in the epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and the Arthashastra, the excellent intricate skills of the Jewellers. Indian jewellery is a remarkable expression of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aesthetic and cultural history. To celebrate human body Indian artisans have put immense creativity and hard work in the discovery of extraordinary pieces of jewellery. It is crafted not only for humans but also for the Gods, ceremonial elephants and horses. Indian jewellery has played a pivotal role in highlighting the beauty but it also has many other functions to it. It is a statement of power, prosperity and prestige and in many parts of the country, it is considered as social and economic security, wealth storage, marking the rituals and the identity of the wearer. It also signifies the stages of life and the social background. Indian jewellery has a close association with the religion, it is a medium of prayer and an offering to the divine. It is still considered to be a protection from misfortune and worn for the wellness of mind, body and soul. In all kinds of traditional dance forms, jewellery has been a significant part. Be it Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi or Kathak, all have given importance 4

(Fig 1.1) Silver earring adorned by a women of the Banjara Community.

1.1

to jewellery in presenting the artist. Chest eras of jewellery making, which is also very well-documented through chronicles and paintings of Mughals. In fact, the earlier Mughal paintings show that the era of Akbarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign gave a new life into the art in Indian culture, crafting a range of exotic designs. The Mughals contributed in almost all fields of development of jewellery in India. These different aspects of Indian jewellery still survive, but much less universally than before. In our country, almost all the parts of the body starting from the head to toe have consistently been used to support ornaments, often in indigenous ways. Traditionally, a prolific amount of jewellery was worn. Other than widows almost all the women used to wear ornaments as an intrinsic part of their dress and as a sign of respectability. The sheer weight of these jewellery pieces was highly considerable, and they used to perform everyday tasks while wearing these heavy pieces. Like most civilizations across the world, Indians, having a deeply sophisticated and magnificently refined culture, Indians have devised and widely adopted the ornaments worn by women and sometimes by a man, to signify that they are married. Marriage ornaments help to convey their status as well. Every time we see the Indian history we are dazzled by the jewellery worn by people in different parts of the country. Regional differences can be very well observed in the making techniques and designing jewellery, depending on the differences in geography, people, culture, and their lifestyle and the availability of other resources. The designs of the south like of Tamil Nadu and Kerala are inspired by nature, the Meenakari and Kundan styles of jewellery making have been influenced by the Mughal dynasty. Then there is a huge range of silver jewellery found all over India, especially in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh which is popular till date in some areas. While Assamese jewellery is inspired by local flora and fauna, Manipuri jewellery-makers make use of items like shells, animal claws, teeth and precious and semiprecious stones. These huge varieties of ornaments bear testimony to the excellent skill of the Jewellers and craftsmen of the country. Indian jewellery in Gold, diamonds, silver, sterling silver, precious stones and semi-precious stones is a rage all over the world.

(Fig 1.2) Tribal Jewellery adorned by a woman of the Banjara Community.

1.2

1.2 Gold and Silver â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Quintessential Metals Of Indian Jewellery The sacred metals, gold symbolic of the warm sun, Silver suggesting the cool moon. One of the earliest metals to have been used by man, not only in India but also in other parts of the world. Gold is associated with immorality as the jewellery survives undamaged even after suffering long interment in secret hiding places. Silver the white shining metal is second only to gold in preciousness and it was used more extensively than gold in India. In India, the symbolic sacredness of gold and silver is transformed into jewellery made of metals. As gold and silver are considered to be a metal possessing maximum potency, and also used repel disease and evil spirits. Losing gold and silver ornaments is interpreted as a prophecy of an impending personal disaster. In India Gold and silver jewellery is considered to be a very safe investment and a way of saving wealth. For centuries, these two metals were the fabled wealth of India and many rulers vied with each other to acquire rarer and richer ornaments of exquisite craftsmanship. The findings from the excavated sites in India has a lot of gold and silver jewellery. Even at that age, the skill of craftsmen was too evident. Each region of India has a distinctive style of jewellery specific to it. Many factors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; castes, cultural development, external influences such as trade contacts and migratory tribe influence the styles of jewellery. Silver jewellery has been in use among tribal and less affluent sections of Indian society but it became even more popular in India after the arrivals of Muslims. Many primitive tribes dwell in India and live close to nature, in forests or mountains or desert areas, and have their own ideas of beauty and adornment. Some of them also decorate them with flowers and leaves. Most of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tribal belt is concentrated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa where these heavy silver ornaments, made by local silversmiths are greatly favored. The tribes of south India also have a distinctive way of adorning themselves with silver jewellery since they cannot afford gold. Silver is worn, although not in large amounts.

(Fig 1.3) Tribal Jewellery pieces displayed in a jewellery shop in the jewellery market of Jodhpur. 1.3

Banjara (a nomadic tribe) women are perhaps the most heavily ornamented in the world. These ornaments are made of silver and are usually chunky, but also include delicate chains and beautiful details. The intricacy of the jewellery worn by the banjara community and the amazing craftsmanship depicted on their ornaments attracted us for in depth research of their jewellery and their community as well. Banjara being the nomadic tribes are found in many parts of the country and are found in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, etc. We decided to visit Rajasthan to understand the legacy behind the tribal jewellery of the banjara community.

1.4

(Fig 1.4) Gold Bangle made by an artisan in Jodhpur.

GLIMPSE INTO THE REGION 9

2.1 Rajasthan – The Incredible State of India Rajasthan, The jewel in India’s crown. The realm of former Maharajas and their lavish palaces and majestic forts. The land is steeped in a past filled to the brim with honour, chivalry and heroism to colourful festivals and wildlife encounters. Golden-sand deserts, traditional handicrafts, authentic cuisine with a treasure-trove of ancient lore, music, dance, ballads, fables. Almost every city in Rajasthan is coded with a specific colour. Jaipur is Pink, Jodhpur is Blue, Jhalawar is Purple, and Udaipur is white. This is India at its vibrant best and all contribute to making Rajasthan an ideal vacation spot. Second largest border sharing with Pakistan that offers diversity in culture. It covers 11 per cent of the country’s area of 3,42,239 sq. kilometres, with a population of 56.5 million. Rajasthan has more history than the entire country put together stretching from the prehistoric Old Stone Age where the State geography and environment played a significant role in determining settlement patterns and locations of towns and cities. Forts in Rajasthan offer boundless views of the panoramic landscape, and the two most important forts in Rajasthan are the Amber Fort in Jaipur and the Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur. The Amber Fort is a perfect amalgamation of Hindu and Mughal architecture. The ancient stronghold of the Kacchawa Clan built out of white marble and red sandstone. The fort is surrounded with Maota Lake which offers crystal clear reflections of the entire fort adding to the charm of this age-old monument. Jodhpur’s Mehrangarh Fort is one of the largest forts in India, and towers above the entire city. Situated atop a steep cliff, the fort is still in pretty good shape and houses a museum which displays various artefacts and objects belonging to the ancient royal family. Another famous Rajasthani fort is the Jaisalmer Fort which is entirely made from sandstone, the fort literally shines brightly from a distance, lending it its name of Sonar Quila (meaning Golden Fort).

2.1

Rajasthan also has a significant number of palaces that are of historical significance, the Umaid Bhawan Palace, the Jaipur City Palace, Udai Bilas Palace, Udaipur and there are many more. These palaces, their architecture, and their old walls tell stories of the glorious past of the state. Some of the palaces are so grand and royal that they’ve been converted into heritage hotels so that tourists can get to experience the lifestyle of the royals. Treasure trove of Indian handicrafts. Rajasthan is the largest producer of handicraft items in India reflecting the rich culture of a culturally diverse state which offers several local handicraft items retaining the state’s unique identity. The vibrant coloured and patterned crafts of the state are used to adorn interiors of the living spaces. Whereas there are other crafts that produce useful products of daily use, garments, accessories and miscellaneous items. One can find many temples are dotting almost the entire region. One of its kind Brahma Temple in Pushkar and Karni Mata Temple in Bikaner, the exquisite Dilwara Jain Temple of Mount Abu and Ranakpur Temple along with Eklingji of Udaipur are the finest examples of Rajput temple architecture reflecting the religious beliefs. Amongst the variety of Rajasthani handicraft and handlooms, includes, Jewellery - silver, kundan and meenakari, Textile, Handmade Paper, Precious and Semi-Precious Stones -gemstone, Paintings, Leathercraft, Marble Handicrafts, handcrafted items - wood, ivory, lac, glass, brass, silver and gold and much more. Rajasthan is also a palatable wildlife destination to explore a unique ecosystem with diverse yet rare flora and fauna species. Rajasthan is home to a decent number of tigers and birds. Ranthambore National Park, Keoladeo, Sariska and Desert National are considered best when it comes to rich and diverse wildlife.

“Rajasthan is The Land of Brave, welcoming and extremely talented people, Exceptional Tales, Exotic Architecture, Vibrant Culture and Warm Hospitality”

(Fig 2.1) A view of Jodhpur city from Mehrangarh Fort. (Fig 2.2) A handicarft store in Jodhpur.

2.2

2.2 Jodhpur – The Blue City

Jodhpur is the second largest city in the Indian State of Rajasthan and officially the second metropolitan city of the state. Jodhpur district is among the largest districts in Rajasthan. It was formerly the seat of a princely state of the name Jodhpur. Also known as ‘Blue city’, it was founded by Rao Jodha, a chief of Rathore clan in the year 1459. He began construction of the Mehrangarh fort that rises 400 feet above the landscape. The Blue City is blue to the literal sense with blue paint to distinguish the Brahmin housing from the rest. Modern Jodhpur stretches well beyond the city walls. It is the immediacy and the buzz of the old city and the larger than life fort that captures the traveller’s imagination.

2.2.1 History According to the Hindu Ramayana and the Rajasthan district Gazetteers’ of Jodhpur, the Abhiras (Ahirs) were the original inhabitants of Jodhpur and later Aryans spread out to this region. Home to the valiant, warrior clan of Rajputs who claim to originate from the sun, moon and fire, Rajasthan is said to have been a region where human settlement dated back to early historical period. Archaeological excavations in the territory of land establish a connection with the Harappan civilisation that dates to 1000 BC. Traditionally, local tribes such as Meenas, Gujjars, Bhils, Rajputs, Rajpurohits, Charan, Jats, Bishnois, Phulmali (Saini) and others made a great contribution in building the place. All these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and land. From 640 AD, the Gujars, Pratiharas, Chauhans, Gahlots established their independent kingdoms. Internal rivalry and power struggles between the Rajput kingdoms led to the establishment of many strong Rajput kingdoms. Rajput families rose to prominence in 6th century. Jodhpur has historically been the capital of the kingdom ‘Marwar’, which is now a part of Rajasthan. The Jodhpur history revolves around the Rathore clan. Rao Jodha, a Rajput chief of the Rathore clan is credited with the origin of the city in India. The Rathores were driven out of their origin homeland, Kannauj, by Afghans. They then fled to Pali, nearby village to present day Jodhpur. Rathore Siahaji married the sister of a local prince that helped the Rathores to establish and strengthen themselves in the region. They then ousted the Pratiharas of Mandore. Mandore was initially served as the capital, but then in 1459, a need for secure capital was felt and hence, this led to the formation of Jodhpur, the Sun City, by Rao Jodha. The city was located on the strategic road linking Delhi to Gujarat. This enabled the state to profit from a flourishing trade in opium, copper, silk, sandals, date palm and coffee. After the death of Chandrasen Rathore, the state became a fief under the Mughal Empire. The state furnishes the Mughals with several notable generals and in return the people of Jodhpur got exposure to new styles of art and architecture that broadened the opportunities for local tradesmen across the country. Fifty years of wars and treaties ate up the wealth of Jodhpur, that sought and gratefully entered a subsidiary alliance with the British in 1818. During the British Raj, the state of Jodhpur had the largest land area in the Rajputana. Under the reign of Maharaja Umed Singh, Jodhpur grew into a modern city. Jodhpur prospered under the British Raj. Its merchants, the Marwaris flourished endlessly.

(Fig 2.3) Blue coloured houses in the streets of Jodhpur.

2.3

Mehrangarh Fort To understand the historical background of Jodhpur and the impact it lays on the city and its people, we planned to visit the Mehrangarh Fort. Mehrangarh Fort is one of the largest forts of India and was built by Rao Jodha in the year 1459. The fort is spread over an area of 5 km and is built on 125 m high hill in the outskirts of Jodhpur city. The Fort is built up of red sandstone and stands as an epitome of opulence, royalty and luxury while being highly maintained by the trust of the present King Maharaja Gaj Singh 2 of Jodhpur who became head of the House on 26 January 1952. We were provided with valuable information during our visit to the fort by our guide Mr. Tejpal. He described how Jodhpur State also historically known as the Kingdom of Marwar. The word Marwar means Maru sthal in Hindi, which means the desert area or the dry area. As the city was founded by Rao Jodha therefore it was named after him only. Within the fort there are several brilliantly crafted and decorated palaces are found, which were constructed from 1459 onwards in an informal pattern over several centuries that it took almost 350 years to complete the construction of the entire fort. They are among the most beautiful and historic palaces in Rajasthan and have very special architectural features, such as narrow staircases leading to the royal residence, carved panels and porches, elaborately adorned walls and brilliant stained glass windows, that create vibrant mosaics on the floors with the play of light. Most notable are Moti Mahal (Pearl Palace), Phool Mahal (Flower Palace), Sheesha Mahal (Mirror Palace), Sileh Khana, and Daulat Khana, where the treasures of the Mehrangarh museum can be found. The fort museum comprises several palaces and houses an exquisite collection of palanquins, howdahs, royal cradles, miniatures, musical instruments, costumes, furniture as well as cannons on the fortâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ramparts. There are seven gates, which can be used to enter the Mehrangarh fort. These 7 gates are made by different rulers, and are built in honor of victory over Bikaner and Jaipur armies. One can see the panoramic view of the Jodhpur city from this fort, which seems like a blue carpet laid at the foot of a hill. Every ruler of Jodhpur has contributed in the making of this fort. There are also two temples located inside the fort â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Chamunda Devi Mandir and Nagnechiaji Mandir, dedicated to Goddess Durga and the Kuladevi respectively. We observed beautiful hand carvings done on sandstone, kundan work on palanquins, use of glass imported from Belgium in the fort, marble (Fig 2.4) A view of Jodhpur city from Mehrangarh Fort.

2.4

and wood used to create royal seats for the Kings, thewa work on sword’s handle, zardozi work on shields, etc. this depicted that the Marwari’s were brilliant at hand crafted products and the jewellery for the royal people was also hand crafted by this community extensively. We observed beautiful hand carvings done on sandstone, kundan work on palanquins, use of glass imported from Belgium in the fort, marble and wood used to create royal seats for the Kings, thewa work on sword’s handle, zardozi work on shields, etc. this depicted that the Marwari’s were brilliant at hand crafted products and the jewellery for the royal people was also hand crafted by this community extensively. The fort is still in possession of the descendants of the royal family, who inhabited the palaces until they moved to the Umaid Bhavan Palace in 1943. We also received the information that Jodhpur had many Brahmin people who prayed to Lord Shiva and in order to represent their caste they painted their houses Blue which is the reason behind the numerous blue houses situated in Jodhpur and the city being called as “The Blue City”. The city is also addressed as the “Sun City” because it enjoys sunny and bright weather all-round the year for the longest time duration.

(Fig 2.5) An inside view of one of the rooms present in Mehrangarh Fort. (Fig. 2.6) The intricate carvings on the handle of the swords kept in Mehrangarh Fort for display.

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2.6

2.2.2. Location Jodhpur is a city in the Thar Desert of the northwest Indian state of Rajasthan. Jodhpur lies near the geographic centre of the Rajasthan state. Jodhpur is a significant city of western Rajasthan and lies about 250 kilometres from the border with Pakistan. Jodhpur lies between 26°0’ and 27°37’ north latitude and 72°55’ and 73°52’ east longitude. It is bounded by Nagaur in east, Jaisalmer in west, Bikaner in North and Barmer and Pali in South. Area: 78.6 km² (Jodhpur district – 22850 km²). The total length of the district is 197km from North-South and 208km from East-West. The old city circles the fort and is bounded by a wall with several gates. The city has expanded outside these walls over the course in the last centuries. Elevation: 231 metres above sea level.

2.9

(Fig 2.7) Geographical Map showing the Country of India and the State of Rajasthan. (Fig. 2.8) Geographical Map showing the city of Jodhpur. (Fig 2.9) Geographical Map showing the detailed city of Jodhpur. Source: http://www.touristplacesinindia.com/jodhpur/jodhpur-map.html

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2.8

2.2.3 Language People speak different languages, although Hindi being the main language. Rajasthani is a language of Indo-Aryan language family and is spoken by 20 million people in Rajasthan and neighbouring states of India and Pakistan. The four main dialects spoken are Marwari, Jaipuri, Malvi and Mewati.

2.2.4 Demographics Jodhpur has a population that belongs to a wide range of tribes and castes. The tradition has been modified in modern times and now the caste is decided by the family in which the child is born. Of the total 1,033,918 people, 76.98% are Hindus, 19.30% are Muslims, 2.70% are Jains and others constitute 1.0%. Majority of the population is comprised of Rajputs. Other communities are Jats, Brahmans and the Traders. Brahmans were the priests and teachers, Mahajans are the backbone of the village economy, Jats and Gujars are the agricultural communities. After them comes the artisans, painters, sculptors and the potters. The last category of the people is the tribal class like Bheels, Sahariyas, Banjaras and Kathodi. The Muslims form a minority in the population and most of them are Sunnis. As per the provisional reports of the Census India, the population of Jodhpur is 1,033,918 in 2011 where males constitute approximately 52.62% and females approximately 47.38% of the population.

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2.2.5 Climate The climate of Jodhpur is like most of the Thar desert region: hot and semi-arid. This remains same during its nearly yearlong dry season but contains brief rains from late June to September. The average rainfall is around 450mm (18 in). Temperatures are extreme from March to October. In the months of April, May and June, high temperatures routinely exceed 40 degrees Celsius.

(Fig 2.10) An old man performing a ritual on the streets of Jodhpur. (Fig. 2.11) Women carrying grass for the cattle in a nearby village of Jodhpur.

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2.2.6 Topography The geography of Rajasthan is enriched with variable topographic features. The main features of topography are rolling sand dunes, river-drained plains, rocky terrain, wetlands, plateaus, barren tracks or land filled with thorny shrubs, wooden regions and ravines. Jodhpur comes under the arid zone of Rajasthan. It covers 11.60% of the total area of the arid zone of the state. Some of the areas of The Great Thar Desert also comes within the district. The general slope of the terrain is towards the west. The soil is majorly sandy, alkaline, chalky and saline. Other types of soils are loamy, clay, nitrogenous soil and the black lava soil.

2.2.7 Geology and Minerals The sand that is used in construction is found in abundance in Jodhpur tehsil. Apart from sandstone, ‘Chittar Stone’ and Brown Stone are also found in large quantities. Some mines of marble stone dolomite are also found in Bhopalgarh. White clay is found near Pipar city. There are around 156 quarries of lime stone also. Quarries of Jasper are also present. Minerals like quartz and clays of various colours and dolomite are also available in the district.

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2.2.8 Quarrying and Mining The areas near Jodhpur have a lot of local quarries from which Sandstone is procured. Jodhpur sandstone is used in majority of the monuments and important buildings. This stone is termed as ‘Chittar Patthar’.

2.13

(Fig 2.12) Women living in the nearby villages of Jodhpur. (Fig. 2.13) Quarrying and Mining done in the outer areas of Jodhpur city.

2.2.9 Crops Agricultural activities are majorly dependent on rains. Due to very less rainfall, the seasonal vegetation includes a few grass species, dwarf trees and shrubs. Kharif is the major crop (Bajra, Moong, Moth, Sesame, Jowar and Cotton). Rabi crop (Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Raida, Taramira, etc) is majorly cultivated in Bilara, Bhopalgarh and Osian Tehsils only. Jodhpur is well known for its red chilli, onion and garlic. It is the major production centres for Guar. Due to scarcity of irrigational facilities, only 15% of the cultivable land is sowed.

2.2.10 Rivers and Water resources There is no perennial river in the district. However, important rivers in the district are Luni river and Mithri River, though their base is saline water. Balsamand Jheel is in the north of Jodhpur. Kailana Tank and Ummed Sagar are also the water reservoirs. There are two natural springs – Beri Ganga and Ban Ganga. Besides, a few important tanks are – Soorpura and Golejor bandhs, Pichiyak (Jaswant Sagar) and Birai Tank that are maintained by the irrigation department. Main source of irrigation besides rainwater are dugwells and tube-wells.

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2.2.11 Flora and Fauna The flora and fauna in Rajasthan are specifically endemic to the dry region. They are adapted to survive in Rajasthan’s waterless and arid region. Forest area is available around the hills and is classified as scrub thorn forest. The forest vegetation includes grasses, shrubs and thorny trees. The commonly found tree species are bamboo, khejri, teak and varied species of acacia. The main species of trees are Kumat, Kair, Khejri, Babul, Bir, Jal khara, Pilu, etc. Fruit bearing trees are pomegranates and guavas. Due to sandy soil and dry climate, only shrubs and thorny bushes of vegetation are found in the forest area.

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(Fig 2.14) A scene from the nearby village of Jodhpur. (Fig. 2.15) Cattle roaming in the city of Jodhpur.

The wildlife includes 25 species of serpents and 23 species of lizards. The wildlife also includes Indian gazelles or chinkaras, antelopes, black bucks, silver foxes, Great Indian Bustard, Nilgai or the Blue Bull, jackals, Indian Fox, Chinkara, Common Hare, Jungle cats and wild cats. Birds commonly found are Baya, Koyal, Parrot, Vultures, Swift bird, etc.

2.2.12 Economy Jodhpur lately emerged as a big centre of artistic furniture and traditional handicrafts, life-style accessories, exquisite Indian crafts, decoratives, giftware, metalware, woodware, textiles, footwear, metal utensils, iron and camel bone handicrafts, bicycles, ink and sporting goods. ‘Bandhani’ is also prevalent which is a very fine technique of tie and dye. Hand block prints, silver shops selling jewellery and other antique shops are also present. The handicraft export industry of Jodhpur has virtually become the power house to sustain the economy of the State in general and the Region in particular. The Handicraft Sector is economically important to high potential for export After the handicrafts, tourism is the second largest industry of Jodhpur. Jodhpur lies near the geographic centre of the Rajasthan state, which makes it a convenient base for travel in a region much frequented by tourists. Major agricultural exports in the district include wheat and Mathania red chillies. The city serves as an important marketplace for wool and agricultural products. Gypsum and salt are commonly mined exports.

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2.2.13 Transport The city has well-established rail, road and air networks connecting it to other major cities of the country. Airport – Jodhpur Airport is one of the prominent airports of Rajasthan. It is primarily a military airbase with a civil enclosure to allow for civilian air traffic.

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(Fig 2.16) Artefacts placed in a shop located in the market of Jodhpur. (Fig. 2.17) A truck being used for transportation of different materials intercity.

Railway station – Jodhpur railway station is the divisional headquarters of the North Western Railways (NWR). It is well connected with railways to major Indian cities. To decongest the main Jodhpur station (JU), the suburban station Bhagat Ki Kothi (BGKT) is being developed as the second main station for passenger trains. Bus station – Jodhpur is connected by road to all major cities in Rajasthan and neighbouring states. Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS), a bus-based public transport system, RSTC buses and private luxury buses connect Jodhpur with other parts of Rajasthan. Jodhpur is connected to the National Highway network with three National Highways and to the Rajasthan State Highway network with ten state highways. National Highways passing through Jodhpur: • NH-62, Ambala-Kaithal-Hissar-Fatehpur-Jodhpur-Pali, total length 690 km • NH-112, Junction with NH-14 near Bar connecting Jaitaran-Bilra-Kapar da-Jodhpur-Kalyanpur-Pachpadra-Baloootra-Tilwara-Kher-Bagundi-Dhudhwa-Madhasar-Kawas and terminating at its junction with NH 15 near Barmer, total length= 343 km • NH-114, Junction with NH-65 near Jodhpur connecting Balesar - Dechhu and terminating at its junction with NH-15 near Pokaran, total length= 180 km Other means of transport also includes Taxis, Auto-rickshaws, Tongas.

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2.2.14 Tourist places Jodhpur’s most notable attractions are Mehrangarh Fort, Umaid Bhawan Palace, Jaswant Thada, and the Ghanta Ghar, or Clock Tower. Tourists are also within proximity to Fort Auwa, Mandore, Kaylana Lake and Garden, Balsamand Lake, Mandaleshwar Mahadev Temple (Mandalnath), Ratanada Ganesh Temple, ISKCON Temple, Sardar Samand Lake and Palace, Masooria Hills, Veer Durgadas Smarak (monument, park and museum) and Bhim Bhadak Cave.

2.19

(Fig 2.18) A view of the intricate carving done at Mehrangarh Fort. (Fig. 2.19) Umaid Bhawan Palace in the city of Jodhpur.

2.2.15 Cuisine The city is famous for its food. The place is known for its spicy dishes, delicious sweets and tasty snacks. Several dishes from Indian cuisine originated in Jodhpur, such as Makhaniya Lassi, Mawa Ki Kachori, Pyaaj Ki Kachori, Hot & Spicy Mirchi Bada, Dal Bati Churma, Lasan Ki Chutney (special gravy of garlic), Mirchi Ka Kutii, Gatte Ki Sabzi, Ker Sangri Sabzi, Raab, Lapsi, Aate Ka Halwa, Kachara Mircha Sabzi and Kadhi Pakoda with Baajre Ka Sogra. Jodhpur is known for its sweets ranging from traditional ‘Makhanbada’, ‘Mawa Ki Kachori’, ‘Malpua’, ‘Ghevar’, ‘Motichur Ke Laddu’, ‘Besan Barfi’, ‘Thorr’ and ‘Gulab Jamun’ to Bengali ‘Rasgulla’ and ‘Ras Malai’. There are other varieties of items cooked in traditional ways prepared in Jodhpur. Some famous restaurants and sweet shops of Jodhpur are – Janta Sweet Home, Jodhpur Sweet Home, Pokhar sweets, Indique restaurant, Gypsy restaurant, Shahi Samosa.

2.2.16 Social Life The Rajasthani are colourful, happy and proud people with a culture deeply rooted in tradition. The Rajasthani are traditional to the point of being orthodox and extremely conservative, especially in matters of caste and community. In matters of honour, Rajasthani are very touchy and any insult, real or imagined can turn up in violent struggles, even today.

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2.2.17 People People of Jodhpur are very warm and hospitable. They have a typical Marwari accent. The lifestyle in Jodhpur is quite fascinating. The folks wear multi-coloured and vibrant costumes. The people are generally quite friendly, yet conservative in nature. The people are proud of their cultural heritage and strive to preserve the same. Jodhpur is also quite backward and still having that rural attitude. Social evils like patriarchy and casteism still prevail in households. In some houses, women are expected to be housewives and in extreme cases, are expected to have their head covered under a cloth. It’s much more common in rural families living in the town. (Fig 2.20) Mirchi Bada, a popular snack of the city. (Fig. 2.21) Women spending the evening time together.

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2.2.18 Clothing The people of Rajasthan love to don colourful attires. The costumes of the people show the wonderful cultural legacy of weather-proof designing. It also exhibits the colourful exuberance of its animated people. The costumes are loose and free-flowing. They prevent the sunburns that result from the direct exposure to the harsh sun-rays. The textile used is mainly cotton. The winters are extremely cold in Jodhpur hence the people cover themselves with shawls, cloaks and scarves. Overall, the people prefer to adorn themselves in brightly coloured dresses, perhaps to compensate for the dry barrenness of the environment. Men: Men wear adorable turbans known as pagris or safa – ‘Jodhpuri Safa’, forming an integral part of their dressing and which lends gravity to the personality. Angrakha, a frock type garment made from cotton covers the upper body. Their lower body is draped with dhoti or pyjama. They carry proud big moustaches. Women: Women wear a sari, or a long and flowing skirt known as ghaghra which they team up with a blouse called as ‘choli’ with traditional pallus. The coloured stones, silk threads and tinsels are used to develop floral patterns and traditional themes and to promote the rich look of saree. Tie and dye Bandhni and block printed textiles are generally preferred. The odhni is an integral part of their costumes. It is a long piece of cloth that is teamed up with the lehenga or ghagra choli. The odhni is a mark of respect and conformity among the women. Muslim women wear burkhas or their traditional black veil in place of odhni. Sometimes in winters, they drape themselves with dhabla or shawl.

2.2.19 Sports Jodhpur has two outdoor stadiums and one indoor stadium complex. Barkatullah Khan Stadium. Umaid stadium football stadium and Gaushala maidan sports stadium and railway cricket ground.

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2.23

(Fig 2.22) A woman wearing Ghaghra Choli, a traditional outfit worn by the women of the city. (Fig. 2.23) A man wearing traditional clothes along with the traditional Jodhpuri Safa or Turban.

2.2.20 Religion Jodhpur has majorly Hinduism prevailing. However, there are other religions like Islam, Jainism, Dadupanthi, Sikhism and Christianity. The followers of Hinduism worship Brahma, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, and other gods and goddesses. Jainism is also prevailing in Jodhpur which is followed by the trading class and the wealthy section of the society. In Jodhpur, all religions dwell in peace and harmony. Rajasthani people follow different religions, but their culture is the same. Even Muslims follow the Rajasthani culture.

Temples: •Chamunda Mata Temple •Raj Ranchhodji Temple •Achal Nath Shivalaya •Siddhanth Shiv Temple •Rasik Bihari Temple •Ganesh Temple •ISKCON Temple •Baba Ramdeo Temple, Masuria hill •Shiv Temple, Shiv Sagar, Mata ka than •Udai Mandir in the city area •Kunj Bihari Temple •Dauji Temple, Hathi Ram ka Oda •Ravan Temple •Pal Balaji Temple (Lord Hanuman) •Rotary Bala Ji •Osian Mata temple •Guru raja ram temple (shikar pura)

(Fig 2.24) A man praying to the God of his community.

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2.2.21 Fairs and Festivals Cultural life is characterised by numerous religious festivals. Fairs and festivals add to the colour to the dry and arid landscape of the place and provide a platform that showcases the rich and colourful culture of Rajasthan. The main religious festivals are Diwali, Holi, Gangaur, Teej, Gogaji, Makar Sankranti and Janmashtami. Some major highlights of the fairs are camel races, folk music and dance performances, puppet shows, cock and bullfighting, camel trouping and trading of camels and other cattle. All fairs and festivals are celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm. These fairs become a market for traders who gather to sell their wares – household items and exquisitely designed handicrafts. • Chamunda Mata Mela – the Temple of Chamunda Mata is in Jodhpur Fort. Chamunda Mata is the family deity of Rathore (former ruler of Jodhpur). More than 50,000 people who worship the deity congregate in the fair. • Marwar Mahotsav • Gangaur • Baithmaar Gangaur Mela • Teej • Nag Panchami Fair • Sheetla Mata Fair – it is organised at ‘Kaga’ in Jodhpur. Nearly 30,000 people assemble on Chaitra Badi every year to pay homage to the image of Sheetla Mata. • Baba Ramdev Pir Mela – this fair is held in Jodhpur at Massoria hillock. Many people gather on this occasion from various parts of the state. It is locally known as Massoria Baba ka Mela. •Rajasthan International Folk Festival (RIFF) •World Sacred Spirit Festival

(Fig 2.25) An idol of a deity worshipped by the people of the city.

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2.2.22 Arts and Crafts Rajasthan is known for its traditional, colourful art. The block prints, tie and dye prints, Bagaru prints, Sanganer prints, Zari embroidery are major export products. Jodhpur is famous for its Handicraft items like wooden furniture and handicrafts, blue pottery, camel leather crafts, leather footwear, silver crafts, Panjha Durrie, Dabbu printing, bone and horn craft, mother of pearl craft, wrought ironwork. Panjha Durries: Jodhpur is the home for Panjha Durries that are woven on hand looms by local communities. They acquire their name from the claw-shaped tool that is used to make these rugs. Also known as Jhatpatti rugs, these were used only for the domestic purpose and as dowry for the daughter’s marriage. Now, they are woven with colourful dyed cotton yarns depicting various complex geometric patterns. Bone and Horn carving: These were used in ancient days to make bangles, sword handles and other ornaments. Figurines depicting Gods and Goddesses, animals, mythological motifs and folk motifs depicting the intricacy of carving. Bangle boxes, chessmen, animal figures, combs and paper cutters are also made. Jodhpur is also famous for its bangles of various sizes that cover the whole arm. Bandhani – tie and dye: It has a very old association with Rajasthan. It is an ancient, resist-dyeing technique, also known as tie and dye. It is used to design decorative patterns created by skilled artisans with the help of dye.

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2.2.23 Architecture The state is famous for the majestic forts, intricate carvings on the havelis and temples which were built by the kings in previous times. The old city of Jodhpur is surrounded by a stone wall and the new city is on the other side of the railway tracks, in the south-eastern direction. The city is referred to as ‘Blue City’ due to the indigo tinge of the whitewashed houses around the Mehrangarh Fort in the old city area. Jodhpur is a home of several new architectural patterns which has enriched the panorama of Indian architecture. The Umaid Bhawan Palace of Jodhpur is noted for its imposing architectural features. The construction of the palace was aimed at a public relief and employment project during a long period of drought. Chittor sandstone has been used in the construction of this palace which imparts a special effect on it.

(Fig 2.26) The traditional tie and dye technique of Bandhini. (Fig 2.27) A view of Jodhpur city from Mehrangarh Fort.

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The Umaid Bhawan Palace of Jodhpur is noted for its imposing architectural features. The construction of the palace was aimed at a public relief and employment project during a long period of drought. Chittor sandstone has been used in the construction of this palace which imparts a special effect on it. The Mehrangarh Fort majestically perched on a rocky mountain, at a height of hundred and twenty meters looks down on the city below. The architecture of the fort is very impressive, and it is one of the largest forts in India. The fort wall has seven entrances and several palaces within, all connected with courtyards. The structures with their Bengaldar roofs bear a resemblance to the Bikaner Palace and have a strong influence of Islamic architecture. Most of the old houses are coloured blue that is situated in the foothills of the fort. Now, most of the new houses are made from sandstone which is locally quarried and procured. Streets are extremely narrow in the old city.

2.2.24 Administration The administration of Jodhpur consists of a District Collector, followed by 4 additional District Magistrates (I, II, Land Conversion and City ADM). Presently, the Collector and District Magistrate is Sh. Prakash Rajpurohit (IAS). The city is also under Police Commissioner system, with Mr Alok Vashishtha (IPS) as the present Police Commissioner of the city. (as of 26th October 2018) Jodhpur city is governed by Municipal Corporation which comes under Jodhpur Urban Agglomeration. The Jodhpur Urban/Metropolitan area include Jodhpur, Kuri Bhagtasani, Mandore Industrial Area, Nandri, Pal Village and Sangariya. The city is administered by the Jodhpur Nagar Nigam headed by a mayor. For administrative purposes, the city is divided into 65 wards, from which the members of the corporation council are elected for five years.

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(Fig 2.28) A view of a street in Jodhpur city.

THE BANJARA COMMUNITY

3.1

(Fig 3.1) People of the Banjara community of Rajasthan.

3.1 Introduction The word Banjara is derived from the original Sanskrit word ‘Vanaj’ or ‘Banaj’, and it means a trader. The word Banjara can be broken into ‘Ban’ and ‘Jara’. ‘Ban’ means jungle and ‘Jara’ means mover. It means the one who moves or wanders in the jungle. Since India is a country that is known for its cultural diversity and dramatic appearance of its ethnic groups, there is one group that stands out for its traditional costumes and jewellery’s beauty. This group is found in every part of the country - the Banjaras. These are the semi-nomadic people who prefer to maintain a distinct and self-contained identity. The Banjaras are some of the most visible and yet most mysterious people in India. Distinctively dressed in their astonishing finery, Banjara women are unmistakable figures in the landscape. Their attire and the way they carry the accessories stand out from the daily costume of most of the Indian women. Banjaras are often referred to as ‘Indian Gypsies’

3.2 History The Banjara tribes are believed to be the descendants of Roman gypsies of Europe who migrated through rugged mountains of Afghanistan to settle down in the desert of Rajasthan and many other states in India 2300 years ago. Banjara pre-history has the group located in north-west India in the desert plains south-east of Indus river. The Banjaras are believed to have originated from the Marwar region of Rajasthan. This area is now home to many pastoral and semi-nomadic people that also includes Rabari, Meghwar, Jat and Sodha Rajputs. They were ancient carriers of food grains on animal backs. Migration with oxen through Khandesh to the North Konkan were recorded as late as the 1960s. The ancestral home of the Banjara is Rajputana (central Rajasthan), from here, they dispersed in around 1000 CE. They claim to belong to the clan of Agnivanshi Rajput. The origin of the Banjara community is stated in the area between Bikaner and Bahawalpur, Pakistan. After the fall of the Rajputs, they started spreading across the country. The Banjara had spread to Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and other states of India. The Banjaras travelled through the length and breadth of the country and settled down in various parts of the country. Thus, the Banjaras who settled down in various parts of the country are known as Lambani, Lambadi, Lamani, Laman Banjara, Gor Banjara, Sugali, Lambadi or Laman. The name differs according to their place of settlement. During the 19th century, the British colonial authorities brought the community under the purview of Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 and thus curbed their movement. The Banjaras were among many tribes that resisted the British attempt to seize their lands for plantations and enrol them as labours. Their constant revolt frustrated the British. In 1871, the Banjaras and several other tribes were brought under the Criminal Tribes Act and put to hard labour to cure their ‘criminal’ tendencies. After independence, the community was denotified in the 1950s. In 1952, they were listed under the Habitual Offenders Act. They slowly became daily wage workers on farms and construction sites.

3.3 People Banjaras are known to live a life that is thrilling and full of adventures. They are not very friendly people are hesitant to talk and interact with new people that are not from their tribe. They are known for their colourful costumes - bright clothing, Voluminous skirt, elaborate adornment, jewellery, tattoos, flowing head scarves. It is a very enthusiastic tribe. The tribe is a bit conservative tribe. The people love to dress and always carry their jewellery on themselves. They fear God and believe in superstitions a lot. They do odd jobs and are hardworking. The Banjara families are closely knit, having minimal relationships with other castes. The role of leader of the community is passed down to the leader’s son. All biological sons get an equal share from the parental property. Marriages may be arranged, especially to avoid the union of relatives to three generations back. In some groups, however, cousins can marry. There are approximately 0.3 Million Banjaras in Rajasthan. Synonyms used for Banjaras: Banajara (Sanskrit), Banjara (Rajasthani), Vanjara (Gujarati), Wanjara, Vanjari or Banjari (Marathi), Banzara (Hindi), Brinjari.

There are several names used for the Banjaras: • Banjara • Banjari • Vanajara • Banjare • Banjari • Brinjari • Lamban • Lamani or Lambani • Lambada • Lambadi • Laban or Labana • Labhan • Labhani • Labhana or Lobhana • Baladia • Ladenia • Sugali • Gwar or Gauria • Gwaria • Gavaria or Gamalia • Gavara • Phanada • Kangi or Kangashiya • Shirkiband • Shirkiwala • Shingade-Vanjari

Sub-groups of Banjaras: • Gor • Mathura or Mathure • Dhadi • Sanar • Navi • Dhadia • Shingadya • Maru • Bamania • Bagora • Digora or Gigora • Charan • Badi • Bajigar • Jogi or Bharava • Rohidas • Dhan-Kute

The names and subgroups referred to above have come to be associated with the main Banjara community on three grounds. These include: 1) influence of local language on the term ‘Banjara’ 2) the setback they received to their age-old profession of transportation with the introduction of railways and road transport. 3) a strict observance of the ‘tanda’ administration in which the Banjaras have their own professionals like Navi, Dhadi, Sanar, etc. Related communities – In Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, there are several communities of Muslim Banjaras, who are simply Muslim converts from the Banjara caste. The Muker, another Muslim community also traces its ancestry from the Banjara. Three other castes that claim kinship with the Banjara are the Labana of Punjab, the Gawaria of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and Lavana of Rajasthan.

3.4 Language The Banjaras speak Goar-boali, kutni, Lambadi that belongs to the Indo-Aryan family of languages. It has no script and independent history. Though it does not have any script, it keeps them culturally and socially united. Wherever they live, they understand their language without any difficulty as their language comprises of many loan words and expressions from other languages. Most Banjaras today are bilingual or multilingual, adopting the predominant language of their surroundings. When Banjaras speak to non-Banjaras, they exclusively use local language.

3.5 Social Setup The communities (clans) like Rathore, Pawar, Chawan and Jadhavs of Rajputs are also found among the Banjaras. In this community, there are two clans known as ‘Jats’ and ‘Bhukiya’. Rathod, Parmar, Pawar, Chauhan, and Jadhav castes belong to Banjara community in Rajasthan and Gujarat now are in General Seats after the communal rights taken place in Rajasthan for Reservation in 2008 as they were landlords in Amarkot, Fathaykot and Sialkot before Partition of India and Pakistan. They are ST in Andhra Pradesh (where they are listed as Sugali), Orissa, Karnataka (SC), Haryana, Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh. Even though they settled across the country, they still consider themselves a nomad community. They are divided into three tribes, Maturia, Labana, and Charan.

3.2

3.6 Lifestyle The whole Banjara community has a specific lifestyle which every member of their community follows and abides by it, whether it is no inter-caste marriage or the nomadic lifestyle, the Banjara community live their lives in a certain manner.

(Fig 3.2) The Banjara community people in a nearby village of Jodhpur. (Fig. 3.3) A couple wearing Banjara Tribal Jewellery.

3.3

Daily routine The day starts with a cup of tea at 4 am in the morning. Interestingly, they use steel bowl instead of a cup to drink tea and even serve tea to their guests in the same manner. The morning breakfast includes sabzi- chapati, i.e., a cooked vegetable dish and flat round bread. They eat vegetables like potatoes, tomatoes, cauliflower, spinach, peas etc., They usually have breakfast between 8 -9 am. They prefer eating early dinner and eat dinner at around 6 pm. The food is cooked over chulhas which is a small earthen stove and with the help of fire generated by burning wood and dried cow dung cakes food is prepared over it. Apart from that the women also grind the wheat at home using flour-mill and prepare the flour at home. The women dedicate the whole day for household works, managing their farms and cattle, while the men go out for work. They work in quarries, construction sites and refineries. The Banjara community emphasize on getting the male members of the family educated and the females are insisted on getting married early.

3.6.1 Dwellings They live in settlements called thandas that are usually away from the village. They lived in zupada (hut). Now many of them live in cities. The settlements or Bidikis of the Banjaras are a cluster of rude huts and are isolated at some distance from the main villages. The settlements mostly pitched on high ground affording advantage and protection from predatory excursions. The hill settlements of the Banjaras provide a peculiar from the point of view of natural vegetation and topography.

3.4

3.6.2 Costume The lovely, colourful mirror work embroidery of the tribal Banjaras of Rajasthan and Gujarat is in striking contrast to their barren, desert homeland. These Banjaras, originally from Gujarat and Rajasthan, create mirror work wonders with their nimble fingers. In addition, the married women wear silver or ivory bangles between the elbow and wrist. They prefer red, green and yellow coloured cloth for their gown. They pay little attention to cleanliness of their hair, once plaited, is not combed or opened perhaps for a month. Their bodies or clothes are seldom washed. Banjara womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dressing is the most elaborate and colourful among the other tribal communities of India. Women wear colourful and beautiful costumes like phetiya (as ghagra) and kanchalli and have tattoos on their hands. They use mirror chips and often coins to decorate it. Women put on thick bangles on their arms (patli). 34

(Fig 3.4) A dwelling of the people of the Banjara community. (Fig. 3.5) A woman wearing traditional clothes and jewellery of the Banjara community.

3.5

Their ornaments are made up of silver rings, coins, chain and hair pleats are tied together at the end by chotla. Woman wear 5 to 6kgs of ornaments made from silver or ivory. Men wear dhoti and kurta (short with many folds). These clothes were designed especially for the protection from the harsh climate in deserts and to distinguish them from others.

3.6.3 Food The traditional food of Banjara is Bati (roti). Daliya is a dish cooked using many kinds of cereal, such as wheat or jawar. Banjara people also enjoy many non-vegetarian foods. Among the non-vegetarian dishes unique to them are saloi, made from goat blood and other goat parts. Banjara people also prefer spicy food.

3.6.4 Work The Banjaras are strong and hardworking. They strongly oppose the evil of begging and Sanyasa under any circumstances. They work hard and feed themselves. Earlier, the hereditary occupation of the Banjaras was to carry merchandise, chiefly grains, salt and other eatables from one part of the country to the other. They also traded in grain and were known for long-distance commodity transport before the advent of the railways. During British rule, Banjaras were forced to give up their traditional occupations. This led to some of them settling down as farmers near mountains and hilly regions, while others were driven into forests. The Banjaras have a self-sustained economy and have now adopted multiple strategies for their survival. They are known for their labour. Large numbers had settled down to a permanent residence but still travelled to supply labour for construction works and seasonal harvests. Some are engaged in splitting stones. Many are landowners and agriculturalists. They own animals individually. They do cattle rearing, work in fields and practice quarrying. Womenfolk do the work of carrying the baskets filled with mud. They are known for their hard-physical labour work that they do. They also depend on coolie work, handicrafts and small-scale industries. Banjaras that are in the south are primarily salt carriers. The Banjaras are also acrobats, magicians, tricksters, story-tellers, and fortune-tellers.

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(Fig 3.6) A man smoking tobacco. (Fig. 3.7) A woman cooking food on chulha.

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3.7 Tattoos The tattoos form a significant part of the Banjara identity. They express personal style, tribal identity and family connections. The Lambadi women often have elaborated tattoos on the back of their hands and the dotted tattoos on their nostril and forehead. It is a distinguishing character of the tribe in some parts. Tattoos are made at puberty, marriage or to avoid illness and misfortune. Men normally get their names or some letters of the scorpion on their body as it is believed that after getting inked the scorpion is never going to bite them and if in any case, it bites them, it shall not be lethal. Women have tattoo marks on their hands, forearms, legs and on their back and on their face in most of the cases.

3.8 Dance and Music They have a unique culture and dance form. On many occasions, they gather, sing and dance. Fire dance and Chari dance are the traditional dance forms of the Banjaras. Banjaras have a sister community of singers known as Dadhis or Gajugonia. They perform Lambadi dance. This dance is mainly restricted among the females and rarely the males participate in Lambadi dance.

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3.9 Festivals Generally, they practise all the Hindu festivals in their own way. Especially Diwali, Holi, Teej and Dussehra. During the festival of Teej during Shravana (the month of August). In this festival young unmarried Banjara girls pray for a good groom. They sow seeds in bamboo bowls and water it three times a day for nine days and if the sprouts grow “thick and high” it is considered a good omen. Seetala is another important female deity whose ceremony performed in the month of Ashada. This festival may also be called ‘festival of sacrifices and the free flow of blood’. 36

(Fig 3.8) A Banjara woman with tattoo on her face. (Fig. 3.9) A Banjara woman drinking water in the traditional manner.

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3.10 Family and Marriage The family is an important social institution among the Banjara. It fashions the economic transactions and social relations. The Banjara has a tribal culture that dictates marriage rights. The Banjaras are grouped into 4 categories called gotras. The lambadi language term for gotra is Goth/Pada. The gotras are: 1.Rathod/Bhukya 2.Chavan 3.Pawar 4.Vadtya. Under each of these gotras, there are several Jaaths. People falling in the same Gotra don’t marry, they are considered brother and sister. The term for this is Bhaipana meaning brotherhood. If people fall under different gotras and can marry, the term used is Laagach, means can marry. People usually have their jaat name as the surname. This was traditionally done by people called dhadi bhaats. A Banjara may only marry another Banjara, so in this respect they are endogamous. But within the tribe, they cannot marry a member of the same family, hence at the clan level, they are exogamous. The paternal family system is followed. Family rights, the titles and deeds of the family are continued from father to son. The kin members play an important role in the livelihood pursuits of individuals. They act as a social resource and kin networks help in regulating and pursuing livelihoods of its members. In ancient days, child-marriage was practised, but nowadays it is slowly disappearing. Widow marriage and marrying of one’s own brother’s wife is especially found in their way of life.

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3.10.1 Women and Livelihood The ownership of land usually vests in the name of the man. Women work in the land and help men to manage it. Women have control over the livestock and its products. They work hard in meeting other requirements and in supporting their family.

(Fig 3.10) A family belonging to the Banjara community. (Fig 3.11) A Banjara woman working for her family’s livelihood.

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3.10.2 Widow Marriage Widow Remarriage is practised, and social stigma is attached to the widow after marriage. If women become a widow, the first preference is given to her husbandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s younger brother to marry her. If the younger brother is not interested then only, she can marry any other person according to her wish. In such cases, a widow faces no objection in marrying any other person.

3.10.3 Divorce Pattern Divorce among the Banjaras is recognized and is affected by tearing a piece of straw in two before the caste Panchayat, which consists of Naik and other eldersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is taken of separation. The causes of divorce are many, such as unfaithfulness of partners, familiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quarrels and barrenness of the women etc. While giving his verdict, Naik decides the defaulter.

3.11 Religious System The Banjaras are god-fearing people. They are the devotees of the goddess of Energy and Guru Raam Dev. They worship gods like Balaji, Jagadamba Devi, Bhavani of Tuljapur, Renuka Mata of Mahur, Mahadev, Khandoba and Hanuman, Bhagavan Ramdev pir. Sevalal or Sevabhaya is the most important saint of the Banjaras. They also worship goddesses Mariyamma, Kariyamma, Durgamma (Chamundi), Wagzaie (Huligyamma) and Sevabhaya, Balaji. Besides these, they also worship Hindu gods like Shiva, Vishnu and Krishna. In addition to these, they also worship Sat-Bhavani and other seven satties who immolated themselves with their dead husbands on the funeral pyre, such as Huna-Satti, Kesirani, Seeta Satti, etc. they also worship their holy saints and ancestors. The Banjaras believe that Seetala, the eldest of the alignment seven sisters 202 deities like Tulji, jalpa, Hingla, Masuri, Amba and Daullamgar, who is believed to control endemic diseases, alone protects their cattle. They also practise the system of offering prey of goat, sheep and hen. Meetu Bhukya, another saint was also born in the same caste. Ghors worship him devotedly. He is offered both kinds of vegetarian and non-vegetarian food items as promised by the devotee prior to his worship. The worship is not done unless a person has benefited in some form or they pronounce his name. 38

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(Fig 3.12) Women belonging to the Banjara community.

3.12 Death They believe that death is a universal phenomenon and that all human beings must die one day, and it is inevitable. The death of an old person is considered good as they will get salvation. In the Banjara community, premature death is not considered good that may be due to an accident, murder, suicide, burning, etc. these unnatural deaths may be the reason that the soul of the person may become malevolent spirit.

3.13 Superstitions and Beliefs They have their own superstitions, faith and beliefs. They fear ghosts and evil spirits. During festivals, drinking of wine is a common practice. In addition to these, if dogs bark and owls hoot at night, there is a belief that someone is going to die at their tanda. This tribe strongly beliefs in omens. If they see at front an iron rod and axe, cat, barber, donkey, jackal, a lone Brahmin going from left to right, they consider them all as ill omens. The realm of belief and rituals of Banjaras is basically animistic. They believe in the transmigration of the soul and the existence of hell and heaven. The Banjaras have a strong belief in otherworldliness. Chastity is very important. In the past, some girls who were involved in prostitution were buried alive.

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3.14 Political System Though they are away from the civilized way of life, they have developed their own way of the political system. They call it ‘Ghor Panchayat’. It has: •Nayak (Headman) •Karbhari (Secretary) •Davsan (Senior Members) •Panch (Members) In the judiciary system, the dispute of two rivalry group will be solved by the panch comprising of Naik, Karbhari, Dawasan.

(Fig 3.13) Pendants or Tabeez depicting the Gods and Goddesses of the Banjara community. (Fig. 3.14) A small worship area in a house of the people belonging to the Banjara community.

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FIELD VISITS

4.1 Visit to Sarafa Bazaar The word Sarafa bazaar in Hindi means jewellery market, thus as the name suggests this market has a plethora of jewellery shops with traditional silver jewellery. Sarafa Bazaar is one of the most famous places for shopping in Jodhpur and apart from jewellery it is also known for Rajasthani handicrafts and have plenty of options in various traditional items. Located near the clock tower this market also provides the popular dyed fabric known as Bandhini and Lahariya, these fabrics are available in many designs and patterns which are in sync with the traditional Rajasthani wear. We visited this market to explore the traditional jewellery available in this market. After visiting several shops, we came across a unique shop named Gopaldas Tilokchand jewellery shop. The 50-year-old shop had a collection of tribal ornaments of Rajasthan. We met the shopkeeper named Mr Gopaldas who gave us information about the pieces of tribal jewellery which he had. Mr Gopaldas basically believed in finding out rare pieces of jewellery and then sells them. He visits rural areas of Rajasthan including mostly rural areas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, etc. and collected tribal ornaments from the people living there, who sold their stuff to him. He did not have any knowledge about the process of making of the jewellery pieces and unfortunately sold his pieces according to the weight of the ornament only, disregarding the procedure, techniques and alluring designs involved in making of such amazing pieces of craftsmanship. (Fig 4.1) Beam Balance in a shop in the jewellery market of Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.2) A jewellery shop in the jewellery market of Jodhpur. (Fig. 4.3) A collection of antique jewellery pieces. (Fig. 4.4) Silver jewellery pieces and idols displayed in the jewellery market of Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.5) and (Fig. 4.6) Tribal Silver neck pieces displayed in the jewellery shops of the jewellery market of Jodhpur.

(Fig 4.7) and (Fig 4.8) Tribal silver neck pieces representing various motifs of the tribal community.

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(Fig 4.9) Silver objects displayed in a jewellery shop in Jodhpur. (Fig 4.10) Silver anklets displayed in a jewellery shop in Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.11) Silver objects displayed in a jewellery shop in Jodhpur. (Fig 4.12) Silver earrings displayed in a jewellery shop in Jodhpur. (Fig 4.13) Tribal silver neck pieces and other things kept in a jewellery shop in Jodhpurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s jewellery market.

4.2 Visit to the UJAS Foundation Universal Just Action Society (UJAS) is a non-governmental organization based in Jodhpur, India. It is synonymous to the widely known community-based organization, Seemant Lok Sangathan. UJAS advocates for Pakistani immigrants in India who are fleeing religious persecution. Despite escaping dangers in Pakistan, they are still denied basic human rights in India. Among these are the rights to citizenship, rehabilitation, livelihood, and education. UJASâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mission is to aid Pakistani refugees in obtaining justice by raising awareness, empowering refugee communities, and pressuring the government to provide them with legal rights. The UJAS Foundation was founded by Mr Hindu Singh Sodha in 2008 and he is the current president of the organization. This organization has widespread networks as they have been working for the migrants and their integrated development since last so many years. After interacting with Mr Sodha, we received information regarding the people of the city and the organization provided us with valuable contacts. He told that he is in contact with some citizens who have migrated from Pakistan to India and belong to the tribal community. He mentioned about the nomadic tribes as well which are called Ghumanto in Hindi. He had the knowledge about different communities prevailing in Rajasthan, but accurate information related to tribal jewellery was needed to be found out, therefore he provided us with some contacts which had immensely helped us in collecting valuable information about the tribal jewellery.

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(Fig 4.14) and (Fig 4.15) Universal Just Action Society, Jodhpur. (Fig 4.16) and (Fig 4.17) The president of UJAS, Mr. Hindu Singh Sodha and his co-worker.

4.3 Visit to Girdharilal Jewellers Mr Girdharilal Soni belonged to the goldsmith community called sunar in Hindi. He had migrated back to India 9 years ago. His family has been practicing this craft of jewellery making since last 5 to 6 generations. After enquiring about the pictures of the tribal pieces of Rajasthani jewellery we got the information and the validation that the kind of jewellery, about which we were researching, is worn by the Tribal community of Rajasthan. He told us that the tribal jewellery is worn by the Banjara community and it is still worn not only in India but also in Pakistan as well. Mr Girdharilal told us about the importance of some tribal jewellery pieces. As he has witnessed their making since he was a child, therefore, he had immense knowledge about the tribal jewellery pieces. Although he did not make all those pieces he knew about the procedure of their making. He mentioned the use of stamping technique for making pendants called Tabeez which represented the Gods and Goddesses worshipped by the community. He told us that silver was widely used as it was affordable and was also considered to be pure.

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(Fig 4.18) A jewellery shop named Girdharilal Jewellers in Jodhpur. (Fig 4.19) The owner of Girdharilal Jewellers, Mr. Girdharilal Soni. (Fig 4.20) Silver jewellery displayed in the Girdharilal jewellers jewellery shop.

4.4 Visit to Banjara community living in Jodhpur Banjara community is known for their nomadic nature. We got the opportunity to meet some people from the community in Jodhpur city. The UJAS Foundation helped us reach to the area where the Banjara people were living. The area where they lived was called Chopasni Vali Bypass. The people were dressed in brightly coloured clothes and were wearing tribal jewellery. They had small houses made up of mud alongside the main road. It seemed to be their temporary dwelling likewise the nomadic nature of the community. The people were welcoming and even after having a conversation with them in Marwari-Hindi language we could understand what they were trying to convey. There were 10 people among whom we met 5 ladies, 3 kids and 2 men. We asked several questions and a lady named Kavita willingly gave us the information. She told us that they belonged to the Banjara community and were earlier living in Balotara, which is a district in Jodhpur. She told us that they got the jewellery from a jeweller belonging to Pachpadra village. It was interesting to know that the women are adorned with the jewellery pieces only after their marriage and it is only during their marriage ceremony that they are gifted all the jewellery by their husbandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s family. Thus, it is a tradition which is being followed since many generations in the Banjara community without which any marriage is incomplete in this community and they regard all the jewellery worn by them as a symbol of them being married. We asked them about the jewellery pieces which they were wearing and told us about the names of different pieces. The piece adorning their head was called Bor by them and the silver hand jewellery pieces were called Chud and Muthia by them. All the members of the community wear pendants representing their gods and goddesses. They called these pendants Phool and said that the reason behind these pendants was their traditional beliefs and practises. We asked them about the motifs on their jewellery which usually comprised of fishes, flowers, etc. They said all these motifs are selected by them only while they place the order for their jewellery and the designs are crafted by the jeweller thereafter. The Chud and Muthia weighed approximately 1 kilogram although they told us that it can be made lighter and heavier according to the requirement. (Fig 4.21) A woman belonging to the Banjara community.

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4.23 The male members of this family earned their livelihood by working on construction sites. Apart from this, the family reared cattle for their survival. The women get married at the age of 20 and thereafter takes care of the household and interestingly lives for the rest of their lives wearing all the heavy tribal jewellery even while they sleep.

(Fig 4.22) A man and the dwelling of his family in a nearby village of Jodhpur. (Fig 4.23) A man along with his cattle.

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(Fig 4.24) A woman belonging to the Banjara community showing the tribal jewellery which she had adorned. (Fig 4.25) Silver tribal anklets adorned by a Banjara woman. (Fig 4.26) Silver rings and Bracelet worn by a woman of the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.27) A boy belonging to the Banjara community wearing pendants of the Gods and Goddesses worshipped by the people of the community. (Fig 4.28) and (Fig 4.29) Temporary dwellings of the Banjara people along side a road in Jodhpur.

4.5 Visit to Kali Beri India is a country where numerous tribes exist and have existed for many centuries. To understand the impact of one community on the other, we met tribes belonging to a different community other than the Banjara community. We visited a place named Kali Beri and met people of the Bhil community. Kali beri was in Ambedkar Nagar area of Jodhpur. The place consisted of approximately 600 migrants from Pakistan. We met a family who had migrated to Kali Beri in the year 2008. People of this community were not wearing any tribal jewellery but after showing them the pictures of the jewellery they recognised all the pieces. We got to know that they used to wear tribal jewellery but as they migrated back to India they had to sell all the pieces to survive. They sold all the silver ornaments to build their houses, for educating their children and to sustain their livelihood. Their family comprised of 9 members, which included husband, wife and their 7 children. They had 6 sons and one daughter. We had a detailed conversation with Khatur Devi who was the head lady of the family. She told us that she had started wearing the silver jewellery after her marriage and they got it made from jewellers in Pakistan. Her daughter-in-law was also wearing some pieces of silver jewellery and on being asked we got to know that her dad got the jewellery from a jeweller in Jaisalmer. It was interesting to know that in this community the bride’s parents gift all the jewellery to their daughter while in the banjara’s the bridegroom’s family gift all the jewellery to the bride. Even after selling major pieces they were wearing silver pendants. We asked them the importance and significance of the pendants to which they replied that the pendants had religious beliefs attached to it and represented their gods and goddesses. The community had strict rules regarding marriage and marriages only in the same caste is allowed. This family did not have the citizenship of India as they do not have any proof. The UJAS Foundation is working for these people and approximately 20-25’000 people are still waiting for the approval. This hampers their lifestyle and growth. They cannot go to other states as they are not a citizen of India. To survive, they work in sandstone quarries for 12 hours per day and receive 200-300 rupees daily for that job. Apart from this, they had the knowledge of processing cotton and sell it also. It is a despondent fact that these people do not receive any benefit from the government schemes as they are not considered the citizens of India. They cannot take admission in any university neither they can buy any vehicle or land. They must struggle for necessities also. 56

(Fig 4.30) A woman belonging to the Bhil community posing for a picture with her son.

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(Fig 4.31) and (Fig 4.32) Dwellings of the people of the Bhil community. (Fig 4.33) A woman belonging to the Bhil community. (Fig 4.34) Toilets constructed by the Government for the people of the village.

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4.6 Visit to Masuriya Pahadi, Jodhpur We visited the Masuriya Pahadi area of Jodhpur for meeting more tribal people. We met an interesting man on the streets of Masuriya area, He had a small temporary shop and was selling fruits and vegetables. He was wearing a large pendant made up of Gold. He was not responding to our questions and then we met his grandson who gave us some information. He told us that the name of his grandfather is Pukh Ji who was 83 years old. He belonged to Bhat banjara community and came to Masuriya from Pali, Rajasthan. The pendant which he was wearing was 28 years old. He was also carrying a big knife with him which is called Katar or Mehru in Hindi. There was a reason behind him carrying the katar, as told to us by his grandson, he is believed to have some powers and could heal people through his prayer, therefore he was highly respected by the people of that area. We met an old lady in the same area named Gita Devi who was wearing tribal jewellery and was 90 years old. She belonged to the Gawariya banjara community. She told us that she came to Masuriya from Mount Abu after getting married and since her marriage, she is adorned with all the jewellery which she was wearing, the people of her community regard the jewellery as a symbol of marriage and they do not wear the heavy jewellery pieces after the demise of their husband. She was wearing silver ornaments in her hands and called them Chandi ke chud. We met another lady on the opposite side of the street named Bidami Devi. She belonged to the Nakki banjara community. She was wearing silver jewellery and told us that the jewellery which she was wearing was approximately 10 years old. She also told us about the pendants which she was wearing and said that the pendants depicted the gods and goddesses of their community. Rani Patiyani was the goddess which was depicted on the pendant of the lady. An interesting fact about the communities living on the opposite sides of the street was that they do not interact with each other and there was no communication between the two types of Banjara communities living on the opposite sides of the same street.

(Fig 4.35) An old aged man working for his livelihood, belonging to Banjara community. (Fig 4.36) A scene of the city where Banjara community people have shifted and settled in the city of Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.37) and (Fig. 4.38) Old women belonging to the Banjara community, adorned with Tribal Silver Jewellery.

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4.7 Visit to Maa Krupa Jewellers in Masuriya, Jodhpur After meeting the Banjara community people, we visited a nearby jewellery shop. The name of the jewellery shop was Maa Krupa Jewellers. We met the jeweller named Manish Soni who gave us information about the jewellery worn by the Banjara community. His family belonged to Jodhpur and jewellery making has been their profession since the last 30-35 years. He had some old tribal jewellery pieces, Hansli was one of them. He told us that the neck piece weighed around 350 grams and was approximately 20 years old. He even told us that Hansli had cloth stuffed inside it and it requires rigorous effort to open it as the silver wire is tightly tied around the entire round neck piece. He had those old tribal pieces because the Banjara people exchange their old pieces for new ones and usually sell them out for buying new tribal jewellery pieces. Mr Soni gave us a lot of information about the tribal jewellery pieces as he deals with the tribal jewellery customers regularly. He explained that the entire procedure of making the jewellery pieces is done in villages namely, Pipar, Balotara, Pachpadra etc. and he gets all the pieces from these villages. Thus, they do not manufacture any tribal jewellery pieces and only sells the tribal pieces worn by the Banjara community. He mentioned about the pieces worn by the Banjara people which included kakan (silver bangles), Ram Navami (an extensive silver neck piece), challa (Finer ring), Bor (forehead jewellery piece) which weighs approximately 12 grams and is filled with sand to prevent it from getting deformed. The women wear silver anklets called Sathan which weighs approximately 200 grams. He told us that the Banjara people wear pendants that depict the gods and goddesses worshipped by them. Baisa Devta, Karni Mata, Lord Balaji were majorly depicted on the pendants or phool which are worn by the Banjara people.

(Fig 4.39) and (Fig. 4.40) Tribal silver bangles worn by the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.41) Tribal silver necklace worn by the Banjara community. (Fig 4.42) and (Fig 4.44) Modern and modified silver anklets worn by the Banjara community in the present. (Fig 4.43) Modern designs of the tribal silver jewellery made by the present jewellers.

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4.8 Visit to Sangariya Village, Jodhpur We visited a village named Sangariya located in the Luni Tehsil in Jodhpur district of the state Rajasthan, India. It is located 11 kilometres towards south from the district headquarter and is 338 kilometres away from the state capital, Jaipur. Sangariya village is inhabited with the Banjara community. We were provided with this information by the UJAS Foundation who works for the Banjara community living in Sangariya village. We located a jeweller in the village and visited his shop. The name of the shop was Maa Bhagwati Jewellers and we met the jeweller named Jasraj Soni. He had some tribal jewellery pieces worn by the women around their arms and called them Bhujband, which weighed approximately 39 grams. He mentioned that he has craftsmen working for him in the Shergarh town of Jodhpur who was skilled for making all the tribal ornaments. He had a machine which is used to flatten the silver wires and called it Taar Patti machine.

(Fig 4.45) A visit to a jewellery shop in Sangariya village. (Fig 4.46) A tribal silver Bajuband preserved by a jeweller of the Sangariya village.

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(Fig 4.47), (Fig 4.48) and (Fig 4.49) Tools and Machines used for making jewellery pieces.

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Before interacting with the Banjara people of the village we met Mr Uttam Lohar, 72 years, who has been working consistently for the banjaras with the UJAS Foundation. His eminent personality among the banjaraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s helped us in interacting with them and the people readily provided us with all the information. We met a lady named Sukhi Devi who was 50 years old. She was adorned with many tribal silver jewellery pieces. She told us that she has been wearing all the pieces since she got married and all the jewellery was given to her by her husband when they got married. She was wearing the round silver headpiece called Bor and silver earrings called Jhumkas, to which she had tied a thick thread to protect her ears from getting damaged due to the weight of the earrings. She was wearing the round neck piece called hansli, another neck piece called kanthi. Chud and Muthiya, the silver hand ornaments also adorned her arms and forearms. She was also wearing Kandora, a silver ornament tied around the waist and Kadle, a silver ornament worn over the ankles. We noticed that the men also wore earrings made from gold called Gogroo. The people of the village told us that the tribal ornaments are made in Pipar village and Pachpadra village in Jodhpur. The people of this village earned their livelihood by working in sandstone quarries. The women were dressed in kabza or blouse and ghagra or skirt, while the men wore Dhoti, which is a piece of cloth tied on the lower part of the body and kurta, which is a loose collarless shirt. The men also wore a turban and called it safa or pagri. Diwali, Holi, Raksha Bandhan are among the main festivals celebrated by them.

(Fig 4.50) A woman of the Banjara community adorned with tribal jewellery pieces.

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(Fig 4.51) and (Fig 4.52) Different body parts adorned with several pieces of silver jewellery.

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(Fig 4.53) The silver head band attached with hair worn by a woman of the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.54) and (Fig 4.55) Tribal silver neckpiece and ornaments of the hand worn by a woman of the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.56) and (Fig 4.57) Tribal silver neck piece and gold earrings adorned by the male members of the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.58) and (Fig 4.59) Plastic bangles have replaced the traditional silver jewellery.

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(Fig 4.60), (Fig 4.61) and (Fig 4.62) Dwellings of the people of the Banjara community in Sangariya village, Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.63), (Fig 4.64), (Fig 4.65) and (Fig 4.66) Dwellings of the people of the Banjara community in Sangariya village, Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.67) and (Fig 4.68) Dwellings of the people of the Banjara community in Sangariya village, Jodhpur. (Fig 4.69) The entrance of a house in the village decorated with silver pieces.

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(Fig 4.70), (Fig 4.71) and (Fig 4.72) The inside and the outside of the dwellings of the people of the Banjara community in Sangariya village, Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.73), (Fig 4.74) and (Fig 4.75) People of the Banjara community of Sangariya village of Jodhpur.

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(Fig 4.76) Women and Children of the Sangariya village, Jodhpur.

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4.9 Visit to Pachpadra Village Tribal jewellery worn by the Banjara community is made by people of the Soni community and to understand the process of making the tribal ornaments we visited Pachpadra village. Pachpadra is a village in Balotara Tehsil in Barmer district of Rajasthan. It belongs to Jodhpur division and is located 105 KM towards East from the district headquarters Barmer. One of the attractions of this village is Pachpadra lake which is known for salt collection around it and extraction as well as the production of salt. Bhanwarlal - Mohanlal Jewellers were well known in Pachpadra village for making tribal jewellery for the Banjara community and call it â&#x20AC;&#x153;Banjaro ka gehnaâ&#x20AC;?. We visited their shop and met Mr Dinesh Soni who was 26 years old. He belonged to the Soni community. He told us that making tribal jewellery has been their family tradition continued by almost 5 generations of their family. He told us that they make the tribal jewellery and send it to places namely Ramgarh, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur for selling them. They told us that jewellery is important for a Banjara woman as it is regarded as a symbol of marriage. It gives an identity to them. Thus, tribal jewellery worn by Banjara women is an essential part of their customs and traditions. He mentioned that not only silver but also gold is used to make jewellery for Banjara people. Widow women wear simple and plain jewellery pieces while unmarried women do not wear tribal jewellery pieces. He told us that the Banjara people living in Pachpadra village work in quarries, farms, factories, refineries, etc. to earn their livelihood and told us that many people of the Banjara community have migrated to other cities like Ahmedabad, Jodhpur, etc. to earn. Mr Dinesh Soni told us he learnt the art of making the tribal ornaments from his father and for the last 5 years he has been making tribal jewellery pieces. He mentioned that inter-caste marriage is not allowed in their family and the father is the family head and takes important decisions. He is the one who buys silver from places like Jodhpur, Ahmedabad and uses it to make the ornaments. He told us about Chud and Muthia, which is an iconic ornament worn by the women of the Banjara community in their arms and forearms. Detachable earrings called Jhoomar toti are worn by the Banjara women, a pair of these earrings weigh around 50-60 grams. Fundi is used as beautiful hanging pieces and are attached to other jewellery pieces. Polri is toe ring worn by the Banjara women. They even have silver accessories for hair. Bakalkhana is a silver clip used as a hair accessory. Dama is a silver ring made for kids and ankhuli is also an ornament for the kids. It is believed to protect them from any negative spirit.

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(Fig 4.77) Mr Bhanwarlal Soni, a jeweller of the Soni community who makes jewellery for the Banjara community. (Fig 4.78) and (Fig 4.79) Tools and Machines used for making Tribal Silver Jewellery.

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(Fig 4.80) A collectiion of old silver tribal jewellery pieces preserved by jeweller Bhanwarlal Soni.

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4.10 Visit to Banjara community living in Pachpadra village Covering different aspects related to the life of the Banjara community was extremely essential for in-depth research and understanding their thoughts, beliefs, customs, traditions, etc. To deeply understand the lifestyle of Banjara people we visited the house of Mr Sarvan ji who lives in Pachpadra village and belonged to the Banjara community. He was extremely welcoming and introduced us to his family. We had a detailed conversation with him and his family members. His wife, Shanti Devi, offered us water in a utensil commonly called loto and they use this utensil for offering water to all their guests. Shanti Devi also belonged to the Banjara community and was 40 years old. After getting married she came to Pachpadra village from Bikaner. She was wearing tribal jewellery and told us that she was given all the jewellery by her husband when they got married. Apart from Bikaner women from Jodhpur, Siddhpur, Gujarat, etc. places have settled after marriage in Pachpadra. Shanti Devi was wearing many tribal ornaments. She was wearing Kadle in her ankles which were approximately 20 years old. Chud and Muthiya are the ornaments worn by the women in their arms and forearms. The tribal jewellery is considered the symbol of marriage in the Banjara community and they always wear it as it is a part of their tradition and it is also considered that it ensures good health of their husband. The Chud is also available in plastic material. The cost of the plastic Chud is very nominal and costs around 500 rupees, moreover it is light in weight in comparison to the chud made up of silver, which weighs around 500 grams each. She was also wearing a neck piece called Kanthi which was tied with a woollen thread. The woollen thread needs to be repaired after every 10-12 months and the jeweller repairs it for approximately 100 rupees. She was also wearing Rakdi or Bor on her forehead and Toti-jhoomar in her ears and bedla on the upper part of her ear, which are pan leaf-shaped ear accessories. Setting up of bor and the entire rakdi on the head requires help from someone else as it must be tied with the hair. She was wearing Kandora or the waistband also. She was wearing pendants which are considered sacred in their community and depicts the deities to which they pray, it is believed to ensure their good health while protecting them from negative spirits.

Her nose was adorned with naak ki baali and honkli which is attached to the baali and with a hook-shaped piece catches hold of the hair on the upper part of the ear, this helps in balancing the weight of the baali, as human nose is a fragile body part and accentuates the overall look of the nose accessory. Polriyo is toe rings and Todi is the anklet worn by the Banjara women. Another interesting ornament which we found was a turtle ring or kachua vaali angoothi, the people of the community believes that wearing the ring brings prosperity and wealth. The men wear langar which is a silver ankle bracelet and honkli and gogroo in their ears which is a chain attached to silver or gold balls. The women in the Banjara community are highly respected. They take important decisions of the family and heads the home, while the matters outside the home are solved by their husbands. Although they believe in giving importance to women, yet they believe in early marriage and by the age of 18-19 they want their daughters to get married, thus refraining them from getting highly educated. The most important god of the Banjara community is Nagnechiaji which is their Kuladevi and stands for â&#x20AC;&#x153;family deity, that is a mother, Goddessâ&#x20AC;?. They also pray to Lord Ramdev Ji, Baisa devta, Rani bhatiyani maata. There is an important fair that is organized for praying rani bhatiyani maata and is an important festival of the Banjara community and they call it majisa rani bhatiyani maata ka mela. They also celebrate other festivals like Diwali, Holi and Rakshabandhan. The women wear kurti and ghagro, which are upper wear and bottom wear respectively, while the men wear kurta on the upper body and dhoti on the lower body. They also wear turbans or saafa, but it is not mandatory. The Banjara people which falls under the category of BPL i.e., Below Poverty Line, receive benefits from the government. Agriculture is an essential occupation of the Banjara community and they also raise cattle and animal rearing is an important part of their livelihood.

(Fig 4.81) Gold nose pin worn by a woman belonging to Banjara community living in Pachpadra village.

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(Fig 4.82) and (Fig 4.83) Shanti Devi, a woman belonging to Banjara community, adorned with gold ornaments which are made for the people who can afford them.

(Fig 4.84) and (Fig 4.85) Shanti Devi, a woman belonging to Banjara community, adorned with the tribal silver jewellery of the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.86), (Fig 4.87) and (Fig 4.88) Tribal silver ornaments worn at arms, ankles and wrists.

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(Fig 4.89) and (Fig 4.90) A close up view of the Pendants representing the Gods and Goddesses of the Banjara community.

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(Fig 4.91), (Fig 4.92), (Fig 4.93) and (Fig 4.94) Different parts of the house of a wealthy Banjara family living in Pachpadra village.

(Fig 4.95) Women of the Rathore family with their children belonging to Banjara community living in Pachpadra village.

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(Fig 4.96), (Fig 4.97) and (Fig 4.98) Different parts of the house of another Banjara family living in Pachpadra village.

(Fig 4.99) and (Fig 4.100) Women of the Banjara community working for their familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s livelihood.

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(Fig 4.101) Place for cooking food. (Fig 4.102) Utensils used for cooking food. (Fig 4.103) Worship area in the house.

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4.11 Insights The field visits play a crucial role in developing the ability to understand different aspects related to our field of study. Every place we visited gave us immense information and helped in understanding the issues, beliefs, practises, customs, traditions, etc. present in society. It is important to observe the cultural setting of a place for grasping the details. Conversation with numerous people helps in giving an overall perspective and thus validates the data too.

(Fig 4.104) A scene from the house of the Banjara family living in Pachpadra village.

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RAW MATERIALS 93

5.1 Silver Silver is a brilliant white shining metal and is found in nature in both native and combined forms: in flakes, forms like wire, and in massed forms, one such find having weighed 1500 pounds. The native form is not frequent, but when it is discovered it is between 900-980 out of 1000 parts fine. Today, for the most part silver is a by-product in the refinement of gold, lead, copper, or zinc ores, with which it is mostly frequently associated in nature. It is recovered from these metals in the refining process. It is also extracted from ores by direct smelting, amalgamation, cyanidation, and other hydrometallurgical processes. A primitive method of refining gold or silver, called cupellation, was to place the ore in a cupel, or small, shallow, porous cup made of bone ash, and then expose the cup to a high temperature and air blast. The base metals oxidized and sank into the porous cupel, and the precious metals could be poured off. India has always had a fascination for items such as jewellery, urns, and figures of deities in silver is manifest in palaces, museums, private collections and even in ordinary Indian homes. In India, it perhaps surpasses gold in popularity because of its greater affordability. In fact, most goldsmiths in India craft a variety of silver ornaments, silverware, religious and decorative figures and utility objects.

(Fig 5.1) A collection of old silver jewellery pieces.

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5.1.1 History Silver has been in use since prehistoric times. The exact time of its discovery is not known but many evidences of using silver have been found. Silver objects dating from before 4000 BC have been found in Greece and from slightly later in Anatolia (in modern Turkey). Silver artefacts have been found in the Sumerian city of Kish dating from about 3000 BC. The evidence of use of silver in making jewellery dates to the Harappan period (c. 2500-1800 BC), and many silver objects have been obtained after excavation from the ancient sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By the 6th century BC, silver coins known as punch-marked coins were introduced inaugurating the first coinage in Indian history. Through the earliest Indian punch-mark coins archaeologists and historians have unraveled many hitherto unknown facts of Indian history. For example, the silver coins used during the Satavahana dynasty, the round shape of the coins, the engraved portraits of kings and queens, their achievements and important events during their rule constitute a valuable pictorial record of the time. The Satavahanas ruled in the western Deccan in the 1st century BC but part of their empire was conquered by Nahapana, a powerful Kshatrapa ruler and founder of the Kshatrapa monetary system. He was the first to mint portrait-type silver coins, usually with a thunderbolt and arrow engraved on the reverse. Gradually silver also began to be used to make utility items and jewellery, as has been corroborated in the findings from excavations at Taxila (early first century of the Christian era), indicating the overall prosperity of the people as well as the popularity of silver as a metal. There were also ancient silver mines in northwest India which dated to the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. Silver was the metal used in the first commercially important electroplating processes, more than one hundred years ago. As with gold, the discovery of silver in native form and its attractive working properties caused it to be valued early.

(Fig 5.2) Coins used in the times of the Mohenjodaro and Harappa civilization (Fig 5.3) Coins used in the times of Satavahana dynasty.

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5.1.2 Properties Properties (fine)Atomic number: 47 Atomic symbol: Ag Atomic weight: 107.88 Specific gravity: 10.50 Melting point: 960.5 °C / 1760.9 °F Boiling point: 2210 °C / 4010 °F Melting point (sterling): 893 °C / 1640 °F Silver is a soft, white, lustrous transition metal. It exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. Most silver is produced as a by-product of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining. Silver is found in nature in three conditions - metallic, non-metallic or combined with gold. Silver is commonly found in the form of sulphide or chloride mixed with other metals such as lead, zinc or copper. A certain amount of expertise is necessary to reduce it to its metallic state. Silver frequently occurs in small quantities together with lead. In its pure state, silver is second in malleability and ductility only to gold. It is the whitest of metals and can be polished to a luster of high reflectivity. Pure silver is about half as heavy as gold and platinum and four times as heavy as aluminium. Fine silver, so called in commerce, is 999.0 parts per thousand fine; high fine silver, 999.5 fine or higher, is also available at a premium price. Besides the attractiveness of the metal, its resistance to corrosion by foods and organic acids (but not those containing sulphur) is still a factor in its popularity for use in hollow-ware. Both, pure and combined silver is soft, and it makes it difficult to mould in any shape. Depending on the nature of the object, silversmiths would alloy silver with copper or other metals.

(Fig 5.4) Silver metal in wire form. (Fig 5.5) Silver metal in sheet form. (Fig 5.6) Silver metal in the form of a jewellery piece.

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5.1.3 Types There are various types of silver available today and different types of silver is used to create various products. Silver is used as an alloy for various purposes because in its pure form, silver, like gold, is too soft for most decorative objects, jewellery pieces, etc, therefore it is usually alloyed with other metals to harden it and increase its durability. Some of the alloys are: Fine .999 Silver: Fine silver is the closest metal to the pure element silver. It is described as .999 which indicates 99.9% purity. The 0.1% remainder consists of trace elements of insignificant quantity. Fine silver has a more vitreous lustre than the bright polish of sterling. It is slightly dull and appears more gray. Fine silver is quite soft and will scratch, dent and change shape easily. For that reason, it is less common in jewellery because items will not wear well over time. However, there are benefits to fine silver. It is easy to form, it fuses without solder and it is highly resistant to tarnish. As it is a soft metal it is best used for earrings or necklaces instead of rings or bracelets that are bumped and scratched more frequently. Sterling .925 Silver: Sterling is the jewellery quality standard in most world markets. It is an alloy of 92.5% silver. The remaining 7.5% is usually copper though it is sometimes other metals such as nickel. The other metals are added to the alloy to increase hardness, so the metal will be more durable and to create the colour and lustre that is so prized by consumers. Sterling silver is the silver colour we are most familiar with. It is very bright and shiny, but it will tarnish. Tarnish can be delayed but it cannot be prevented, and it is easy to clean with readily available polishing products. Sterling silver is harder than fine silver, but it is still soft compared to many metals. Fine sterling silver chain and thin metals can be stretched or â&#x20AC;&#x153;drawnâ&#x20AC;? under tension, and jewellery can be scratched or dented if it is banged around. Sterling can be soldered, formed and annealed repeatedly. Argentium Silver and Non-Tarnish Alloys: Non-tarnish alloys are new to the market. Argentium is one brand but there are others available that are quite similar. These alloys are a minimum of 92.5% silver though some will be slightly higher in silver content. The remainder consists of copper and the addition of the element germanium. The germanium makes the alloy harder and resistant to tarnish. Non-tarnish alloys can still tarnish under extreme conditions and after extended periods of time. But, they will generally require less maintenance than sterling. This tarnish resistance is the chief benefit of the metal though it is also notable that Argentium will also fuse without solder. Argentium is significantly more expensive than sterling and less readily available. It is also difficult to distinguish from sterling once on the market because the quality stamp is still .925. Manufacturers can go through an application process to receive authorization to use the ArgentiumÂŽ mark as well but this stamp is large and impractical for many jewellery pieces.

Coin Silver: Coin silver was once a more common alloy. It is now rare, and the name causes quite a bit of confusion. The technical “coin silver” alloy is .900 silver, or 90% silver and 10% copper. It was not used to make coins; rather, it was so named because it was made from refined scrap coins at one point in time. Monetary coins in our country, and most others, no longer contain silver and are instead made from more inexpensive, durable base metals. There are some collectible coins or coin investment instruments with higher silver content but those will be marked as such and usually come with certificates of authenticity. Coin silver jewellery that is still on the market will bear a quality stamp of .900. Many of these pieces are antiques. Silver: Jewellery sold as just “silver” is a bit of a mystery. The term is thrown around in the market, but jewellery items should be clearly identified as a specific standard quality. If not, it is unlikely that the silver alloy is very high quality. Jewellery artists and manufacturers are legally required to either stamp pieces when space permits or tag finished products with quality designations. Silver Plated: This is a base metal product with an extremely thin plating layer of silver applied to the surface. Even when jewellery is described as fine silver-plated, the overall silver content is a tiny fraction of a percent. Silver-plated jewellery is affordable costume jewellery. Plating can tarnish and will eventually wear off to expose the base metal underneath. Costume jewellery will not have a quality stamp, but it may bear the manufacturers logo or hallmark. Nickel Silver: Nickel silver is a bit of a misnomer because “silver” describes the colour of the metal and not the content. This is a base metal alloy consisting of primarily copper with nickel and/or zinc. It is an inexpensive base metal that is similar in appearance to sterling but, again, it contains no real silver at all. It is quite soft and makes an excellent practice metal. It can be soldered but it is sometimes difficult to make solder seams that are not obvious. Nickel silver has many other names on the market such as Alpaca silver or German silver. It is used in costume jewellery but should be clearly described as a nickel alloy since many people are allergic to nickel.

5.1.4 Uses Silver is used for making various tribal jewellery pieces and is sourced from the artisan of the nearby jewellery shops and the artisans working in village areas source silver from jewellery markets in the city. Sarafa market and ghoda chowk of Jodhpur is the hub of buying and selling jewellery pieces, raw materials, etc. and the artisans working in the nearby village areas source their raw materials from these markets. Silver in the form of ingots, wires, sheets, bars, biscuits and other forms are purchased at the current price of the metal. Other uses: Silver is extensively used in ornamentation, apart from that it is used in silver is used in coinage, photography (the photo sensitivity of the silver halides allowed for their use in traditional photography, although digital photography, which does not use silver, is now dominant), dentistry (a typical dental amalgam is a silver alloy consisting of 65-70 percent silver, 3-6 percent copper, 25-29 percent tin, and a maximum of 0.2 percent zinc) and in the form of silver or hard solders. Silver is also incorporated into wound dressings and is also used as an antibiotic coating in medical devices. It is used in electronics for conductors and electrodes as it has high electrical conductivity even when it gets tarnished. As silver has low chemical reactivity and high thermal conductivity this is the reason the equipment made to work at high temperatures are often silver plated. Pure silver metal is used as food colouring (the silver designated as E174 are approved to be used as food additives), in India and Pakistan silver foils known as vark are used to decorate different food items. Silver is also used in solar panels, water filtration and disinfection, high-value tableware, silverware, utensils and various other products.

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(Fig 5.7) Raw silver metal pieces. (Fig 5.8) Silver metal brick.

5.2 Gold Gold, a bright yellow metal very widely disseminated in nature, is probably one of the earliest metals to be known by man, perhaps second after copper. Because it is one of the few metals to be found in a native state, it is easily recognizable by its natural colour and weight. In one of its forms as placer gold, it is found in the alluvial soil in riverbeds where it has been deposited after the rock in which it was contained had weathered and worn away. Placer gold ranges in size from small flakes or grains to nuggets weighing several thousand ounces. It is also found in combined form called reef gold, in which the metal is embedded in a solid matrix of quartz or other rock. Of all the metals used in decorative work, gold is exceeded in heaviness only by lead and mercury.

(Fig 5.9) Gold metal converted into gold coins.

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5.2.1 History Most archaeological evidence shows that ancient human civilization came into the contact of gold and were impressed by the metal. As written by Johnson Hur, a marketing strategist, in his research Flakes of gold have been found in Palaeolithic caves dating back as far as 40.000 BC. The deepest gold mines of the Ancient world were found in the Maski region in Karnataka and date to the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. The first firm evidence we have of human interaction with gold occurred in ancient Egypt around 3,000 B.C. Gold played an important role in ancient Egyptian mythology and was prized by pharaohs and temple priests. It was so important, in fact, that the capstones on the Pyramids of Giza were made from solid gold. Later, in history, the ancient Greeks viewed gold as a social status symbol and as a form of glory amongst the immortal gods and demigods. Gold is also mentioned in the Bible, where Genesis 2:10-12 describes the lands of Havilah, near Eden, as a place where good gold can be found. Incas, Aztecs, and numerous other civilizations also used gold prolifically throughout the early history, including it in religious ceremonies and in famous architectural designs. It is notable that across all ancient civilizations: gold is a status symbol used to separate one class from another. From emperors to priests to the elites and upper middle class, those who held gold also tended to hold power. In India ancient gold mines existed in Mysore, Hyderabad, Chota Nagpur and Dharwar. Most active mines have been Kolar Gold Fields of Mysore, Hutti Gold Field of Hyderabad, North Anantpur Field in Tamil Nadu.

5.2.2 Properties Properties (fine)Atomic number: 79 Atomic symbol: Au Atomic weight: 197.2 Specific gravity: 19.32 Melting point: 1063 째C / 1945.4 째F Boiling point: 2970 째C / 5380 째F No other metal surpasses gold in malleability and ductility. In its pure state as, fine gold. It can be hammered into foil 0.000005 of an inch in thickness and drawn into wire several miles in length from one ounce of pure metal. It is highly resistant to ordinary solvents. It is resistant to corrosion and is chemically inactive.

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5.2.3 Types Gold is a soft, shiny and malleable metal that when obtained in nature has a yellowish tone. As gold in its pure or fine state is considered too soft for ordinary jewellery and dental work, its most common uses, it is generally alloyed with other metals such as copper, silver, nickel, and zinc. Each of these other metals produces gold of a specific character and colour. White gold: It contains 25% platinum or 12% palladium and has a higher melting point than pure gold. It is whiter than platinum and darker than sterling silver. Green gold: It is made by the addition of 30-40 % silver or silver plus cadmium and zinc. It is soft and malleable and has good working properties. Yellow gold: It is made with the addition of silver and copper, with higher copper percentages producing gold of reddish cast. Yellow gold is an excellent all-purpose gold. Karat gold: For articles to be handled or worn, such as jewellery, it is common to use karat (the term karat refers specifically to the relative purity of gold, pure gold is expressed as 24 karat) or alloyed gold.

(Fig 5.10) Earrings of White gold metal. (Fig 5.11) Yellow gold metal.

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5.2.4 Uses Gold is also used for making various tribal jewellery pieces for the people who can afford this precious metal as it is expensive in comparison to silver and is sourced from the artisan of the nearby jewellery shops. The artisans working in village areas source gold from jewellery markets in the city. Sarafa market and ghoda chowk of Jodhpur are eminent places for buying and selling jewellery pieces, raw materials, etc, and the artisans working in the nearby village areas source their raw materials from these markets. Gold in the form of ingots, wires, sheets, bars, biscuits and other forms are purchased at the current price of the metal. Other uses: Gold is a chemically inert metal, and this makes it useful in several ways. It is used as a form of currency. It is used for making jewellery as it is a precious metal with brilliant lustre. A small amount of gold is used in almost every sophisticated electronic device. This includes cell phones, calculators, personal digital assistants, global positioning system (GPS) units, and other small electronic devices. Most large electronic appliances such as television sets also contain gold. It is used in healthcare also, cavities in human teeth are filled with gold, it is used in surgical instruments and is used in injections for treatment of some diseases.

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5.3 Other Raw materials There are various other raw materials used in making jewellery pieces and are equally important in the process of jewellery making. Lead: Lead is one of the oldest metals known to man and was used for ornamentation in Assyrian and Babylonian times. Lead is a unique metal having many uses, its softness, extreme workability without becoming hard at ordinary temperature, its ductility, forgeability, and weldability make it a metal easily worked and this is the reason lead is used as an essential ingredient for reliable and quality, shiny solder joints and is used extensively in tribal jewellery making where it is commonly called seesa. 5.12 Geru: Geru or red ochre powder is used in to cover the jewellery pieces while working on it so that any other unwanted material will not stick to the precious jewellery piece. It is a natural clay earth pigment which is a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is easily available in the market and costs around 10 rupees for 250 grams.

5.13 Lac: Lac is used to fill the hollow centers of jewellery pieces to maintain the pieces form throughout its lifetime. Lac is a scarlet resinous secretion by the female lac insect, which it secretes for its own protection. Lac is the only known commercial resin of animal origin and thus, is natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gift to mankind. Lac is soluble in alcohol and weak alkalis but insoluble in water. It has capacity of forming uniform durable film and possesses high scratch hardness. It is heat soluble and melts at 80Â°C. It is a good adhesive in nature and can form good sealers, undercoat primers. Lac has the capacity to allow quick rubbing with sandpaper without slicking or gumming. It is non-conductive and non-toxic. It is commonly called chapdi and is supplied from Gujarat and costs around 550-600 rupees for one kilogram. (Fig 5.12) Lead metal. (Fig 5.13) Geru in the form of paste. (Fig 5.14) Lac converted into the form of thin threads.

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Wood charcoal: Wood charcoal is used as a source of generating heat for melting various metals. It is easily available in the market and costs around Rs 12/kg.

5.15 Borax Powder: Borax powder (sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate), commonly called Sogi/Sota is used as a flux for melting metals easily. This is because using borax as the flux reduces the melting point of all the elements and borax is also used mixed with water as a flux when soldering jewellery metals such as gold or silver, where it allows the molten solder to wet the metal and flow evenly into the joint. It is easily available and costs around Rs 55/kg.

5.16 Sulphuric acid: Sulphuric acid commonly called tezaab is a dense, colourless, oily, corrosive liquid used for cleaning metal surface when mixed with water. A solution of 95% water and 5% sulphuric acid is used to clean the surface of various jewellery pieces. It is available easily and the commercial price of sulphuric acid is Rs 6500/ton.

(Fig 5.15) Wood charcoal. (Fig 5.16) Borax powder solution. (Fig 5.17) Sulphuric acid solution.

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6.1 Overview Tools and machineries can be described as equipment, devices, instruments, apparatus; manual or electric power used to achieve a specific purpose. Jewellery is a craft that requires utmost precision and expertise in making. There are numerous tools used for creating all the exquisite tribal jewellery pieces. To understand their use in the creation of the tribal jewellery we visited the Kanana village. Kanana village is in Balotara tehsil in the Barmer district of Rajasthan. It belongs to Jodhpur division. It is located 121 kilometers towards East from District headquarters Barmer. We visited the house of Mr Jasraj Soni who has been making tribal jewellery since last 50 years. He belonged to the Soni community and jewellery making has been their ancestral profession. Mr Soni explained the use of different tools and machines used for making tribal jewellery. Tools play an important role in the making of tribal jewellery. There are several designs and numerous techniques for making exquisite jewellery pieces. For understanding the use of different tools like different types of stamps, dyes, etc. We visited the shop of Mr Umesh Soni. He has been manufacturing tools for the last 45 years and all the tools are made by the process of casting.

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6.2 Tools for Work CHIMTI AND PAKAD Chimti and pakad, which is available in different sizes, is used to hold and handle the small silver jewellery pieces. Badi pakad is used to make round wires of silver by pulling the silver through the flat pieces of iron which have holes of different sizes called jantri. Material : Iron Dimension : 8-16 inches Sourced from : Local market in Jodhpur

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(Fig 6.1) Chimti and Pakad of various sizes.

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(Fig 6.2) Sandasi of various sizes. (Fig 6.3) Hammer.

SANDASI Sandasi is a different type of tool which is also used to hold the silver pieces as well as other equipment while making jewellery. All these tools are made up of iron. Material : Iron Dimension : 12 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur HATHODA Hammer or hathoda is used to beat the silver for making different jewellery pieces. Material : Iron and wood handle Dimension : 8-11 inches Sourced from : Local market in Jodhpur

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CHANDI GALANE KI BHATTI Chandi galane ki bhatti is used to melt the silver. The silver is melted by heating the silver pieces with the help of muunda or a gas fire gun that is used to emit fire on the silver piece. The muunda is attached to a cylinder that is the source of fire for the gun. After melting silver, it is poured into Reja, which is made up of iron and has long spaces for the silver to be poured. The melted silver is dipped into the water after some while for cooling it down. The small silver pieces are collected in a small cup made up of mud called muus. The silver pieces are melted in it and then poured into reja also pronounced as reji, and afterwards cooled down by water. This completes the procedure of melting the silver pieces which are further purified and then used to create the jewellery pieces. Material : Iron Dimension : 12 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

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(Fig 6.4) Chandi galane ki bhatti used for melting silver metal.

6.5

(Fig 6.5) Compass of various sizes.

COMPASS Compass is used for equidistant marking on the jewellery piece. The tool has two arms with pointed heads and the arms that swivel at a point where they can be adjusted according to the requirement. The arms can be straight or curved, depending on the requirement. Material : Iron Dimension : 3 - 6 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

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SAW It is a tool that consists of toothed ends that is used for cutting the extra jewellery pieces. It has a wooden handle for holding on and for ease of cutting. Material : Iron and wooden handle Dimension : 10 inches length. Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

SANDPAPER A paper coated with silicon carbonate that is used for finishing of metal. It is available in different grades that is used for different types of sanding and finishing of the jewellery piece. Material : Paper Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.6 WIRE GAUGE This tool is used to measure the thickness of sheet and wire. The gauge has slits at the outer edge and in graduated sizes marked on one side with gauge number. The circular holes measure the thickness of wire. Material : Iron Dimension : 10 inches length, cylindrical Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.7 112

(Fig 6.6) Saw and Sand paper. (Fig 6.7) Wire Gauge.

TAAR PATTI MACHINE The Taar Patti machine is also called as rolling plate. It is used to flatten the silver pieces into flat wires. It can only produce flat wires and not round wires as the silver pieces called chandi ki dhali are passed through two cylindrical pieces called Baade and the pressure applied on the dhali flattens it. Wires of different measurements can be obtained from this machine. The wires are further used to create different jewellery pieces like ghungroos, pendants or phool, chud, muthiya, etc. The machine is properly maintained by applying oil regularly for smooth functioning and is also painted regularly to prevent it from corrosion, if it is needed to be repaired it is taken to cities like Ajmer, Jodhpur, etc. A smaller version of this machine is called Jantri which is also used for the same process and the difference is that it is manually operated and produces round wires while the taar patti machine relates to a motor and operates with the help of electricity. Material : Iron Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur 6.8

ERAN Eran is a heavy square piece of iron fixed on the top of a wooden frame, which is fixed on the floor and is used as a base for beating silver pieces. The weight of the iron piece is 5 kilograms. The wood used for the wooden frame is Babool wood. Eran is available in different sizes. Material : Iron Dimension : 6 X 4 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.9

(Fig 6.8) Taar Patti Machine. (Fig 6.9) Eran tool.

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SILAYI Silayi is also called as ring size measuring device. It is an iron rod used to create spiral pieces of silver wires by rolling over it. The pieces obtained are called kadiyan, which are further used to create other jewellery pieces. This tool is available in different sizes also. These are used to check the size of the inside diameter of a ring shank. This measurement corresponds to the finger size on which the ring is worn. Material : Iron Dimension : 6 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur LATTHIYA Latthiya is a tool used for making rings of silver wires of various sizes. It is made up of iron. It is used mainly for creating earrings called kaan ki baali of different sizes. Material : Iron and plastic/wooden handle Dimension : 10 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.10

(Fig 6.10) Silayi and Latthiya tools of various sizes.

6.11

(Fig 6.11) Ruler of various sizes used for measurement.

RULER Rulers are used for measuring the elements of jewellery pieces like motifs, patterns, etc. It is used to achieve dimensional accuracy. To avoid waste, metal is measured first and then cut. Material : Steel Dimension : 6 - 12 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

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BHATTI Bhatti is used for melting silver and is placed in a space which is dedicatedly used for melting silver and gold. It is basically a big bowl of iron called tasla which is filled with ash and over it, a piece of stone called gatta is kept on which the process of melting the metals is performed. Material : Iron Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.12

(Fig 6.12) Bhatti used for melting silver metal.

PLIERS Pliers are used as per their function that they serve. There are wire cutting pliers as well as there are normal pliers that are used to draw wires from the taar patti to obtain wire of desired thickness. Material : Iron and steel Dimension : 7-8 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur RANDHA Filer or Randha are used for filing off the excess material off the jewellery pieces. They are also used for smoothning the edges and the surface of the jewellery piece. Flat, round and half round filers are used as per the requirement. Material : Iron Dimension : 9-12 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.13

(Fig 6.13) Pliers and Filers of various sizes.

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DRILLING MACHINE The drilling machine consists of various types of drill bits that can be attached and rotated while pressing against the piece that needs to be drilled. There are motorised as well as non-motorised machines. Material : Steel Dimension : 2-8 inches Sourced from : Market of Jodhpur

VERNIER CALLIPER Vernier calliper is used by the craftsmen to measure precisely the jewellery pieces for accuracy which would not be possible by straight or circular measurement scale. These are used for measuring small intricate jewellery parts and for maintaining the precision of the dimensions . Material : Stainless steel Dimension : 11 inches length Sourced from : Market of Jodhpur

6.14

(Fig 6.14) Jewellery drill machine used for drilling purposes and Vernier Callipers used for measurement.

6.15

(Fig 6.15) Clamp used for holding pieces of metal.

CLAMP Clamp is used for holding the moulded piece to file. It is placed on a wooden base for filing. The clamps are used for fixing the strong and sturdy pieces firmly while silver setting. It is also called as bench-vice. Material : Iron Dimension : 14 X 8 X 5 inches Sourced from : Market of Jodhpur

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KATIYA AND JAMBURA Katiya (cutter) and Jambura are the tools used to cut the silver pieces. Material : Iron and plastic Dimension : 6-10 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

GAS BURNER A small hand held size gas burner is used to melt the metal ( Lead) and also for soldering the jewellery pieces. Material : Iron Dimension : 10 inches length, cylindrical Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.16

(Fig 6.16) Katiya(cutter) and Jambura used for cutting metal sheets.

6.17

(Fig 6.17) Wire Brush used for cleaning purposes and Buffing Machine used for polishing purposes.

WIRE BRUSH The metal wire scratch brush with wooden handle is used for cleaning purpose of the jewellery piece. The bristles are also made in nylon. Material : iron, nylon, wooden handle Dimension : 4 X 1/2 X 10 inches Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

BUFFING MACHINE Buffing machine is used to give polished finish to the jewellery piece. Very little material is removed in this process. Material : Iron Dimension : 10 inches length, cylindrical Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

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RING SIZER These are standardised sets of graduated metal wire circles , all held on a large metal hoop. Each ring of the set is marked with a size number that fits the finger. Material : Iron Dimension : 10 inches length, cylindrical Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

JANTRI Also called as draw plate, is used for drawing wires. Material : Iron Dimension : 10 inches length, cylindrical Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

6.18

(Fig 6.18) Ring sizer and Draw plate.

6.19

(Fig 6.19) Nipper of various sizes and forms.

NIPPER These are used for cutting wire that are not reachable by other tools. There are different wire hardness that requires different types of nippers. Material : Iron Dimension : 10 inches length, cylindrical Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

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PASA OR DARI The pasa or dari is a cubic tool made up of brass used to create circular pieces out of silver sheets by beating it over the tool. It has hemispherical depressions on its surface that makes creates hemispherical silver pieces by beating the silver sheet over it. The process is called as doming. Material : Brass Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

CHANNI Channi is also called as strainer. It has holes punched or drilled on the surface which is used to separate or segregate the elements of jewellery of same sizes.

6.20

(Fig 6.20) Pasa used for creating depressions on sheets of metal.

6.21

(Fig 6.21) Strainers of various types.

Material : Steel Sourced from : Local market of Jodhpur

STAMPING It is a process that is used to make identical and multiple units from an original source or pattern. In this process, a tool or die is forcibly struck into a sheet metal for embossing, impression or blanking. PUNCHES They have a striking end, a shank, and a working end. With hammer, the punch is struck. They are used for center marking, cutting, chasing, bending, embossing, piercing and stamping.

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6.29

6.30

(Fig 6.22)-(Fig 6.30) Stamps and Punches representing various motifs and designs.

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6.32

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6.35

6.36

6.37

6.38

6.39

(Fig 6.31)-(Fig 6.39) Stamps and Punches representing various motifs and designs.

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THE MAKING

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7.1 Process of Melting Silver Creation of every jewellery piece starts by melting the pure silver pieces. Pure silver is extremely fragile and to provide it with the strength it is mixed with certain elements so that it does not break easily. For understanding the process of melting silver, we visited the Naeem jewellers in Jodhpur. Mr Sunil Soni helped us in understanding the process, who is an eminent jeweller in Jodhpur and works for the welfare of many artisans.

Process: Step 1: Pure silver is bought from the suppliers of gold and silver at the current price of the metals respectively from the suppliers. The silver sheet cut into small pieces. Step 2: The pieces which are cut are then collected into a small bowl made up of mud called muus. Suhaga, a catalyst in powder form, is an element added to the silver pieces which helps the metal to melt easily. Along with suhaga one more element called sota, another catalyst, is mixed with the silver pieces to provide strength to the metal. 7.1

(Fig 7.1)-(Fig 7.4) Cutting the silver metal sheets and adding catalyst in it.

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7.2

7.3

7.4

Step 3: The muus(small mud bowl) is heated with the help of a gas fire gun till it reaches 1763 degrees Fahrenheit or 961.8 degrees Celsius, which is the melting point of silver.

7.5

Step 4: The melted silver is poured into reji, which is a tool used for collecting melted silver. It is made up of iron and before pouring melted silver into it, oil is applied on its surface so that the remnants of the silver do not stick to it and before pouring melted silver into it is also slightly heated to combat the temperature difference between the melted silver and the surface of the reji. Step 5: Finally, when the silver is melted it is poured in the spaces on the surface of reji with the help of sandasi or pakad used for holding the muus. The silver takes the shape of the grooves on the surface of the reji.

7.6

(Fig 7.5)-(Fig 7.9) Heating the silver metal and pouring it into reji for collecting the melted metal.

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7.8

7.9

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Step 6: When the silver cools down and is picked up with the help of sandasi, then it is immersed into tezaab(sulphuric acid) for 2 seconds for cleaning it and then it is immediately immersed into water for a while for cleaning the acid. The piece obtained after melting and solidifying is called dhali. Dhali is further used for various purposes and one of the main purpose for which it is used is taar-kheechayi (drawing wires).

7.10 This completes the process of melting the silver and preparing it for its further use for making jewellery. For cleaning the metals also this technique is used. If a silver or gold wire is to be cleaned it is first heated with the help of a gas fire gun and then it is immersed into sulphuric acid for cleaning it and then immediately into the water for removing the acid from the surface of the metal. This cleans up the surface of both gold and silver.

7.11

(Fig 7.10) Cleaning the metal. (Fig 7.11) Cleaned metal ready for further use.

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7.2 Process of Making Silver WiresTaar-kheechayi Silver wires are extensively used in making different parts of tribal jewellery. Thus, making silver wires is an important part of making tribal jewellery. For making silver wires the pure silver is converted into chandi ki dhali, which means melting it and then cooling it to make it rigid. The dhali is used to make silver wires. One end of the dhali is tapered manually in the taar patti vaali machine, which is used to flatten silver wires so that it can be inserted in the small-sized holes. The tool used for making silver wire is called jantri and has small holes through which chandi ki dhali is passed. Chandi ki dhali is heated prior to inserting it into the jantri so that it does not break while elongating it and as the dhali passes through the hole it comes out in the form of silver wire of the desired length.

7.12

(Fig 7.12)-(Fig 7.15) Silver metal drawn into wire form using machines and draw plate.

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7.15

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7.3 Process of Stamping and Punching Holes or openings can be cut in sheet metal with a stamping die. This can be a hand process or can be done with the help of a die-stamping press, which supplies the pressure to cut through the metal. Die stamping technique involves a positive and a negative unit called a punch and a matrix respectively. Each is designed to fit perfectly into each other to produce a sharp outline. The metal is held over the matrix, a perforated block into which the punched portion of metal enters, and the punch is driven into the metal with a hammer or by the press. An even pressure is exerted simultaneously over the entire surface of the metal that is forced into the matrix. The metal part freed from the sheet is called a blank. The dies which involve no movement are called single action dies. Stamping dies are sometimes used to produce blanks intended for further processing, this is a common procedure in forming mass-produced jewellery and in cases where many identical repeats of ornament are needed.

(Fig 7.16) Silver wire punched in the machine. (Fig 7.17) Punch marks on silver wire.

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7.17

Punches are tools made of rod steel or brass, shaped according to their function, and known by the name of the function they perform. Dapping punches are used for doming. There are several other types of punches. A tracer punch is used to outline a pattern, shape, or design. An embosser punch is used to raise metal into relief or to depress it. Grounder punches are used to create an all-over pattern in an area and are traditionally used for the background of designs for textural effect. There are two kinds of punch work decoration used in metalwork. The first employs smooth, polished punches that have a definite shape, such as a round, square, oval, diamond, etc. These punches are usually worked from the back of the metal, though they can also be worked from the front. The metal being punched rests on a soft material such as a lead or zinc block, piece of hardwood, or a pitch block. When worked from the rear, the pattern appears on the front of the metal as a raised shape or â&#x20AC;&#x153;bossâ&#x20AC;?, from which the word embossing comes. The second kind of punch work involves the imprinting of a design which is engraved at the end of the punch onto a metal surface. The design may be a single unit, used as a unit, or a repeat pattern. It is always seen from the front of a metal. The design usually is sharply enough engraved on the punch to impart the pattern with one well-registered blow. This kind of punching is done on a hard, solid bed, usually a stake, an iron block, or a bench block, as these surfaces resist the punch impact and the result is a sharply defined imprint of the pattern.

(Fig 7.18) Stamps used for creating motifs and designs on silver jewellery pieces. (Fig 7.19) Silver pendant created by Stamping method.

7.18

7.19

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7.4 Process of Filing All files are designed so that their teeth cut on the forward stroke. Just enough pressure is applied on the forward stroke to keep the file cutting at all times, and no more than that. A file rapidly becomes dull if it is allowed to slide, especially over hard metals, and too much pressure causes the teeth to chip or become clogged which reduces file efficiency. It is always advisable to use the full length of the file with each stroke so that one area does not become worn out while the rest is hardly used. During the backward stroke lifting the file from contact with the metal is necessary so that its pressure against the metal is not more than its own weight. Avoiding dragging pressure avoids wearing out of the teeth of the file. In hand filing with small files, the worker is usually seated, and the work should be placed at eye level or about six inches below it. Holding tools as a hand vise, ring clamp, or pin clamp (depending on the work shape), can be used to firmly hold the work when filing, especially when it small. To protect the work from becoming marked by the clamp by placing a strip of cardboard, sheet metal such as copper or brass, or two blocks of wood placed on either side of the metal within the vise jaws can be used as protecting materials. There are various types of filing techniques: Straight flat filing: It consists of holding the file firmly the right hand with the index finger extended on top of the file in the direction of its length for flat filing of the surface of the metal. Curve filing: It consists of filing convex or concave surfaces or edges with the file. Shape filing: It is used for filing solid stock to a form, begins with large files, proceeds to finer ones as the form nears completion and finishing is done with a serious of gradually finer abrasive papers. Draw filing: It is used to make a surface, an edge, or (simultaneously) several edge pieces perfectly smooth, flat, and level.

(Fig 7.20) A jewellery piece created by filing the surface of the metal.

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7.20

7.5 Process of Braiding Braiding is a process of inter working one set of no less than three, but possibly more, odd or even number of strands to form a close or open weave like structure or braid, also sometimes called a plait. In its simplest form, three-strand braiding, the outer right and left strands are alternatively passed over the inner strand. Many variations in braid making are possible, instead of using a single strand as a unit, two, three or more strands can be treated together as one unit; they are always, however, kept in the same flat and parallel relation to each other throughout the braid length. Braids can be made of any number of strand units. There are several basic types of braids, named after their structure, appearance, or use. Flat Braids: They are the most common braids and are made of round wire or strip to produce a narrow, flat, equal-width texture. Flat braids are very easily bent edgewise into curves after they are completed. Divided Braids: At the start, the strands are braided into a single unit and at any point the number of strands can be divided equally or unequally, and each unit formed into an independent braid of narrower width. These divided units can be reunited at any point and the result is an open work structure. Shaped Braids: These braids are multi-strand units and are created when working in metal by controlling the tension of the braiding elements, or by bending the braid form as it proceeds. The braid is worked from one edge only, passing those outer strands diagonally through the others, which remain straight and parallel to each other. Circular and Hole Braids: These braids are made by using core of wire, rod or tubing. The number of strands used increased increases with the diameter. Tapering, Conical, Circular Braids: These braids are made on a cone shaped core. At the starting point at the apex of the cone all the braids are tied together and during braiding, they gradually expand to form an openwork on the cone shape. Braids are used in jewellery in many ways. Braided rings can be used for earrings or in other constructions. Flat braid is used as a border or as a frame for a unit. Round braid is used as a chain in the many ways that chains are used.

(Fig 7.21) Braiding the silver wires. (Fig 7.22) Different types of Braids.

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7.22

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7.6 Process of Making Ghunghroo Ghunghroo also known as Ghunghru are small metallic bells used for producing sound in many ornaments and accentuates the rhythmic aspects of it. To understand how ghunghroo is made we visited the workplace of Mr Ghanshyam Soni who makes tribal jewellery.

Process: Thick silver wires are used for making ghunghroos. The machine used for making ghungroos is called ghunghroo chapaayi machine. Ghunghroo chapaayi machine uses the die-stamping technique for creating sharp outlines. Different designs of ghungroos are made by using different patterns called sanche which is fitted into the machine and can only be removed by removing the screws. The silver wire is first heated and then drawn through the Taar patti machine to flatten it. After the wire is flattened it is pressed against the ghunghroo chapaayi machine for making ghunghroos. This creates the impression of the ghunghroo on the wire.

7.23

(Fig 7.23)-(Fig 7.26) Heating the silver wires and then flattening them. The flat wires are inserted into the punching machine for making ghunghroos.

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7.24

7.25

7.26

After creating the impression of ghunghroo on the flattened silver wire it is cut in another machine used for cutting ghunghroos. The machine used for cutting ghunghroo is operated manually and the machine used for creating impression works with the help of electricity. Locally, the ghunghroos which do not produce sound are called niman while the ones which produce sound are called pole.

7.27

(Fig 7.27)-(Fig 7.30) The punched silver wire is then inserted into cutting machine for separating the punched ghunghroo pieces from the remaining part of the silver wire.

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7.7 Process of Filling Lac in Jewellery Pieces Chapdi bharna or filling lac in jewellery pieces is an important part of jewellery making as it provides strength to the jewellery piece. We visited the workplace of Mr Ramraj Soni for understanding the process of Chapdi bharna. The task of filling chapdi requires skill and patience.

Firstly, the jewellery to be filled is covered with geru which is an earthy red colour powder. It is used as it prevents the chapdi to stick on other parts of the jewellery piece and then the jewellery piece is slightly heated. The chapdi is heated patiently over burning coal and after it becomes soft and it is ready, then it is continuously stretched manually so that thin wires can be formed out of it.

7.31

7.32

(Fig 7.31) Wood Charcoal and Lac. (Fig 7.32) Gold jewellery piece in which lac has to be filled. (Fig 7.33)-(Fig 7.35) Heating lac for making thin threads out of it.

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7.35

The thin wires of chapdi then can be filled inside the holes of the jewellery pieces. The chapdi or lac is supplied from Gujarat and costs around 550-600 Rs. for one kilogram.

7.36

(Fig 7.36) Gold bangle with small openings in which lac has to be filled. (Fig 7.37)-(Fig 7.38) Artisan filling lac in the gold bangle.

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7.8 Process of Making the Iconic Kadla Kadle or silver anklets are an iconic piece of the tribal jewellery of Rajasthan. They can be easily seen in every other womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feet who belong to the tribal community. In the Banjara community kadle are an essential part of their jewellery. They are important to such an extent that even opening of the kadla is not easy and cannot be opened by the women who are wearing it. There is a specific tool for opening it as it is locked and can be opened by the people who are skilled in making it. Thus, it is an integral part of the jewellery worn by the Banjara women and manifests an icon for them. The process of making kadla requires finesse. It is simple yet intense. For a detailed understanding of the process, we visited the artisans of the Marwari Kadla works where we met Mr Mohammad Ali who has gained the skill of making kadla from his father and it has been their family tradition since many generations. They specialize in making kadla.

(Fig 7.39) Kadla, a tribal silver jewellery piece adorned by the women in their ankles.

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7.39

Process: Step 1: The primary step is to procure the metal and then convert it into sheets of the required thickness. Usually, the people who place the order for making kadle also bring raw silver along with them otherwise the artisan can also buy silver from the market and make kadle for selling them.

Step 2: There are two techniques for making sheets from silver. 1. By beating the metal. 2. By compressing it in Taar patti machine. Silver blocks or biscuits are melted and converted into silver rods. These silver rods are hammered upon Eran or the anvil after taking the proper gauge of the silver rod to have a specific width of the silver sheet. A round-edged hammer is used to beat the rod and after repeated heating and hammering the rod a sheet comes out. Another method is passing the rods through rolling millers (Taar Patti machine), which converts the rod into the required thickness of silver sheets. 7.40 Step 3: The silver sheets are cut with the help of katiya or the cutter. Patterns or pharma are used to cut the silver sheets into the desired shape. Vernier callipers or prakar is used by the artisan to take the measurement of the feet and the ankle of a woman.

(Fig 7.40) Making sheets of silver metal in Taar Patti machine. (Fig 7.41) Patterns of different sizes of Kadla.

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Step 4: The patterns cut out of the silver sheets are now beaten with the help of a hammer. The sheet is placed on a tool called batti which is used to give the bend in the silver sheets. Batti is placed over a cylindrical iron block called khali this gives the required height for beating the silver sheets. The hammer has two sides, one is tapered and the other is flat, both the sides are used alternatively for bending the sheet. Repeated hammering converts the sheet into the form of a pipe or tube while hammering the sheet is rolled over an iron rod called taar taakla so that the sheet is rolled properly without any dents.

7.42

Step 5: The next step involves soldering the tubular form to join the two sides of the tubular form. Soldering mixture commonly called sogi is used for soldering. It is available in solid form and after mixing with water it is boiled to form a paste. The paste is applied on the tubular form and is inserted inside it also. An alloy of copper, zinc and silver is used for soldering. The alloy used for soldering is inserted inside the tubular form and then the entire piece is heated this joins the two sides of the piece. Sogi is used because it helps in proper soldering of the piece. It is then inserted into a sulphuric acid solution (95% water mixed with 5% acid) and then in water to clean excess sogi mixture.

7.43

(Fig 7.42) Beating the silver sheet for making the hollow piece of the Kadla. (Fig 7.43)-(Fig 7.46) Making the paste of the soldering mixture for applying it on the silver hollow piece for soldering it using Fire gun.

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7.46

Step 6: Lead is heated and poured into the tubular form so that the piece is soldered properly and remains strong while beating it. Before pouring lead, geru paste (Earthy red coloured mud is mixed with water to form a paste) is used to cover the silver piece and is dried after heating it with a fire gun. The dried geru paste on silver protects it from getting corroded when the lead is poured on it. Lead is poured with the help of a tool called kucchi, the silver tube is held with the help of a toll called sandasi. The excess material gets collected into a tool called thokar which is placed on an iron tawa or iron plate. The extra piece is called gitak and is separated from the hollow silver piece by using a hammer. After the lead is poured the piece is dipped into water for cooling it down swiftly and solidifying the lead.

7.47

Step 7:

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7.50

The soldered piece is now filed with the help of a file commonly called reti for removing the excess soldering alloy. It is kept on a clamp which serves as a base and then it is filed. The piece is now beaten with the help of a tool called mogri which is made up of plastic and this gives the curve required to make the anklet. The piece is kept on batti which helps in bending the silver piece.

(Fig 7.47) Pouring geru paste in the hollow piece for preventing corrosion. (Fig 7.48)-(Fig 7.51) Pouring melted lead into the hollow piece for proper soldering of the entire hollow piece and then inserting it into water for cooling it down. The excess lead comes out and is then removed and filed.

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After giving it a slight bend now with the help of someone else it is given the required shape. Chapan, an iron tool, is used to make the curved silver piece by beating the inner portion with a heavy hammer and chapan placed over it to give it a curve. The artisan holds the piece and chapan while the other person, who helps him, beats the hammer over the piece. After giving it the desired shape, it is given the required finishing by beating it slightly with the help of chapan and a hammer while it is placed on a curved lead piece and then for giving it the round shape it is beaten over a tool called eklaayi which gives it the required shape and is checked with the help of a compass. It is then heated with the help of a fire gun which removes all the lead collected inside the cavity of the tube and creates the hollow space inside the anklet after which is cleaned with water.

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7.53

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7.55

(Fig 7.52)-(Fig 7.58) Beating the hollow piece with hammer for bending it and giving it the required shape. Heating the bent form of the hollow piece to remove the lead metal inside it and then cooling it down with water.

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7.58

Step 8: For creating the lock of the kadla also called as kadle ka muuh (casting pieces) are used. Silver is heated and poured inside the dye which is also slightly heated prior to pouring the metal so that temperature difference is reduced. The lock after solidifying is obtained from the casting pieces and filed to give proper finishing. It is then attached to the silver pieces that serve as the space for inserting the keel or small rod for locking the kadla. The two pieces are fitted into the casting pieces and then soldered.

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(Fig 7.59)-(Fig 7.64) Casting pieces used for making the lock of the kadla. After making the lock it is filed and finished properly.

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Step 9: The next step involves soldering kadle ka muuh with the curved piece. It is also done using the same alloy and heating it with a fire gun. The soldered piece is now cut with the help of a saw or aari from one side so that it can be worn easily. The piece which is cut is soldered with a rolled sheet of silver from inside so that the piece fits tightly in the cavity.

7.65

Step 10:

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7.68

A small silver rod is beaten and then fitted into the lock of the kadla. After verifying all the measurements and the fittings it is filed with different files to give it the required finish.

(Fig 7.65)-(Fig 7.69) The lock of the kadla is soldered and it is cut from one side where a rolled sheet of silver is attached to it for making the opening for the kadla.

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7.69

Step 11: The completed kadla is buffed and given the required finish and then wrapped in newspaper. It is packed in a polythene and given to the customer in this manner only. This completes the kadla making process.

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7.72

(Fig 7.70)-(Fig 7.72) The kadle are wrapped in newspapers and packed in polythene and given to the customer.

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TYPES OF ORNAMENTS 145

8.1 Introduction Jewellery originated from the innate desire of human beings for adornment. People in the ancient times have used flowers, leaves, feathers and stones as embellishments and even today in some tribal society women use various objects like ornaments, such as feathers, cowries, seeds and even wings of insects. Later these were taken as inspirations and motifs on silver and gold jewellery was made.

8.2 Jewellery Pieces Traditionally, jewellery was (and still is), mandatory for Indian married woman who was not expected to be seen without a necklace, earrings, head ornaments, bangles etc. There are several types of jewellery pieces worn at different body parts.

8.3 Types of Jewellery Pieces The Banjara community wears numerous jewellery pieces and each piece has a significance, for example, the Tabeej, an amulet which has prayers inscribed on it, it is said to protect the wearer from evil influences, as is jewellery inscribed with figures of local deities.

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Some of the prominent and important jewellery pieces are:

Bor or Borla: Bindi/Matha Patti: Chimti: Bakalkhana: Ogniya: Karnaphool: Jhumka: Gogroo: Bata: Hansali: Kanthi: Worlo/Warla: Jantar: Patri: Tabeej: Phool: Kanta: Bazuband: Bazu chud: Pahaunchi: Kada: Kakan: Challa: Dama: Bangadi: Muthiya: Hathphool: Binti: Bel: Kankati/Tagadi /Kandora: Kadla: Kadi: Pazeb: Sathan: Bichuda:

A round shaped ornament that is worn on the forehead. Chain that is worn on the bor which goes down on either side. Hair Clip. Silver clip used as hair accessory. Rings with a hanging ball or leaf worn on the top of the ear. A big round stud. A bell like earring. Earrings worn by men. A big flower shaped ear stud. A collar or torque sometimes hollow, sometimes solid worn by men and women. Neck piece. A torque wrapped with silver wire. Cylindrical amulet strung on black thread. Plaque amulet, on black thread, worn around the neck, both by men and women. Amulets depicting Gods and Goddesses worshipped by the people. Pendants. Nose ring. Amulet. A long armlet. Beaded wrist let. A pair of heavy thick bangle. Silver Bangles. Finger rings. Silver rings made for kids. Two-part hinged bracelet. Cuffs. Hand ornament for back of the hand with rings for fingers and thumb. Ring Spiral ring. Waist band. Two-part anklets. Fitting rigid anklet. Flexible silver chain anklets. Silver anklets. Toe rings. 147

(Fig 8.1) Different designs of Bor or Borla. 148

8.1

(Fig 8.2) A Banjara woman wearing Bor attached with a silver chain. 8.2

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8.3

(Fig 8.3) A Banjara woman wearing Bor attached with chains, called as Bindi or Matha Patti.

8.4

(Fig 8.4) Sketch of Bor attached with Matha Patti. (Fig 8.5) Chimti or Hair clip. 8.5

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(Fig 8.6) Different designs of Jhumke or earrings. 152

8.6

(Fig 8.7) Different designs of Jhumke or earrings. 8.7

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(Fig 8.8) Different designs of Jhumke or earrings attached with karnaphool, a big round stud. 154

8.8

(Fig 8.9) Earring or Jhumka attached with silver chain for support. 8.9

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(Fig 8.10) Naak ki Baali or an ornament worn over the nose attached with Honkli or the chain attached to it. 156

8.10

(Fig 8.11) Hansali or a torque worn by both men, women and children. 8.11

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(Fig 8.12) A Banjara women adorned with Bor, Hansali, Kanthi, and Chud (armlet). 158

8.12

(Fig 8.13) Warla or Worlo, a torque wrapped around with silver wire. 8.13

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(Fig 8.14) Patri or a plaque amulet made of gold. 160

8.14

(Fig 8.15) Kanthi or neck piece. 8.15

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(Fig 8.16) Neck piece known as Chandrahaar. 162

8.16

(Fig 8.17) Different design of Chandrahaar. 8.17

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(Fig 8.18) Jantar or cylindrical amulet. 164

8.18

(Fig 8.19) Patri (plaque amulet) and Jantar (cylindrical amulet) of different designs. 8.19

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(Fig 8.20) Tabeez or pendants depicting various Gods and Goddesses worshipped by the people. 166

8.20

(Fig 8.21) Tabeez or pendants depicting various Gods and Goddesses worshipped by the people. 8.21

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(Fig 8.22) A neck piece made up of five different pendants. 168

8.22

(Fig 8.23) Simple circular pendants. 8.23

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(Fig 8.24) Chud, a long armlet. 170

8.24

(Fig 8.25) Muthiya or cuffs made of silver metal. 8.25

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(Fig 8.26) Attachments of different designs. 172

8.26

(Fig 8.27) Bazuband or amulet. 8.27

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(Fig 8.28) Chud, a long armlet. 174

8.28

(Fig 8.29) Kakan or silver bangles. 8.29

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(Fig 8.30) Gajra or bangles of different design. 176

8.30

(Fig 8.31) Gold bangles. 8.31

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(Fig 8.32) Kandora or waistband. 178

8.32

(Fig 8.33) Chandi ki dibbi or a small case of silver. 8.33

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8.34

8.35

(Fig 8.34) Silver anklet. (Fig 8.35) Bichuda or toe ring. 180

(Fig 8.36) Pazeb or flexible silver anklets. 8.36

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THE ARTISANS

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9.1 Soni Community The people of Jodhpur are the ones who have been living there for ages or the ones who have migrated from Pakistan. The communities of people include Hindus, Muslims and Jains in broad categories and Rajputs, Sindhis and Punjabis in subcategories. Most jewellery craftsmen belong to the Baniya caste (both, Hindu and Jain) and the kaarigars(artisans) belong to the Soni caste (Sunar). The ‘Soni’ are a Hindu caste found throughout India. They are traditionally goldsmiths in the state of Gujarat. According to records from the Vishnu Purana, one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus, the Sonar are the descendants of the youngest of five sons created by Vishnu’s incarnation; Vishwakarma, the architect of the universe. The term Sunar may derive from the Sanskrit Suvarna kār, that means ‘worker in gold’. The Sunar uses Soni, Seth, Swarnkar, Shah, Bhutani, Sonik, Bagga, Babbar, Verma etc., as their surnames. Few of the Soni community members belong to Mairh Kshatriya (Marwaris) Community, who basically hails from Rajasthan and bear the surname Varma/Verma. In Gujarat and Rajasthan, the community is also known as Soni. The soni and swan in Hindi and Sanskrit mean gold and those who work with precious metals (gold and silver) are known as soni. Literally, the word in Hindi and Gujarati has the same meaning as a goldsmith. The Sunar speaks the languages of the region they live in. In Bihar and Rajasthan, they speak Mewari or Marwari. They are the traditional goldsmiths of North India. Their main occupation remains the manufacture and selling of jewellery, however, members of the community are also involved in pawnbroking and money lending. There are several community associations for the Sonar community at a local, regional and national level. These regulate social control, settle disputes and initiate welfare activities. The Sonar is mostly Hindu (95%) though there are some Sikh, Muslim and Jain Sonar. The Hindu Sonar worship Shiva, Vishnu, Rama, Krishna (8th incarnation of Vishnu), Durga, Kali, Ganesh, and Lakshmi (goddess of wealth, wife of Vishnu.)

(Fig 9.1) Artisan, Sunil kumar Soni, working with gold metal. 184

9.1

9.2 Beliefs and Practises Being Hindu, beef is excluded from the mainly non-vegetarian diet. Their diet consists of wheat, rice, maize, millet, a variety of lentils and vegetable, along with seasonal fruit and dairy products. Only men smoke and drink alcohol. They believe that drinking liquor is beneficial in neutralizing the poisonous, acidic fumes inhaled while making ornaments. This community encourages literacy for both boys and girls and many go on to complete tertiary education. They are also favourably inclined to modern medicine, along with indigenous cures. They practice family planning methods including sterilization. Family – Nuclear families are most common among the Sonar, although joint families also exist. Parental property is divided among all the sons equally and the eldest son succeeds as the head of the family. The daughters don’t get receive a share. Marriages – Adult marriages are arranged by negotiation among family members within the Sonar community only. The common symbols of marriage include sindoor (vermilion), bindi (dot on forehead), gold bangles, black-bead and gold necklace (mangalsutra), toe and finger rings. Dowry is paid by the bride’s family in cash and goods. Most Sonars are monogamous, but divorce is permitted but rare. Widows, widowers and divorcees are permitted to remarry. Junior levirate and junior sororate are permissible and at times preferred. Deities – They also have family, clan and regional deities like Jwaladevi (Flame goddess), Mansadevi (Wish-fulfilling goddess), Vaishnodevi, Ambadevi (a form of Durga), Gurgaonwali Mata, Jagannatha (lord of the world), Mangala and Patheswari. The Sonars have a special reverence for the saint Sant Narhari Sonar. Like similar Hindu castes, they are endogamous and maintain a system of gotra exogamy. The various sub-divisions of the Soni have their own caste associations, such as the Patni Soni Mandal and Shrimali Soni Mandal. They follow Vaishnavism and many belong to the Swaminarayan sect. The community speak various dialects of Gujarati and Kutchi. Music and Dance – The folk songs sung by the women to the accompaniment of the dholak (barrel-shaped drum) are their oral tradition. They also dance on occasions of birth and marriage.

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9.3 Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Involvement The status of women is secondary to that of men though they participate actively in ritual, religious and social activities. Sometimes they help their men by cleaning the ornaments.

9.4 Clients The Soni community has been practising the art of jewellery making since a long period of time and they are known for their craftsmanship. The Banjara community people wear tribal silver jewellery which is crafted by the artisans belonging to the Soni community. They place orders and buy tribal jewellery from the artisans belonging to this community, thus Banjara people are their important clients. Apart from the Banjara community, people of Rajasthan also prefer buying jewellery from this community as they are skilled in making in different types of jewellery.

9.5 Education The people belonging to the Soni community are not highly educated. They start learning the techniques of jewellery making during their childhood and work as a professional as soon as they attain command over the craftsmanship.

(Fig 9.2) Tribal Silver jewellery packed in plastic sheets. 186

9.2

9.6 Skill Level Soni community is highly skilled in their occupation as Goldsmiths and Silversmiths. They learn jewellery making dedicatedly from their ancestors. The male members of the community are taught all the techniques and processes, the female members only observe them and do not practise this craft.

9.7 Business and Market Within the jewellery business, there is a hierarchy that is noticed. The top place of the hierarchy is held by rich jewellers who have been in the trade for ages and generations and have a reputation for creating masterpieces in their domain. They have their individual setups where they own the machinery and procure the raw materials needed for making the jewellery. They have their showrooms or display places where they sell their jewellery pieces whose publicity is by word of mouth or by their reputation that is developed since ages. The craftsmen work in the jewellerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s set-up and receive wages, or they work in independent workshops where they are given work by the workshop owner for a task.

(Fig 9.3) A jewellery shop in Jodhpur. 9.3

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CRAFTSMANSHIP 189

10.1 Workspace

SHELF 1.5 X 0.35 m

The jewellers usually had different rooms for different tasks that they performed. The plinth level is usually high, and a few steps led to the shop. Inside, the rooms are small and usually congested. The artisans worked on the floor and used to sit on cushions. The ambience of their workspace was generally very jammed with less space for the movement because of the number of tools and materials that were kept on the floor. Majority of the shops were poorly painted and had small windows in them. Poor air ventilation was observed since the artisans had the shops in the old city. In a few shops, a mezzanine floor was created to add to the area of the shop. A removable ladder was used to reach on the top of it. Use of artificial lighting was done because precious material is being used and so that small pieces of the metal donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t scatter at places. The display section at most of the shops were small glass boxes where the jewellery display was being done. And beside the display area, workspace for the manufacturing of the jewellery is done.

SHELF 1.5 X 0.35 m

WORKING SP ACE 4.0 X 5.0m

SHELF 0.35 X 1.5 m

BRICK WALL MUD WALL

SHELF 1.0 X 0.4m

LOFT 1.0 X 1.5m

WORKING SP ACE 3.0 X 1.5m

ENTRANCE SHELF 0.5 X 1.5m

WINDO W

KADL A WORK WORKPLACE

ENTRANCE

SUNIL SONIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S WORKPLACE

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(Fig 10.1) 2 Dimensional representation of the workspace of the artisans.

10.1

10.2 Environment Around Artisans The artisans usually work in shops located in the jewellery market of the city. They have the required machines, materials, tools, etc., needed for making jewellery. As gold and silver are precious metals, therefore, there is a restriction on the entry of normal visitors. As the artisans work in the shops located in the market, therefore, food and other commodities are easily available.

(Fig 10.2) Jewellery shop of an artisan who makes Kadla.

10.2

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10.3 Elements of Workspace The workspace of the artisans is not very big and spacious as they use intricate techniques and tools to make jewellery. There are dedicated spaces for each process and the workspace is divided accordingly.

10.4 Ergonomics

10.3

10.4

The craftsmen sit on the ground on a mat while working. This posture is considered most comfortable for working by the artisan. The stands and the tables on which they work are movable. These provide for flexible space management in the workspace, as it can be moved anywhere with ease, without completely dedicating an area for work. One major criterion for choice of the location is the clear space required for hand movement, without any obstructions, in addition to the availability of natural or artificial light which is of key importance. The craftsmen also customized new ways to help secure the art piece in a vice without any scratches or damage. For those who sit on chairs and work, Have an adjustable seat and supportive backrest, an angle, tilt and height from the floor.

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(Fig 10.3) and (Fig 10.4) Elements of workspace where an artisan works. (Fig 10.5) Ergonomics involved while working.

10.5

10.5 Posture Study Craftsmen sit on the floor (Indian way of sitting) while working. This posture allows them to calm the mind, facilitate relaxation and easier back and forth movement required for work. The craftsmen work in a squat position on the floor, keeping their upper body in forward bending position with a twisted neck. Sitting in a cross-legged position on the floor allows the craftsmen to work for longer hours. Various physical problems can result from sitting, from back problems to haemorrhoids. Posture should be good, and relaxed. Their head and neck are bent over forwards when working, and this strains them. The long working hours and ill-posture sometimes result in issues for work-related musculoskeletal disorders. 10.6

(Fig 10.6) and (Fig 10.7) Posture of artisans while working.

10.7

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10.6 Government Initiatives India’s gems and jewellery sector contributes about 15.71 per cent to India’s total merchandise exports and employs over 4.64 million employees. The sector contributes about 7 per cent to India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). India’s gems and jewellery sector are one of the largest in the world contributing 29 per cent to global jewellery consumption. The sector is home to more than 300,000 gems and jewellery players. The Government of India has permitted 100 per cent FDI under the automatic route in this sector. The Government of India has levied 3 per cent Goods and Services Tax (GST) on gold, gold jewellery and silver jewellery. The office of Development Commissioner (Handicrafts) is the nodal agency in the Government of India for craft and artisan-based activities. It assists in the development, marketing and export of handicrafts, and the promotion of craft forms and skills. The assistance is in the form of technical and financial support, including in the form of schematic interventions implemented through its field offices.

(Fig 10.8) Artisans in a shop.

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10.8

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THE MARKETS

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11.1 Local Markets Jodhpur has markets for specific items such as the Mochi bazaar for footwear, Kapda bazaar for purchasing cloth, etc. The Sarafa bazaar and Ghoda chowk are known for jewellery. These markets are major tourist attractions and a paradise for the shopaholics.

11.2 Marketing in India and Overseas Jewellery is an important part of Indian culture and is a very big form of investment. Many companies have emerged as major global jewellery brands like Tanishq (TATA group of companies), PC Jewellers, Tribhuvandas Bhimji Zaveri jewellers, etc., among these major brands Amrapali jewels has launched tribal jewellery collection called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Tribe by Amrapaliâ&#x20AC;?. This section of their collection focusses on tribal silver jewellery pieces inspired from various tribes of India. The local jewellers do not get enough recognition in comparison to the big brands and they cater to the local customers only.

(Fig 11.1) A view of cloth market of Jodhpur.

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11.1

11.3 Online Markets Jewellery is sold and purchased online from the websites of different jewellery brands. Facebook and Instagram are social networking sites that have also contributed to the expansion of the jewellery business. People from different parts of the country purchase jewellery and it is shipped across countries. Online market for jewellery is growing and is bound to increase manifolds in future.

11.4 Market Challenges Jewellery is a precious entity. Jewellers from different areas must take special care while purchasing pure raw metal and maintaining the purity of the jewellery piece is also essential. There are certain challenges faced by the artisans, some artisans with immense talent are not able to spread their designs as they are not highly educated, and their designs are also copied by other people without their knowledge. The Banjara people are the major customers of the tribal jewellery and this is the reason behind the reduction in the number of the artisans as they have started focussing on different types of jewellery to earn money which will lead to a decline in the craft of tribal jewellery.

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INSIGHTS 201

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12.1 Challenges Tribal jewellery is an essential part of our culture and tradition. It gives identity to a community. There are age-old associations with different jewellery pieces and the artisans have been depicting their exquisite craftsmanship since the prehistoric times. Although this craft is valuable in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time the artisans have been drifted away from this craft, they do not want their kids to build their career in this field as they want their children to be educated and earn good amount of money through other means of livelihood. There are no major efforts by the government in the promotion of this craft and this leads to a lack of enthusiasm in the artisans. Many skilled artisans work in the remote village areas where there are not enough resources and their skills remain hidden forever. The artisans create masterpieces which are copied by many people who earn money by manufacturing their designs. Thus, the artisans face a lot of exploitation.

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12.2 Conclusion Craft is an important sector of the economy in our country. It is a source of livelihood for many people and with a decline in many craft practices over the years it is essential to realise the power of this sector. The artisans do not receive rewards for their talents. The artisans do not realise the importance of their skill. Education to the artisans can enable to express their skills through different mediums and this could help them in attaining a much respectable place in society. Tribal jewellery holds a special place in the life of tribal people. Many customs and traditions are incomplete without jewellery. They celebrate many occasions with their jewellery and some jewellery pieces are so significant that the tribal women wear them till the day she dies. Thus, jewellery is an important entity and the artisans creating those masterpieces are gems of the craft sector. This document aims to capture the true essence of Banjara Tribal Jewellery and preserving it. We have visited multiple places for validating the information and understanding the interconnections between different communities. The Banjara people are tied with the thread of tribal jewellery to the Soni community as they are the artisans. We have depicted the importance of this connection in this document.

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Point of Contact •Name: Mr Hindu Singh Sodha. Detail: Founder and President, The UJAS Foundation, Jodhpur. Phone number: +91 94142 43331. •Name: Mr Bhanwarlal Soni. Detail: Artisan, Pachpadra. Phone number: +91 9414688927. •Name: Mr Girdharilal Soni. Detail: Jeweller, Jodhpur. Phone number: +91 9530248474. •Name: Mr Manish Soni. Detail: Jeweller, Masuriya, Jodhpur. Phone number: +91 94142 43331. •Name: Mr Sunil Soni. Detail: Artisan, Jodhpur. •Name: Mr Umesh Soni. Detail: Shopkeeper, Jodhpur. •Name: Mr Gopaldas Tilokchand. Detail: Shopkeeper, Sarafa bazaar, Jodhpur. Phone number: +91 9829401299. •Name: Mohammad Ali. Detail: Artisan, Jodhpur. Phone number: +91 9829374718.

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Bibliography

•Official Website of Jodhpur, http://jodhpur.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/jodhpur/en/home.html, (accessed 2nd January 2019) •Singh, Dhananajaya, The House of Marwar: The Story of Jodhpur, by Dhananajaya Singh. Lotus Collection, Roli Books, 1994. (accessed 2nd January 2019) •Naik, D.B., The art and literature of Banjara Lambanis, Abhinav publications. (accessed 2nd January 2019) •Puttappa R. Jadhav, 1996, Banjara and Gypsy, M/s. Bewel Trust. (accessed 2nd January 2019) •Kwon, Charlotte, McLaughlin, Tim, 2016, Textiles of the Banjara, Thames and Hudson Ltd. (accessed 3rd January 2019) •Lal, R.B, Padmanabham, P.B.S.V, Krishnan, G & Mohideen, M Azeez (eds.). People of India Gujarat Volume XXI Part Three. (accessed 3rd January 2019) •Rathode, Tanaji, Socio-Economic Issues of Banjara Community. Banjara Times. Retrieved 2014-10-04. (accessed 3rd January 2019) •Vaditya, Venkatesh (2018). “Cultural Changes And Marginalisation Of Lambada Community In Telangana, India”. Indian Journal Of Dalit And Tribal Studies And Action. 2 (3): 55–80. Retrieved 6 May 2018. (accessed 3rd January 2019) •Burman, J. J. Roy (2010). Ethnography of a Denotified Tribe: The Laman Banjara. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 15. ISBN 978-8-18324-345-2 (accessed 5th January 2019)

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Project Team

This picture was taken after an intense journey to pachpadra village, Jodhpur with the head of the Banjara community of that village.

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This picture was taken in Jodhpur jewellery market with the artisans who explained the process of making kadla to our team.

Akanksha Singh Soumya Vishwakarma Tripti Bajaj 211