February 1982

SPAN 2 Goals of U.S. Foreign Policy

by William P. Clark

4 What Is the World Saying About Poland?

5 The Chip Revolution

10 Defining Conservatism

by Russell Kirk

14 Indians in America: Doing Well

by Arthur and Usha Helweg

20 Impressions of American Higher Education

by Atma Ram

24 Community Colleges: For Education's Sake

by Steven Stosny

28 Standing Tall for Justice

by Barbara Adams

31 On the Lighter Side

32

Grande Dame of American Sculpture

by Vicki Goldberg

36 Is Art All There Is?

by Annie Dillard

40 Rock Music Lives

by Geoffrey Himes with Richard Harrington

46 Focus On ...

Editor Managing Editor Assistant Managing Editor

Copy Editor Editorial Assistant

Mal Oettinger Chidananda Das Gupta Krishan Gabrani

Murari Saha Rocque Fernandes

Photo Editor

Avinash Pasricha

An Director

Nand Katyal

Associate Art Director

Kanti Roy

Assistant Art Director

Bimanesh Roy Choudhury

Chief of Production Circulation Manager Photographic Services

Awtar S. Marwaha P.N. Saigal

Ie A Photographic Services Unit

Photographs: Front cover-Miriam Caravella. Inside front coverAnthony Wolff. I-Illustration

by R.K. Laxman, 5 top-courtesy Los Alamos Laboratory; bottom-courtesy Bell Laboratories. 6¡ left-Dan' McCoy/Rainbow; right-Miriam Caravella. 7 left and bottomDick Durrance; right-Dan McCoy/Rainbow. 8 top center-Fred Ward/Black Star; right-courtesy Bell Laboratories; bottom-Dan Russell Kirk. 14-15-Keith Maki. 20McCoy/Rainbow. II-courtesy Hope Alexander. 24-27-Christopher Springmann. 28-Greg Pease.

30- Yoichi R. Okamoto. 32-33-Avinash Pasricha. 34-Robin Forbes.

35-Nancy Rica Schiff. 41-Miriam Caravella. 42-43-courtesy Warner Bros. Records Inc. 44-Miriam Caravella. 47 bottom, 48 top-R.N. Khanna. Inside back cover-Robert C. Lautman; top right-courtesy Roland Husson. Back cover-Jeffrey Wilkes.

Published by the International Communication Agency, American Center, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this magazine do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Government.

Printed by H.K. Mehta at Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana.

Use of SPAN articles in other publications is encouraged, except when copyrighted. For permission. write to the Editor. Price of magazine, one year's subscription (12 issues) 21 rupees, single copy, 2 rupees 75 paise. For change of address send an old address from a recent SPAN envelope along with new address to Circulation Manager, SPAN Magazine, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001. See change of address form on page 44b.

Front cover: This mood shot

by Miriam Caravella captures the pulsating intensity of rock music which has helped it hold sway for over three decades in a world of changing tastes and passing fads. See pages 40-45.

Back cover: One of the most spectacular exhibits at an unusual sculpture showing in Washington, D.C.-with works displayed all over the city-was Rockne Krebs' "The Source," which made dramatic use of laser beams and mirrors over the Lincoln Memorial.

See also inside back cover.

A LETTER FROM THE PUBLISHER "

Last month R.K. Narayan, one of the world's great writers, became an honorary member of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters . Members of this distinguished organization, which has its roots in the early days of this century, are elected for notable achievements in art, literature or music. The Academy bestows awards and grants to American artists and on special occasions honors artists from other countries, Narayan being the first Indian writer.

Narayan's intermltionaf stature makes him a natural choice. His writing is characterized by a universality and a tone of compassion which makes the commonplace Olympian. Critic William Walsh commented: "He has the serious writer's gift for achieving representativeness by concentration.

And so the Mysore of his personal life, the Malgudi of his novelist's life, becomes an intense and brilliant image of India itself. Whatever happens in India happens in Malgudi, and whatever happens in Malgudi happens everywhere.'"

In April 1975 SPAN carried an assessment of Narayan's work by American writer John Updike (and also first published the cariCature of Narayan reproduced here,' by the sterling cartoonist R.K. Laxma~, who is R.K. Narayan's brother).

Updike said: "Narayan is one of a vanishing breed-,-the writer as citizen. His citizenship extends to calling up municipal officials about inadequate street lighting, to 'dashing off virulent letters to newspapers about corruption and inefficiency., Such protests do not feel, as with so much American social consciousnes s, forced--a covert bid for power' and selÂŁjustification.

'If I have to worry, it's about things outside me, mostly not concerning me.' What a wealth of material becomes accessible to a writer who can so simply assert such a sense of community! ... An instinctive ,respectful identification with the people of one's locale comes hard now, in the menacing cities or disposable suburbs, yet without it a genuine belief in the significance of humanity, in humane significances, comes not at all."

The Academy's recognition of R.K. Narayan's achievements ref~ects a sense of a world literary and artistic community which we believe benefits from diversity and empathy just like any other community.

In this issue we note another way in which bonds are being forged' between India and the United States--through Indians who have successfully transplqnted aspects of their culture into the mainstream of American life. In their article on page 14, Arthur and Usha Helweg describe the triumphs and tribulations of Indians who have moved to the United States. Helweg is an associate professor of anthropology at Western Michigan University who has specialized in examining the experiences of Indian migrants. His 1979 book Sikhs in England (Delhi-Oxford University Press) portrayed a far more difficult transition than the prevailing situation of Indians in America. Usha Helweg is an instructor and researcher at the university and is the youngest sister of the outstanding writer Ved Mehta, who also lives in the United States. "We work as a team," the Helwegs announce almost in a single voice. Their broad acquaint~mcesh~p with Indians living in the United States and their obvious COI)cern for the quality of life for Indians abroad gives them invaluable rapport with the people whom they interyiew.

Needless to say, the experiences of each individual and each family in the United States are different, yet through their patient r~search and their .devotion to the subject, the Helwegs have arrived at some conclusions they feel are valid, and they share them with the readers of SPAN. --M. P. I

Goals 01 U.S. Foreign Policy On January 4, 1982, President Ronald Reagan appointed Deputy Secretary of State William P. Clark as his new National Security Affairs Adviser in place of Richard V. Allen who had earlier resigned. In l,lis new job, Clark Will be responsible for the development, coordination and implementation of national security policy. He will report directly to the President:' A close friend and political confidant of the Presid~nt for some 15 years, Clark was Reagan's choice as his Chief of Staff in 1961 when Reagan was California's Governor. Two years later, Governor Reagan appointed him a judge of the Superior Court of California. In 1971, Clark was named to the California Court of Appeals and later to the State Supreme Court. . When Reagan became President, he appointed Clark Deputy Secreta~ of State. Clark's performance during 10

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would like to speak to you about the main lines of President Reagan's foreign policy and then give some examples of how it is based on our understanding of human nature and on the realistic pursuit of Ideals.

Our policy is aimed at lofty ideals. We want a world that respects the rights and dignity of the individual. We believe that individual freedom will flourish in a world where change takes place peacefully and where every nation can fashion its own future free from threats and acts of force.

The Reagan Administration recognizes . that our ideal cannot be achieved through empty declarations but must be structured within a framework appealing to the self-interests of other nations. This framework rests on four pillars: the restoration of American economic health and military ~trength; the renewal of our traditional alliances and development of new friendships; the promotion of peaceful progress in developing nations; and . the achievement of a relationship with the Soviet. Union based on restraint and reciprocity. ,First, the c:;ffort to restore economic health, so crucial to our domestic wellbeing, is also central to the successful conduct of all our policies abroad. Without a str6ng economy we will face increasing difficulty in providing the resources needed for a strong foreign policy. Without a strong economy the United S.tates will face continuing frictions with its major allies who are also our major

months at the State Department earned him widespread respect. Commenting on his elevation to National Security Adviser, a Wall Street Journal article by Karen Elliott House and Rich Jaroslovsky said that Clark as Deputy Secretary "quickly gained a reputation as a savvy, common-sense man with a talent for quickly getting to the heart of an issue and a willingness to make and enforce decisions. Those qualities should serve him well in his new post."

Clark, 50, is married to the jormer Joan Brauner, and they have five children.

Shortly before his appointment to the new job, Clark addressed a gathering of American students at which he dealt at length with the goals of the Reagan Administration's foreign policy. Excerpts from his speech are Ptinted below.

trading partners. And without a strong allies on the full range of intertwined global economy the United States will not be able political, economic, and security issues.

The Reagan Administration is also to provide the trade and access to markets that are the greatest force for economic broadening its cooperation with progress in the developing world. threatened states in critical regions. We President Reagan has also presented a are assisting Tunisia, the Sudan and comprehensive program to restore our other nations in reSisting Libyan expanmilitary strength. This includes moderni- sionism. We support Egypt and Israel not zation of all three legs of the indispens- , only in meeting their security requireable triad of strategic deterrence, of ments but in furthering the Camp David NATO intermediate-range nuclear peace process they initiated. We are forces; and of our conventional defenses. strengthening Saudi Arabia and other American strenKth is not to be used for friendly nations along the vital Persian Gulf. Our renewed cooperation with aggression. But there can be no doubt that we are willing to use it to resist Pakistan reflects not only our concern aggression, to protect friends and allies, over turmoil in Iran and aggression in and to defend our vital interests.

Afghanistan, but also our appreciation of Secondly, the Reagan Administrathe role a secure Pakistan can play in tion is developing more effective part- enhancing regional security. We are also nerships with America's traditional allies developing a strategic association with and with our newer friends. Strategic China. Our increasingly friendly ~elations cooperation is nota favor the United States with the world's most populous nation grants to weaker nations-it is an impera- make both nations safer without menactive of security. Nor is strategic coopera- ing the security of anyone. tion a substitute for our own strength - the The third great foreign policy task of United States must be strong if it is to help the Reagan Administration is the promoits friends and to make it safe for them to tion of peaceful progress. We are concooperate with us. We need allies who cerned especially with helping developing are strong so they in turn can assist us. nations, both because we share with them America's alliances are a remarkable the postcolonial experience and because achievement of diplomacy and an integral as trading partners their strong econoaspect of our strength abroad. The com- mies are increasingly crucial to our prosbined gross national products of our perity and security. President Reagan's European allies alone are equal to our participation in the Cancun Summit demown. To exploit that strength and to build onstrated the commitment of this on it, the United States is expanding Administration to cooperation with deconsultation and coordination with our vel()ping nations. To spur economic prog-

ress we offer effective economic assistance and access to private capital, markets .and technology-essential factors for development. For example, together with Mexico, Venezuela and Canada, we are designing a comprehensive plan to nurture development in the Caribbean Basin. .

This Administration also provides generous humanitarian relief. We are the biggest donor both to the United Nations Conference on African Refugees, and to the United Nations relief program for two million Afghan refugees from Soviet aggression.

American commitment to peaceful progress is not limited to the developing world. We believe the countries of Eastern Europe should be able to determine their own destinies pursuant to the Helsinki Accords and the U.N. Charter.

The fourth great task of the Reagan Administration's foreign policy is to establish a constructive relationship with the Soviet Union. We are engaging in frank discussions with the Soviets on every major issue ap.d on. every level, including correspondence behvet1n Presid~\1t Reagan and President Brezhnev, and meetings between Secretary Haig and Foreign Minister Gromyko. We have told them we seek a constructive relationship based on a secure military balance, respect for the independence of others, restraint in the use of force, and reciprocity in making and fulfilling agreements. We have conveyed our desire for balanced and verifiable arms reductions so as to make the world safer ..

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et me give some specific examples now of how the Reagan Administration's foreign policy exemplifies our realistic understanding of human nature.

In our relations with the Soviets, for example, we understand that we cannot expect them to embrace restraint and reciprocity unless we establish that it is in their interest to do so. By our strategic cooperation with threatened nations and by solving regional problems the Soviets might otherwise exploit, we make intervention unattractive to them. By implementing NATO's agreed modernization plan, we give the Soviets an incentive to take seriously balanced limitations of intermediate-range nuclear forces. By modernizing our own strategic deterrent we give the Soviets an incentive to agree to balanced reductions in strategic arms. By iQsisting that any agreement must be verifiable, not merely a matter of good faith, we assure that such a pact

would build confidence rather than sow the seeds of suspicion.

The same realistic approach applies to our work toward the ideal of preventing proliferation of nuclear weapons. The United States cannot expect other nations to embrace this desirable goal unless it addresses the security problems that might tempt them to explore the nuclear option.' And we do not rely merely on good faith - but insist on strong safeguards. o

ur approach to human rights also exemplifies this realism in pursuing our American ideals. Human rights are at the core of our foreign policy. We recognize that to achieve real progress we must carefully structure our policies. We must consider the diverse political and security circumstances of other nations.

Our goal must be effectiveness in advancing the cause of human rights. We must avoid policies. which threaten individual liberty by weakening an imperfect regime when this would only bring to power a much more repressive one. Ultimately we believe that the greatest safeguard for individual rights is that afforded by the free public and private institutions in a constitutional democracy.

Our efforts to re~olve regional disputes also manifest our understanding of how human possibilities can be realized. In the Middle East, we have not imposed some ideal solution of our own design.

We adhere to the Camp David process, the step-by-step process through which the parties themselves, recognizing their own interests, have made enormous progress in the past and continue to make real progress today. We will not recklessly gamble what has been achieved for some illusory idea of perfection. We . know that historic enemies must demonstrate their willingness to live in peace and make tangible concessions if there is to be progress. We recognize that if we want our friends to take risks for peace we must treat their security concerns with the greatest seriousness.

We recognize that if they are to have the incentive to make peace with their longstanding enemies, they must have confidence in our strength.

Similarly in our efforts to bringindependence to Namibia we realize that years of demanding a just solution did not bring one closer. We recognize that only South Africa can withdraw from Namibia.

Through quiet diplomacy and a demonstration that we take South African security concerns seriously, the United States

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has persuaded,'South Africa to recognize its own interest in moving toward a solution based on acceptance of U.N. Resolution 435 and a U.N. presence.

Finally, the United States understands that just as governments, in recognition of the imperfections of human nature, must act firmly to protect the rights of their citizens against criminals, so must they act in an effective and prudent way against international outlaws. We cannot realistically expect any rights to be respected in the world if we do not act effectively to protect the rights of our own citizens abroad.

More than 150 years ago, President James Monroe said it well: "We must support our rights or lose our character, and with .it perhaps, our liberties. A people who fail to do it can scarcely be '. said to hold a place among independent nations. National honor is national property of the highest value."

What ultimately makes American foreign policy most realistic is the historical success of our democratic ideals. What is genuinely new within the past two centuries is the rise and steady growth of true democracies in the w~rld. That is, governments which rule by'the consent of the people. The fact that dictatorship, the oldest form oi government, has changed its form from feudal monarchy to communist totalitarianism is surely no sign of progress. Nor is it the bellwether of the future.

Just in the last decade, Spain and Portugal have chosen the same path of democracy. There are already signs that over the next generation more and more countries in the developing and communist worlds will move in the democratic direction.

The United States has no national ambitions except to see a world of peace, freedom, prosperity. Not all regimes in the world can say the same. There are those which thrive on poverty, strife and instability. These are the ideological vultures who prey on human misfortune and are ready to seize power when societies are most vulnerable. To them, our pro. gram of peace, growth and freedom is a threat, for this program leaves no carrion for them to prey upon. They will do their best to make' sure we fail wherever we try. Terrorism, assassination, false hopes, and lies are the weapons they use.

Because our foreign policy is based on a realistic understanding of human nature arid respect for individual rights, because it offers real hope for a better life, we believe it will succeed.

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What Is the World Saying About Poland?

Following are a few reactions from around the world to the Tec~nt events in Poland: Le Monde (France): "General Jaruzelski believed that the world and the nation would forgive him lOr doipg the work that sooner or later the Soviet troops would have done, as if it were better for the Poles that liberty be assassinated by one of their own rather than by foreigners. The General was wrong.

His methods can in no way restore the confidence needed by any regime to return the country to work."

BUd.Zeitung (West Germany ): "The people's desire for freedom has been dealt a brutal blow. The candles of hope are flickering. The whole world is concerned over the fate of this "brave, believing nation."

T.V. P&n1SUl'8lll in The Indian Express (India): "Because of their strategic location, the Poles have suffered through the-centuries more than most people. They have been conquered by invading armies and partitioned between . other nations .... Through it all they have retained an abiding faith in freedom, in God and in country .....

"That the people who have now suppressed-or are trying to suppress-the spark of freedom are fellow Poles in the army only路makes the tragedy for the Poles more poignant.

Everyone knows that if the Polish army had not acted, the Red Army of the Soviet Union would have ....

"One can only hope that the torch of Polish freedom will not be extinguished. At the heart of the Polish problem is the simple question: Are a people entitled to choose their own form of government and their rulers?"

The New York Times (U.S.A.): "What is being crushed in Poland is genuine revolutionexuberant, spontaneous and far from settled in its ideology or program. Solidarity was undisciplined, as a protest has to be in a closed society. It was not, however, anarchistic or capitalistic or directly anti-Soviet ....

"No Reaganite路 hard-liner advocates liberation of the 'captive nations.' Western banks have lent Eastern Europe 70,000 million dollars-including 3Q,000 million dollars to Poland-and pray each night for stability there. Moscow could not ask for better partners. And throughout the 16 months of ferment in Poland, not even the most extreme factions in Solidarity dreamed of evicting the Soviet army or breaking loose from the Warsaw Pact. The Poles accept the tyranny of geography.

"What they wanted was true democratic reform: to break the grip of an oligarchy that was enriching itself but mismanaging the nation. They wanted the right to monitor their government and to help make the rules for the austere years ahead.

They wanted the right to strike and to speak freely, to give workers a voice in a ~orkers' state."

pe~onsimprisonedand detained, forthe free labor union, Solidarity, to be able to carry out its activities freely and for an end to repression and martial law .

"The Socialist International notes with insistence that'the Polish people have the right to solve their problems without external interference. The SI reminds all states concerned that they are bound by the principle of noninterference as defined by the Helsinki Final Act." Ya (Spain): "No one can remain insensitive to this tragedy, nor consider the tough punishm~nt imposed on the Polish people as an internal matter .... The intervention of the armed forces, following the inability of the Polish Communist Party to resolve the nation's problems, suggests that communist regimes of the East might eventually evolve into military dictatorships."

The Times of India (India): "The declaration of an emergency in Poland is the most serious development there since the tension-filled days of August 1980 when Solidarity took birth.

The terms of the declaration are Draconian. "

Svenska Dagbladet (Sweden): Dohe Timt;s (Zambia): "The imposition of martial law "Poland has become the sort of implies a declaration of bankruptcy of a political system country where military coups which has claimed to be a . simply do not work. Not even manifestation of the will of the the most ruthless military regime can coerce an entire poppeople." ulation united in resistance to it .... By imposing martial law Nairobi Standard (Kenya): "There is deep concern in the General Jaruzelski has won himself a tiny breathing space.

East over the Polish situation and the free world must also be He- must still make some deal gravely concerned over the with the Catholic Church and plight of ordinary Polish citizens the Solidarity Trade Union which will simuttaneously win who have to face a severe winter in the midst of food and fuel popular cooperation and reas. sure the Soviet Union." shortages. " THE SOCIALIST INTERNATIONAL

(France): "The Socialist International (SI) condemns POPE JOHN PAUL: ''Violation of con路 science is the saddest blow to human . the takeover by the military dignity, in a certain sense worse than in Poland and the brutal inflicting physical death, than suppression of civil rights which Idlllng." has followed it. The SI calls for the immediate release of all

Sydney Morning Herald (Australia): "That Jaruzelski's resort to naked coercion will antagonize those abroad whose. goodwill and assistance he badly needs~the IMF and the United States and Western Europe .... From such points of

view his show of strength looks like a great banging of stable doors long after the horses. of nationalism bolted."

EI Globo (Brazil): "The Polish Government is a simple extension of the Soviet Union's . .. oppressing arm ... [which is] trying, with iron fist, to smash the democratic leadership and victories of the workers who became the representatives of the country's' aspirations for freedom.'"

Yomiuri (Japan): "We do not want to see any infringements of fundamental human rights and freedom in Poland. Such infringements ... would路reverse the trend toward an East-Westdialogue and detente as seen in the theater nuclear weapons reduction talks. between the two superpowers."

a novelist in Poland: "Where are the beautiful times of old-fashioned slavery? Where is the battle of the invader with the language of the oppressed, with their emblems of state; where .are the open, ceremonial persecutions of patriots; where are the solemn executions of heroes?

That slavery in retrospect was open, theatrical, celebrational.

And everyone knew who was coercing the weak and who would answer to the court of history for that coercion. Today slavery has become invisible.

"On the surface some poor nation behaves naturally, listens . with reverence to its own anthem, elects a parliament', dispatches emissaries, sits on the Security Council; in a word acts like any independent sovereign state. And not one sees the revolver at its back, a cocked revolver belonging to its neighbor or to som~ other country. Previously a slave was entitled to cry out. Today the slave has been assured the right Of silence, muteness. Crying out brought relief. Silence and muteness cause degeneration, they suffocate, they kill." 0 TADEUSZ KONWICIG,

THE CHIP REVOLUTION About half the size of a fingernail, electronic chips are ushering in a new era of inexpensive minicomputers that will have a tremendous impact on the way people live-and think. For instance, the six-millimeter-square chip ., shown above greatly enlarged, can perform many more functions than could the world's first room-sized computer (top),. built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania.

The robot guard (below) can take the place of a human worker in any dangerous or inhospitable situation, such as going into an area of nuclear contamination, excessive heat or cold. The robot can travel at a speed of 65 kilometers an hour.

Fearless sentry.

landing. As fog shrouds the runway (bottom), a pilot trainee uses a light simulator and a computer-generated image of the runway approach, which is projected on a mirrored surface, to guide his jet aircraft to a perfect landing.

All-weather

New teacher. The electronic instructor

(below), which looks like a typewriter, helps children learn such basic subjects as English and arithmetic. Similar computers can also teach college-level students subjects like advanced mathematics and physics.

Better workers. Faster, more efficient and economical than humans, robots (bottom) serve as welders on automobile chassis at an automobile assembly plant in the United States. A computerized master panel (below) controls these robot welders.

Brainy machine. The computer robot (below), here playing chess with its creator, Ray Raymond, can play a number of "thinking" games. Such computers are increasingly being used' as megical diagnostic tools, voice synthesizers and as speech recognition systems.

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"If the automobile industry had improved its technology at the same rate as computer science, it would now be turning out Rolls Royces costing $70 and getting 5,000 miles to a gallon of gas."

City planning. Wire models on a computer graphics terminal (below) depict the aerial view of a city.

With such views, architects and city planners can visualize-before construction-how a proposed building will look in relation to its surroundings. Directions at bottom tell the computer what changes to make.

"Seeing" robot. With its television camera eye, the robot (left) can sight an object, then grip it with its pressure-sensitive arm. Here, it picks up an egg without breaking it.

wafer. These silicon wafers below house over one hundred 16,OOO-bit memory ~ircuits. The complex circuits are made like silkscreen prints-a layer at a time. Light is flashed onto a paper-thin piece of silicon through a glass negative containing an image of part of the circuit. That pattern then is etched onto the silicon, which is exposed to addition{ll patterns and etched several more times until the circuit is complete.

Incredible

Foolproof security. A laser beam scans a person's hand (bottom), feeding the information into a computer for idemijication. Completely foolproof, the new electronic system isfast replacing the identity card, which is subject to tampering, in high-security areas.

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Pid advances in microelectronics, especially in the last two decades, have set off a quiet revolution that has changed the life-style of millions ~ of Americans. The impact of the exploding electronics revolution on every activity from learning to spell (or fly) to buying groceries, banking, or building automobiles is mind-boggling.

In homes, computers can control various mechanical gadgets, monitor and operate security systems, retrieve recipes and menus, keep an inventory of supplies, store financial data, and provide sophisticated electronic games to challenge the family. Since huge amounts of information can be moved over existing telephone lines, home computer users can also tap into data banks to obtain everything from news stories to airline and theater schedules or shopping catalogue offerings. "Talking" microwave ovens voice cooking instructions.

In offices, word processors, "brainy" typewriters, automatic printers, data banks and talking terminals offer improved ways to gain access to or store data, telephones equipped with speed dialing devices make it possible to handle banking by phone. Electronic machines cash checks any time of the day. In factories, industrial robots perform complex, tedious and dangerous jobs. Using imager chips that can distinguish subtle differences in intensity and detect extremely faint traces of light, robots can perform wide-ranging factory automation jobs.

In schools, "Why Johnny can't add" is no more a problem.

He can add, subtract, multiply or divide by just pressing a few buttons on his hand-held calculator.

Vivid computer-generated graphics help physicians scan the brain, studying neurological and chemical activity. By using computerized devices, doctors are able to distinguish among different tissues with a sensitivity 50 times that of ordinary X-ray techniques. Electronic pacemakers give a new lease on life to heart patients.

In research institutions and laboratories, computers help city planners to visualize proposed building complexes, engineers to conduct stress analysis tests on automobile chassis, and scientists to solve intricate mathematical problems that might otherwise take years; while a human's speed of reaction is about one-fifth of a second, a computer can make measurements in times as short as one-millionth of a millionth of a second.

These are but a few instances of the-aIl-pervading influence of the electronics revolution on American society.

The heart of this revolution is a tiny silicon "chip," smaller than a fingernail and etched with an integrated circuit. It is, in turn, part of the revolution that began in the late 1940s when transistors were first introduced by Bell Laboratories. More dependable and compact than vacuum tubes that they replaced, transistors controlled the flow of electric current that enabled computers to do calculations. (Transistors are made of a material that has an electrical conductivity between that of an insulator and a conductor-such as silicon-and hence the name semiconductor.) Over the years as their size continued to shrink, transistors' speed and performance greatly improved. '

The next big leap came in 1959 when Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductors developed the "integrated circuit." Much smaller than a transistor, it could contain several complete electronic circuits on a single chip.

The biggest breakthrough came in the early 1970s when Texas Instruments invented the first single-chip microprocessor. A microprocessor is a computer's entire central processing unit (CPU), reduced to microscopic size. Less than one centimeter square, it contains literally thousands of integrated circuits. (Some of the most powerful and complex microprocessors today have as many as 50,000 transistors on a chip.) By attaching peripheral chips to provide such basic functions as memory, input and output controls and clocks, the microprocessor becomes a programmable microcomputer.

With the rapid advances in miniaturization technology, computer experts believe that the number of integrated circuits on a single chip will swell to hundreds of thousands-even millions-in this decade. This will make it possible to compress the capabilities of a large, complex computer into a single part about the size of a match head. The advent of such "superchips" could prove to be as big a leap as the one from transistors to integrated ciruits in 1959. Superchips may open the way to computers that are compact and within the financial reach of almost everyone, as are transistor radios today. And these computers will be able to talk to people and listen, to answer questions in everyday language, and to read print and handwriting.

"The trend in semiconductors is to pack more performance on a single chip without drastically changing its size or cost," says Manny Fernandez, president of Zilog, Incorporated, one of the leading microelectronics technology firms in the United States. "The process is similar in principle to taking a photograph. Whether you put one person or 1,000 people in the picture, the size of the print remains the same."

Important as the tiny size of the microprocessors and microcomputers is, even more significant are the increased efficiency and cost-effectiveness resulting from the miniaturization. Just as significant is the tremendous flexibility: by changing the programming, or a set of -instructions, the same chip can be used in a wide range of products. For instance, one etched silicon chip less than half the size of a fingernail, which may cost as little as $15, can do all the functions of Electronic Numeral Integrator and Calculator, the world's first compute~.

Built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania, the computer had 18,000 vacuum tubes to generate and control the electric current to enable it to compute, and it took up a huge room.

Summing up the industry's rapid advances in its relatively short 35-year history, Newsweek magazine says: "The pace of development is roughly akin to going from the Wright Brothers' first airplane to the space shuttle in a decade." Zilog's Fernandez goes a step further. Quoting one of the industry's favorite metaphors, he says: "If the automobile industry had improved, its technology at the same rate as that of computer science, it would now be turning out Rolls Royces costing $70 and getting 5,000 miles to a gallon of gas."

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Def- - g

Conservatism After a long period during which liberal political ideas usually were dominant in the United States, American conservatives have begun to shape U.S. policies. The victory of Ronald Reagan, and other conservative gains in the November 1980 elections, are consequences~of a conservative movement in the United States that commenced about 30 years 'ago.

Some definitions may be useful here. It should be understood that U.S. conservatism is not an ideology; rather, it is a general way of looking at politics. "What is conservatism?" Abraham Lincoln inquired, rhetorically, in 1860. "Is it not preference for the old and tried, over the new and untried?" Answering his own question, he replied that it is-and that therefore he should be accounted a conservative.

Such, in essence, is the American conservative attitude.' There exists no national U.S. political party calling itself conservative; and only in New York is there a state party with that label. The word "ideology" implies political dogmatism-perhaps political fanaticism. That is not the mentality of the U.S. conservatives who won elections in November 1980. In the phrase of the late H. Stuart Hughes, "Conservatism is the negation of ideology."

Ideology is an attempt to govern all life by political slogans. But U.S. conservatives believe that no mere political remedies can make a people happy. Conservatives take for their guide in politics what the 18thcentury English statesman Edmund Burke called "the wisdom of the species": that is, the experience of human beings in community, extending over many centuries. Thus U.S. conservatism is a cast of mind and character, and not a neat body of political abstractions.

Nor is it correct to say that "the Right"

has taken power in the United States. The and to private rights.

• A deep-rooted patriotism, joined to political tags Right and Left, borrowed from Europe, possess little true significance in the suspicion of "entangling alliances"; this latUnited States. America would have no ter uneasiness, however, modified by premonarchists to sit on the benches of the sent determination to resist aggression.

Such is the general consensus of that body Right, were there any such benches; nor are there any American legislators to sit upon of Americans who choose to call themselves the nonexistent benches of the Left. The conservative in their politics. Within this great national parties, Republican and mass of conservative citizens there exist Democratic, both contain some conserva- . various factions, each emphasizing one tives and some liberals-though in recent aspect or another of the general conservadecades the Republican Party has seemed tive attitude. These several conservative groups or factions overlap considerably. the more conservative of the two.

If the U.S. conservative movement can be Conservative attitudes and policies are the alternative to liberal attitudes and poli- said to possess a core, its principal source of cies in the United States. In November 1980 ideas and the bulk of its popular strength are a u.s. electorate, dissatisfied with the liber- to be found in what journalists often call traditional conservatism. This vague term al measures of the past three decades, elected a conservative President, a conser- implies the influence, direct or indirect, of statesmen, Edmund vative majority in the U.S. Senate, and two 18th-century other conservative candidates for office. Yet Burke (a member of British Parliament, this marked alteration in u.s. practical 1765-1794) and John Adams (the second politics is not merely the negation of liberal- U.S. President, 1797-1801). This is mainism. One may describe positively the body stream conservatism. In a negative aspect, of convictions that Americans call conser- traditionalist conservatives prefer the devil vative. The following opinions are shared by they know to the devil they don't know; in most conservatives: the positive aspect of this kind of conserva• Belief in a moral order of more than tism, traditionalist conservatives form the human contrivance; the understanding that party of order-both the moral order of the economics moves upward into politics, poli- person and the social order of the Republic. tics into ethics, ethics into religious insights.

Recently much has been written .about the neoconservatives in the United States, a • Opposition to totalist ideology. term applied to a rather small group of • Confidence in the U.S. Constitution -both the written national Constitution highly educated and much-published men and the intricate fabric of customs, beliefs and women, most of them residing in New and ways of life that compose the underlying York or Washington, D.C. These are unwritten constitution of any nation-state. prudential conservatives, distressed at the feebleness and failure of liberal political • Advocacy of a free or competitive economy, as contrasted with a directed policies; their intellectual influence much economy; with strong emphasis upon the exceeds their numbers. ownership of private property.

Far more numerous are the so-called "New Right" people, a broad coalition of • Suspicion of central political direction, and attachment to state and local powers groups interested chiefly in social issues

"U.S. conservatism is a cast of mind and character, and not a neat body of political abstractions, " says Russell Kirk, a leading exponent of conservative philosophy in the United States. Kirk's book The Conservative Mind, a source of controversy when it appeared in 1953, has greatly influenced the development of conservative thought in America.

-abortion, public prayer, the menace of crime and violence, the distresses of the American family, and busing of schoolchildren to achieve racial integration in the public schools. The New Right works through massive campaigning for or against candidates for office-but they are not necessarily committed to Republican candidates.

Occasional auxiliaries of the conservatives are the libertarians. They ran a candidate in the U.S. presidential elections of 1980who attracted less than one percent of the popular vote. These libertarians, who would vastly reduce governmental activities at every level, quarrel with conservatives at least as often as they support them; and they would not subscribe to most of the points of conservative consensus mentioned earlier in this article.

Other American conservative groups might be named. I repeat that these are very general and amorphous groupings, ebbing and flowing in influence from month to month; there exists no central conservative organization. Nor can there be said to exist one fountainhead of conservative thought.

U.S. conservatives have no counterpart of Britain's socialist Fabian Society of the late 19th century. The nearest conservative approach to this is a national discussion group called The Philadelphia Society, which meets two or three times a year but issues no publications; its few hundred members are professors, journalists and business people of a conservative cast.

But U.S. conservatives do possess today what they did not have 30 years ago -serious periodicals. Among the conservatively inclined magazines are National Review, Policy Review, Modern Age, and The Public Interest. That long-established monthly magazine Harper's, formerly liber-

I

al in its views, now takes a conservative stand on many issues-without calling itself conservative. The U.S. newspaper with the biggest circulation, The Wall Street Journal, is consistently conservative in policy and tone. No big national book-publishing firm is distinctly conservative in its squint; but the small firm of Regnery/Gateway (in Chicago, Illinois) continues to publish serious books by conservative authors. In American universities and colleges, 30 years ago conservatism sometimes was called "the forbidden faith"; but in the present decade, some conservative professors are appearing on campuses.

"Prevailing opinions generally are the opinions of the generation that is passing," Benjamin Disraeli (British Prime Minister, 1868 and 1874-1880) remarked in the middle of the 19th century. In the United States in 1981, it appears to be the liberal generation that is passing from the scene, after a long prevalence of liberal opinions. Thus the national student organization most intellectually vigorous at present is The Intercollegiate Studies Institute (ISI), with offices near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the radical student organizations of the 1960s and 1970s have almost wholly evaporated. The Intercollegiate Review, The Political Science Reviewer, Continuity and other periodical publications of ISI exert a growing influence among young scholars. Generally speaking, ISI's views are those of the traditionalist conservatives. Many of the younger members of President Ronald Reagan's newly appointed executive force are ISI graduates -that is, young men and women who attended ISI seminars and read ISI publications during their years as undergraduate and graduate students.

The American conservative interest is reinforced intellectually by several foundations or policy-study organizations that have come into being during recent decades.

These foundations are not attached to political parties. The three most closely associated with policy formation for the Reagan Administration (in order of influence) appear to be the Heritage Foundation, in Washington, D.C.; the Hoover Institution, at Stanford University in California; and the American Enterprise Institute, also in Washington, D.C. Well-known conservative scholars and writers have connections with all three of these organizations, and all

three engage in extensive publication of books and pamphlets.

Thirty years ago, the critic and essayist Lionel Trilling observed that what he called "the liberal imagination" was in a decayed state among men of letters. Today's ascendancy of serious conservative ideas appears to fill the vacuum left by the vanishing of liberal vision-and not among men of letters only.

Does this development signify that for the next three decades, say, the climate of opinion in the United States will be determined by a coterie of conservative intellectuals, successors to liberal ideologues? No, not precisely. For one thing, conservative writers and scholars dislike the very word intellectual applied to persons, for it smacks of ideology. They share in this matter the attitude of a rather radical thinker, the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, who once wrote: "I think that an intellectual is a person who pretends to know more than he does know, and I hope that description does not fit me."

In terms of practical politics, similarly, it seems improbable that the Reagan Administration would create a conservative group of expert advisers comparable to President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal Brain Trust of the 1930s. Nor is there likely to be in the Reagan Administration any eminent conservative counterpart to the White House intellectual post filled by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in the Kennedy Administration.

Inside and outside practical politics, nevertheless, the stronger currents in U.S. thought today are conservative. These views may alter opinions in humane letters, theology, jurisprudence, economic theory, and even the natural sciences.

Despite such recent or prospective successes, American conservative thinkers are not bent upon marching toward a Utopia. "Politics is the art of the possible," they repeat.

They know that Utopia means nowhere.

Though they reject visionary ambitions, they are aware that they must exercise their imagination vigorously. Paul Elmer More, a U.S. literary critic, wrote some 70 years ago that conservatives, despite their frequent pessimism, sometimes manifest a power of imagination that can be put to use in time of emergency. America's conservatives of the 1980s may have their imagination tested very soon.

0

"The conservative cast of mind is concerned with continuity and permanence and the liberal with innovation and reform," notes Russell Kirk in this interview with James Roberts, executive director of the Fund for Objective News Reporting.

QUESTION: Dr. Kirk, your best known work is The Conservative Mind, published 29 years ago. How did you come to write that book?

ANSWER: I think it was around 1946 or so that I assumed that other people were writing such a book or books. No such book appeared, so I began to write it myself. After it was published in 1953, I found that no one else had been writing such a book, although many later regretted that they hadn't.

Although I put a lot of work into it, and expected it to have some influence, I was surprised at the popular success that it enjoyed. It happened to coincide with a shift of opinion in the United States.

Although it coincided with the success of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, it had no connection with it.

Q: It has been observed by a number of liberals that America is essentially a liberal country, that the tradition of this country is a liberal tradition. Your book refutes this notion. Could you comment on it briefly?

A: Liberalism and conservatism are interwoven in our civil social order, as they are in Britain. In a sense, they are both necessary elements. The conservative cast of mind is concerned with continuity and permanence and the liberal with innovation and reform. Whether one is conservative or liberal depends in part upon the circumstances of the age and what is needed at the tim~.

It seemed to me then and it seems to me now that the need of our age is for continuity and conservation, not innovation. We've got innovation whether we like it or not in all kinds of ways. What is needed in our age is the reaffirmation and restoration of the permanent things and the reconciliation of change as far as

possible with the permanent elements in society.

Now, 29 years after the publication of The Conservative Mind and 32 years after the first beginnings of the conservative mood of the United States, we see apparently the conservative movement reaching culmination and resulting in the alteration of public policy and, in fact, a considerable alteration in moral and social tendencies.

It takes about 30 years or a generation in the United States for a body of opinion to be expressed, discussed and then rejected or accepted in public policy. And that's what has happened.

the large maJonty of American citizens believe that they are conservatives and so clearly have some notion of what it means, although it is not a notion which they have expressed very lucidly.

In short, one can appeal in the United States to the attachment to the old and tried in the American system and the American economy. It doesn't follow that

Q: You have written of the importance of permanent things, which implies an adherence to traditional values. Columnist George Will has said that the impact of capitalism on our society has been an unconservative one and that capitalism makes for continuing and sometimes very disorderly change. What is your view on that?

A: My view is very similar to Irving Kristol's in his Two Cheers for Capitalism.

"Capitalism" is an unfortunate word as it was coined by Marx and popularized by Marx. The word "capitalism" implies an ideology, a system of rigorous political and economic dogma called capitalism as opposed to Marxism or communism, and that that's all we believe in.

I am opposed to capitalism in the sense of trying to erect an abstraction that is opposed to communism.

In the other sense of capitalism as a system of private property, competition, free enterprise and a free economy, I am in favor of it. It is natural to our whole social order. There is no conceivable satisfactory alternative.

Q: Dr. Kirk, you are a veteran of some pretty vigorous intellectual warfare in conservative circles, especially in the late 1950s and early 1960s. There is on the one hand, the traditional school of which you are thought of as the chief exponent. On the other hand there is the libertarian school. Is there a coherent American conservative body of principles?

A: It exists. I've described it in The Conservative Mind and elsewhere. Now

the American public can always distinguish conservative candidates or conservative measures, but at least they want them.

To the ordinary citizen this means, "I like America.

I think we have a good system of government, a good economy. I benefit from it. It gives me freedom and prosperity. I don't want it tampered with. I don't want to move too far or too fast in the direction of centralization."

That's the way the average voter thinks, even if he can't always express it in political action.

Q: I assume that you wouldn't see anything contradictory in an individual adhering to traditional values on the one hand, and to defending the efficacy of capitalism on the other while simultaneously defending a vigorous anticommunist position.

A: I think conservatism, by its nature, is opposed to communism and must understand the menace of ideology and take measures to restrain it. If conservatism were merely anticommunism, it would clearly be insufficient.

Q: You mentioned earlier that there is an ingrained antipathy toward innovation in conservatism. It would appear today that most of the innovations in U. S. public policy are coming from conservatives. Is that proper and is that a good thing?

A: I believe it is. The conservative is reluctant to change. He assumes there is a justified presumption in favor of things long established that have worked well.

Nevertheless, Burke's measure of a statesman was one who combined a disposition to preserve with an ability to reform. On another occasion, Burke said that "change is the means of our conservation."

Society is of necessity in a constant process of change and, one hopes, of healthy renewal. But society also has to have its permanence and continuity and, indeed, its power of reaction. Reaction may be very healthy and indeed necessary.

As Roy Campbell once remarked to me, "A human body which cannot react is a corpse." And so it is with the body social.

And like Allen Tate I have no objection-to being called a reactionary-'-reacting against the great dangers and challenges of the times and reacting to trust in a healthy fashion just as the body reacts against diseases and throws them off.

Q: Now that Americans have a conservative President, what do you see as the tasks of the Reagan Administration?

A: The two big necessities are the restoration of a strong foreign policy and the restoration of a strong fiscal policy which can result in the restoration and functioning of the economy. The need is very urgent indeed in both spheres. As to the economy, we are experiencing problems greater than at any time since the Great Depression that began in 1929, and in foreign policy we are facing the greatest crisis since the War of 1812.

The question of course arises as to whether conservatives are prepared to act in these realms. Conservatives have been denied the opportunity to govern for a long time. Even during the Nixon Administration conservative programs were thwarted by the liberal-dominated Congress. They will probably have the opportunity to exercise their ideas now much more than they ever have before.

0

Indiansin blerica Doing"ell

Early in this century, the few Indian immigrants in the United States were valued for the hard physical labor they were willing to put in for extremely low wages. But today, Indians are among the elite minorities in the United States because the new migrants are highly educated, skilled professionals. In fact, the average Indian American probably finds grappling with tile culture shock in a new country much tougher than reaching the top echelons of his chosen profession.

Clockwise from below: Whiling away her time outside her son's saree shop on Lexington A venue in New York City; this woman is typical of the elderly Indian immigrant-proud of her son's success, but lonely without the security of a joint family and the familiar Indian milieu.

Youngsters like these two girls

preparing for a party with an American friend, find it easier to adapt and mix. A littie corner in most Indian homes in the United States is kept as the prayer area, even if it is just a shelf in the linen cupboard.

Professionally, 11)ostIndians are doing well-this young man is a microbiologist with a top American firm. Keeping

alive an Indian tradition, a family participates in a havan ceremony. A young man helps prepare a barbecue lunch for his family. For those nost(llgic for Indian movies, there are many theaters like the Bombay Cinema in Manhattan: Lexington A venue, with its rows of Indian shops, is poputarly known as Little India.

n a hot May morning in New large cities, especially Chicago and Los Delhi, Ramesh Khanna, * Angeles.

Ramesh's sister, who lived in the Amera 43-year-old Punjabi engineer, with his sister Kavita ican Midwest, tried to dispel these Kapoor drove their father's stereotypes, but his brother, a New 1968 Fiat to the American Yorker, reinforced them. And even if the Embassy. It was 1978, and he had an children should be safe from such potenappointment with the immigration officer tial calamities, Radha feared that they. at the consulate for a final interview ~ the would gradually abandon Indian ways last hurdle before obtaining a "green and lose respect for traditional values and card" signifying permanent-resident sta- their rich cultural heritage. After many tus in the United States. His sister, days of long discussions, Radha relucalready an American citizen, was spon- tantly agreed that the family should go to soring him. the United States, but only on a temporary The decision to leave India had basis, planning to return to India as soon as been difficult. Kavita had urged him to they had saved enough money to achieve make the move, pointing out what he their financial goals. She and Ramesh already knew: that although he had a would do everything possible to ensure secure job in his chosen profession in that the children retained their Indian India, he had held the job for 20 years cultural identity. and had little chance for further advanceSo on this day in May, after grilling ment. In the United States, he would . interrogation by the American visa have no guarantee .of employment as an officer, Ramesh received his green card. engineer but his friends there assured him On the way home, he was tired but glad they could help him get established in a that the months-long drama had ended. suitable job and they were confident he He had taken the gamble. He would go would do well. But discouragement to America, find a job and then send came from his brother Suresh who had for his family. emigrated years before. "Think of the Ramesh was only one of the almost trauma your children will face in a new 20,000 Indians who emigrate to the culture and educational system," he United States every year, but he is reprewarned. And his mother was agonized sentative of the new type of emigrenot only by the prospect of the absence of well-educated offspring of middle-class still another beloved child and grand- families, qualified to enter immediately children, but also because Ramesh was into middle-class American society in the eldest son, the one traditionally. re- search of the greater economic opportusponsible for the welfare of his parents nities offered to experienced professionin their declining years. als and businessmen.

Of course, 'families like Ramesh's were However-most important-his widely traveled and highly educated father not always representative of Indian emigration to America. Around 1904, Punencouraged him to go ..

Ramesh's wife, Radha, did not want to jabi Sikhs who had migrated to wester:n transplant the family. She was worried Canada from rural areas of Doab and about the influence of the new environ- Malwa began drifting down from Vanment on their children-18-year-old Mal- couver to Bellingham, Washington, to ti, who would soon be married, 16-year- work in the lumber trade. They were old Arun, and 12-year-old Indira. She resented by other West Coast laborers because of their willingness to work for had heard from friends that Americans believe in free love and have little respect low wages, and rival lumbermen soon for the sanctity of marriage, and she had forced them to shift farther south to the rich farming areas of the Sacramento, . been shocked by the immoral behavior shown in Hollywood movies and de- San Joaquin and Imperial valleys. Their scribed in pop novels. She had read numbers, however, were small. Only accounts of drugs dominating the lives of . 7,000 entered between 1904 and 1923 children in New York, and news stories -including only 30 females. Today, sons about high crime rates in most of the of most of these migrants are prosperous * Although all individuals discussed in this article American farmers who still maintain their rural traditions and keep close ties are real persons, the names used are fictitious.

with their ancestral villages (which even now provide spouses for the Americanborn Sikh Jats).

After the second World War, scholarships and exchange programs stimulated Indian students to pursue higher education in American universities- many of these former students are now professors in Indian colleges and universities. But the current wave of Indian emigration to the United States is rooted in the 1965 revision of U.S. immigration laws which eliminated national quotas and increased dramatically the number of Asians eligible to enter.

By 1970 the influx was significant, and now India is the seventh-largest source of immigrants to the United States. Most of those who have arrived during the past 15 years are highly skilled professionals.

This talent influx peaked around 1978. At present, since the immigration laws give priority to blood relatives of American citizens, their sisters, brothers and parents receive preference over doctors, engineers, scientists and other professionals on the waiting lists.

To counterbalance the influence of Western ways, Indian parents arrange classes to teach Indian languages, religion, cooking, music,and sports. .Decennial census figures show the rapid increase in the number of Indian Americans living in the United States. In 1970 there were about 51,000 foreignborn and 25,000 American-born persons of Indian descent. By 1980 the total had risen to 361,544. Approximately 100,000 were living in metropolitan New York, 58,000 in California and the remainder widely dispersed across the country.

Some are spread through the Southwest where "Patel Motels" have become common.

Interestingly, Indian immigrants to the United States do not form ghettos like England's Southall, although one finds a few small concentrations of Indian merchants, as in New York's "Little India"¡ around 29th Street and Lexington Ave-

nue. Because of their fair complexion some male Indian Americans can easily be taken for Greek, Spanish, Italian or Mexican; but most of the women are readily identified by their long hairstyles, gold bangles and sometimes also pierced noses. The women usually reserve their sarees and saiwars for formal or Indian functions, wearing mostly jeans or pants outfits for every day. Of course, the occasional beard and turban of the Sikh males makes their presence unmistakable.

Almost all Indian ethnic groups are represented in the United States. Gujaratis dominate at about 40 percent. Tamilians, Keralites and other South Indians comprise about 15 percent, Punjabis another 25 percent, Bengalis 13 percent, Maharashtrians about 5 percent, with Biharis, Goans, Assamese and Sindhis making up the remainder.

Nearly all Indians in America prefer to maintain their traditional languages, foods, religions and certain cultural norms, many of which are not readily visible to the casual observer. The Ahujas of Houston, Texas, are a typical example. Dr. Ahuja, a prominent Indian doctor who came to the United States from Nairobi, Kenya, is very Westernized, but insists that Punjabi be spoken at home even though schooling is in English. Although the children are growing up bilingual in conversation, they find it difficult to read and write fluently in Punjabi. Sometimes an Indian association, temple or gurdwara may hold language classes, but they generally are not well attended and assignments are seldom taken seriously. Children do not see the value of the classes and complain that they are boring.

Indian cuisine is yet another matter.

Lunch is usually eaten at work or at school and breakfast is rushed; but evening and weekend meals and entertainment are invariably Indian. This is very difficult for wives like Mrs. Ahuja who work 40 hours a week and have no servants. Cooking Indian dishes is timeconsuming, but Mrs. Ahuja learned to take advantage of Western kitchen equipment and soon devised shortcuts and substitutes. Whenever she cooks, she prepares large quantities and freezes the unused portions for later use.

In most Indian homes in the United States, the kitchen is at its busiest on

Saturdays and Sunday mornings. The Cuisinart or other food processor kneads dough for rotis, chops onions, mixes masaia and cuts vegetables. The pressure cooker hisses on the stove preparing dais and subzies. The microwave oven is a boon, making it possible for working wives to heat an entire frozen meal in a matter of minutes. Of course, some substitutions of ingredients are necessary.

Kix cereal is frequently used for boondi to make raita, biscuit dough for making bhaturas, and powdered milk for guiab jamuns. But now, even in smaller communities, spices, condiments and tinned goods from India are available at many stores. Jf no local store stocks them, an enterprising Gujarati will convert the basement of his home into a market for Indian provisions. (He may also become a travel agent on the side-all in addition to the full-time jobs held by him and his wife.)

Another family, the Rajinder Sharmas of New York City, exemplifies the importance of religious practices. In India they were not serious devotees. Mrs. Sharma did some puja at home and occasionally went to the temple. However, religion was not of much concern either to Mr. Sharma or their two children. But within a few months of arriving in the United States, Hinduism took a new meaning. A puja area was designated in the house, a shelf in the linen closet where marble, sandalwood and ivory statues of Krishna, Shiva, Sarasvati, Ganesh and other deities are garlanded with tinsel and incense is burned daily.

Along with these are pictures of Sai Baba and various other gurus. Weekly prayers become important as children grow older because parents fear the influence of Western mores and Christian beliefs.

Havans and kirtans are fast becoming important for the Indian family in America. Havan is performed especially to bless a new home or apartment, to celebrate a new job or a birthday. The meaning and significance of the ritual is carefully explained to all, especially to the children, as they sit around the flaming fire in the living room reciting ancient mantras. The havan mantra books are even written in Roman script for the men and children who can't read the Devanagari script. The sacred smoke of the fire purifies the house, and after

the ceremony there is a lavish feast of Indian delicacies and sweets.

With the emphasis on religion, temples are mushrooming. Previously there were a few gurdwaras in California, but with the founding of the Hindu Temple Society of North America in 1970, Hinduism started making its appearance. In 1977 the famous Hindu Temple on Bowne Street in Flushing, New York, was completed at a cost of over $900,000. In this residential section of wood frame houses, the miniature South Indian structure is incongruous-it is not even in an Indian neighborhood. On Sundays and special days, Bowne Street is crowded with carloads of colorfully dressed Indians.

From the elaborately carved plaster structure of the temple, with its images of Ganga, Shiva, Ganesh and others, come sounds of chanting-an exotic note which seems strange in the Western neighborhood.

he temple is a joint project of the Andhra Pradesh Government, the Tirumal Tirupathi Devastanam and the Indian community of the United States. One hundred and fifty artisans in Hyderabad spent some 200,000 hours carving stones into beautiful images which were then shipped to the United States. Some artisans were even brought to America to carve statues, and they still continue to refine and beautify this remarkable temple.

Another well-known temple is located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and plans are under way for temples in Houston, Texas, and Detroit, Michigan. In their desire to maintain their religious values, Indians in the United States are making an imprint on the country's architectural landscape.

More than 500 Indian associations scattered throughout the States provide a sense of community. One in Kalamazoo, Michigan, is characteristic in that it organizes programs to promote Indian culture and observance of holidays. Kalamazoo's most successful functions are the celebrations of Indian Independence Day, Republic Day and Diwali; representatives of the 150 member-families bring Indian dishes to share with local dignitaries and

other guests. Other popular programs include fashion shows, concerts and dancing by visiting entertainers from India. To counterbalance the influence of Western ways on children, the Indian Association of Kalamazoo has instituted language and religious training, along with instruction in Indian cooking, music and sports. But its leaders have been quite frustrated to date because most ofthese classes have not been successful.

Wherever a few Indian families settle they form an association. But as the number of settlers grows, regionalism sets in and the cohesiveness of being Indian gives way to an emphasis on being Punjabi, Gujarati or Tamilian. This is quite natural because, for example, the food, language, religion and culture of the Gujarati differ a great deal from that of his Punjabi neighbor. After a while the Indian national holiday celebrations are the only functions that bring them together.

Indian movies sponsored by local associations are quite popular. In Kalamazoo, showings are scheduled every month on a Sunday afternoon at the local university auditorium. From 300 to 400 Indians flock to see their favorite film actors and actresses perform their tales of love and adventure, -interspersed with songs, dances and humor. Adults and teenagers alike become absorbed in the plot, oblivious to the distractions of crying toddlers and their slightly older siblings running up and down the halls.

However, the overseas Indian movie industry has been severely challenged by home video cassettes that bring the cinema into the living room, basement or recreation room. Renting cassettes for a dollar a day, families join together for showings in their homes. Video-cassette parties for 30 or more people are becoming popular social events. Elaborately prepared Indian sweets and snacks are served during the movie, followed by a meal at the end.

Artists and entertainers, classical and popular, come from India to perform on the American stage. Their performances are generally presented only in the larger cities and the smaller communities have to be content with movies and cassettes.

In general, the dress, speech and mannerisms of Indian children in the United States resemble those of other American young people. However, conflicts arise because along with preserving their tradi-

tional Indian language, food, entertainment and religion, Indian parents have other norms they want to keep. They definitely want their children to have arranged marriages, preferably with a spouse from India. Girls raised in America are often unfairly stereotyped by their own community as being tainted by Western ways. Hence they are perceived as not likely to be loyal to the chosen husband, his mother or family. This leads Indian parents in America to follow a double standard of being very strict with their daughters while being lenient with their sons. Sisters are encouraged to stay together constantly, hoping that one will keep the other from deviating. Boys, however, are allowed to date their choice of girls; but when it is time for marriage, parental choice dominates.

When a boy asked Kamala Berry to a school dance, the invitation caused tension in her home. Not only did her parents refuse to let her go, they were

The Indian community in the United States is very successful: 16 percent earn over $50,000 annually and 31 percent over $35,000.

angry and upset that she had been asked.

"Has she been secretly meeting him? Will she sleep with him?" they wondered. She felt victimized by their strictness and mistrust of her-especially since she knew that in her native Bombay her cousins were allowed far greater freedom.

Indian children are taught in Western schools that India is a poverty-ridden country with strange customs-such as arranged marriages-and rituals. Their parents' efforts to perpetuate traditional beliefs in conflict with these teachings cause sociopsychological stress among the young. Cultural conflicts are exacerbated when American customs of coeducational behavior-not illicit sex, but dating and mixed socialization-are viewed by Indian parents as immoral.

Sikhs require their boys to maintain unshorn hair and wear a topknot. Especially for a youth in a small town where

he may be the only Sikh boy, such strictures create psychological traumas.

Maintaining Indian cultural traditions is very difficult for most Indian Americans, since the United States is a "melting-pot" society, a land of immigrants with a tradition of integrating new people into the national mainstream. Unlike Britain with its emphasis on distinctiveness, America emphasizes equality and homogeneity. Peer pressure in the public school system to discard distinctiveness and become assimilated into American life will be increasingly difficult for Indian American youth to resist in the future.

There are other conflicts as well.

Elders who come to stay with their children have problems, exemplified in the following experience related by Mary James, a social worker: I went to the Bhatia home and there was the elderly grandfather sitting alone at the kitchen table, crying. Tears were streaming down his face and he shook with grief. As he told his story, the situation became all too clear. He came from India to be with his son in his last years. His son and daughter-in-law work all day and the children are in school. He has no friends or acquaintances and he does not drive; thus he does not have the mobility to meet others. He sits in the empty apartment all day long. He is miserable-but there is no one to look after him in India.

The elderly are usually unhappy in the United States. They have no friends or status in America. They are left alone all day with nothing to do except watch television, which elderly women particularly have difficulty following. They get bored and yet they often do not feel confident enough to mix with the Americans. They cannot tolerate the severe winter months. Feeling isolated during the day, they make great demands on tired children in the evenings and on weekends. The life of elderly Indian immigrants may be one of heartache and loneliness. They do not even have the authority and prestige they claimed in India.

For the young bride, adjustment is also difficult. She is brought to the new country by a man who regularly leaves for work around 6 a.m. and does not return until 6 or 7 p.m. Being used to the gregariousness of joint family living, she becomes lonely and depressed. When she has children she feels overworked and burdened because there are no servants to help take care of the house and baby.

Her life remains lonely unless she learns to drive a car so she can socialize with her equally lonely counterparts. If and when she takes a job, a different set of conflicts erupt. She tastes freedom and the power of having her own paycheck and developing a career. There is friction if her husband decides to change his job and relocate. This thwarts her aspirations.

Besides, even with the job, which often is a necessity, she has to ensure an Indian dinner every evening and a well-maintained household. Indian men are notorious for bringing home unexpected guests for dinner, and with the increase in intercontinental travel, frequent visitors come from India and expect to be taken sightseeing and shopping, entertained, waited upon and catered to.

Consequently, the strict division of labor that characterizes the home in India cannot be maintained in the United States. It is mandatory for the man to help with the dishes in the kitchen and put the children to bed. He may also clean the house and make the beds. But when his mother or other guests from India visit, the man either won't help or his wife is chided for making him do such menial work; tensions mount. Emigrating to the land of milk and honey brings financial affluence-accompanied by pain.

As a rule, the Indian community in the United States is very successful. A survey by India Abroad revealed that 76.1 percent held professional or managerial positions, 16 percent earned over $50,000 annually and 31 percent over $35,000 a year. Thus Indians can claim to be, on the average, the highest educated and earning ethnic group in the United States-a claim shared by the Jews, Chinese and Filipinos. One may wonder how a new group is able to rise to such prominence in only 15 years. Of course, being fluent in the English language has been of immense help. As Mahesh Shah, a university professor of Indian descent, explained: In India we learned English as a second language.

We'Indians in America know grammar and spelling very well, often better than the average American who grows up speaking the language without knowing the rules. Besides, our educational system stresses essay writing which facilitates us to communicate on paper. .

Indians are good at memorization. The system of annual final exams trains them

to remember facts, figures and principles.

Thus, they are able to learn very quickly -which generally impresses an American employer. They are also good in mathematics and can work figures in their heads without depending on calculators.

Rajinder Patel was in a conference with his boss when a question was asked about the cost of a product considering certain expenses. As his boss was reaching for his calculator, Rajinder gave the answer which he had worked out in his head.

This quick response impressed his boss, who made sure he was promoted regularly after that.

oming from a country \\'here competition is keen, Indians arrive with the ability to be diplomatic in dealing with superiors and bureaucrats.

However, most are not at ease with their American counterparts. Rajiv Kapoor reported his experience: I have socialized and worked with many AmerIcans but oddly enough we do not have close American friends. My wife and I do not feel at ease in their homes and we do not feel comfortable inviting them to ours.

This separateness works to the advantage of the Indians, since most of them have impeccable manners, use proper forms of address and are prompt about other formal courtesies which their American counterparts may neglect in their quest for informality.

Those who go into business are initially willing to work hard for minimal profit.

This is one reason Gujaratis have been so successful in reviving the motel business in the States. They will buy a lodge on which an average American cannot make a profit because of high overhead and other costs. A Gujarati family takes over the business and minimizes costs because the whole family works. Besides, they live frugally in a bare room with everyone sleeping on the floor. They have no pictures on the walls, and use inexpensive utensils and glassware. Gujaratis are generally vegetarian, so their food costs are also minimal.

Furthermore, they take the profit, no matter how small, and reinvest it. So after several years they have a thriving business. A brother or relative usually is sponsored to learn the business and then buys the next motel. Failure is no option.

Many have come to the United States through financial help and sponsorship from friends and relatives in India and America. They do not want to be shamed by failing the trust these people have placed in them. They are aware that they cannot face parents and family in India if they fail. So they work with added determination.

Finally, many Indians have a sense of superiority. They are tactful but pride themselves on being better than the Americans. Their motto usually is, "If the Westerner can do it, I can do it better."

Therefore they do not settle for less than the very best. This point is well illustrated

by Ravi Gulati, formerly vice-president of a large and highly prestigious familyowned private construction company based in Chicago. Realizing that he would never become president of the company because that position was reserved for a member of the owning family, he resigned and started his own construction business.

For the first couple of years his corporation did not do well, but in due course his business began to thrive. He gave up a very high-paying job and security because he did not want to be anything less than the top man. As an American friend remarked, "Now, that's real ambition."

And what of Ramesh Khanna, the young man with whom we began this story? In less than four years, Ramesh has got most of what he sought when he decided to make the United States his home. He earns $30,000 a year as an engineer for an international company.

He lives in a $75,000 house. His children attend good American schools and universities.

Ramesh's American dream has begun to come true. Does he have the same financial goal he had when he left India in 1978 -and the same intention to return to New Delhi when he achieves it? Who knQws what the future holds?

0 About the Authors: Arthur Helweg is an associate professor of anthropology and general studies at It;estern Michigan University (WMU).

The author of Sikhs in England, Dr. Helweg writes regularly for professional journals. Usha Helweg is a part-time instructor and a research administrator at WMU. The Helwegs are currently in India on a Smithsonian Institution grant to do research on the effect of emigration on India.

Impressions of American Higher'Education

A

a member of a group of Indian college principals visiting the United States under the University Administrators)Project 1981 I had the opportunity to make an on-the-spot study of some aspects of American higher education. During the travel seminar we were either losing time or gaining it, but were always gaining fruitful experience.

We visited all kinds of institutions-big and small, private and public, elementary schools and high schools.

One of the behests of the review and assessment committees of international exchange efforts (instituted in 1976) was that "an effort be made to include private colleges, state colleges and universities, as well as community colleges and not just the nation's most prestigious institutions." And so we visited big campuses like the University of Southern California, and small colleges like the Mayville State College, North Dakota. We were taken to three community colleges and a number of elementary schools.

My knowledge and understanding of various aspects of higher education also increased through numerous contacts with students, teachers, administrators, alumni, American families, and Indian students and teachers.

The Indian students appear to have adjusted well to the American educational environment-they are not only happy there but also fare well academically. To them the system's appeal seems to lie in its individualistic approach. I did meet parents who weren't too pleased about their children-especially, the girls-attending American schools, but their opposition was only to the informal and free social intermixing, not to the education.

I had interesting discussions with some professors of English, including Dr. Charles Doyle of Georgia Stat~ University in Atlanta, Dr. Robert Ganz of George Washington University in Washington, D.C., Dr. Robert Oliphant and Dr. J. Prabhakkar of California State University at Northridge (CSUN). This was a rewarding experience because at these meetings the issues were often brought into sharper focus. On April 23, 1981, Shakespeare's 417th birthday was celebrated at the Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, D.C., and three Magis from India paid homage to the bard.

I was personally interested in special education programs, libraries, museums and galleries, and the tour covered most of them.

Special education programs are now an integral part

A striking feature of American higher education is the deep sense of involvement and commitment of all concerned-alumni, students, teachers, parents, business, industry, community.

Education seeks to serve the community as a whole.

Institutions of higher education (like the community college above) are attracting more and more American secondary school graduates, giving the United States the highest proportion in the world of the college-age group enrolled in colleges and universities.

of several American educational institutions. In its own way, each school or college tries to cater to the needs of the handicapped student. The programs for the handicapped at New River Community College in Dublin, Virginia, and the Center on Deafness at Calstate impressed me intensely-for the sophisticated instruments used, the one-to-one teacher-student ratio, the empathy for the handicapped and the sincerity of those trying to help them join the mainstream of life.

During my visits to various schools and colleges, I attended some classes and addressed a few.

The subjects of my talks ranged from Jane Austen to Indian films, Indian literature to 'Social norms like arranged marriages (a topic which, not surprisingly, provoked many amazed queries).

In my attempts at understanding and analyzing the American education system, I concentrated on faculty development and evaluation systems.

The mode of study, I found, is invariably presentation and discussion. Teachers and administrators are frank and forthright, consistent and logical. Not merely salesmen, they are usually quite critical and perceptive. For example, an administrator of a TV center, after explaining at length the details of the TV systems, spontaneously burst out: "It has spoiled everybody .... We seem to ignore life, human beings in favor of machines." A dean of admissions began his presentation with "We cause red-tapism .... Our work is processing pieces of paper."

Americans, I feel, believe in a problem-solving approach and have a strong sense of history and geography. They often preface presentations with pertinent historical background. They are proud of their cultural heritage and make efforts to explain and show it to their children. They interpret with respect and authenticity their cultural history, as embodied in museum items, historical places, buildings and castles. Mayville State College, for example, has a "Dakota Room" featuring historical information on North Dakota.

Because American society is highly competitive, decision making is result-oriented and emphasiZes the concept of comprehensive, individualistic man. In this society of limited manpower, this concept is a necessity and the entire educational system is geared toward this objective.

They work hard. They have to.

It is somewhat difficult to generalize about American colleges and universities. Various systems are followed and nothing can be described as typical. As David Riesman points out in his book Higher Education: The Academic Enterprise in an Era of Rising Student Consumerism (1981): "I now tell people that both everything and nothing you can say about this country is true for all parts of it." On the basis of my meetings and discussions and my visits to numerous institutions in the United States, I did form some general impressions, however.

Education stresses the idea of comprehensive high school with a curriculum that is fully responsive to the needs of individuals and the community served. Educators believe that "attainment of excellence for all individuals is a worthwhile effort and priority."

A typical classroom has the following-national flag, clock, long blackboards, informally arranged desks or chairs for students. Teachers-there are usually two per class-adopt the discussion method and encourage students to ask questions and discover things for themselves.

The teaching aids include audio-visual material, films, slides and videotapes. They have, as someone commented, "almost too many resources." A large number of institutions add to these resources with innovative experiments. For instance, Mayville State College has started splendid nature-study program. Athens Area Vocational and Technical School trains and retains school dropouts.

a

All in all, educational institutions do everything possible to help students succeed.

American society favors education for everyone, with his own age group, at his own pace and according to his own choice and interest. It is characterized by accessibility, flexibility and diversity. For weak students there are special studies; for the average, regular programs; for the extraordinary, honors programs; for the handicapped, special education projects; and for adults, continuing education centers. Institutions of higher learning fall into several categories-private, state, and community colleges. University centers concentrate on research activity; community colleges operate both liberal arts and vocational programs. Students can transfer easily from one system to the other.

Another striking feature of American higher education is the deep sense of involvement and commitment of all concerned with education-alumni, students, teachers, parents, business, industry, community. Education seeks to serve the community as a whole. Several cooperative programs are undertaken in which all resources are pooled together. For example, the Historical Museum in San Fernando Valley acts as a depository for the Los Angeles Valley College. The Anthropology for Teachers program, funded by the National Science Foundation, is a joint program of the anthropology departments of George Washington University and the Smithsonian Institution.

This provides a total educational experience to students, and both sides benefit considerably.

The system is soundly built from the grass-roots level.

It provides a lot of autonomy and freedom to the individual, and favors decentralization of power. The formula is: Give a person a responsible job and full freedom and see what he does. The president of a state college usually recommends a dean to the board of trustees and hires the faculty. In large institutions the chairperson and the dean enjoy vast powers. However, the system, being result-oriented, has built-in checks and balances-for example, the term of the president is renewable every year. Salary raises are given on individual merit to provide incentive.

The average student seems mature, motivated and industrious. Boys and girls usually partly support themselves, and their interest in studies and in sports seems more than routine. "Many students are eager to learn -that is the secret of our success," observed the president of a junior college.

Classes are not overcrowded. The teacher-student ratio at the undergraduate level is usually 1 to 23, and at the graduate level 1 to 15. If it falls below a particular level, grants to the institution are affected. This allows for a closer, relatively informal relationship between teacher and student and is conducive to the discussion method of teaching. Students are graded on the basis of their performance and their understanding of assignments.

The teachers to whom I spoke seemed satisfied with most aspects of the American educational system, but there are some like Dr. Hertel of Virginia Polytechnic who feel that it is "too vocation-oriented" and that it "spoils" students. Teachers blame the low grades of American students in English and mathematics on the stress on job-oriented courses. There are, of course, other

not problems that .teachers universally face-someone happy with his or her head of department-but on the whole I found the teachers very dedicated to their work.

Americans are intensely conscious of time, individual freedom, rights and duties. All our coordinators, as far as I could make out, never missed a class, though they were also busy escorting us to various places.

F

aculty development is largely a self-regulated phenomenon in the United States. Following the competitive society's rule of the survival of the fittest, each faculty member has to assert himself to improve his professional competence. At the university level most teachers hold a doctorate degree; teachers in community colleges 'usually have a master's degree.

Many teachers face a dilemma: They wish to grow professionally by attending summer institutes, seminars and workshops in their disciplines to refresh their knowledge and learn new skills, but their institutions seldom bear the cost of such training. A few institutions, among them CSUN, Illinois State University and Virginia Polytechnic Institute, offer courses in teaching. But in most cases, a doctoral degree is considered sufficient professional qualification, and teachers must seek specific teaching skills on their own initiative.

Some institutions do insist on a research degree. For example, the state of North Dakota requires that 60 percent of tenured posts be filled with research degree holders. Research and publications carry a lot of weight in the selection of teachers at the graduate level. There is., however, a trend against such emphasis, especially after the general decrease in the number of graduate students in U.S. universities. A community college president I spoke to was firm in his belief that Ph.D. holders who have "a love for the subject, not for the students," cannot make very successful teachers.

A teacher is evaluated in the following roles: as a member of an institution, as a member of the teaching profession, as an instructor, as a colleague, and as a member of the community. The evaluation is done at four levels-self-evaluation, student evaluation, evaluation by the chairperson or dean and peer evaluation. In peer evaluation the dean of the division nominates a committee of three tenured teachers to attend some of a teacher's classes to give their estimate of his or her competence and performance. All the evaluation processes are performed separately.

Stu<;lentsare asked to evaluate teachers on a stanqard form that focuses on a teacher's performance in class, not his personality. The questionnaires of different institutions may vary but many queries are the same. Most grade both the instructor's methods and materials. Sometimes the result is simply shown to the instructor; often it is published in course guides which include information on the overall performance of a department in terms of how it meets student expectations.

Academic authorities often use student evaluation of teachers for correctional purposes and, on rare occasions, as the basis for firing a faculty member. In Spelman College, Atlanta, for example, student evaluations are given much weight. This system of evaluation has become 'the subject of a heated controversy and raised many

questions. How can students be considered competent enough to judge their teachers? Does the fact that a student hasn't leatned anything or that he doesn't find the course interesting necessarily reflect on the teacher? Will a teacher's evaluation of students who are to evaluate him ~e fair? Might he not be tempted to award generous grades-as a conscious or unconscious bribe-to them?

And if such a system of evaluation by those under you is to be followed, then, ask critics, why shouldn't the teachers be allowed to grade deans and chairpersons?

It is indeed a delicate situation. But somebody has to evaluate the class performance of a teacher, and students could be the best judges in some ways. Besides, the evaluation is not always used for promotion and salary-raise purposes. In such cases, it simply encourages the instructor to consider ways to improve his or her teaching skills.

The evaluation of students is done by the class teacher in terms of grades, through discussions, assignments, papers, quizzes and so on. There is no external examination, and students on the whole seem satisfied with this system. If a student has a complaint, provision is invariably made to reconsider his evaluation.

W

e

visited three community collegesLos Angeles Valley College in Van Nuys, New River Community College and Gainesville (Georgia) Junior College. The underlying philosophy of community colleges is to gear education to the needs of the community. There are more than 1,200 community colleges in the United States. [See following story.]

All U.S. educational institutions have a department qf students' affairs, which works for the welfare of the student community. Its area of interest includes all nonacademic and nonadministrative activities within the university that are of direct interest to students. Student governments have written constitutions. Students often publish their own daily or weekly newspapers, in which they enjoy total editorial freedom.

The departments arrange for counseling, guidance, testing, and placement. The alumni associations also play an important role. Their functions are: fund raising, publicity for the alma mater, recruitment, and advice to the college authorities and faculty.

Generally, American students are not particularly involved in national politics. Very few even participate in elections to the student senate. "When they want to have a thing, they can have it," remarked one of the college presidents. Campuses are quiet and calm, with students interested mainly in their own work. Even when there are disagreements, these are internal, resolved through negoAbout the Author: Dr. Atma Ram is the principal of Government College, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh. The author of Perspectives on R.K. Narayan and A Text Book of English Essays, he has also written articles and book reviews for several university and literary journals. A book on Jane ;Austen and one on Indian-English writers are currently under print.

The teacher-student ratio in the classroom permits a close relationship and is conducive to the discussion method of teaching.

tiations and mutual discussions. I believe that the informal and close student-teacher relationship, a workable student-teacher ratio and a self-supporting system in the United States make possible a fertile atmosphere for education.

S

'ncemy return from the United States, I have tried to incorporate in my college in Hamirpur some of the features of the American educational system that impressed me. Most of the changes I have introduced are still at an experimental stage, but I am confident that they will work. I have already • encouraged teachers in the college to pursue further study that will add to their professional qualifications; • formed a parent-teacher association and enlarged the activities of the National Service Scheme and the National Cadet Corps to reach and serve the surrounding community; • organized exhibitions and extension lectures in collaboration with local agencies; • introduced two job-oriented noncredit coursesphotography and fabric painting; • formed several organizations that will give students a chance to play an advisory role in the administration of the college; • set up a vocational guidance bureau under the charge of a trained teacher; • revamped the tutorial group system; • introduced special programs for weak students, me~itorious students and those who excel in sports; • developed questionnaires-to be used at the end of the current session-foT students' evaluation of the faculty and for the faculty's evaluation of the principal.

The response to these changes has been encouraging -not only from the students and teachers but also from the American teachers with whom I have stayed in touch.

Professor Joseph Di Bona of Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, visited us recently and commented that he was impressed by the students' "interest and dedication to the college and its tasks." He said that Hamirpur with its "superb location in the mountains and its stimulating atmosphere that makes you want to get up and do things and move mountains as so many of you are doing .... also affords time for reflection and the refinement of thoughts and concepts." Professor Di Bona dubbed it "Happy Hamirpur" -our effort is to see that the education we provide has as much to do in contributing to that description as Mother 0 Nature.

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mmu0 lty Colleges FOR EDUCATION'S SAKE TEXT BY STEVEN STOSNY PHOTOGRAPHS

BY CHRISTOPHER

The most dynamic change in the structure of American higher education in the last 15 years has been the emergence of community colleges. Some 1,200 of these two-year institutions throughout the country enroll more than one-third of the United States' 11 million undergraduates.

Community colleges have flourished largely because they are inexpensive and accessible. Because community colleges are financed principally with local and federal taxes, students pay little or no tuition. While four-year schools prefer to limit enrollment to the highest achieving strata of highschool graduates, community colleges will admit virtually anyone who wants to attempt college work, thus affording oppor-

SPRINGMANN

tumtIes to students who might not have done well in or even finished high school.

In addition to emphasizing equal opportunity, two-year colleges contribute to the community's welfare in other important ways: they supply skilled labor for new industry; train students for such professions as nursing; and in some cases bring drama, music and dance to communities that lack these cultural amenities.

Chambers of commerce and local legislators are beginning to regard the establishFoothill College (below), near San Francisco, is free to California residents. It serves more than 14,000 full- and part-time students including many retired people (facing page).

ment of a community college as a mark of civic progress, as important as an airport or an industrial park. Usually the name of such a school has a local ring. The campuses, too, often fit their locale. A typical urban community college may be a row of renovated buildings in the heart of the city; a suburban campus may be landscaped with trees and grass; and the rural college may be a cluster of buildings in rolling farmland.

The origins of the contemporary community college can be traced to the turn of the century. William Rainey Harper, first president of the University of Chicago, was one of the earliest to promote the idea of separate "junior" colleges that would offer two years of education beyond high school.

More important, however, was the movement toward free public high schools, a

national development that began in the late 19th century. Some communities pushed the idea to its limit by creating school systems that offered 13th and 14th years of education. (American high-school education stops at the 12th grade.) For example, California's first junior college, which was organized in 1911, was an outgrowth of a high school. From such beginnings, the community-college movement expanded, slowly at first. It remained a minor part of the country's educational system until the early 1960s. In that decade, community colleges proliferated. It was a golden era at nearly every level of higher education. Most trends pointed upward: enrollments, payrolls, state appropriations, federal research money, new construction, salary levels, consulting fees and professional prestige for academ-

Community colleges offer a wide choice of vocational and academic courses.

Students at Foothill College get practical experience-composing on computerized word-processing machines (above, left), writing programs for small microprocessors (above, center), practicing dentistry (above, right).

The school also conducts classes in drama, photography, and art (left).

ics.¡ Educators saw the community college as an ideal device for accommodating the mushrooming demand for higher learning, far cheaper, certainly, than creating new four-year colleges and universities.

Nearly two-thirds of the students in community colleges are preparing to enter fouryear institutions. Curricula for such students consist largely of academic courses that are transferable for credit to universities and are roughly equivalent to the courses offered in the first two years at most four-year institutions. A growing number of community-college students, however, abandon the academic track after a semester or two to enroll in their schools' vocational courses.

Although some schools continue to place the greatest emphasis on academics, job training might eventually become the most

significant social contribution of community colleges. Labor-management apprenticeship committees, representing a variety of trades and professions, already provide advice and consultation at a number of community colleges. And some community colleges have made contracts and working agreements with employers to train or retrain workers. Such programs can train senior citizens to do jobs that would otherwise be out ot their reach, for example, or can help women to enter fields heretofore dominated by men.

Other students in community colleges simply like to study. "I'm happy with my job as a computer programmer, but I'd like to learn about literature," says Trish Harkins, a student at Anne Arundel Community College near Baltimore,-Maryland. "I don't want a degree, but I enjoy studying, and this is the ideal place." This attitude has changed the complexion of community colleges: More than half of all two-year college students are studying part time; their average age is about 30. In addition, virtually all community colleges offer courses in remedial reading and elementary math designed for disadvantaged students who performed poorly in high school and therefore didn't qualify for four-year institutions.

Most community-college catalogues, under the heading of community service, also provide a variety of noncredit courses ranging from arts-and-crafts to dieting: Students can learn to quit smoking, try new exercise and jogging techniques, learn to repair their automobiles, study flower arrangement, or learn the easiest way to make hollandaise sauce.

Community colleges also have produced innovations in teaching methods. The Coastline Community College in Orange City, California, for example, has no campus: Classes are conducted via nine television courses in 115 educational centers located principally in such places as banks and hospitals, although one is in a dance studio.

Some researchers, pointing to the accessibility of the community college, its benefits to the community and its contributions to the job market, suggest that one day a majority of post-secondary students will be found in community colleges. Whether they will achieve that level of popularity remains to be seen; but certainly community colleges are contributing to the American ideal of social equality through education.

0 About the Author: Steven Stosny is a free-lance writer living in Washington. D.C.

Stan

g

Thll¡for Justice

by BARBARA

ADAMS

A towering bronze statue of the toan Ebony magazine called "probably the most distinguished black American of this century" was dedicated recently in a ceremony outside the federal courthouse in Baltimore, Maryland. In honoring Thurgood Marshall, the first black justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, the people of Baltimore appropriately chose sculptor Reuben Kramer, 72, to produce the memorial. Kramer and Marshall had grown up'within a few blocks of each other in Baltimore.

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Thurgood Marshall's life spans the civil rights movement with which he was intimately associated. He was born in the summer of 1908, the summer in which antiblack civil disturbances in Springfield, Illinois, prompted the formation of the National Negro Committee. This organization gradually evolved into the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), for whose Legal Defense and Education Fund Marshall was later to do brilliant work.

Legend has often intruded into stories about Marshall's life. One story has it that a slave ancestor of Marshall's earned his freedom by being too cantankerous for his master's taste.

Though one could not characterize Marshall as cantankerous, certainly an independence of mind and a perseverance of action have marked his life. He says of his childhood: "We lived on a respectable street, but behind us were alleys where the roughnecks and the tough kids hung out. When it was time for dinner, my mother used to go to the front door and call my older brother. Then she'd go to the back door and call me."

Financial sacrifice by his parents helped Marshall attend college. In 1926 he entered Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, where he excelled at undergraduate debate. He worked as a waiter and as a grocery clerk to help pay the tuition. Marshall married Vivian Burney before starting his third year. The happy marriage was ended by her death in 1955. After being graduated (cum laude) in 1930, Marshall was denied admission to the University of Maryland graduate school because of his race. He entered Howard University Law School in nearby Washington, D.C., and there came into contact with such men as William Hastie, later Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit; James Nabrit, later president of Howard University; and, most significantly, Charles Houston, the Law School's vice-dean. Marshall later said that his school experience drove him toward deep involvement in civil rights.

He graduated first in his class in 1933, and became a member of the Maryland bar. While he was establishing a private law practice, he served as counsel to the NAACP's Baltimore branch.

Charles Houston, Marshall's law-school mentor, meanwhile had become the NAACP's special counsel in New York.

Marshall joined him there as assistant in 1936, and two years later succeeded him as special counsel. In the following year, the NAACP's Legal Defense and Education Fund was formed

as a separate litigating arm of the civil rights movement, with Marshall as its head. Throughout the 1930s lawyers cooperating with the NAACP had seen the need for a structured legal plan to advance the cause of civil rights, but it was under Marshall's leadership that such a plan was actually formulated.

For the next quarter of a century Marshall, as the fund's director-counsel, was the guiding force for lawyers in the civil rights movement. Operating with a small staff of dedicated attorneys and in cooperation with law schools and liberal practicing lawyers, he coordinated attacks on discrimination in such areas as education, voting, housing, recreation, public accommodation and criminal justice. He traveled thousands of miles each year to appear in courtrooms where his presence lent vital encouragement to isolated civil rights lawyers.

During these years Marshall was almost always one of the lawyers participating in any major civil rights case argued before the Supreme Court of the United States. His appearance in the high court for oral argument guaranteed that a case would receive widespread public attention. While he was with the fund, he won 29 of 32 cases. According to cou,rtroom observers, Marshall argued cases "with great courtesy and deference and with an undertone of intense inner conviction."

His style is "conversational, never oratorical; he avoids legal jargon and uses simple words to advance tightly reasoned arguments. " His manner outside the courtroom often was in sharp contrast. Marshall loved poker, Western movies, sports, jokes and general conviviality, according to colleagues, who also noted that this outward cheerfulness masked an extremely serious man. "When a doctor makes mistakes," Marshall noted, "he buries them. When a lawyer makes mistakes he makes them in front of God and everybody else."

According to associates, Marshall always has had a clear idea of the caliber and kind of brief he wants from his staff. He recently told an audience of black law students about the necessity for thorough preparation: "If I give you five cases to read overnight, you read eight. And when I say eight, you read ten. You go that step further, and you might make it."

This was the spirit that characterized the Legal Defense and Education Fund led by Marshall, as it achieved historic victories for civil rights from the late 1930s through the landmark group of cases known as Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. The plan the fund's lawyers followed was to attack segregation at the graduate and professional school level, thereby paving the way for advancement in other areas. Even before the incorporation of the fund, Marshall, in 1935, had his first conspicuous success in civil rights litigation in the Maryland Court of Appeals. This court ordered the admission of a black to graduate study at the University of Maryland-the school that had denied Marshall admission because of his color.

At the beginning of the 1950s,¡ two cases argued by Marshall before the Supreme Court resulted in rulings that

recognized the inherent inequality of racially segregated law schools. The legal basis for "separate but equal" educational facilities for blacks had been established in an 1896 Supreme Court decision, Plessy v. Ferguson. In 1950, for both Sweatt v.

Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, Marshall enlisted the expert testimony of leading law educators, including Dean Edwin Griswold of Harvard and Walter Gellhorn of Columbia in support of his argument that mere physical equality ignored the intangible benefits of white legal education. The Court's opinion noted that "White education is superior in those qualities which are incapable of objective measurement but which make for greatness in a law school," such as faculty reputation and prestige.

Shortly after these decisions the Legal Defense and Education Fund began an all-out drive against segregated public education in general, using the Sweatt and McLaurin decisions to support their arguments. As the cases that were grouped under the title Brown v. Board of Education reached the Supreme Court in 1952, physical equality of educational facilities was all that the law required.

At that time Marshall was 44 years old, at what many consider the peak of his profession. His principal adversary in arguments before the Court, John Davis, was tall, urbane and 79. Davis, much admired by the legal profession, had been a member of the U;S. Congress, American Ambassador to Great Britain, and a candidate (in 1924) for President of the United States.

Observers of Marshall's arguments in Brown noted that he had become an authoritative spokesman for his race. Yale University Professor Alexander Bickel, a law clerk at the time, remembers, "This tall, sizeable man ... seemed to be standing up for more than ten million people." Marshall and Davis fought to a standoff in the argument that continued before the Supreme Court for three days in December of 1952. In June the Court called for reargument the following December. There were differences between the two arguments, but perhaps the most important change was that in the interval Earl Warren -considered to have a liberal viewpoint-had replaced Fred Vinson as Chief Justice of the United States. Marshall contended that the only basis for an adverse judgment "is an inherent determination that the people who were formerly in slavery ... shall be kept as near that stage as possible .... Now is the time, we submit, that this Court should make it clear that that is not what our Constitution stands for."

On May 17, 1954, a pleasantly cool spring day in Washington, D. C., a handful of lawyers and reporters gathered at the Supreme Court building in the hope that the Brown decision would be announced. The decision, which was to change the direction of race relations in America, had been delayed and postponed so many times that it had slipped from the public's mind. After disposing of routine business, Chief Justice Earl Warren picked up a document on his desk and said,

"I have for announcement the judgment and opinion of the Court in Oliver Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka ~... We conclude, that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment." The Court's decision was unanimous.

Listening in the courtroom, Marshall leaned over and said to an aide, "We hit the jackpot!" In the midst of the rejoicing, however, Marshall, ever the realist, knew that many more years of struggle lay ahead. At an NAACP victory party that night he remarked, "You fools go ahead and have your fun, but we ain't begun to work yet."

Marshall's work for the Legal Defense and Education Fund continued. As the 1960s began, the "sit-in" protest movement (the peaceful occupation of facilities in segregated establishments) gained strength. After a conference with civil rights lawyers at Howard University, Marshall announced that the fund would set aside money to defend peaceful demonstrators who asked for help. "If a ... store is open to the public," Marshall said, "anyone who enters is entitled to the same service anyone else gets. The right of protest is part of our tradition. It goes back to tea dumped in Boston harbor. These people have a right to say they want their rights. As long as they act lawfully we will support them."

At this crucial moment in U.S. history and in Marshall's career, President John F. Kennedy nominated Marshall to be a federal judge. In 1962, as Martin Luther King, Jr., led marches in the streets, and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) began to sponsor "freedom" rides by groups of black and white protestors to stage demonstrations at segregated public facilities across the sou.thern United States, Marshall was confirmed as a feder2l judge on the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals in New York. During his four years on the Second Circuit, Marshall wrote more than 125 opinions in a wide range of cases.

It was, however, in the areas of civil rights and criminal law that Marshall's presence was felt most strongly. In particular, Marshall wrote the majority opinion in Hetenyi v. Wilkins, which, in 1965, set aside a state murder conviction on double-jeopardy grounds (the U.S. Constitution prohibits a person from being tried twice for the same offense). Marshall argued successfully that the states should not be unrestricted in their power of prosecution. He wrote: "Abhorrence to successive reprosecutions is deeply rooted in our common law traditions, and the [federal] Bill of Rights' curb on the power of the Federal Government to reprosecute is ample recognition of how central this abhorrence is to our constitutional'concept of justice. " While he was a federal judge, Marshall demonstrated concern for the rights of the accused, but not every prisoner's story found a sympathetic ear. In an extradition case in 1963 Marshall was asked to reject documentary evidence of murder.

Demonstrating a typical flash of wit he answered, "Police officers discovered a corpse buried by the side of the road ....

The corpse was riddled with four bullet wounds in the head and neck regions. If there are other explanations for the death than murder ... they are not readily apparent."

In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson offered Marshall

the Solicitor Generalship of the United States. For Marshall the appointment as the government's representative in cases before the Supreme Court meant giving up a comfortable, lifetime federal judgeship for an executive post with less pay. But he accepted. For the first time, a black became the top-ranking courtroom advocate in the land. Marshall, at 57, found himself arguing not as an advocate for a race or a movement but as the representative of the entire U.S. Government.

As Solicitor General, Marshall assembled a talented and able staff to aid him in the preparation of oral arguments. His major victories during his two years as Solicitor General continued to be in the civil rights field. One source close to Marshall at the time noted that "in his administrative capacity, controlling the federal litigation in the Supreme Court and determining which cases to take there, he was genial and courteous to lawyers and agency heads throughout the executive branch. But he was firm-firmer perhaps than some officials expected because of his easygoing manner."

In 1967 President Johnson nominated Marshall to be a Supreme Court Justice, the first black to achieve such a position. It was a time of racial unrest in the United States. As Marshall sat before the Senate Judiciary Committee hearings on his nomination to the Supreme Court, Detroit and other cities were undergoing a summer of street violence. When the next spring came and Marshall was completing his first term on the Court, Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated. Anguish and frustration were felt throughout the nation. At this difficult time Marshall became a symbol of hope for achieving racial equality through nonviolent, constitutional means.

Ramsey Clark, former Attorney General of the United States, remarked of Marshall's actions on the Supreme Court: "Scholarship, reasoning power, philosophy, adherence to principle and persuasive force are evident in his work." In the area of criminal law, Marshall wrote opinions in 86 major decisions during his first 10 terms on the Court. He dissented in 53 of these decisions, expressing important concepts of constitutional rights and individual freedom. Marshall's opinions, for instance, reveal clear-cut positions against wiretapping and police stop-and-search procedures, and for measures to protect the rights of the poor and underprivileged.

During Marshall's tenure on the Supreme Court several decisions have had momentous impact on U.S. history. In one such case, concurring with the majority, Marshall held in 1971 that the First Amendment would not allow the government to restrain publication of the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret government study that candidly traced the origin~ of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam war. By allowing publication, the Supreme Court took a firm stand for the right of press freedom.

On the Supreme Court, Marshall has adhered to a self-imposed policy of declining social invitations to protect his objectivity in decisionmaking. Little is written about his family-his second wife, Cecilia, and two sons-or about his private life. He makes very few personal appearances. One exception was the ceremony at the unveiling of his statue in Baltimore. Standing on the speakers' platform next to the statue, Marshall spoke with the spirited conviction that has made his career a symbol for civil rights advocates.

"Some Negroes feel we have arrived," he said. "Others feel there is nothing more to do. I just want to be sure that when you see this statue, you won't think that's the end of it. I won't have it that way. There's too much work to be done." 0 About the Author.-: Barbara Adams is a Washington-based free-lance

writer who cOIuributes articles to a number oJ American publicati!?l1:s.

ON THE LIGHTER SIDE

Louise Nevelson

Grande Dame of American Sculpture Walking into Louise Nevelson's house is like entering into one of her sculptures. Inside all is bold, simple, pared down, serene. Coming up the stairs one is greeted at two landings by black wooden sculpture against a black wall.

Throughout the house, the floors are stained very dark, the ceilings and one or two of the walls in each room are black and the rest white. Black sculpture hugs the walls. We sit at a black table, while her Persian cat, Mr. Nevelson, in his halo of black fur, paces across it, leaving his matte footprints on the polished plastic surface.

Nevelson, the sculptor who calls herself an architect of shadows, was born in Russia in 1899and her family emigrated to Rockland, Maine, in 1905.

She says she knew she would be an artist from earliest childhood. In 1920 she married Charles Nevelson and two years later had a son. After studying at the Art Students League in New Yotk for three years, she separated from her husband and in 1931 went to Munich for a short time to study with Hans Hofmann. In 1941, she had her first one-person show, but her apprenticeship lasted decades before she won fame and success. She has spoken of a loneliness so great she'd have welcomed a rat if one walked in. And of the fact that she never stopped working, whatever her circumstances.

32

Copyright Š 1980 by Saturday' Review. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Saturday Review. _

Some time ago, the Pace Gallery and Wildenstein Gallery in New York had shows of her work. The Whitney Museum, also in New York, in 1980 reassembled seven major environments, entire rooms of sculptures that are thematically and aesthetically related. These environments had been first exhibited between 1955 and 1961, and were dispersed until recently.

Shortly after the opening of this show, I spoke to the artist at her home in New York City.

Q Many of your works contain newel posts, hat forms, bits and pieces you picked up off the streets. Can you explain your special feeling for discarded objects?

A Long before I used such pieces in sculpture, I'd walk on the street, and I'd see something, and I'd bring it home. I used to put it on the shelf, and put things around like I do. Look, darling, I'll show you.

She leads me into the part of the house that was once a private sanitarium. We enter a long, narrow room where the light is filtering through wooden shutters. The combination of light and proportion, the sculpture on the long wall and in the middle of the room, produce an instant sense of peace: a pure Nevelson environment. A low table stands near the door, its top covered by a collection of balls of twine, a plate full of blackened globes (grapefruit halves charred on the stove), an arrangement of small tools, a

bowl with shards of a terracotta pot. Nevelson opens the shutters, revealing on the windowsills an array of corkscrews, hinges, screwdrivers, reclaimed finery from the sidewalk.

Q When did you become involved in the idea of environments?

A I started from the beginning, with my one-man shows with titles, way back in the early Forties. I had a show called The Circus, the Clown Is the Center of His World [1943].

I always had a title. Some of the figures moved-and, well, I don't think there was too much like it around. Fresh, let's put it that way.

Q

Is it true that you burned all the pieces from that first show?

A I couldn't afford to keep it.

I wish I had it now, but it was enormous. You had to have

space. I had too much energy to start and stop. I had a building on East 10th Street [in New York City]-for $15 a month, at first. I was filling it, filling it right and left. It is very difficult if you're a soloist, like I was.

Some people live a life and everything is rosy. I just can't say that.

Q To whom do you feel you owe your success?

A I don't give credit for my success to too many people, or to anyone. I really feel I did it, and if someone carried a package for me, so what?

Which they didn't because I could carry two while they were thinking about it. I take full credit for my life. But I must say that now it's become ... pretty remarkable. On every count, yes.

I had a blueprint, and I wanted what I've now got. I have pretty much lived up to my preconceived idea of what I thought my life should be.

Oh, I knew I'd have to pay a price. It seemed to me I'd rather pay the price and have it

If you use black, you give an object, you stamp it with the word aristocrat. It enriches everything.

Try something. Go to a shop, buy something for 10 cents, and paint it black, and you'll see what happens to it.

Q When I go into Moon Garden And One, or Dawn's Wedding Chapel, is there some .pqrticular message or meaning that you want me to get from those installations?

Louise Nevelson 'standing alongside one of her sculptures during her visit to India's Third Triennale in 1975.

my way. Of course, I didn't understand when anyone said life had not been right for him, because I thought our lives were ours. I didn't know that the outside played that strong a part. Nevertheless I had to dig, quite a bit, so 1 went through almost every ism in New York, and dug, and searched. It was frustrating at times, but I never stopped working, that was the funny thing.

Q What led to your strong involvement with the grid in your work?

a

A We humans have vertical and a horizontal, the day and the night. You stand up in the light, and you lie down in the dark.

Those are the principles for the grid, almost for the cube.

Q

You said that light and shadow were your primary preoccupations.

A They are every artist's. But I give as much weight to shadow as to the object that !he shadow comes from. In other words, I'm¡ aware of the

shadow as the substance of the piece. Don't forget that my basic interest and my project of life, or what I've tried to do, is to get harmony. Harmony. In dawns and dusks, there's a circle. I think the thing, for me, was getting to a place-I don't really like the word peace, but it's peace, probably on a spiritual level.

Every day it's a battle, on so many levels, that it's a miracle we humans are on two feet. If I have a little peace I must say that I look back, over my 80 years, and I feel that there has been a unity in spite of everything. And what was the unity?

It was art.

You notice I talk like a collage, and I like that. I don't like to finish sentences.

Q What about your love of black?

A See, there again it's harmony. In China, I think, they use white for mourning. It used to be that they didn't consider black a color, or white a color. Black is very aristocratic. It's not a negation.

A No, I only wanted myself to get something out of it. I don't try to communicate. Now let me tell you why. I'm not a student.

I don't want to be. But I had to be something, so I took a few notes that were important, they made sense to me. In my studies I went to the Oriental philosophy, and liked it very much. I touched on a lot of things. But I always found something that meant I could not accept all of it. There was always a flaw, but ] .

Krishnamurti really taught you to think for yourself.

Here's what Krishnamurti taught us: You are the center of the world. Not stupid ego.

Now since you are the center of the world, and everyone is a reflection of your awareness, you must treat everybody with great care. If I'm the center of the world, do I have to show off for anybody, or do I have to recognize anyone as being a critic of my life? Certainly not.

I wouldn't give a person that much credit. Since I have accepted that, it gives me a total independence, but also a total responsibility over my life.

I will not accept even a supreme power. Because I think we are the supreme powers.

We pay for living, in our own ways.

Q What moved you to work on such a large scale?

A Energy. Vision. A lot of physical energy. If I didn't like this room, I'd take a hammer and knock it down. That's what an artist is.

I just was terribly physically

strong, too. And I like physical labor. I still feel that physical labor is intelligent. To moveI've studied modern dance, and I can tell you thatthat to move right is really a hig'h development.

Q What stands out in your mind about your youth?

A If I liked my teachers, I was brilliant. If I didn't like them, I wasn't so good. Now, I've always been cold- I wear a fur coat in summer-and I always loved my drawing teachers.

There was a small room at the school for drawing, and the teacher came once a week. I loved that room, it was so warm. It wasn't till years later that I realized that I generated my own heat because I loved that teacher.

I was very self-conscious. I blushed. Ifanyonesaid, "You're good-looking," I'd stumble and stutter and flutter. And I was a yes woman, I couldn't say no. I can't, even now. But slowly-I have never resolved whether it was the outside that forced me or whether I projected it, or both-I have taught myself to speak in public .... I studied voice with Estelle Liebling, she was the greatest; I studied dance with modern dancers; and my best friends are the tops in the creative fields. So I'm surrounded with creative people, which of course I adore.

I studied because I was so shy and I had this blueprint, I didn't want crutches, I wanted to be free to get up and speak if I wanted. I'm limber even now, and it's so useful. I hated to not have the use of my being ..

A I studied art in New York.

Then I went to Hofmann in Germany, and of course he was already breaking things. So we broke them, but now we can come back. You go in and out of green pastures. There is no ultimate. People, particularly in art, say, "I want perfection."

Well, there isn't such a thing. It moves, it moves, it moves.

What a primitive thought of as

....

~..'' '.

"I give as much weight to shadow as to the object that the shadow comes from .... I'maware of the shadow as the substance of the piece." perfection, we might not. You see, it shifts.

Whatever I touched in art gave me confidence. There hasn't been a day in my life when I doubted whether I was an artist of the kind I am or not.

People say to me, "Oh, my, you're getting better," and "You have more energy," and "You're producing more." That isn't true. At first I had to do everything-find the wood, carry the stuff, make it-and today I have help. It appears that I'm doing more, but it's about the same.

Q

Has it been gratifying to be a star?

I've had a good press from the first time I ever showed ....

Q

With three shows at one time, you had an extraordinary celebration of your 80th birthday-

A Yes, and ~hen you're 80 yqu're also free. The way I lived, I never thought I'd be 80. Drink, free-lance, whoever wanted to be 80? I didn't, I never wanted an old age. Why? I still reserve things. I don't want life at all costs.

I think what I had to say on earth, for one person, I've said it and said it well. So when the maintenance gets too heavy.

(She laughs.)

A Yes. Fame arrived at a time when I felt it was right. It's like an apple tree, and the time comes when the apples must fall.

Q

Do you feel bitter about all the years when you were not famous?

A I never felt bitter, because it was my life. When I say it was tough, it was tough for me but whom am I going to feel bitter about? Why? If people are ignorant, is that my fault? I can't be bitter about the outside. If I were bitter, I wouldn't look like this¡ and do what I do. You know I'm over 80, and I have admirers, and some of my admirers today are of a quality I had never met in my lifetime until now. So I'm sitting in the driver's seat. And I love it. And I love going out.

I'm probably having as good a time now as I've ever had. I'm free, economically and in every possible way. The only other thing, the hitch in nature, is nature itself. After a certain time it's maintenance all the way. But as far as my own human feeling, I feel fine about it.

I'm only happy when I'm talking about art or doing it.

Suppose someone wanted to usurp my time, and would give me the world-I don't want it.

That's why I stay single. I don't have any particularly great mqrals about whether you go to bed with someone or not. I think it's more important that you're centered in your own being.

I'll tell you a story. A professor's wife said to me, "Mrs. Nevelson, you have fulfilled so much of your creative life, have you fulfilled being a woman?" And I looked in her eyes and said, "Have you?"

I feel now that I didn't ask for things that some people ask for.

I have made many lives and got as close to what life is, as is possible for a human being. Of course, we know there are mystics and people who can foresee things, but I don't want g; that either. I just probably want more or less what I have done.

The garment fits me.

D ~ ~

a tI;l

~

About the Author: Vicki Goldberg ;z:>is an art historian and contributing '" editor of American Photographer ~ p. and Saturday Review.

Is Art ere Is? In science as in art there is a growing scrutiny of the process of perception and knowledge. Art is often its own subject and science, in a way, art.

Art is modernist or not according to its handling, not according to its theme. Nevertheless, some themes are especially significant to contemporary modernist fiction.

Among them are the familiar notions of alienation and dislocation; related to these is the idea of the self and the fictional documentation or recovery of the self's own history. Another more theoretically interesting theme is art itself.

Fiction has been redefining itself along theoretical lines. It has also been advancing its claim, throughout an increasing din from film, journalism, and mass-marketing techniques-not to mention the increasing din from the 20th-century world at large-to be understood as art, as high art. Fiction has helped advance the successful claim of all the arts to be worth their candles. It has asserted its own purity, its disdain of mere commercialism, and its structural kinship with its poor and above-reproach cousin, lyric poetry. And in doing all this it has been increasingly interested in the subject of its own artfulness.

So, of course, has painting.

In fact, modernist directions in 20th-century fiction match those in painting and in poetry: from depth to surface, from rondure to planes, from world to scheme, from observation to imagination, from story to theory, from society to individual, from emotion to mind.

Literature as a whole has moved from contemplating cosmology (Dante) for the sake of God, to analyzing society (George Eliot) for the sake of man, to abstracting pattern itself (Nabokov) for the sake of art. At its purest, the new fiction parallels the scheme of, say, a lyric poem

by Wallace Stevens: In Nabokov's Pale Fire, fictional objects revolve around each other and only each other, and shed on each other and only each other a lovely and intellectual light.

The enormously increased concern shown by both painting and fiction with their own art as their subject matter seems to reflect the overall self-consciousness of man in this century; more specifically, it also reflects the quest for purity of practice that is born of this selfconsciousness.

But the similar ambitions of painting and fiction are altered by intrinsic differences in medium. In contemporary painting, a work's surface and its subject matter-its form and content-may, and often do, coincide: Frank Stella's "What you see is what you see." But words refer, and fiction's elements must always be bits of the world;

so fiction must ever quit its own surface and foray into the wide world in order to be about anything, even itself.

Language is weighted with referents. It is like a beam of light on Venus. There, on Venus, heavy atmospheric gravity bends light around the entire circumference of the planet, enabling a man, in theory, to see the back of his own head. Now the object of every artist's vision is, in one sense, the back of his own head. But the writer, unlike the painter, sculptor, or composer, cannot form his idea of order directly in his materials; for as soon as he writes the least noun, the whole world starts pouring onto his page. So fiction, using language like a beam of Venusian light to see the back of its own head-to talk about its own art-makes a wide tautological loop. It goes all around the world of language's referents before coming back to its own surface. It may, for instance, like Pale Fire, create a world, or a grid for a world, that is an artful context for a set of meanings that in turn define art as the creation of worlds as artful contexts for meaning. Now painting does such tricks almost directly, on a square of linen, with a line. There is a little paint, but there is no world necessarily, between mind and hand; it is a game of inches. But fiction, happily, gets to go around via Zembla or Yoknapatawpha County or Dublin.

Fiction may be about art in a number of ways. All works of art are to some extent about art-but this way, as it is general, is meaningless. Fiction may talk about art by talking about art. A novel's characters may be composers, poets, painters, or, especially, novelists.

Gide's Counterfeiters, published in 1926, was among the first of an un diminishing spate of novels about a novelist who is trying to write a novel. Some novels end, predictably, when the hero seizes his pen and writes (on the first try) the present novel's first words. Alternately, the hero's work in progress, described or even sampled in the text, serves as comment on his own situation, or, more interestingly, acts as a gloss on, and parody of, the living author's own future unwritten novels (Nabokov, The Real Life of Sebastian Knight).

A work of art may be about art insofar as its referents never leave its own surface. This is, as has been stressed, a purely ideational state-it cannot occur in literature, but it can be approached. Gertrude Stein approaches it. Pale Fire approaches it; its elements refer About the Author: Annie Dillard is a contributing editor of rIarper's and the author of Holy the Firm, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek and Tickets for a Prayer Wheel.

to each other in a brilliant snarl. To read Pale Fire you need English, you need the world evoked by the English, and you need especially a mental dictionary composed entirely of interdefined elements of Pale Fire.

Related to the theme of art, but actually grounded in metaphysics, is the modernist attention to the relationship between a tale and its teller. When characters are telling the tale, and especially when they are telling it all cockeyed, the subject at hand may be not only the nature of art and the nature of narration but also the nature of perception. Clearly fictions that have a biased narrator, or many biased narrators, deal in part with perceptual bias as a theme. I am thinking here of works like Nabokov's Despair with its sole viewpoint or Durrell's Alexandria Quartet with its many. But perceptual bias is not limited to cranky characters. It is every artist's stock in trade. It is every perceiver's stock in trade. And, as the thinking artist knows full well, everyone is cockeyed. Since everyone is cockeyed, what can anyone perceive truly?

What can we know, or what can we say of the world?

Gradually then, the question of the relationship among tale, teller, and world fades into the question of the relationship between any perceiver and any object. And this matter is a frequent theme-nay, obsession-in contemporary modernist fiction.

A penetrating interest in anything whatever ultimately leads to what used to be called epistemology. If you undertake the least mental task-if you so much as try to classify a fern-you end up agog in the lap of Kant. For in order to know anything for certain, we must first examine the mind's own way of knowing. And how on earth do we propose to do that?

Examining the structures of human thought and perception are recent thinkers like Paul Weiss and Ludwig von Bertolanffy in systems theory, Thomas Sebeok in zoosemiotics, Gregory Bateson in information theory, Roman Jakobson in semiotics, Noam Chomsky in linguistics, John Eccles and Wilder Penfield in brain physiology, Claude Levi-Strauss and Mary Douglas in anthropology, Ernst Gombrich in art criticism, and Jerome Bruner and Jean Piaget in psychology. They seek to understand the processes by which the mind imposes order. They seek to clarify the relationship between perceiving and thinking, between inventing and knowing. Microphysicists are interested in these matters, too. Science as a whole, like philosophy, wants to proceed from a firm base. Interestingly, the human effort to locate that base, to set knowledge firmly on the plinth of perception, seems repeatedly to result in everybody's sinking at once. At any rate, I think the interest in cognition derives finally from a genuine interest in the world for its own sake.

From the time of Greek science till now , Western culture has usually had a liyely, unselfish, and intellectual interest in the phenomenal world for its own sake.

Historians of culture speculate that this interest sprang originally from meeting cultures. In the port towns at the peripheries of major civilizations, people' of varying cultures and religions met. They soon asked themselves (according to this theory) what could be true if men disagreed, and if one world view was apparently as workable as another. This innocent inquiry-an inquiry it would have been impossible to make from the middle of China, the middle of Egypt, or the middle of Mexico-led straight to the moon. It is, then, a good question, and we

have not stopped asking it. What is absolutely true? What can we know for certain? What is really here?

In fact, we are asking these questions now with fresh urgency. Of course, we in the West agree now that there is more than one way to skin a cat, or raise a baby, or ease pain, or live. And no one is losing much sleep now over the idea that our tribal gods are not absolute. But we are having a slow century of it digesting the information that our yardsticks are not absolute, our mathematics is not absolute.

Science, that product of skepticism born of cultural diversity, was meant to deal in certainties, in data that anyone anywhere could verify. And for the most part, it has.

Our self-referential mathematics and wiggly yardsticks got us to the moon. I think science works the way a tightrope walker works: by not looking at its feet. As soon as it looks at its feet, it realizes it is operating in midair. At any rate, the sciences are wondering again, as the earliest skeptics did, what could be a firm basis for knowledge.

People in many of the sciences are looking at their feet.

First Einstein, then Heisenberg, then Godel made a shambles of our hope (a hope that Kant shared) for a purely natural science that actually and certainly connects at base with things as they are. What can we know for certain when our position in space is limited, our velocity may vary, our instruments contract as they accelerate, our own observations of particles on the micro level botch any chance of precise data, and not only are our own senses severely limited, but many of the impulses they transmit are edited out before they ever reach the brain?

Even if we could depend on our senses, could we trust our brains? Even if science could depend on its own data, 'would it not still have to paw through its own language and cultural assumptions, its a priori categories,

Physicists have been saying for 60 years that the) wishes, and so forth, to approach things as they are? To what, in fact, could the phrase "things as they are" meaningfully refer apart from all our discredited perceptions to which everything is so inextricably stuck? Physicists have been saying for 60 years that (according to the Principle of Igdeterminacy) they cannot study nature, but only their own perception of nature: "Method and object can no longer be separated" (Heisenberg). Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, British Astronomer Royal, said in 1927, "The physical world is entirely abstract and without 'actuality' apart from its linkage to consciousness." It is one thing when Berkeley says this; when a 20th-century astronomer says this, it is a bit of another thing.

Similarly (and this is more familiar), Eddington's successor, Sir James Jeans, wrote, summarizing a series of findings in physics, "The world begins to look more,like a great thought than a great machine." The world could be, then, in Eddington's word, "mindstuff." And even the mind, anthropologists keep telling us, is not so much a cognitive instrument as a cultural artifact. The mind is itself an art object. It is a Mondrian canvas onto whose homemade grids it fits its own preselected products. Our knowledge is contextual and only contextual. Ordering and invention coincide; we call their collaboration "knowledge." The mind is a blue guitar on which we

improvise the song of the world.

Where does fiction fit into all this? For one thing, the interdisciplinary treatment of these issues is in a state so lively it is scarcely distinguishable from outright disarray, and fiction writers, like everyone else, are drawn to messes. Fiction writers are as interested in their century's intellectual issues as any thinkers are. Fiction, like painting, intrinsically deals with the nature of perception.

And fiction intrinsically deals with the world. So that, finally, fiction, if it has anything at all to do with the world as its subject matter, will begin to ask: What world?

Early in Proust's Swann's Way, Marcel recalls, When I saw any external object, my consciousness that I was seeing it would remain between me and it, enclosing it in a slender, incorporeal outline which prevented me from ever coming directly in contact with the material form.

This is one way that fiction may pose the problem of cognition. How may we come "directly in contact" with "any external object"? Some writers approach it by wresting the object from the grip of its ordinary contexts, so that we see it as it were for the first time. Fresh vision, and the dislocation of ordinary expectations, are, of course, long-standing goals of both literature and painting Surrealism racks its brains for it; it wrenches objects from their ordinary mental settings until at last (it hopes) it unhinges the mind itself.

Writers may also approach fresh vision by restraining their painterly impulses and using language as a cognitive tool. That is, fresh vision is an unstated goal, I think, but a guiding one in fiction written in that plain, exact, unemotional prose that contemporary writers of both traditional and modernist fiction use to describe the world of objects. Writers like Henry Green and Wright Morris on one hand, and Alain Robbe-Grillet on the other, write as if the world were indeed here and fiction owed it the responsibility of a careful and unbiased attention. RobbeGrillet wishes the writer to limit his efforts to describing the surfaces of things and measuring the distances between them. On this effort he comments (my emphasis): "This comes down to establishing that things are here." Establishing that things are here is, so far as I know, a new goal for art. And establishing that things are here is no mean feat: It is an effort that kept the likes of Kant and Wittgenstein quite occupied.

Some fiction deals with matters of cognition more directly. Stanislaw Lem's Cyberiad, which describes the plottings of two rival computer-makers, concerns the nature of knowing. Also concerned implicitly with the nature of knowing are detective and mystery stories, and, explicitly, contemporary modernist fiction modeled on detective or mystery conventions, like Robbe-Grillet's Voyeur and Borges' "Death and the Compass." Other fiction, of which Alexandria Quartet is the clearest type, deliberately treats the relativity of all knowledge by presenting a series of narratives that contradict. Still other fiction the unknowahleness ~og

m;ICS

cannot study nature, but only their own perception of it. itself unknowable. It works-if it works-by eliciting confusion. If you track down some of the allusions and puzzles in Pale Fire, you get what amounts to a Bronx cheer la rude sneer].

Absolutely diagnostic as a theme of contemporary modernist fiction is this: Many works, granting the uncertainty of any knowledge, treat the world in a new way, as a series of imaginative possibilities. Anything may happen. Writers have always manipulated bits of the world, but they have usually done so in secret; traditional writers labor to make their what-ifs seem plausible. But contemporary modernists flout the speculative nature of their fiction. What if, they say, and what if what else? Italo Calvino's Invisible Cities is a wonderful case in point. In this book, Marco Polo reports to Kublai Khan on the many cities he has discovered by exploring the khan's realm. Each description of a city is formal and titled (with a woman's name); each occupies about a page. There is the city hung from high nets suspended over a plain; there is the city whose inhabitants stretch string all over town to delineate their every relationship, until the strings make a web in which no one can move; there is the city whose carnival stays put year after year while its banks, docks, and municipal buildings are loaded onto trucks and taken on tour. After every few descriptions of cities, Marco Polo and the khan discuss the reports; many of their discussions hinge on the question of whether Marco Polo is making everything up. But what, in the realm of imagination, could be the difference between invention and discovery?

And is not all the world the realm of Kublai Khan, the realm of imagination?

If to the artist, and to the mind, each of the world's bits is a mental object for contemplation, or manipulation, then those bits may be actual or fancied; it does not matter which. They may derive indifferently from newspaper accounts or dreams. And since mental objects and imaginary objects have equal status, the man of imagination is the creator of the world.

These themes, I say, underlie some of the best contemporary modernist fiction. They dominate the work of Borges, Nabokov, and Calvino; we find them also in many other writers, like John Barth, Robert Coover, Julio Cortazar, Gilbert Sorrentino, Guy Davenport, Flann O'Brien, and almost any other contemporary modernist we can name. Some works stress the role of mind in actively shaping reality,. as Borges' "TI6n, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius" does. In this story, the inhabitants of the planet Tl6n -which was itself invented and set in motion by a series of thinkers-may, through their expectations, call objects into being. If a man is looking for a lost pencil, he may find, not the original pencil, but a secondary object "more in keeping with his expectation."

Other works, like Nabokov's The Real Life of Sebastian Knight, stress the role Df the conscious artist as imagination's lord. If inventing is knowing, and if meaning is contextual, then the artist is the supreme knower and the artificer of meaning. Still other works, like Lem's A Perfect Vacuum and Borges' "Pierre Menard, Author of Don Quixote," which are modeled on the interpretation

of texts, stress the equal .¡status of all mental objects.

Imaginary or third-hand texts, or accounts of texts, have not only the same ontological status as canonical texts, but also the same status and capacity for meaning as actual events. And actual events may be interpreted as if they were texts. Everything on earth or in imagination is a conjunction of mental objects; it is an art object that may be interpreted critically.

The world, happily, still exists, and contemporary modernist fiction still interprets it. One interpretation to which these same writers are prone is a reading of tqe world in the light of its multiple material combinations.

We scarcely require imagination to produce a wealth of possible conjunctions; the actual world is doing very well on its own. In these works, such as Calvino's Cosmicomics, Cortazar's Hopscotch, or Borges' "Aleph," the artist's generative role is again secret, and the dizzying multiplicity of the word itself is the subject. I think that the new sense of stellar and geologic time we have in this century, and the reiterated tale of how chemicals evolve and how new species arise from random combinations in multiple circumstances over unimaginably long reaches of time must surely contribute to this contemporary fiction of possi bility .

The works of both Calvino and Borges, at least, are visibly stricken with a sense of a finite material world so long and wide it becomes, paradoxically, a material metaphor for infinity. Beckett and Borges treat these matters soberly; other writers, like Barth and Coover, seem to grow giddy at the thought, as if creating were not the deliberate work Genesis made it out to be, but instead God's spendthrift and never-ending jubilee.

Writers and artists of this century may well ascribe to their work a new and real importance. If art is the creation of contexts, and so is everything else, how false or trivial can art be? Is not the Linnaean system of classification a poem among poems, a provisional coherence selected out of chaos? It has always been possible for artists of every kind to sniff at science and claim for art special, transcendent, and priestly powers. Now it is possible for artists to have and eat that particular cake by adding that, after all, science is in one (rather attenuated) sense "mere" art; art is all there is. I am not saying that writers or painters have made such a claim outright; but in theory it is there to be made.

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by GEOFFREY HIMES with RICHARD HARRINGTON

Rock music, born in the ,early 1950s as a hybrid - melding elements of rhythms and blues, black gospel music, white country music-has continued to be even more adaptable over the years. It has borrowed from other musical styles, ideas, even instrumentation-anything that can boost its dramatic force.

Woodstock 1969: On the morning of August 14, 1969, the sun rose on a gathering of 400,000 persons-mostly young adults -who had gathered on a dairy farm in the Catskill Mountains, 120 kilometers from New York City. They had come for the three-day Woodstock Music and Art Fair -a rock-music festival that, for its time, attracted the largest concert audience in American history.

The throng, mud-spattered from heavy rains, cheered the appearance on stage of Jimi Hendrix, widely regarded as the best electric guitarist of his day. Like the festival itself, Hendrix's performance was a watershed event in the development of rock. His spectacular innovations on the electric guitar demonstrated how roc~ music had grown from popular entertainment into a serious art form. At the same, time, his explosive guitar sound enjoyed\\;ide appeal and underscored the fact that (b~k remained a genuine folk art with mass' following among the youth' of America., '.

Rock 'n' roll had emerged about 15 years earlier, a hybrid created by 'the melding of elements of many, musical styles. From rhythm-and-blues musicians took heavy, syncopated rhythms and feverish vocals.

From black gospel musiC of the rural South '<"'., and urban'North, they borrowed~sall-andresponse harmonies, where a chorus repeats phrases of a lead singer. And from the white country music of Appalachia they appropriated' simple, attractive melodies and plaintive innocence.

The combination proved irresistible to teenage audiences. The emphasis was on dramatic impact rather than musical virtuosity, on emotion-charged vocals and a heavy p

dance beat. Within five years of its appearance in the early 1950s, rock became the bestselling music in the United States.

Rock, born as a hybrid, has proved to be extremely adaptable over the years, absorbing other musical styles, ideas, even instruments-anything that boosts its dramatic force.

Performers at the 1969 Woodstock festival represented many of the diverse elements of rock music during its first 15 years. Arlo Guthrie-son of the famous American folksinger Woody Guthrie-adapted his father's proletarian storytelling to an electric rock beat. Santana, a California-based Latin American group, combined electric guitars with Latin percussion.

Chicago's Paul Butterfield Blues Band brought together white rock 'n' rollers and black jazz musicians.

Canada's The Band-which once backed rock's poet-troubadour, Bob Dylan-sang finely crafted lyrics about love, loss and country living. By contrast, the Jefferson Airplane's songs evoked a world of fantasy and science fiction.

By the time of the Woodstock festival, two generations of American teenagers had made rock their favorite music. And as they grew, so did their songs. They changed from two-minute tunes and straight-from-theheart monologues to 10-minute pieces with multiple harmonies, complex rhythms and wide-ranging literary allusions.

Memphis, Tennessee 1952¡1956: Sam Phillips, a Memphis record producer, made some of the first recordings of such legendaryblues musicians as B.B. King. Howlin' Wolf, Bobby "Blue" Bland and Junior Parker.

In Phillips' studio, Sun Records, he also

had a booth in which anyone could make a record for $2 a side. One day in 1953, a truck driver came in to record two popular ballads. A secretary, struck by the 18-yearold's singing, took his name-Elvis Presley.

It was a year before Phillips called Presley to come in again. For the audition Presley and two bluesmen picked a tune called "That's All Right, Mama." The musicians slapped out an odd beat while Presley added a hillbilly swagger to the vocals. Phillips rushed into the room, asking: "What in the hell are you doing?"

"We don't Know," the musicians admitted.

"Well," Phillips said, "find out real quick and don't lose it."

What Presley and his bluesmen had found was a mix of the melodic clarity of white country songs with the heavy syncopation and energy of black blues music. The combination was new, and it marked, as much as any other single event, the beginning of rock 'n' roll.

In Presley's music, America's young ¡found an expression for their pent-up restlessness. They made Presley a hero and rock the symbol of their rebellioQ against racial boundaries, sexual taboos and cultural blandness. During the next 27 months, Presley recorded 14 songs that sold more than' a million copies each and began his domination of American music.

Singers across the South, mesmerized by Presley's success, headed for Sam Phillips and Sun Records. Roy Orbison came from Texas, Jerry Lee Lewis from Louisiana, Charlie Rich and Johnny Cash (both of whom achieved fame as country-music singers) from Arkansas.

And when Presley

performed in Lubbock, Texas, Buddy Holly decided to model himself after the visiting singer.

Holly wrote his own songs, hired his own musicians and supervised his own recording sessions. His artistic control paid off in songs far more ambitious and far better realized than anything else in rock at that time. Holly's nervous singing style, full of hiccups, made his lyrics sound like inadvertent confessions. As a result, his songs came across as intimate drama, as secrets pulled from him by the irresistible rock beat.

The awkward, nearsighted Holly also proved that singers didn't have to be handsome to be rock stars. It was the music that mattered. In 1959, at age 20, with his most creative years still ahead of him, Holly was killed in a plane crash in North Dakota.

These mUSICIanstransformed American music. Whenever later rock performers want to pay tribute to their musical traditions, they play the songs of E!vis Presley, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis and other rock pioneers.

Cleveland, Ohio 19S1-l95~:In 1951 Cleveland teenagers tuned their radios to station WJW for Alan Freed's "Moondog Rock and Roll Party Show." Freed defined the role of the radio disc jockey with rapid-fire, emotional delivery and passionate musical preferences. Freed was fascinated by the chorus to Bill Haley and the Comets' 1952 song, "Ro~k-a-beating Boogie": "Rock, rock, rock, rock, everybody; I:oll, roll, roll everybody." He is credited with having popularized the phrase ,rock'n' roll, although the individual words had cropped

up in several songs during the previous five years.

Freed believed in the music-and he disregarded the color of the performers at a time when'racial segregation was still common in the United States. He became an impresario, and aroused the wrath of.Cleveland's conservative citizens when he began booking rock shows that featured black and white performers-and attracted black and white teenagers.

Freed's enthusiasm was infectious. His New York shows, which mixed black rhythm and blues and white rock 'n' roll acts, were so successful that racial barriers began disappearing from popular music.

His shows featured many of the great early acts of rock, including Bill Haley and the Comets, whose song "Rock Around the

Clock" still is the world's largest-selling rock-music single.

Chuck Berry was another Alan Freed star.

He created a slogan for all rock fans who wanted to overthrow the weight of the classical-music tradition and hear music about themselves, for themselves: "Roll over, Beethoven," Berry sang, "I got to hear it again today!"

Berry pioneered witty, tightly written lyrics and a stinging lead guitar. He is an active performer today, and was a model for many of those who followed him: the Beatles, Rolling Stones, Grateful Dead, Bob Seeger and Linda Ronstadt, all of whom recorded his songs.

New York City 1957-63: Phil Spector was a 19-year-old errand runner in New York when Atlantic Records gave him a chance to produce one of his own songs. The result was "Spanish Harlem." Where other producers were content to put a simple guitar and a steady piano behind a singer, Spector placed four guitarists, three drummers, 10 horn players, dozens of strings and choirs of voices-until each song swelled with power.

But he didn't simply pile sound atop sound; he carefully assembled each element in what is called a "wall of sound" -and gave overwhelming emotional impact even to mundane lyrics.

By age 21, Spector was a millionaire and the prodigious genius of rock music. His innovations disclosed the ability of a record,. ing studio to deepen and expand the musical dynamics of rock.

Atlanta, Georgia 1953-1968: The musical tradition of black Protestant churches, such as those in Atlanta, Georgia, is important.

During Sunday services, congregations actively respond to a minister's questions and exhortations. And, as emotion builds, the minister or a solo singer leads the congregation through a number of powerfully felt hymns. In the 1950s, however, some young black singers began to realize that by substituting a woman's na~e for that of Jesus, a male singer could harness the emotional power of gospel in a wider musical arena.

The breakthrough came in 1954 when Ray Charles, already an accomplished jazzman and blues singer, recorded "I Got a Woman." Charles, playing the piano, set up the church cadence with typical gospel chords. But instead of singing "I Found the Lord," he sang "I Got a Woman." Charles performed with abandon, his voice swooping up to a triumphant falsetto and down to a satisfied rumble, occasionally punctuating

the music with a shouted "Yeah!"

Thus Charles opened rock music to one more emotion-laden musical tradition. The influence of gospel music upon rock is pervasive. Virtually any song with distinctive pumping piano chords, soaring harmonies, or call-and-response structure, owes a debt to black gospel music.

Hawthorne, California 1962-65: For teenagers in Hawthorne, a suburb of Los Angeles near the Pacific Ocean, leisure time always has revolved around the beach. One day Brian Wilson's 17-year-old brother, Dennis, returned home with an exciting tale of the experience of surfing. Inspired by Dennis' vision of sun, sea and fun, Brian wrote a song about it, "Surfin'."

Calling themselves the Beach Boys, Brian, first cousin Mike Love, 15-year-old brother Carl Wilson and Brian's college classmate Al Jardine recorded the song and it became an immediate local hit.

Encouraged, Brian began to compose prolifically about his idealized vision of life for California teenagers.

Brian Wilson was the' first rock musician since Buddy Holly to demand and gain control of the recording studio. The studio, with all its devices to distort, amplify, soften,

echo, duplicate and meld sounds, was itself a huge instrument, and Wilson was the first to use it fully.

Wilson's impact on rock is enormous. He proved that it was possible to make rock music with rich, innovative sound and hold a mass audience. And he created a standard for vocal harmonies that performers still strive to match.

Detroit, Michigan 1962-1966: Detroit always has been known as the center of the auto industry in the United States, but in the early Sixties it also was the center for a series of exuberant, captivating hit records produced by Berry Gordy, Jr. Gordy's cramped offices cranked out hits for a string of artists who came to exemplify the "Motown Sound" (short for Motor Town).

The trademark of the Motown sound was a crisp snare drum that accented the second and fourth beat rather than the usual first and third beats. Rhythm guitars chopped ou, brusque chords that further accented the dance beat. Vocal harmonies were tightly bunched yet full-throated. . The majority of Motown's artists came from tough urban neighborhoods. Their music, which celebrated a distinctively black

culture, nevertheless attracted a huge white audience. The best example were the Supremes, a trio of black women whose youthful enthusiasm and professional showmanship carried them through a remarkable string of romantic hits.

Motown spawned a generation of outstanding black performers and songwriters.

Although its influence declined by the end of the decade, its list of hits from the early and mid-1960s is one of rock music's enduring legacies; Britain and America 1962-1969: Before 1962, musical Britain was basically an observer of the rock revolution shaking America.

Teenagers wildly bought imported rock records, and musicians tried to sound like Chuck Berry, Ray Charles and other singers.

This new generation of musicians, immersed in American rock and blues, began performing in clubs for teenagers. During the first half of the Sixties, groups sprouted like mushrooms.

The most important group was the Beatles, with Paul McCartney on bass guitar, John Lennon on rhythm guitar and harmonica, George Harrison on lead guitar and Ringo Starr on drums.

In early 1964, the exuberant music of the Beatles reached the United States, and American teenagers bought their records in unprecedented numbers. When the Beatles finally arrived in person at New York City , they were greeted by thousands of screaming fans. A few days later they appeared on television and their conquest of America was complete. They soon had the five top-selling records in America, a feat that has not been duplicated.

Another British group, The Rolling Stones, was the reverse image of the Beatles-playing a sullen bad-boys' role to the Beatles' wholesome insouciance. But the Rolling Stones played excellent rock, guitarist Keith Richard created hypnotic guitar phrases, and singer Mick Jagger sang with a unique combination of glee and menace.

Newport, Rhode Island 1963·65: Newport is an old sailing port that, in the early Sixties, was the site each summer of the· Newport Folk Festival. Folk music, with its traditional purity and aesthetic simplicity, has long been a vehicle for social protest in the United States.

At the 1963 Newport Festival, Bob Dylan made his first appearance before a large audience. Dylan proved to be the most original songwriter in the folk-music'idiom sinceWoody Guthrie and Huddie Ledbetter.

His protest anthem, "Blowin' in the Wind," became a popular hit for the folk trio Peter, Paul and Mary.

By understanding political themes, Dylan madethem personal and moving. He applied unusual literary devices-allusion, surrealism, irony-to his song lyrics.

At the 1964 Newport Folk Festival, Dylan was a hero to the audience, but in 1965, eager to escape from the confines of folk music, he began to shock his fans instead of pleasing them. Dylan strode onto the Newport stage July 25, 1965, with an electric guitar, leading.a full rock band, and launched into his song, "Maggie's Farm." The music was unmistakably rock, but Dylan hadn't compromised his lyrics. If anything, his new songswere more complex than ever. "Maggie's Farm" was a parable about a handyman on a farm: I aint gonna work on Maggie's farm no more No, I aint gonna work on Maggie's farm no more Well, I try my best To be just like I am But everybody wants ydu To be just like them.

They say sing while you slave and I just get bored.

No, I aint gonna work on Maggie's farm no more.

The Newport audience, accustomed to old ideas with new sensibilities and technicategorizing rock as superficial, commercial ques. The most heralded recent development music for teenagers, was shocked. Some has been the aavent of so-called new-wave even booed Dylan and walked out during rock. The term new wave':-signifying rehis performance. But rock and folk audi- newed enthusiasm and rediscovery of the ences quickly adjusted to Dylan's complex straightforward, rebellious excitement of political lyrics. Dylan's writing became the early rock music-encompasses a number of new standard for rock lyrics. Dylan himself emerging groups and individuals. was turning out songs that became anthems Among the new-wave performers to have for the emerging youth culture in America. achieved outstanding musical-and comDylan articulated attitudes and angers mercial-success, are a New York group that other rock 'n' rollers had implied in called Blondie and a British rocker, Elvis their music but had never stated openly in Costello, their lyrics. He gave rock music its artistic Because an important aspect of new-wave ambition. The songs would not be the same rock is a return to the music's origins, interest in rock's past has increased. Listeners are again.

New York and California 1968·1974: In buying the original albums of the Fifties 1966, Bob Dylan, at the height of his and Sixties. In addition, groups are rediscreative powers, had a serious motorcyCle covering and playing the light, bouncy music accident and disappeared from public view. of the early Sixties with renewed passion and With members of The Band, one American fury. It is called, appropriately, power pop; and four Canadian rock musicians who had one of its foremost exponents is Nick Lowe, accompanied him on tour the previous year, who also produces the records of Elvis Dylan retreated to a house dubbed Big Pink Costello. Indeed, rock music has so matured in the rural town of Woodstock, New York. that much of the music is a commentary on There, Dylan stepped back from his its own history, myths and evolution. musical confrontation tactics and reconsiAlmost 30 years after its founding, rock dered the balance between risk and stabil- music is thriving. Contrary to the expectaity. Playing unamplified, acoustic instru- tions of most observers in its early years, rock ments, Dylan and members of The Band is not another musical fad that holds composed and sang gentler, more reflective center stage for a time and then becomes a songs than they had before. Their new historical curiosity. It is undeniably imporcompositions stressed, America's countrytant; it has been one of the dominant and folk-music traditions and celebrated ties elements in the cultural upbringing of most -to land and history at a time of unpreAmericans under 35. cedented social and political ferment in the Indiyiduals are not passing out of rock United States. music either. The average record buyer in Bob Dylan and The Band paved the way the United States, reports Horizon magafor a reconciliation between rock music and zine, is 28 years old. Rock commands an traditional, rural American culture. Be- increasingly older audience, while it still cause of Dylan's stature, it became accept- effectively captures successive groups of able to celebrate tradition rather than chal- 10- and 1I-year-olds. By the end of the next lenge it, to sing again of the joys of country 30 years, the great majority of Americans living and family closeness. will have had a rock music adolescence.

In the mid-1970s, country-rock, someIn an age of mass, industrial society, rock celebrates the individual values of spontanewhat transformed and more sophisticated, ity and passion, release, escape and fulfillbecame the music of choice in Southern California. Such groups as Crosby, Stills and ,menlo It can be§traightforward and even Nash and the Eagles, and such singers as primitive, or as complex and sophisticated Linda Ronstadt and Jackson Browne have as any music being created today. From the achieved huge successes with a sound that day when Elvis Presley walked into the combines a whining, country-style steel Memphis recording studio, rock music has guitar with a bouncy rock beat. So much of evolved into a legitimate art form whose country and rock share common musical mutable styles are embraced across racial, elements that many of the songs written and economic and geographic harriers in the performed today are virtually unclassifiable United States-and around the world. 0 as one type or the other; predictably, such music often is called country-rock.

About the Authors: Geoffrey Himes is afree-lance Rock 1980. Rock today 'is growing in a writer who reports regularly on rock and popular wide range of styles. Some of this growth is music. Richard Harrington is the popular-music truly experimental; more of it is a fusing of critic for The Washington Post.

UMR.JAZZ" MAN-MADE MICROBE COOPERATION IN SCIENCE HREAGANOMICS" 'AMAZING MAIZE

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ne of America's outstanding jazz' pianists, Billy Taylor (right), is expected to appear as part of his trio in concerts in New Delhi, Bangalore and Calcutta after part~cipating in Bombay's Jazz Yatra festival January 28-29, 1982.

Billy Taylor has succeeded in maintaining his position as a top jazz artist with his vital interpretations of old tunes. He approaches music as an artist first, and then as a technician.

His improvisations, his style and wit on the keyboard have earned him the sobriquet "Mr. Jazz."

The trio's music is usually 85 to 90 Whitney Balliett, The New Yorker's percent improvisation; Taylor reeminent jazz critic, notes: "Mr. sponds to what he hears on the bass Taylor, whose fingers are no more 'and drums: "As a trio, we think in a than butterfly wings on the keys, is ,certain way. Much of what I do does not have to be verbally planned ... vanguard piano at its best."

In a recent interview Taylor said, "I there is much room for freedom and call jazz America's classical music .... personal expression.

"In my trio each musician has equal When you hear jazz you know it's American music even when it's played responsibility to make the music hapby German or French musicians. pen," Billy Taylor explained. "SomeJazz projects something unique to times that responsibility is to support; America." other times, when your instrument is Billy Taylor compared improvisa- featured, it is to lead." tional jazz with Indian classical music.

The trio plays a highly sophisticated "Indian music is taught from master to jazz that features great variety. The pupil. It involves traditional forms, music revolves around Taylor. His styles and parameters which are de- style is full. On top of rich bass, he weaves improvisations that are defined by, the' cu.lture. Like American lightfully embroidere$:l melodies.

0 jazz, it is part of an oral tradition."

Accompanying Taylor are two other artists of exceptional stature-Keith Copeland on drums, whose "strong but sensitive playing" was praised by The New York Times; and Victor Gaskin, one of the most successful jazz bass players in America.

n India-born American scientist has created an entirely new form of life-a microbe that promises to be a boon both to industry and agriculture. Dr. Ananda M. Chakrabarty of the University of Illinois Medical Center in Chicago says his microbe may be able to clean up vast amounts of toxic chemical wastes.

To date the microbes exist only in Chakrabarty's test tubes.

They do not exist in nature-and never have. "We have bred in a laboratory a strain of microorganism that is genetically engineered, not found in nature," Dr. Chakrabarty says.

To test the efficacy of the new microbe, Chakrabarty's first target is Agent Orange, a herbicide widely used by farmers in the United States, Europe and the developing countries. It is an excellent herbicide, he says, but its toxic or poisonous elements, which are suspected to cause birth defects, can persist in the soil for 15 to 20 years.

His next target is chlorophenols, often discarded as waste by chemical companies at some 4,000 dumps in the United States alone. The most famous of these dump sites is "Love Canal," near Niagara Falls, New York, where the chemical leaked from drums after 15 years underground, contaminating a housing development built on top of the dump.

In fact, to create his new microbe Chakrabarty went to Love Canal to collect microbes which, he hoped, had already begun developing an ability to degrade, or break up, the chemical molecules.

Chakrabarty, who earned his doctorate at Calcutta University, took these and a variety of other microbes and added a special "Plasmid," which carries the genetic code and allows the organism to perform certain functions. In this case, he wanted the microbes to break up the molecules of 2,4,5-T, the chemical in Agent Orange which persists in the soil for many years.

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At a recent meeting in New Delhi, the Indo-U.S. Subcommission on' Science and Technology made a number of important decisions to step up cooperative activities between the two nations in such fields of scientific endeavor as energy resources, environmental conservation, health, and in,dustrial processes .

In the field of energy, the Subcommission identified promising areas for future collaborations, such as hydrogen and methane storage, solar architecture and advanced solar collectors. It also discussed projects backed by a $5-million grant for energy from the U.S. Agency for International Development.

In the field of health, the conferees agreed to collaborate on a malaria vaccine and clinical studies and chemotherapy against filaria.

Bilateral cooperation in health services research, mental health prob-

In the lab, he fed the microbes an increasingly strong diet of 2,4,5-T. His aim: to encourage the microbes to mutate gradually over many generations, until they could exist almost entirely on a diet of the persistent chemical. The result: "Pseudomonas Cepacia," or PC, the scientific name for his new species. ' In nature, 2,4,5-T degrades very slowly. But with PC, Chakrabarty hopes, "we can decontaminate the soil by applying the bugs once a week for a few weeks." .

If the field trials, which began last month, succeed, this will be Chakrabarty's second successful attempt at creating new microbes. He was at th(( center of a celebrated U.S. Supreme Court case a year and a half ago in which he became the first scientist to win the right to patent a new life form. .

The court overruled the U.S. Patent Office, which had refused to patent his first "bug"-one that eats oil (see 0 SPAN May 1979).

-Cochairmen of the.sup'Commission meeting Roger Revelle and M.G.K. Menon .

. lems, acute respiratory diseases, rheumatic heart disease and other cardiovascular problems, tuberculosis, hepatitis and cataracts also figured in the discussions. It was felt that the most effective mode for collaboration in . these areas was through scientist-toscientist interaction in both countries.

The Subcommission expressed concern at the deteriorating global environment, and decided to initiate

joint efforts to develop systems for solving environmental problems in India and the United States.

The Subcommission decided'to hold workshops on optical fibers communication, mineral resources evaluation, arid-zone research, behavioral biology, and silicon crystal growth and characterization. . .

Speaking after the meeting, Professor M.G.K. Menon, Secretary of the Indian Department of Science and Technology, said that deliberations have created a much wider base for scientific cooperation between India and the United States. Professor Menon cochaired the meeting with Dr. Roger Revelle, a noted American scientist in water resources management. In his remarks, Dr. Revelle said: "There are vast untapped reservoirs of scientific creativity in both the countries which we are set to exploit for the maximum benefit of man."

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AMAZING MAIZE cientists have discovered a new .relative of the maize plant which is being hailed as "the find of the century" because it may make possible the long-dreamed of perennial grain.

The maize cross-bred from the new find can be harvested year after year from one planting.'

American growers are impressed by the plant's resistance to a whole range of diseases and insects, and by indications that its genes may provide greater stalk and root strengths, multiple ears per plant and tolerance for poorly drained soil.

Professor William R. Findley of the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center is optimistic about the new discovery and wants to share it with maize growers around the world. (Inquiries regarding the new maize may be addressed to:

S

MRS. SHANTA S. CHENOY, Cultural Affairs Specialist, U.S. International Communication Agency', New Delhi, died on December 28, "1981, of cardiac arrest at the Tata Memorial Hospital~ Bombay, after a brief illness.

Since 1964 she had worked to facilitate cultural and

Dr. William R. Findley, USDAIARS, Department of Agronomy, Ohio Agricultm:al Research and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio 44691, U.S.A.) "We could send farmers in other parts of the world some seeds-not large quantities but enough for them to get started," Findley says. "It would help if the growers could tell us the relative maturities of maize they are working with. We have several crosses with different relative maturities to select from."

Discovered accidentally

by Mexican botanist Rafael Guzman, the plant and its descendants can thrive in

Supply-Side Economist Late last month, Ian Hoskins Giddy, a professor of econ9mics at Columbia University in New York, visited India. He delivered a series of lectures in Calcutta, N~w Delhi and Madras on supply-side economics and also discussed with economists the theory's relevance to India. â&#x20AC;˘.

This free-market philosophy, which President Reagan hopes will bolster the U.S. economy and restore it to its preeminent position, has generated considerable interest in a number of countries.

The fundamental philosophy behind President Reagan's economics (popularly called Reaganomics by the U.S. press), said Professor Giddy in an interview shortly before he left for India, "is letting corporations, businesses and consumers come together and do a deal with one another without the government taking a slice of it or regulating the price." This means, he added, not only reducing taxes so that people take home a larger pay packet, but also removing barriers to where people can work, ~nd restrictions on what services firms can provide and at what price. " Asked about the relevance of supply-side economics to India, Giddy said: "The first question is: Can this kind of approach work in the United States? The second is: If it does make sense for the United States, can it also make sense elsewhere, say in India?"

mild or tropical climates.

The discovery actually was made while Guzman was searching for something else-a primitive perennial called Teosinte, a relative of the maize plant, thought to be extinct. He found not only the plant he was looking for, but also a plant of an entirely different variety.

Named Diploperennial Teosinte, the new plant, when cultivated by Guzman's friend Professor Hugh lItis and his colleagues at the University of Wisconsin, proved to have a startling characteristic:.

Instead of having 40 chromosomes like the plant Guzman was looking for, it

scholarly exchanges between India and the United States.

Her dedicated efforts won her myriad friends in both countries and the respect and affection of her colleagues .

Mrs. Chenoy is survived by her husband Shahpur; .two sons, Kamal and Dilip, daughter-in-law Anuradha and granddaughter Ayesha.

had 20-the same as modern maize. Diploperennial Teosinte can produce fertile offspring,when crossed with modern maize.

The importance of the new find also lies in the fact that it has demonstrated the value of preserving foundation plant materials.

"There is only so much out there in the mountains and in the forests. of the tropics.

If we don't watch out, we are going to lose all the foundation plants," says lItis. "Diploperennial Teosinte, forexample, are growing on only two hectares of land .... A flock of goats or 10 hungry cows and they will be gone."¡ 0

Analyzing the U.S. experience, the Columbia professor pointed" out that "it took a long time for the public, including the financial public, to be convinced that this policy of anti-inflation, deregulation was going to work." But once it was convinced, he said, interest rates showed a downward trend.

Talking about India, Giddy stressed that each natIon has its own range of disparities calling for differing priorities. But the fairly substantial role of government in regulating the economy that is part of India's British colonial legacy confronts the nation with a challenge. "The big question for India_as it seeks to develop its resources is: To what extent,should the iPrivate sector do that and to what exteI1t should the government? W_hat is really in the interest of the people in India?"

India as a nation, he noted, has "enormous growth potential." It has the third highest number of technically and professionally qualified people-after the United States and the Soviet Union. '''In my view, letting them loose to produce would promote 'a tremendous amount of growth in India."

On Indo-U.S. economic cooperation, Giddy said: "The most important aspect of our economic relations with India is that there could be and should be a lot more American investment in India."

On the role of the International Monetary Fund and other world financial institutions in the development of Third World countries, Giddy holds that these organizations "serve a useful role up to a point" that has to be judged by each country, but "at some poitlt, a country has to graduate from being dependent 0 on these world institutions to using the private market."

Solidarity Day On January 20, President Ronald Reagan proclaimed January 30 as Solidarity Day in protest against the "brutal wave of repression" that the military government of Poland has imposed upon its people. In his proclamation, the President said: "The hearts and minds of free people everywhere stand in solidarity with the people of Poland in the hour of their suffering."

Among the many events planned for the day are rallies by labor unions not only in the United States but in many other parts of the world as well. America's premier labor union, the AFL-CIO, will hold at least 14 rallies in the country. The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions is organizing similar demonstrations all over Europe. The German Labor Unions, with a membership of 7.9 million, has already designated January 30 as Solidarity, Day. In addition there will be prayer meetings in churches, temples and mosques around the United States and in other countries.

To commemorate Solidarity Day, the U.S. International Communication Agency has produced a special one-hour television program, "Let Poland be Poland," which will be beamed on January 31 via satellite to more than 300 million people in different parts of the world. An additional 100 million will hear the program via radio over the Voice of America in some 40 different languages, including Polish.

The theme of the television program, "Let Poland be Poland," is taken from a song by Polish writer Jan Pietrzak. The song, which will be sung by a school choir, expresses a yearning for freedom and has become an anthem for the Solidarity union and for many Poles.

Some of the leaders expected to be on the program, besides President Reagan, are British Prime Minister Thatcher, West German Chancellor Schmidt, Norwegian Prime Minister Willoch, Protuguese Prime Minister Balsemao, Australian Prime Minister Fraser, Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau and Luxembourg Foreign Minister Flesch.

Speaking to reporters, Charles Z. Wick, director of the U.S. International Communication Agency, said that although the martial law authorities in Poland are not expected to allow the telecast there, he hoped the Poles will be able to hear a good portion of it over the Voice of America.

The director also expressed the hope that the worldwide reverberations from this program will produce added recognition of the plight of the Polish people "and hopefully some movement forward toward relief of their situation."

Problems and Solutions: Nobel-Laureate Perspectives Nine American¡ Nobel Prize winners ponder two significant questions: What are the gravest challenges facing the United States and the world at large'! What can be done to meet them?

Isamu Noguchi, Master Sculptor One of the great masters of 20th-century American art, Isamu Noguchi has brought life to cities and urban centers through his sculptures.

In more than 50 years devoted to art, he has also created gorgeous gardens and¡ startling stage sets.

Whither Weather?

A photo essay and an interview with an Indian meteorological expert portray some of the exciting strides being made in weather forecasting in India and the United States.

Baseball: It's Not Cricket A witty, facetious account of baseball versus cricket, and baseball fever in the United States.

An introduction-in words and color picturesto an innovative painter who is expected to participate in the Indian Triennale 1982.

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The City as Museum Washingtonians accustomed to living with the staid presence. of hundreds of marble, granite and bronze images of frock-coated sta~esmenand dashing military heroes that people its parks were startled 'recently to come upon exciting modem sculptures in the most unexpected places.

A giant figure appeared to be emerging from the earth in front of a public building ... abstractions of polished aluminum or steel sprouted. beside walkways or reclined in grassy areas.

Laser beams in brilliant colors knifed through the night sky (back cover.)

This year, a similar surprise awaits

Above (foreground): Bruce Beasely, U.S.A., untitled, 1980, burnished steel plate, 4.1 x 8.5 x 3.4m.; (background) Guy Dill, U.S.A., Lacina-Tara, 1980, wood and steel, 2.6 x 7.3 x 2.5 m.

Right top: Gaspar Galaz, Chile, Construction I, 1975, mixed woods, 76 x 61 x 38 cm.

Right center: Nancy Graves, U.S.A., Variability and Repetition of Variable Forms, 1979, cast bronze with polychrome patina, corten steel base, 2.4 x 3.7 x 4.9 m.

Above: Joan Miro, Spain, Maquette pour l'arc a la Fondation Maeght, 1979, cast bronze, .

43 x 48 x 15 cm.

Right: Isamu Noguchi, U.S.A., untitled, 1979, granite, about 305 x 61 x 61 cm.

residents of San Francisco. In fact, several American cities are now dotted with modem sculpture, thanks to private organizations that have taken over from the noblemen of old as patrons of art.

The International Sculpture Center (ISC), a private U.S. organization, is the sponsor of the Washington and San Francisco projectsmoving modem high art from museums and art galleries into the streets, where it has entranced, puizled and occasionally outraged passersby. For the Washington Sculpture Show, ISC put up as many as 88 sculptures, commissioned 19 new works and paid for the installation of the exhibits at sites chosen by the artists working with local planners who also organize workshops, panel discussions and demonstrations of contemporary techniques. The 11th International Sculpture Conference held in connection with the Washington exhibition attracted 3,000 people from 25 countries. After the last conferee had departed, the sculptures remained for several months.