SPAN: October 1974

SPAN A LEITER FROM THE PUBliSHER' We hear a lot about air pollutants but few of us know what they look like. The remarkable photo at left reveals the shape, color and size of a certain family of pollutants. These are pieces of quartz, calcium, clay and other silicates found in the air near a construction site in a major industrial cityand photographed through an electron microscope which magnified the particles thousands of times.

Chronic air pollution over many of the world's industrial centers is not only endangering human health, it is also changing the weather, says the article on page 10 of this issue.

Another striking picture in this issue is the cover photo, by SPAN photographer Avinash Pasricha. A detail from the exterior of the Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad, the photograph dramatically demonstrates the artistic genius of architect Louis Kahn.

Pasricha has been with SPAN since its birth 14 years ago and has contributed no less than 21 covers to the magazine-something of a record for SPAN. "This was the most challenging assignment I've had," says Pasricha. "Having read Ranjit Sabikhi's article [pages 18-21]which talks about Kahn's use of light, I roamed around the 11M campus for three days from sunrise to sunset in search of this effect of light on brick. I finally settled for the three huge circles at the entrance to the library. I asked a student to pose to add the human touch and scale necessary for the final picture."

Over the years, Pasricha has photographed a wide variety of subjects for SPAN-from transistors and rubber tires, to women and fashion, to rice and shrimps. His photographs have also appeared in a number of Indian magazines.

For the article on Louis Kahn and his work, SPAN sought out Ranjit Sabikhi, Professor of Architecture at New Delhi's School of Planning and Architecture. Professor Sabikhi had met Kahn on several occasions in Philadelphia. He recalls that "each time it was a pleasure to meet him and a delight to hear him talk of his work and the many problems that bothered him. It would seem that whatever he was engaged upon at that time became an obsession and he had to live with this intense struggle until the various creative problems were resolved and things fell into place."

We are pleased that in the collaborative creative venture between Ranjit Sabikhi and Avinash Pasricha things also fell into place with such pleasing results.

Congratulations to both for producing an excellent tribute to a great American architect.

2 4 5 10 14 18

How Poisonous Cities Change Their Weather

by Thorn Bacon

22 28 30 35

Why Mother Never Understood Women's Lib

by John Fischer

38 42

Private Foreign Investment: Weighing the Pros and Cons An Interview With C. Fred Bergsten

45

47 49 Front cover: Huge circular opening before the library of the Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad demonstrates architect Louis Kahn's dramatic use of brick, his subtle manipulation of light and shade. For the story, see page 18.

Back cover: This dramatic photo taken from the air when the forest is wearing its richest autumn colors shows a highway in America's Great Smoky Mountains looping around under itself, For a feature on "Autumn in the East," see page 49.

Managing Editor: Carmen Kagal. Assistant Managing Editor: S.R. Madhu. Editorial Staff: Mohammed Reyazuddin, Avinash Pasricha, Nirmal Sharma. Krishan Gabrani. M.M. Saha. Art Director: Nand Katyal. Art Staff: Gopi Gajwani, B. Roy Choudhury, Kanti Roy, Suhas Nimbalkar.

Chief of Production: Awtar S. Marwaha. Photographic Services: USIS Photo Lab. Published by the Uniled States Information Service. 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi-JIO 001. on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this magazine do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Government. Printed by Arun Mehta at Vakil & Sons Private Ltd., Vakils House, Sprott Road, 18 Ballard Estate. Bombay-400 038.

Photographs: Front cover-Avinash Pasricha. Inside front cover-Roger J. Ch~ng. Atmospheric Sciences Research Center. State University of New York at Albany. 5-Richard Alcorn. 14-11Life magazine. 18 left-Dick Durrance 11. © National Geographic Society. 18 bottom, 19 leftAvinash Pasricha: 19 right-Robert Azzi. 30-31-courtesy of Virginia Slims. Inside back cover. clockwise from right-courtesy Amoco Motor Club; Bruce Dale, copyright © National Geographic Society; Robert W. Madden. copyrigh t © National Geographic Society. Back coverBruce Dal~, copyright © National Geographic Society.

Use of SPAN articles in other publications is encouraged, except when copyrighted. For permission, write to the Editor. Subscription: One year, 18 rupees; single COPY. two rupees. For change of address, send old address from a recent SPAN envelope along with new address to A.K. Mitra. Circulalion Manager, SPAN magazine. 24 Kasturba Gandhi Mar.g. New Delhi-1I0 001:

Governor of New York State for 15 years, holder of high positions in the Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower Administrations, N~lson Aldrich Rockefeller brings to the Vice Presidency proven administrative ability and wide experience in foreign affairs. Moreover, Rockefeller has been for more than a decade one of the outstanding leaders of the Republican Party.

u.s. Vice

Presidential Nominee

NELSON A. ROCKEFELLER On August 20, 1974, U.S. President Gerald Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller to be his Vice President. Announcing his choice in a short televised address from the White House, President Ford called Governor Rockefeller "a good partner for me and I think a good partner for our country and the world." He said that Nelson Rockefeller was a man known across the land ,as a person dedicated to the free enterprise system, a person who is recognized abroad for his talents, for his dedication to building a peaceful world.

Under terms of the 25th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which outlines procedures for filling vacancies for the Vice Presidency between national elections, Rockefeller's nomination must be approved by the Senate and the House of Representatives. Mr. Ford was chosen as Vice President by the same process last fall.

In his short acceptance speech, Governor Rockefeller said: "Mr. President, your nomination of me to be Vice President of the United States ... makes me very humble. If! am confirmed, it will be my great honor to serve you and through you to serve all of the people of this great country.

"As you pointed out in your moving message to the Congress, these are very serious times. They are times, as you pointed out, that require the closest co-operation between the Congress of the United States and the Executive Branch of Government.

They also require the dedication of every American to our common national interest.

"You, Mr. President, through your dedication and your openness, have already reawakened faith and hope, and under your leadership we as a people and we as a nation have the will, the determination and the capability to overcome the hard realities of our times. I am optimistic about the long-term future."

*****

Nelson Rockefeller has been a leading political figure in the United States throughout much of the post-World War II era.

His name, along with that of Republican Party Chairman George Bush, was at the top or near the top of almost every list of potential candidates submitted for President Ford's considerationin making the nomination.

At 66, some believed his age was a handicap, but his supporters

pointed out that he was no older than former President Dwight Eisenhower when Eisenhower was elected to his second term in 1956. And furthermore, those who favored Rockefeller noted, he is apparently in excellent health.

In addition to his political supporters, a number of major newspapers gave Governor Rockefeller their endorsement, and political columnists, including James Reston and William Shannon of the New York Times and Marquis Childs of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, recommended that President Ford choose Rockefeller.

Shannon wrote that others being considered for the nomination were competent and attractive men, but he maintained that "in terms of experience and proven executive capacity, they are dwarfed by Rockefeller's record."

Rockefeller was elected Governor of New York in 1958-his first elective office. He defeated former Republican National Chairman Leonard W. Hall for the party's New York gubernatorial nomination, and went on to unseat Democratic incumbent W. Averell Harriman by nearly 600,000 votes. Elsewhere in the nation that year, there was a Democratic landslide.

Rockefeller won re-election as New York Governor in 1962, 1966 and 1970. Before his resignation from the post last year to organize a study group on "critical choices" facing the United States, he was the senior American governor in years of service.

As New York State's Chief Executive, Rockefeller introduced innovative programs and persuaded the state legislature to provide funds for them through enactment of higher taxes.

Much of the effort to induce President Ford to select Rockefeller as Vice President came from the nation's governors who admired his performance in New York and believed the high office should be filled by a governor or former governor.

Before entering politics, Rockefeller had forged a record of accomplishments in business and foreign affairs going back to 1930s. In his first major government position, he served as Coordinator of the Office of Inter-American Affairs, prior to becoming Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs in the Administration of President Franklin Roosevelt. Later, he W,as Under Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare in the Eisenhower Administration, another appointive post.

In 1968, when Nelson Rockefeller was campaigning for the Republican Party's Presidential nomination, Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger, then a Harvard professor, was his principal adviser on foreign policy matters. Dr. Kissinger's wife Nancy also has worked for Rockefeller as a foreign affairs expert; Mrs. Kissinger was employed on the Rockefeller "critical choices" project just before she and her husband were married earlier this year.

Rockefeller campaigned actively for the Republican Presidential nomination in both 1964 and 1968, supported generally by the more liberal wing of the party. He lost both times, however -in 1964 to conservative Barry Goldwater and in 1968 to Richard Nixon.

Affable and ruggedly handsome, Governor Rockefeller appeals to a wide spectrum of voters, as attested by his success as a candidate in the sociological conglomerate that is New York City. As a member of one of America's wealthiest families, Rockefeller has commanded virtually unlimited campaign funds and has been able to attract talented and skillful assistants to enhance his bids for election.

Rockefeller is a firm believer in strong government at the state level, a view in accord with the Administration's policy of entrusting as much responsibility as possible for federally financed programs to local officials.

The Vice President-designate has said that "in matters of human concern 1 am a liberal, and in economic and fiscal concerns I am a conservative." His stewardship in New York reflected that philosophy: During his IS-year tenure, the state's univer-

sity system tripled in size, aid to secondary and elementary schools was increased by 170 per cent, and extensive programs were begun to 'modernize mass transportation and to combat water pollution.

As a result of these and other efforts to deal with human problems, the state's expenditures rose substantially.

But by resorting to tax increases, the Governor was able to maintain a balanced budget. He has long advocated fiscal integrity on the national level as well, and has repeatedly urged abandonment of deficit spending.

Rockefeller is a strong supporter of civil rights legislation at both state and federal levels. "Private action, more often than not, will set the tone and point the new direction in the quest for human rights," he has said. "But the Government has the responsibility to broaden this goal from a private crusade to a public policy."

Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was born July 8, J 908, in the fashionable summer resort of Bar Harbor, Maine, the third of six children of Abby and John D. Rockefeller, Jr. His grandfather was John D. Rockefeller, Sr., founder of the Standard Oil empire which is the foundation of the family's vast fortune.

Other members of Rockefeller's family have also ac.hieved national prominence. A brother, David, is Chairman of the Board of New York City's Chase Manhattan Bank, one of the nation's largest. Another brother, Winthrop, now deceased, was Governor of the State of Arkansas. A nephew, Jay, is a former Secretary of State of the State of West Virginia.

Young Nelson Rockefeller attended Lincoln'School of the Teachers College of Columbia University, and graduated from Dartmouth College in 1930 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. For the next decade, he devoted himself to business and management of the diverse family interests. During this period, he traveled extensively in Latin America and developed a keen interest in the problems and potentials of that region.

Rockefeller became convinced that international co-operation was the key to long-range economic growth in the world. In 1946, he and his brothers founded the American International Association for Economic and Social Development, a nonprofit philanthropic organization which works with local governments, principally in Venezuela and Brazil, to improve agriculture and nutrition.

The following year the Rockefellers established the International Basic Economy Corporation, a profit-making organization designed to foster private investment in developing countries. Rockefeller served as its president until 1958.

Summing up the philosophy behind those efforts, he said in 1948: "In the last century, capital went wherever it could make the greatest profit. In this century it must go where it can render the greatest service."

It was his knowledge and experience in Latin America that. prompted President Roosevelt to appoint Rockefeller in 1940, at the age of 32, to head the newly created office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. From that first federal job he went on to serve in numerous capacities with the U.S. Government until his election as Governor of New York in 1958.

In addition to the positions already mentioned, Rockefeller served as Chairman of President Truman's International Development Advisory Board, Chairman of President Eisenhower's Commission on Government Organization, and as Special Assistant to President Eisenhower for Foreign Affairs.

The year Rockefeller graduated from Dartmouth he married a childhood friend, Mary Todhunter Clark. He had five children (one deceased) by that marriage, which ended in divorce. His present wife is the former Margaretta Fitler Murphy, by whom he has had two children.

0

Dear Sir : Your report of the attack on "New Math" [June 1974SPAN] reveals the extent to which Americans (like any other people) can prefer faith to logic. Johnny sweats to prove that 15 X 13 = 195 while the friend on his left (in the illustration) believes that his trick has really given him the answer. Even if Johnny can't add as quickly as his father could, I'm sure he has learnt to do much better with mathematics than those that lament his not being a computer. I could tell Johnny how the longer system of New Math could be condensed into the trick which his ancestors believed gave the answer; beyond that, I do not care how good a computer he could be transformed into.

N.V. SUBRAHMANYAM Head of the Department of Mathematics Andhra University. Waltair

Dear Sir: In Mr. Trivadi's article, "IBM Brings Computer Magic to India" [June 1974 SPAN], the statement "the Kerala University uses computers both before and after examinations from the first stage of admitting the candidates and issuing registration numbers to the final stage of publishing results and providing mark lists" is incorrect. The Educational Computation Centre of this university built around the IBM 1620 Computer system was installed only by the end of March 1974. This computer is used exclusively for research-in the analysis of sophisticated problems in engineering, theoretical and applied sciences, and in studies connected with such disciplines as psychology, economics and linguistics.

V.V. MONY Public Relations Officer University of Kerala Trivandrum

Dear Sir: The articles by Lester Brown ["The World Resources Shortage"] and Daniel Bell ["The End of Scarcity"] make the March-April 1974 SPAN an invaluable addition to one's reference library.

Lester Brown's' article is an extension of his exquisite book World Without Borders. His plea for united global action to create food reserves and protect the world's irreplaceable mineral and fossil resources is a sound one. However so many Less Developed Countries (LDCs) are just beginning development programs' to achieve self-reliance that one is skeptical as to how far threats of environmental

pollution will impress them. They honest- time costs. The disconcerting thought of ly believe that their first job is to in- the LDCs that they are paying an undustrialize and produce what was for- conscionable price for development-in merly imported. The stake the ruling terms of both transitional distress to their political parties in the LDCs have in people and high project costs-has drowncreating employment at all levels through ed the "technological euphoria" which economic activity is so immense that they Bell claims they were s,teeped in in 1964. are unlikely to be swayed by latter-day Indeed what seems certain today is Inecological objections. Indeed, it must be flation with a big "I" -which, far from said to the credit of LDCs that several being transitional, has grown like Jack's industries in these countries order in- beanstalk. The LDCs doubt if they can, dustrial waste-disposal outfits along with like Jack, chop it. plant and machinery-while local laws It is clear that what we see in some for protecting environment are being LDCs is a distortion of the still-valid fast placed on the statute books.

Keynesian theory of money, investment As regards global "reserves of food- and employment. Keynes did not recomgrains" and combined action by littoral mend and indeed could not have had in countries to prevent ocean pollution, the mind the monster of created money, but last few years of international discussions mild doses of inflation. The way we call have proved fairly clearly that unless the our methodology Keynesian, reminds me two major powers, the U.S. and the of the patient who had been asked by his U.S.S.R., agree on meaningful action (like doctor to take a dose of medicine three the Nonproliferation Treaty), any num- times a day for three days; the patient ber of voluble resolutions by well-mean- concluded that if he swallowed all the' ing but strategically inconsequential nine doses in one gulp, he would be rid countries will not be effective. Even the of the fever in one-ninth the time.

SALT talks are running into trouble.

The problems of environmental polluAny arrangements for global pooling will tion, the problems of planning and resucceed when the two powers are both sources for LDCs and the new problems surplus-in foodgrains and other re- which the development effort has thrown sources; and not when one is in deficit up-no less than the more formidable and is buying its requirements off the problem of human proliferation-require other. new dimensions in thinking. The two The concept of global reserves or ware- articles are most stimulating in introduchouses either for edibles or for strategic ing those dimensions to the problems of arms will have some significance for eco- growth and development. nomically weaker nations only when the S. NARAYANASWAMY, M.L.C. present declining trend in aid programs Chitra & Co., Madras is arrested and reversed. The Nairobi speech of Robert McNamara last Septem- Dear Sir: As a student of science I read ber is a long bleat of sorrow. It looks as with great interest the article by Isaac if the world is far from implementing Asimov, "Toro: A Defense of Space Exploration" [February 1974 SPAN]. It "one world" programs.

Daniel Bell's thesis on the problems of was stimulating to read Asimov's arguthe postindustrial society breathes new ments in favor of space exploration. I air into our stale discussions of the in- have read all three volumes of his book ward character of 20th-century-end prob- Understanding Physics and firmly beliyve lems. His idea that time will be among that few authors are so gifted as Asimov the scarcities and will cost more than in explaining scientific problems. before does appear very relevant to the In this age of Skylab and Mariner, when LDCs-which have lost precious devel- man's achievements are catching up with opment time under colonial rule. They science fiction, Asimov is the kind of realize from the regular increase in in- writer who can bridge the gap between dustrial wages, material and infrastruc- scientists and nonscientists. I hope SPAN ture costs that the clock is running against publishes more such articles. them-it looks as menacing as a taxi GOPALGHOSH meter that faithfully registers waiting Bongaon

W

hat's known about the story of human population has would double the number of people on earth within a single been told in many places and in much detail. It is a story generation and multiply it by eight times in a hundred years. of a long historical struggle to survive as a species within the Every 12 months there would be another 75 to 80 million people natural system ... of fluctuations in the numbers of the human on planet earth, every day another 200,000, or, as the Indian tribe in response to natural and man-made disasters and recov- poet Dom Moraes puts it: "Every 90 seconds an Indian baby left eries ... of a steady but very gradual expansion in population the dark secrecy of the womb and came weeping into a world that could not afford it." Growth rates were most rapid, of course, in size over centuries ... and most recently a sensational aberrant spurt in world population growth that erupted around the begin- those areas where the death rates had been the highest and dropning of the third quarter of the 20th century and continues today. ped the fastest-areas which correspond roughly with the poorest It also is a story threaded through with the themes of recurrent parts of the world. mass hunger and starvation, of rigorous and sometimes brutal Demographers and others sounded the alarm. The "population means of reducing excessive local populations, of restless migra- explosion" gained currency in the public discourse. Efforts were tions over land and water in search of more abundant resources to made to explain the meaning of "exponential" growth: A populasupport human life. tion expanding at a rate of two per cent annually would mean The advent of the industrial revolution about two centuries twice as many people in 35 years, four times as many in 70 years, ago, however, appeared to circumvent the ancient dilemma of eight times as many in a bit over a century and so on-until the people and resources. With machines greatly expanding the sup- projections showed when there would be "standing room only" on earth. plies of resources within reach of man, with rising productivity of labor, and with the subsequent agricultural revolution and In the 1950s a few governments, notably in Asia, began to constantly increasing yields from the land came an abiding opti- adopt policies favoring population limitation. But the United mism about the unlimited power of the human mind to conquer Nations-sponsored world census of 1960-the most ambitious and prevail over the natural system. What came to be known as ever undertaken and the first in many places-turned a page in the the "knowledge explosion" seemed capable of supporting endless population story. The demographers were shown to be wrong, economic and social progress through the global application of but only in the sense that they had underestimated the rate of modern technology. In some countries, this mood of optimism population increase. The issue was out in the open and a great was reinforced by ideological doctrine. And, until recently, there awakening occurred which was to lead in short order to the death were new lands still to be settled and developed by new popula- of that almost universal taboo-the public discussion of populations of producers and consumers. tion as a problem.

A large array of other factors conspired to make a virtue of With the Asian states in the forefront, government leaders came large families and expanding human numbers: to see rapid population growth as a threat to their hopes for an escape from poverty. In 1967, 30 heads of state addressed a • the teaching or attitudes of some religions; declaration to the United Nations stating that because of "too • a more recent ~esire in some societies for larger populations to support an "economy of scale;" rapid population growth . . . the human aspiration, common • the economics of rural poverty, abetted by custom and some- to man everywhere, to live a better life' is being frustrated times even by law, which put a premium on cheap labor and on and jeopardized." the survival of children to provide support for their parents in The United Nations broadened its demographic interests from old age; census taking and statistical reporting to technical assistance in • an assortment of traditions, myths and superstitions with family planning and, finally, to a major funding role in a fight to respect to the virtues of high fertility. bring future fertility rates back toward a reasonable balance with All in all, social pressures in many societies placed a stigma the new mortality rates. upon couples who were not prolific and the role of women was In some countries, governments have been dragged by their largely restricted to childbearing. citizens into an active recognition of their population problems.

For all these reasons it is not surprising that governments came Accumulated evidence from many parts of the world demonstrates to favor steadily increasing populations among their national that public opinion, especially opinions held by women and by objectives. A declining birth rate came to be looked upon as a those in the medical and associated professions, frequently outway to "national suicide." And a general taboo descended over runs governmental policy. Not the least of such evidence is the public discussion of population as a problem and especially over the astonishing incidence of injuries and deaths from amateur and question of restraining population growth through birth control. often illegal abortions-estimated at somewhere between 30 and Then came the population "explosion." What happened to 50 million each year. In a number of countries, nonprofessional produce it is clear and well-known: Mid-century breakthroughs in abortions have become a leading cause of death among women in medical science and the spread of public health techniques sud- their childbearing years. And even where governments support denly brought many once-fatal diseases under control and, in the family planning services and abortion is legal, survey after survey process, opened a large and widening gap between the numbers has shown that large percentages of all births still are the result being born and the numbers dying from one year to another. In of unintentional pregnancies. the 10 years following World War II penicillin alone is estimated By 1973the great awakening to the dangers of rampant populato have saved more lives than had been lost in all the wars tion growth had progressed to a point at which countries with at in history. least four-fifths of the population of the developing world ha£!

By 1960 the world's population was growing at a rate that adopted official policies designed to turn down the rate of popula-

tion growth; and the United Nations Fund for Population Activities, established only in 1967, was supported by contributions from 61 governments, including developing nations, and was assisting 500 projects in 78 countries.

The awakening had gone far enough, too, to permit the United Nations to designate 1974 as World Population Year and to convene the first World Population Conference at the governmental level in Bucharest last August.

Given the suddenness of the population explosion-given the widespread belief that science and technology assured mankind of permanent mastery over the natural system-and given the historical, traditional, religious and cultural roots of attitudes toward population limitation, the death of a universal taboo within little more than a decade might be celebrated as a hopeful sign of the flexibility of man and of his institutions.

* * * * *

There are still, however, important areas of ignorance and lingering sources of confusion and contention about population matters.

One is that there is no single solution to the problem ofbalancing birth rates and death rates. Another point is that the human motivations which lie behind childbearing are hidden by the privacy of personal decisions.

'The needed declines in fertility rates are not likely to occur without an improvement in incomes or in the availability of social services for the poorest elements in the population.'

But this is a far cry from saying that nothing has been learnedor that simple observation and common sense hold no clues for population policy and action. Available data, recent research and practical experience have narrowed the range of earlier disputes.

Few claim today, for example, that population growth is the sole cause of poverty, and few claim that population stabilization by itself would solve other social problems. At the same time, few now deny that slower population growth would ease the solution of all related social problems. And few doubt any more that continued rapid population growth could intensify other problems beyond the possibility of any solutions at all.

Moreover, despite the complexities of population dynamics, the unknowns are transcended by a number of basic observations about which there is little remaining room for debate and which form an adequate base for national and international policy and decision making.

First, rapid and massive population growth throughout the remainder of this century is predestined for most countries of the developing world.

Extreme imbalances between births and deaths over the past few decades have led to gross distortions in the age structures within populations in most countries of the developing world.

Approximately one-half of all the people in these countries are at the present time less than 16 years of age and have not yet

formed families and begun their own childbearing.

This radical imbalance in age structures is what provides the major momentum for future population growth. It all but guarantees that total populations will continue to expand for at least several decades even if the expanding numbers of newly formed families have, on the average, fewer children than their parents did. It also means that total populations will not be stabilized even when current fertility rates reach the replacement level of approximately two children per family; for many years after that there will still be more couples entering than leaving their childbearing periods of life.

This built-in momentum also requires governments to face the question of preferred national population size long before population numbers surpass desired levels, still headed upward and still propelled by a momentum which cannot be turned off quickly. And it means, above all, that if world population is to be stabilized-by human decision and humane means-at about twice its present level by around the middle of the next century, fertility rates must start falling sharply in the immediate future.

Second, the distribution of population within countries is, in some cases, as serious an aspect of the problem as total numbers.

The near-global phenomenon of mass internal migrations of people from rural to urban areas means that cities, especially the largest cities, are growing at least twice as fast as total populations.

And the slums are growing faster than the cities as a whole, with all-too-familiar impacts upon urban resources, basic social services and public administration.

Third, population is growing faster nities in both urban and rural areas.

than employment

opportu-

Unemployment rates of 20 per cent and more are not uncommon in developing countries where as much as half the present populations will be seeking jobs for the first time in the years ahead-an indirect effect of the population explosion with forbidding implications for political and social stability.

Fourth, family planning through the use of contraceptive devices has proved to be an essential component but not the whole answer to limiting the size of families.

It cannot be proven that the existence of family planning services is responsible for significant declines in fertility rates; on the other hand, such declines have in no cases occurred in the absence of such services.

Fifth, high birth rates have both a cause and effect relationship to poverty, illiteracy and underemployment.

In the cautious words of a draft World Population Plan of Action prepared by the U.N. Population Commission for submission to the Bucharest Conference, " ... imbalances between population trends and other social and economic factors can constitute a serious handicap to economic development and social progress."

At the same time, it appears that the needed declines in fertility rates are not likely to occur without an improvement in incomes or in the availability of social services for the poorest elements in the population. There is some recent evidence of a correlation between declining fertility and access to basic health, education and social security services even where per capita incomes have remained extremely low.

Thus economic and social deprivation inhibits population control while high birth rates inhibit the very social changes

which seem most likely to bring down fertility patterns in the poorest areas.

This dilemma lies near the heart of the problem of limiting future population growth. But to recognize the dilemma is to reject the simplistic and divisive either-or approach to the relationship between population and development-and to open the door for a broader approach to these intimately intertwined problems.

There now appears to be a growing consensus that population policies and programs are inseparable from development strategies and the goals and priorities that societies set for themselvesindeed that population control is one essential means of achieving such goals. The solutions to population growth may thus be more complex than previously assumed by many; but the new perception of the problem is more sophisticated and the chances of coping with it effectively are therefore enhanced.

The broader development-population strategy now emerging is to seek to create social conditions in which people, especially the poorest people and those living in rural areas, where fertility rates are the highest, will prefer to have small families in their own perceived interests and will have access to the information and techniques required to follow those preferences.

In this context the curtailment of population growth is seen partly as a matter of family planning services, partly a matter of income, partly a matter of literacy and education and finally, but by no means least importantly, partly as a matter of full access to basic social services for the poorest parts of the society.

This new level of awareness of the nature 1!.nddimensions of the population problem provides the basis for formulation of a new, more comprehensive and more urgent approach to the population crisis in the World Population Plan of A,?tion. At a minimum it should include agreements under which each country would undertake to: • take a census at least once every 10 years; • institute an effective system for the registration of births, deaths and other vital statistics; • assess the implications of its population growth rates for its economic and social goals-especially for nutrition, health, education, housing and employment-and develop a population policy as an integral part of its national development plan, including a target figure at which population should be stabilized and the specific date by which replacement-rate fertility must be realized in order to meet that target; • review its national legislation in the light of its population policy, including its laws dn minimum age of marriage, abortion, taxation, the provision of housing and other benefits, and women's and children's rights, with a view to influencing childbearing decisions in the desired direction; • establish a central administrative unit to implement population policy and programs and give this unit outstanding people and strong political support; • include material on family life and population problems at all levels of its educational system, including ad ult education; • make information and means of family planning available to all members of its population in the childbearing years through a network of maternal and child health services and otherwise, just as soon as possible and in any case no later than 1980; • support such national research and training programs (in medicine, communications, administration, etc.) as may be

necessary to implement the above-mentioned measures; • facilitate activities by private family planning agencies and the commercial distribution of contraceptives; • co-operate with other countries-bilaterally, regionally and through the United Nations and other international agenciesin supplying information, personnel and financial support, with particular attention to the contributions which developed countries can make to assist the population policies of the less-developed countries.

This was the main aim behind the Bucharest conference: To adopt the best strategy that can be devised, for developing and developed countries alike, for bringing population growth to an end at the lowest feasible level at the earliest feasible date.

* * * * *

In April 1974, U.N. Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim opened a meeting on world resources problems with these words: "What is new is the sudden and dramatic urgency of the present situation and the acute acceleration of the historical process which has brought us face to face with a global emergency."

He went on to stress the "imperative interrelationships" of "an entirely new range of interlocking problems" embracing population, poverty, food, energy, natural resources, the environment and trade and monetary systems.

'There now appears to be a growing consensus that population policies and programs are inseparable from development strategies and the goals and priorities that societies set for themselves.'

Different perspectives may assign different priorities to these and subsidiary issues. But there is a growing awareness that they do, in fact, interlock and thus exert a· multiplier effect in an increasingly interdependent world. A brief review of the major component parts illuminates the scope of the over-all contemporaryemergency.

Poverty. For the past several decades the overwhelming political priority throughout most of the world has been to stiolUlate economic growth. Yet despite the best that governments and international agencies have been able to do, despite unprecedented rates of economic expansion, despite gains in living standards for many within national societies, the absolute number oLpeople in this world who are malnourished, uneducated, illiterate and with inadequate shelter is greater today than it was a quarter of a century ago-and that number is rising.

Food Supply. Throughout human history starvation has seldom been far away for some large part of humankind. Even when Western man was most bemused by the wonders of science and technology and constantly rising productivity, hunger was abroad in other parts of the planet.

The inherent and practical limits that soil and fresh water resources place upon the world's ability to feed its growing populations are now compounded by interrelated energy and fertilizer • supply problems, and by inflation which has put prices of even minimal sust,enance beyond the reach of untold millions.

The practical prospects for significantly increasing world food is such that things are bound to get worse before they can get production in the short term may be in dispute. But there are better for at least the next two or three decades. A briefrecapitulation makes the point: some very basic conditions which are not in dispute: • Arable and accessible land for additional cultivation of food • World population will increase rapidly and massively at least by existing methods and known technology is physically limited through the rest of this century; if it is to stabilize by the middle of the next century, fertility rates must decline in this decade and and economically expensive to exploit.

• Highly intensified methods of cultivation-the source of almost the next.

• Internal migrations almost surely will lead to still greater urban all of the increased food output of the past quarter of a centurycan have harmful environmental side effects, increase direct and deterioration; on the present course, urban population will indirect requirements for energy and run the risks inherent in quadruple within the final quarter of the century.

• Unemployment is destined to reach staggering levels as yesterecologically fragile monocultures.

• A very large part of the world's potential pasture lands is now day's children converge upon tom,orrow's job markets at an estimated rate of 300,000 each week. already in use.

• Most of the world's river systems readily available for irriga- • The absolute number of hungry and malnourished people will increase even if world food production keeps pace with population have been tapped for this purpose. tion growth.

• Underground water is becoming scarce in many regions.

• For these and other reasons, each incremental increase in agri- • Pressures will rise inescapably on limited land and water recultural yields becomes more difficult and more costly to achieve. sources, on fertilizer supplies and perhaps on many other ma• For the past several years annual increases in food production, terials and commodities. have declined, crop targets set by the U.N. Food and Agriculture • At least some forms of environmental degradation, including Organization have not been met, and food demand is rising both soil depletion and ocean pollution, will be aggravated because because of increased population and rising per capita incomes present rates of damage cannot be reversed in the near future.

The global emergency described by U.N. Secretary-General in countries reaching an advanced stage of industrialization.

Environmental Limits. Loud warnings of impending "ecodis- Waldheim, then, is not a passing phenomenon. It is all too likely aster" have inspired strenuous rebuttals, some based on techni- to persist for decades. And it strongly suggests an order of priorical arguments and some on ideological grounds or mere disbelief. ties for an urgent global agenda for the United Nations for the remainder of this century.

In its eJCtremeform it is a misleading and useless debate.

But it is agreed on all sides that population growth and present This agenda will not merely bring technical experts together forms of economic growth cannot continue indefinitely within a . to exchange ipformation. It will for the time bring governments finite natural system. It is agreed that there are outer limits to the together to examine their problems and to decide, at the political burdens that can be sustained by the biosphere without disastrous level, what they ca~ agree to do about them. What brings these consequences. It is agreed, too, that there are thresholds to the governments together under the aegis of the United Nations is the carrying capacity of the biosphere that cannot be crossed without plain fact that these problems have a global dimension in the triggering' irreversible damage to the life-support system of sense that what is done about them in one area will affect what happens in all or most other areas-which is to say that the only planet earth: Energy. Concern over present and future supplies of energy effective solutions are necessarily co-operative solutions and that resources has been too widely discussed to need repetition here. contemporary problems can only be approached within a global But for all its pervasive complexity, the plain fact is that the wor)d perspective and within a framework for action based on politiis far from being assured of the energy supplies it needs. cal 'agreement.

Natural Resources. Among the natural resources essential to Ideology and political pluralism notwithstanding, the nations human life, topsoil and fresh water head the list. As things stand of planet earth have become politically interdependent in addinow, millions of hectares of soil are being lost annually through tion to being economically and technologically interdependent.

When one sees contemporary problems-as Secretary-General erosion and other processes, and water shortages are expected to Waldheim did-as parts of a global emergency, it becomes plain prevail in about 60 countries within another decade.

Management. Beyond these physical aspects of the present that the reality of political interdependence demands a global global emergency there is the question of society's capacity to strategy for moving through the present emerg~ncy toward a more manageable state of world affairs. Such a strategy does not imply cope with the "imperative interrelationships" of contemporary problems-whether the sheer weight and complexity of today's "master plans" for execution by superagencies. What it implies interlocking issues will lead to institutional paralysis or break- is mutually consistent sets of internationally achieved principles down with a consequent spread of chaos or tyranny or both. and guidelines, supported by mutually reinforcing action plans From the all-important viewpoint of policy and decision mak- hammered ,out within a global framework by governments operating, such subject areas as population, resources, energy and en- ing at the political level. And no viable strategy for surviving the vironment are all one subject in the crucial 'sense that they con- global emergency is conceivable without urgent action to bring verge into a central crisis of choice among alternative goals, birth rates back fnto line with death rates around the world. 0 priorities and actions. And the exercise of choice is the central business of political institutions at all levels of governance.

About the Author: Thomas W. Wilson, Jr., who has been involved for In the context of the final quarter of the 20th century, the several years in various aspects of population policy analysis andformulacapacity of political institutions becomes crucial. For in major tion, is currently director of the Program on Environment and the Quality areas of human affairs, the built-in momentum of current change of Life at the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, Washington, D.C.

changing the weather, they are urging that worldwide action be taken to undo the havoc in the atmosphere that huge population centers-and the intra- and inter-city transportation modes they demand-are causing. Worse, they contend that if present forecasts of population densities come true, it will mean an even more drastic change in the earth's climate-and we may enter a new ice age.

Such dire predictions do not seem at all exaggerated to Kingsley Davis, urban development authority ofthe University of California, whose survey of world cities shows that already over one-fifth of the world's population is living in cities of 100,000 or more.

Within a scant 70 years, based on present trends of population increase, Davis predicts that there will be 15,000 million human inhabitants on our planet. Fateby THORN BACON fully, the mass will be living in cities with everalyears ago the English conserva- populations of more than one milliontionist Lord Ritchie-Calder made a and the largel't city will have 1,300 million provocative statement about the condition inhabitants: a choked multiple megalopolis of our earth when he said: "Today ours is with 186 times as many people as presently a global civilization; it is not bounded by live in greater London. the Tigris and the Euphrates nor even In the past eight years the campaign the Hellespont and the Indus. . . . It is against air pollution has been advertised a community so interdependent that our with quality, persistence and toughness. mistakes are exaggerated on a world- But in general, people still only vaguely comprehend what the gaseous exhausts of wide scale."

About the same time that comment on modern cities are doing to our planet's the magnification of mistakes was made, atmosphere. One of the main reasons for a Houston, Texas, steel industrialist, still this lack of understanding is that changes smarting from a decision of the Texas Air in the climate seem trivial and unrelated to Quality Board which he thought was the weather in our own backyard. unfair to his company, said, "It's not But you need only to look at the pall in our furnace discharges that are fouling the sky hanging like a dirty shroud above up the quality of the air, it's all this Los Angeles to see the danger signs. Multiply that smear at least 1,000 times and you stinking smog."

Houston notwithstanding, there is a can gain some idea of the size of the ring kind of mortuary smell of dead air in all of dirt pressing down on our planet.

The atmosphere is not only the air which the major cities of the world.

In Tokyo, sulfur dioxide fumes resulting humans, plants and animals breathe. It is fiom factory smoke and automobile ex- the great power generator of wind, rain hausts are so severe that traffic policemen and clouds, and it is part of, and inseparaperiodically interrupt their work to inhale ble from, the ecosystem of the earth-the pure oxygen. And Japan's health officials hydrosphere, with its oceans from which have named chronic air pollution responsi- evaporation makes rainfall, and the bioble for an alarming rise in lung cancer sphere, with its plants and trees which redeaths in that country. Tokyo is but one lease moisture into the atmosphere. The of the world's great cities in which man lithosphere-the earth's rock crust-is also has altered the natural equilibrium between part of the atmosphere in terms of human earth, air and water. activity which has mined it for fossil fuels But air quality is more than a public and other' materials of civilization. Thus, health problem-its existence, as we know anything that man puts into the atmosit, depends upon the indispensable carbon phere in the long run affects each part of cycle in nature which controls the heat the ecosystem.

According to the U.S. National Oceanic balance of our earth.

Meteorologists' used to talk about modi- and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), fying the weather. Now, confronted with during the past century more than 400,000 evidence of how our cities are accidentally million tons of carbon have been arti-

In the past century more than 400 billion tons of carbon particles have been added to the earth's atmosphere, creating a hothouse effect that is altering the temperature of the globe. Scientists believe that if this contamination continues, the mean annual global temperatur~ may rise as much as 3.6 degrees C. in 50 years-enough to melt the Antarctic ice fields.

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ficially introduced into the atmosphere.

Presently, chimneys and combustion engines are puffing out about 12,000 million tons of carbon dioxide (C02) every year.

If Kingsley Davis's forecast of population concentrations in huge urban areas proves to be only 50 per cent accurate, this rate of carbon contamination of the atmosphere may be quadrupled. Already we are living \yith a 10 per cent greater concentration of CO2 in the air we breathe than was present in 1890-and the bulk of this increase has occurred in the past 25 years.

How does this carbon excess affect climate, and is there any real danger of lasting injury to our atmosphere by an increasing burden, not only of carbon, but of other forms of man-made pollution?

So far weather scientists have answered only some of the implications inherent in the.se questions. But let's look at some of the changes we know have been brought about in the large weather picture. One of them is the .warming-cooling effect on our globe.

Normally, solar energy in the form of . light waves passes through the atmosphere and heats up the earth's surface. Energy is then reradiated outward, but as longer infrared waves. CO2, always an ingredient in the atmosphere, absorbs such radiation -the amount proportionate to the amount of CO2 present. But when there is too much carbon dioxide, it acts like a greenhouse trapping heat and keeping it at the surface of the earth.

Add to this the enormous amounts of heat produced by massed bodies of people, by industrial combustion processes and by vehicles, and the result is the formation of urban heat islands.

The immensity of this urban heating was calculated by Professor Kenneth Hickman of the Rochester Institute of Technology: Industrial activities and the crush of people in the Los Angeles basin and other human sprawls of similar size in the world release enough heat to raise the temperature by about three degrees Centigrade over a 2,600-square-kilometer area.

Cities alter or make their own weather in other ways. Thermal barriers, large linked cities actually form obstacles that force weather to flow around and over them. The recent five-year drought in the north-eastern United States was most probably a result of this phenomenon, according to Peter H. Wyckoff of the U.S. National Science Foundation.

While a majority of weather scientists forecasts a warmer world, there are others who claim the globe is growing colder [see May 1974 SPAN]. One of those is

Reid A. Bryson, director of the Center for Climatic Research at the University of Wisconsin. Bryson has proved that the tiniest particles of civilization's free-flowing gift of dust don't settle, but rise. By creating an atmospheric blanket, dust bands produce the opposite of the greenhouse effect: They stop some of the sunlight from reaching the earth. The net result is that the earth's atmosphere becomes a bright reflector bouncing portions of sunlight off into outer space. Bryson predicts a return of the bitter cold of the winters of over a hundred years ago.

Warmer or colder? What is the forecast for world climate?

Anomalous as it may seem, there is plenty of scientific evidence at hand to prove that the world is growing both warmer and colder-and at the same time.

Many experts believe that jet contrails affect the weather by altering the reflectivity of the earth.

Dr. Bernard Vonnegut of the State University of New York explains that (in addition to cloud build-up by natural causes) cirrus clouds are formed by ice crystals created by the water vapor from jet exhausts at 9,000 to 12,000 meters.

These contrails, said Vonnegut, form a cloud cover that takes in perhaps half of the United States.

In temperate and tropical regions, this artificially made cloud cover increases reflectivity and has a cooling effect. The opposite is true over the Arctic, where the haze cuts down the normally high reflectivity of ice and snow, and allows more warming by the sun.

The warming trend, however, seems better defined and subject to observation.

The behavior of wildlife and fish is indicative of global warming, says Dr. Frank Gibbon, director of New Mexico's Department of Game and Fish. "The movement of some sl)ecies north is actually proof of physiological reactions to the shift in climate," Gibbon points out, citing the poleward extension of just five animals: the jaguarundi, ringtail cat, opposum, jaguar and coatimondi. Each has moved north out of historic southern habitats.

There are other signs of the warming trend: In Iceland and Norway barley cultivation has been extended north. In Sweden, Finland, Alaska and northern Quebec the coniferous forests are growing faster and are colonizing new ground. In eastern Canada the northern limit for wheat' crops has advanced 350 to 500 kilometers, and some southern Ontario farmer~'!are even experimenting with cotton.

The seas, too, with their layers of carbon

dioxide, are changing their temperature, with the result that marine plant life is flourishing, and transpiring more CO2• This combination is responsible, marine biologists say, for the migration of fish, which are even changing their latitude.

What's ahead if the warming trend continues? Estimates vary, but geophysicists say that, given the present rate of atmospheric carbon contamination, plus other human heat-producing factors, within 50 years the mean annual temperature all over the world may rise as much as 3.6 degrees Centigrade. This would be enough to melt the Greenland ice cap, the Antarctic ice fields, raise the level of the oceans by about 60 meters, and swamp every port and seacoast in the world.

The solutions to such a global dilemma await new developments in the fast-growing technology of weather modification, but there are immediate changes in local and long-range weather that require urgent solutions. One of the most pressing problems is lead pollution in the atmosphere that prevents clouds from releasing rain or snow because of overseeding.

According to Vincent J. Schaefer, head of the Atmospheric Sciences Research Center of the State University of New York, inadvertent overseeding of clouds is caused by traces of iodine in the atmosphere combining with tiny lead particles from tetraethyl lead, the antiknock additive in most gasolines.

Seeding, whether contrived by man or nature, occurs in supercooled cloud moisture. Normally, though the temperature is below freezing, tiny water droplets remain liquid until they become ice crystals by forming around condensation nuclei such as iodide crystals. Ice crystals grow large enough to fall by colliding and collecting nearby droplets.

But clouds can become overseeded when too many ice crystals-too small to collide and collect-form and remain suspended in air currents. Schaefer verified this by duplicating the superseeding of cloudshe combined iodine vapors and exhaustpolluted air in a laboratory cold chamber.

More than 1,000 similar conclusive tests have been made in all parts of the United States and Europe.

The provocative findings so far carry some chilling implications: aside from gasoline burnoff, lead belches into our atmosphere from thousands of industrial exhaust pipes-and lead iodide, as a cloudseeding agent, has been found to be just as potent as silver iodide used by weathermen to coax rain from clouds. But "glaciation," or superseeding of clouds, requires

only small traces of iodine in the air. (Nobody really knows how much there is in the atmosphere.) There are, however, plenty of terrestrial sources for it: vapor from foliage, smoke from coal and wood, the sea and industry.

Some meteorologists argue that th~ crystallization theory of rainfall is not adequate, but whatever explanation finally emerges, the men of weather science solemnly agree on two things: the decline of rain and snowfall is serious and it is one more frightening example of man's¡ power to destroy the equilibrium among earth, air and water.

Air pollution on a mind-boggling scale; cities whose own weather covers are making desert heat islands out of them; rings around the world composed of man's dirt and dust; and population expansion that threatens the equilibrium of weather -all are factors that have changed and are still changing the climate of the world as we know it.

Who owns the air, the winds, the rain, and seas and the land? Does possession of a deed give the owner the right to despoil his neighbor's backyard whether that neighbor lives across the street or on another continent?

Here are questions of a magnitude man has never had to answer before. Some of the solutions are already in the works; others must be devised if the insidious changes already started in the ecosystem of our earth are not to become irreversible.

Presently, there is. no international agency that combines the still miniature but sophisticated art of weather forecasting and modification with an earthwatch agency on environment.

When such an agency becomes a reality, the most formidable task will be to enlist the co-operation of men of all nations to save the quality of life on this planet from further deterioration.

The alternative: The climate changes will flow on. Whether the earth will be a fit abode for man will depend, so far as weather goes, on man's acceptance of Richard Aldington's statement, "Nationalism is a silly cock crowing on its own dunghill."

In the final analysis, the weather today and tomorrow is what we make it. Any heedless encroachment by man through his civilization on his own environment leads, as the signs grimly tell us, to an abridgment of individual freedom.

D About the Author: Thorn Bacon is a member of the American Meteorological Society and has written numerous articles on weather problems.

HElP FOR THE FAMilY DOCTOR A unique program draws on the skills of exmedical corpsmen and teams them with those of general practitioners to provide community health care in many parts of rural America.

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fit weren't for Medex-a new program representing a significant break with traditional methods of providing health care services-the small town of Davenport in the Pacific Coast State of Washington would probably have lost its last doctor.

Located in a prosperous wheat farming area, Davenport (population 1,363) once boasted three physicians to serve the town and its surrounding area. Then one of the doctors left; soon another decided to do the same. As a result, Dr. Marshall Thompson faced the prospect of handling alone a practice he estimates was close to 3,000 patients. "The task was monumental," he recalls.

"If I didn't get -help, I planned to leave." As it was, he had little time to spend with his wife and five children or to keep up with new developments in the field of medicine-and almost none for relaxation or recreation. His plight was a familiar one to rural doctors throughout the V nited States: There just aren't enough doctors to go around.

Yet today Dr. Thompson is still in Davenport. His practice is thriving, his patients happy. The answer is Medex (from the French medecin extension or extension of the physician). "Medex," says Dr. Thompson, "has been a lifesaver for me."

What Medex accomplished was to give him an extra pair of hands-and highly qualified ones at that. They belong to Ron Graves, 29, an ex-V.S. Navy hospital corpsman who had six years of medical experience during his service career. Ron is one of some 30,000 medically trained personnel discharged annually from the American armed services. About 6,000 of them have provided what is called primary medical care and have often served as the only medical man aboard a ship or at an isolated station. HigWy skilled,they have had from three to 20 years of valuable experience

and may have received up to 2,000 hours of formal medical training in such fields as medicine, surgery, pharmacology or orthope-" dics. Yet when they returned to civilian life they were rarely able to use this specialized knowledge. Vntil recently, the only civilian medical job open to them, says the president of the American Medical Association, has been that of hospital orderly.

This paradox in American medicine-a shortage of family doctors on the one hand and an untapped pool of highly skilled medical corpsmen on the other-is what gave birth to Medex, the brainchild of Dr. Richard A. Smith, an innovative young black physician who is associate professor of health services at the V niversity of Washington in Seattle and director of the Medex program.

Medex draws on the skills of the ex-medical corpsman, teaming him with a general practitioner and making him what Smith calls "the first totally new health professional in family medicine in this century."

Smith, who holds both doctor of medicine and master of public health degrees, was senior Peace Corps physician in Nigeria and served later in Peace Corps headquarters in Washington, D.C., and in the office of the V.S. Surgeon General. When he went to Washington State in 1968 he learned there was not only a severe manpower shortage in the medical profession but a constantly declining physician-patient ratio in rural areas. In addition, the age of general practitioners in rural areas was steadily increasing.

Something had to be done, Smith felt, to increase the capacity of doctors already in rural areas and also to make small town general practice more attractive to new physicians. In the Seattle area, he noted, there was one doctor for about 500 patients; in some rural areas the ratio was one doctor to 5,000 patients! "We found doc-

Dr. Richard A. Smith, founder of Medex, says: 'I do not think 1 would be exaggerating if 1 said this approach can be applied in most of the 45 countries that 1 have visited or worked in.'

tors who were working 14 to 16 hours a day," he said. "Some hadn't had a vacation in seven years."

Enlisting the co-operation of a group of general practitioners who volunteered to participate in the program, Medex was launched in mid-1969as a demonstration project sponsored by the Washington State Medical Association and the School of Medicine of the University of Washington. Funding was provided by the Federal Government. Interested medical corpsmen were contacted at military installations and, after careful screening, 15 were selected to begin a three-month intensive training program at the university. This academic phase emphasized areas like pediatrics and geriatrics, in which the corpsmen had had the least experience, and stressed the psychological adaptation from military to civilian medicine.

Meanwhile the Medex met the participating physicians and, with their families, visited¡ them in the communities where they practiced. The physicians agreed to train the Medex in their offices during a 12-month preceptorship following the academic training and then to hire them if the team arrangement worked out. Great care was taken in matching Medex and preceptor for, as Dr. Smith noted, "the Medex is an extension of the physician, not a substitute." It was essential that the two work well together.

Medex (the term applies both to the program and to the new professionals) take patients' histories, do delegated parts of physical examinations, suture minor lacerations, apply and remove casts and assist physicians in surgery, all under the supervision

and responsibility of their physicians. Statistics from eight doctors indicate they handled 25,000 more patient visits in the first year as the result of their Medex. One rural physician saw 63 per cent more patients during his first year with a Medex than he had the previous year when he was alone.

So successful has the project been that it is continuing in the State of Washington-and several other states have started similar Medex programs.

"Medex is an excellent program," says Dr. Thompson. "It provides relief for a lot of overworked physicians. It is a plan that works. It established a goal and got the job done."

For Dr. Thompson, Ron Graves provides a much needed addition to the health-care team. Graves screens patients, takes histories, conducts physical examinations. "He knows when something is wrong," says Thompson, "even though he may not know exactly what it is-and this is important."

The two men share night and week-end duty. Thompson estimates that each typically works a 65-hour week. "People have a great deal of confidence in Ron's judgment," Thompson says, "and I have a great deal of confidence in his judgment. Patients know that if he feels more advanced care is needed, he'll call me.

He never ceases to amaze me. Sometimes the practice of medicine is intuitive. He's beginning to develop this sense. It's part of the art. They can't teach it to you in medical school. Some of the art of medicine, I think, is lost in our technological society. You're treating people-not diseases but people with diseases. Ron gets

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Ron Graves of the Medex program undertakes several tasks formerly on very well with people; I have yet to meet anyone who didn't performed by the community's only physician, Dr. Marshall Thompson. like him."

Ron and Linda Graves, both from small towns in Iowa, feel at He applies plaster cast (above); administers oxygen to a patient in a home in Davenport. They are active in their church, have bought hospital emergency (left); and examines a little girl's ear (far left). a house and look forward to raising their three small children fn Davenport. "People have gone out of their way being friendly to Another Graves enthusiast is Debra Portch who lives 40 us," says Linda. miles away. "My little girls just love him," she says. "He's really Medex offered Ron the career he wanted but hardly dared hope .got a way with kids. We wouldn't travel 40 miles for nothing, for. In fact, he almost didn't apply when he first heard about the would we?" project because "it just sounded too good to be true." Now, he A medical assistant at the clinic adds: "He is certainly an asset admits, "I couldn't be any happier." He likes the wide range of not only to the clinic but to the town. He and Dr. Thompson have experiencesMedex offers and the opportunity for further training. a fabulous relationship."

He has already taken courses in cardiology, electrocardiogram What do the professionals think of Medex? Dr. Walter Borneinterpretation, pharmacology and drug interaction. He sees over meier, former president of the American Medical Association, 300 patients a month, schedules appointments at the clinic every raises a question that occurs to many. "Are these men compehalf hour (Dr. Thompson's are every 15 minutes). "It takes me tent?" he asks. "Well, one of them found a hairline fracture in a more time to evaluate a case," he says, "and then I like to let patient which both the doctor and a hospital radiologist had people talk. If you listen long enough they tell you what they really missed. That is one example of competence."

Medex founder Dr. Smith, who has traveled widely in Africa, came for. It isn't always what they said at first."

Ron has the knack of putting people at ease. He is especially the Near East, Asia, Latin America and Europe, believes the basic good with the young and the old. "Being lonely is probably the elements of the Medex program provide a technological tool that worst disease older people have," he observes. "They want to talk. can be used to train individuals with or without previous medical I have the time to listen. They need to know someone cares." He experience. "That is part of our objective," he says, "to adapt the visits the local nursing home about four times a week, making a concept's technique of training and deployment of health personnel to the existing needs and available resources in any geopoint of spending time with each patient.

The people who go to the Davenport Clinic are delighted with graphic area. I do not think I would be exaggerating if I said Medex. "It's a wonderful program," says Connie Walker, mother this approach can be applied in most of the 45 countries that I 0 of three, who travels 45 miles to the clinic. Graves has taken care have visited or worked in." of her baby since the child was two months old. "He is very careful, very thorough and efficient," Mrs. Walker says. "He explains About the Author: Urmila Devgon, a writer and editor with the U.S. things so well that you know exactly what to do when you're at Information Service in Washington, D.C., was posted in New Delhi in 1949. She visited.India J1gain in 1953-55 as a Ford Foundation fellow. home. He just doesn't take chances."

LOUIS KAHN: poet of light

Through the eloquence of his work and his words, Louis Kahn inspired a whole generation of architects. On these pages, a young Indian architect discusses the factors that constituted Kahn's greatness, particularly his sensitive manipulation of light and shade.

I first met Louis Kahn when he came to give a talk at the School of Planning and Architecture in Delhi sometime in 1961.

He was on one of his visits to India in connection with his commission to build the Indian Institute of Management at Ahmedabad, and he had agreed to spend an evening with students of architecture.

It was in the old Architecture Department at Kashmiri Gate, located just within the old city wall off Bela Road. A number of local architects had come to hear him speak, but most of those present were students of architecture, eager to meet him and understand something of his way of thinking.

Kahn showed no slides of his works and he drew no sketches, but he held his audi- _ ence spellbound for the next couple of hours. He spoke of the origins of architecture, of how the first walls parted, yielding columns; how light related to material and produced shadows, and how the shadows belonged to light. He talked of his works and how he wanted to use light in different ways. He spoke of how light changed as it filtered through openings in walls and how the walls themselves could be manipulated to build a veritable wall of light.

These were abstractions, and not tangible expressions of a system that one could directly understand. Yet hearing him speak

Above left: Kahn speaks at design conference in Aspen, Colorado. Above right: Interior view of hospital in Bangladesh Government Capital Complex at Dacca. Right-: Stairwell of library, and dormitory (center) of the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

Far right: Kahn's Capitol Building for Bangladesh reflected in surrounding moat.

'The building of buildings was for him the fulfillment of his dreams-dreams which obviously had an intensity and wonder that could only partially be realized in his completed works.'

and describe things was to be in the presence of a poet who helped you to realize the richness of creative possibilities. One had read his articles and tried to understand his approach and philosophy, but this was as nothing compared to his quiet and simple way of explaining the fundamentals of form and design. After he had spoken from the platform, Kahn sat down to continue his stimulating talk with students over a candle-light dinner within the shelter of the old city wall. He talked . of many things, of the various implications of the act of building. He stopped his flow of thought to listen to a short sitar recital, but this and the old wall and the candle-lit atmosphere provided further impetus to dwell on the mysteries of the environment and its relationship to the fantastic past where it all began. It was an evening of revelation, an evening to remember.

This ability to inspire and stimulate accounts partly for Kahn's impact on young Indian architects. In fact, he was one of the two major influences in the development of contemporary architecture in India. The other, of course, was Le Corbusier. Both men came as outsiders to carry out important commissions, and in both cases their influence spread far beyond the areas where they designed and built. Le Corbusier planned the layout of an entire city-Chandigarh-and also built its main government complex, apart from other commissions in Ahmedabad.

His works provided a stimulus to Indian architecture and helped to regenerate an art, the continuity of which had been snapped through the long period of British rule.

Kahn, with his one major commission at Ahmedabad, has had the same kind of influence on Indian architecture, but in a more subtle way. Not that his works lack boldness and force-in fact, they are overpowering and monumental-but understanding them calls for an ability to understand basic human activities and their origins. His recent death has removed from the scene of modern architecture one of the most profound and creative geniuses of our time.

Louis Kahn came to architectural maturity rather late in life, and it was only in the early '50s that he began to be noticed and recognized. I was able to see some of his projects during a visit to the United States in 1965. One of them was the Yale

University Art Gallery at New Haven, built in 1951-53, his first major work and in some ways still his most interesting. A basic, simple structure, beautifully organized and dominated by an intensely rich tetrahedral space-frame ceiling throughout, it is a building sensitively related to its Gothic surroundings.

From Yale to Bryn ¡Mawr was a complete change in scene and setting. Here Kahn had built a new dormitory complex for this famous girls' college. The design had been inspired by plans of old Scottish castles where there were rooms of every conceivable shape accommodated within the thickness of the wall that surrounded the great central hall. Kahn had talked of this scheme in Delhi and how he intended the rooms for the individual students to become themselves a wall el19losing the central hall, which would be flooded with light from above, light that changed with the different times of day. The vision that had been evoked when Kahn was talking about this project was far more exciting than the hard reality. The rooms were a series of cells, rigid and symmetrical, with almost no flexibility to allow for the varied kinds of activities that they had to accommooate. The central hall, however, had something of the promise of great space with its modulated light but was only a forerunner of much richer expressions that followed in later projects. Kahn once said: "Home is the house and its occupants. It becomes different with each occupant. The client for whom a house is designed states the areas he needs. The architect creates spaces out of these required areas. Such a house created for a particular family must, if its design is to reflect trueness to form, have the character of being good for another family." Perhaps the impersonal characters of the rooms at Bryn Mawr are but a part of a process in the search for an expression of this fundamental trueness to form.

Many of Kahn's buildings, while reflecting the greatness of the conception that created them, have run into conflict

with program demands and the manner of actual use. This is particularly noticeable in one of his most famous works, the Richards Medical Research Building in Philadelphia. Here, the laboratory towers with their service stacks are set in a beautiful garden adjacent to the existing Gothic dormitories of the University of Pennsylvania. They are externally one of the most forceful expressions of modern architecture that have ever been produced. The towers and stacks have been conceived as a series of "served spaces": the main laboratory halls with their open ceiling structure exquisitely fabricated out of precast elements both accommodating and displaying the various utilities overhead; and the "servant spaces": ducts, exhausts, plumbing, staircases, lifts and other service elements. Unfortunately the building internally is unlike what it was conceived to be. Scientists have put up aluminum foil over windows to cut down external glare at various points, and the flexibility of the floor plan has led to an arbitrary subdivision of the laboratory areas, converting them into a series of warrens connected by narrow corridors of space.

I met Kahn on several different occasions in Philadelphia, at parties with friends and informally in his office. Each time it was a pleasure to meet him and a delight to hear him talk. It would seem that whatever he was engaged upon at that time became an obsession and that he had to live with this intense struggle until the various creative problems were resolved and things fell into place. On a

visit to his officeone could see that he did not spare his assistants as he did not spare himself.

A particular plan would be worked and reworked until, in Kahn's terms, it was a satisfactory expression of the "will to be" of the building-a proper response to the basic functions and activities that had to be provided for.

Kahn's major project in India, the Institute of Management at Ahmedabad, is a vast formal assemblage of structures consisting essentially of an administrative complex, student dormitories and staff housing. Set on a flat, open site it imposes its own sense of classic order with an incredible variety and richness of spaces within. The complex and its different levels offer vivid experience as one passes through the wide porches and verandahs leading from one building to the next.

The red-brick structures are massive and monumental with large arches and circular openings that define sharp modulations of light and shade. As Kahn says, "Everything here is planned around the idea of meeting." The general circulation spaces are not mere passages but areas where students may stop and talk, sit and relax, and discuss the problems that they are engaged in. The academic atmosphere is strong, and one can sense here Kahn's evocation of the essence of learning.

Kahn once said: "I think of school as an environment of spaces where it is good to learn. Schools began with a man under a tree who did not know he was a teacher discussing his realization with a few who did not know they were stl"ldents. The students reflected on what was exchanged and how good it was to be in the presence of this man. They aspired that their sons also listen to such a man. Soon spaces were erected and the first schools became."

This essential element-an environment for learning-is the most significant aspect ofthe Institute of Management at Ahmedabad, which renders its various shortcomings relatively unimportant. It is a fact that the staff housing is regimented and rigid, inflexible in its internal design, and externally organized more to the needs of the geometrically organized layout than the needs of approach and access of the

residents. The students' dormitories have small and cramped residential rooms sometimes facing directly into the extreme discomfort of the western sun-rooms which seem mean compared to the vast lounges, meeting spaces and circulation areas that take up the rest of the space in the dormitory buildings.

Kahn's contribution to the Indian subcontinent has not been restricte'd to the Indian Institute of Management at Ahmedabad. It has been followed by the much more ambitious project for the Government Capital Complex at Dacca in Bangladesh. Commissioned by the Government of Pakistan, the uncompleted complex remained unscathed during the recent war and has now become a symbol for the building of a new nation. With its National Assembly, meeting halls, government offices, a mosque, and residences for ministers and legislators, it is one of Kahn's largest projects in which he has attempted to build up a vast, new and distinct environment. Built to weather climatic conditions similar to those in Ahmedabad, but with the added factor of

intense humidity, Kahn has sought to control carefully the intake of light into the buildings. Light is almost never let directly into the internal spaces but is instead modified through vast openings in external walls, through verandahs and outer enclosures from where it finally filters in as a soft, controlled element. It is unfortunate that Kahn is no longer there to see the completion of this vast and masterly complex.

Louis Kahn was a humble and modest man, fully aware of his shortcomings and his limitations. Two years ago he remarked, "I know my failures, and that is what drives me on." The building of buildings was for him the fulfillment of his dreams-dreams which obviously had an intensity and wonder that could only be partially realized in his completed works.

Many years ago in speaking about form and design, Louis Kahn admirably summed up the limitations of the creative process, the gap between the dream and the reality; "A young architect came to ask a question: 'I dream of spaces full of wonder.

Spaces that rise and envelop flowingly without beginning, without end, of a jointless material white and gold! When I place the first line on paper to capture the dream, the dream becomes less. Why?' This is a good question. I once learned that a good question is greater than the most brilliant answer. This is a question of the immeasurable and the measurable. Nature-physical nature-is measurable. Feeling and dream has no measure, has no language, and everyone's dream is singular. Everything that is made, however, obeys the laws of nature. The man is always greater than his works because he can never fully express his aspirations. For to express oneself in music or architecture is by the measurable means of composition or design. The first line on paper is already a measure of what cannot be expressed fully. The first line on paper is less."

In the death of Louis Kahn the world has lost a poet and a singular creative genius.

0 About the Author: Ranjit Sabikhi is Professor of Architecture at the School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi. He is also a partner of The Design Group, a firm of architects. In 1970, Sabikhi was a visiting critic at the Urban Design Program, Harvard University.

A NEW GENERATION

After more than 25 years of furious construction in the business districts of American cities, designers and developers at last are producing a distinctly new breed of officebuildings-and a better one. As a result, the environment for those who labor within these buildings is improving, and the heart of many an American city is acquiring a more exciting appearance.

There are two fundamental reasons why skylines have been stretching higher not only in the largest metropolises, but also in many of America's smaller big cities.

In the first place, companies are anxious to bunch near the center of town, where space is limited and land costs are enor-

mous, so buildings must go up-and up.

Secondly, it has become far more convenient to move people up and down in an elevator rather than horizontally along a sidewalk or long hallway.

This great growth is a 20th-century phenomenon. It took until 1930 for the U.S. to acquire 100 million square meters of office space. During the following three decades, that total was doubled-and in the 1960san additiona11 00 million square meters were added. But the building boom is adding more than space; it is creating structures with vivid shapes and cities with impressive skylines, as the photographs on these pages clearly portray.

OF·SKYSCRAPERS .

New shapes reflect growing aggressiveness in design Buildings are cut and faceted, giving them a glint and pattern to rival the romantic edifices built during the earlier part of this century. Then, architectural draftsmen spent hundreds of hours embellishing skyscrapers as if they were intended to be decorative objects.

During the world wars there was neither time nor taste for ornament. Thick, vertical slabs used every cubic [-Ootof space allowed by local zoning. But businessmen soon tired of the bland buildings and a new aggressiveness in design appeared.

Office buildings were no longer just immense filing cases. They became bold geometric abstractions. The result has been a spate of uncommon forms: buildings that are triangular in plan, or elongated octagonals, or tapered towers.

John Beckett, chairman of Transamerica Corporation, one of America's largest service companies, once complained, "We're bigger than 90 per cent of the companies on the New York Stock Exchange, but nobody knows who we are." To help rectify this, architect William Pereira designed a new company headquarters in San Francisco-a slim pyramid standing, like a concrete oil derrick, 48 stories high.

While a sense of function distinguishes the best designs, an abundance of color and reflectivity add showmanship. All polished glass is essentially reflective and the tinted windows that have come into broad use since 1957 add to the effect.

And recently has come one-way mirror glass that reflects both light and heat, and thus eases air-conditioning loads. , Sincebuildings of distinction are leasing faster than mediocre structures, quality has become manifest at,ground.Jevel, too.

Early in the 1960s, new zoning provisions encouraged the building of plazas. Thus did the fountain regain a place in urban architecture, although early versions often drenched pedestrians on windy days. Now, gardens and trees have become a part of the new architecture.

Buildings soar upward, reaching for the sky Innovative designers have vastly increased interior space by more sophisticated use of structural steel and concrete.

Equally important has been the improvement in elevators. In older installations, for example, nearly all the lower floor space might be needed for elevator shafts and bulky supporting equipment. Careful engineering, along with smaller but more powerfulmotors and winches, now permits buildings to be divided into what amounts to two or three skyscrapers piled one atop the other. Each vertical section has a lobby on its lowest floor which functions as a transfer point. Another technique is

the "double-deck" elevator cab, which goes over 100 stories, fierce downdrafts lifts twice as much per trip and reduces sometimes develop, so strong they can the number of shafts needed-thus adding knock pedestrians off their feet at street rentable space. level. Careful massing of tall buildings can The new skyscrapers present some prevent this. And all new skyscraper deproblems, though. One is fire. Many eleva- signs arc now put through wind tunnel tor call buttons are flame-activated-so a ' tests before actual construction begins. fire summons all elevators to the floor So the problems get solved and skywhere the fire is, giving occupants a chance scrapers keep rising to meet the challenges to escape. But firemen, too, must utilize of more efficient office space. The New • elevators in reaching the fire area, so most York Regional Plan Association predicts new buildings have elevators that are held that the United States will double its at street level until released by firemen office space by the year 2000. And this is (occupants escape by special fire stairs). certain to spawn even more imaginative 0 Wind is another worry. Once a building architecture in the years ahead.

THE WORLD OF COMICS Thousands of Americans have been mourning the death of Little Orphan Annie, 11-year-old heroine of a 50-year-old comic strip. Its creator, Harold Gray, died six years ago, but Annie was kept alive by popular demand. The Chicago TribuneNew York News Syndicate, which owns the rights to "Annie," finally decided to stop the strip last May. At its peak in the '40s, Annie brightened the pages of some 500 papers and almost triggered a riot by angry readers when the Washington Post tried to drop the series.

Annie is only one of the many comic-strip heroes and heroines who command a fervent following in America. "Comics are one of the few important bonds linking Americans in a common experience," says British anthropologist Geoff GoreI' (the other two being films and Presidential elections).

Comics writers take in their stride compliments from the White House, requests for cartoon originals from the

highest in the land, and ecstatic letters from readers, male and female.

While comics are as popular today as they were 82 years ago when they started in the U.S., they have changed with the times. The early comics, mainly those that appeared between 1892 and World War I, were "funnies." Their titles evoked the innocence of the era"Yellow Kid," "Happy Hooligan" and "Foxy Grandpa." President Franklin Roosevelt was one of millions who chuckled regularly over the antics of Maggie and Jiggs in "Bringing Up Father." Of George McManus, creator of this extremely popular strip, Roosevelt said, "He has made the world a more genial place to live in."

After World War I, however, the comic strip lost its innocence and became more aggressive. "The public is weary of nothing but funny jokes and gags. They want suspense, romance, danger and thrills.

That's what I try to give them in Little Orphan Annie," Harold Gray once said. Besides Annie, this strip featured her

guardian Daddy Warbucks, a billionaire businessman forever battling crooks, politicians and bureaucrats, and phoning "Prime Ministers, pashas and dictators from here to Hindustan." He was not merely the comics' biggest businessman, but its hottest "cold warrior"-he would never have approved of detente with Russia or trade with Chinabut that was a different era.

Other swashbuckling heroes of the adventure comic strip were Buck Rogers, Dick Tracy, Flash Gordon and Superman.

After World War II, comics started to become funny once more. The first sign was Walt Kelly's "Pogo," which, in the words of the New York Times, "appeared on the scene in 1948 like a spring flower of innocence ... in a morass of crime, murder, torture and horror." Then came such beloved strips as "Peanuts," "Dennis the Menace," "Miss Peach" and "Feiffer." Chic Young's "Blondie" was born much earlier-in 1930-and, unlike other comic strips of the pre-World War II period, was funny rather than adventurous. A 1962 survey found "Blondie" the most popular comic strip of all time (followed by Dick Tracy and Little Orphan Annie). Its popularity has not diminished with the death of Chic Young last year. The strip is now produced by his former assistants Jim Raymond and Chic's son Dean of whom Young once remarked, "A cartoonist can get old and his ideas get old-fashioned ....

That's where I'm lucky to have Dean. He thinks of new situations that wouldn't have occurred to me."

The funnies of the '60s and

'70s are far more sophisticated, said Chic Young, than those of the early comics era. Most of today's comics readers are college educated. Maggie throwing plates at Jiggs was incredibly funny in the '40s, but doesn't amuse readers any more, said Young. "'Blondie' is much less physical and slapstick now ....

People in England always thought we were a bunch of rowdies, people slipping on banana peels. Today it takes a sophisticated person to understand 'Peanuts.' " Today's comics do not radiate sweetness and light, as did the earliest comic strips, nor do they churn one's stomach with murder and mayhem, as did the comics between the wars. They center instead on decent but unspectacular citizens with a respect for truth, a love of balance, a sense of humor. What about the comics of tomorrow? Who wants to hazard a guess?

A KENNEDY

BESTSELLER Among the spate of books about the Kennedys, Times to Remember by Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy-the first to be actually written by a Kennedy -will probably be remembered more for what the author reveals about herself than for what she tells us about her illustrious family. Daughter of a mayor, wife of an ambassador, mother of a President and two Presidential hopefuls, Rose Kennedy embodies in her book a buoyant and surging faith that carried her through tragedies, successes and joys that few women in modern history could equal.

The product of many

'MERICANS ,ARE TALKING

ABOUli

years, the book draws on Mrs. Kennedy's memories as wellas exhaustive diaries, biographies and taped conversations, all compiled and organized by former Life magazine writer Robert Coughlan. The author takes readers back to her girlhood, to her father who was a mixture of abundant energy, vitality and quick reflexes; to the rough and tumble of Boston politics; to the years of her long marriage.

The book shows that the awesome Kennedy legend owes as much to millionaire Joseph Kennedy as to his resourceful wife who ran a big household and reared, taught and trained nine children. It "needed a lot of planning, organizing and supervising," says Mrs. Kennedy. "I learned to become an executive."

Critics of the book say Mrs. Kennedy's perspective is "rose-colored," that she helps perpetuate the Kennedy legend,that she has a strong compulsion to instruct. The reader becomes a "captive pupil" and is told the minutest details-things he may not be interested in. One cannot but be impressed, however, by the dominant theme of the book, which is one of joy and a rejection of self-pity.

"Nobody's ever going to feel sorry for me," she told Jacqueline Kennedy when Joseph Kennedy died. The author's confidence in herself and her faith in God stand out clearly all through this event-filledbook. Time magazineremarked, "Even the veriestagnostic ... cannot help beingsomewhat awed by the glowand value of her greatestgift"-faith in God. Times to Remember deals

with great moments, great events, great people. Yet its style is rarely grand or inflated: It remains conversational and unpretentious. Which is perhaps one reason why the book has been for several weeks among the nonfiction bestsellers in America.

THE SANTA CLARA MIRACLE Tn many parts of the U.S., people are talking about Santa Clara County, California, which comprises about a dozen suburban towns south of San Francisco. A few decades ago, the county was a tranquil expanse of apricot and cherry orchards. Today some 800 hightechnology companies are clustered in the area, including the world's leaders in semiconductors, lasers, medical instrumentation, magnetic recording and consumer electronics. These companiesand Santa Clara's "high-voltage population" of highly talented and educated young men and women who include 4,000 Ph.D.s-have inspired innovative ferment with few parallels in industrial history.

What's remarkable about Santa Clara is that though it has become the "world's capital of technology," as Fortune magazine puts it, it remains a serene landscape of hills and plains, where fruit trees and wild flowers bloom even in February. No s.ooty smokestacks or shabby factories mar the scenery. The science companies operate in sleek, modern buildings in industrial parks.

Outdoor sports and recreation are year-round attractions.

There are 12,000 horses in the county, which some executives ride to work. Within an hour's

drive are the shops, restaurants and cultural offerings of San Francisco. Few places can match Santa Clara in combining the delights of nature with the excitement of urban life.

Who brought about Santa Clara's transformation? One man is mainly responsibleDr. Frederick Terman, Professor of Engineering (who has now retired) at Stanford University.

How he did it is a fascinating story. Over the years he inspired scores of talented young men to start their own firms. He also started a unique collaboration between the brains of industry and the academic world, which stimulated both.

In 1937, Terman took his first significant step. Under his guidance, two bright studentsWilliam R. Hewlett and David Packard-launched a company to manufacture a device built

by Hewlett-the audio-oscillator.

(This is an instrument that generates signals of varying frequencies.) Their company was located in a one-car garage of Packard's house. Today, the Hewlett-Packard Company employs 28,000 people worldwide and expects sales this year of $700 million. Terman later got Stanford University to assist two brothers, Sigurd and Russell Varian, who had developed a klystron tube. This was later to become a foundation of modern radar and microwave communications. The university's help, which consisted of $100 worth of supplies and free use of its physics laboratories, was one of its best investments; it brought in $2 million in royalties over the next 30 years, and the money is still flowing in.

Stanford University was rich in land-about 3,280 hectaresand short of funds. Terman had the university turn part of the

land into an industrial park to aid the university's growth. The first companies to be leased land for 51 years were HewlettPackard and Varian Associates.

Soon, more and more companies moved in, lured by the congenial surroundings at Santa Clara and the wealth of young talent available. The 247-hectare industrial park now has 55 company-tenants who employ 17,000 people. The university has received $18 million in prepaid leases, which produce $1 million a year of investment income. President de Gaulle of France once went round the park on a visit to the U.S., and it is said that this made him put the idea of industrial parks to work in suburban areas in France.

Santa Clara's dominant life-style, in the words of a resident, is one of "exuberant egalitarianism." There are no castles or $2 million homes here, though some could afford them.

Nor are there slums or pockets of extreme poverty. The county is not entirely free of pollution; there is occasional smog, there are traffic jams. But these are nothing compared to what one experiences in Los Angeles or New York. Some imaginative solutions are being devised for Santa Clara's problems. To reduce auto exhaust, the county has started a dial-a-bus system which may eventually cover most of the county. There are plans to process calls for bus service by computer. In the field of crime, reform houses have replaced courts and jails for young offenders.

Terman, the man who started • it all, says that some years ago "there wasn't much here and the rest of the world looked awfully big. Now a lot of the rest of the world is here."

0

WHY MOTHER. NEVER UNDERSTOOD WOMEN'S

LIB

The subject of this story never wore a pants suit. Yet despite the. cumbersome frills and furbelows of her day, she had enough freedom to start a career at 17. In the article beginning overleaf, the author explains why Women's Lib totally baffled his mother. She never had any feeling of subordination to males, and¡ she therefore saw no need for 'liberation.'

U

ntilshe died a few months ago at the age of 87, my mother held strong opinions on every conceivable subject except one.

Women's Lib baffled her. She never could figure out what the movement was all about, and my efforts to explain it seemed merely to increase her exasperation.

"Liberation from what?" she would ask.

"Well, men, I guess."

"Fiddlesticks!"

She had never felt oppressed for a moment in her life, and the idea that other women might rear and whinny against male domination was simply beyond her grasp. Her attitude toward men was one of wary affection, like that of a lion-tamer toward her performing cats. If she didn't watch them carefully they might try to get out of hand, but it was then her duty to put them, firmly and kindly, back into their places; and she never had the faintest doubt that she could do it. If she got clawed now and then, well, that was just the nature of the beasts, and she didn't resent them for it.

All the current talk about careers for women puzzled her too, because she had no trouble starting her own career at the age of 17.It was then about the best job available in her part of Texas, for men or womeneasier and less dangerous than punching cattle, which is what all her brothers and boyfriends did, and better paid as well. A good cowhand at that time got $30 a month and board. As teacher of a one-room school, she got $35. The work also carried more prestige than anything except landowning; and she set out at the same time to become a landowner.

She had a dozen pupils of both sexes, ranging from six years old to 17. The biggest was a boy her own age and nearly twice as heavy, who let it be known at 8:05 a.m. on the first morning of school that he had no mind to take orders from any girl, much less little Georgie Caperton whom he had known practically all his life. She picked up a chunk of firewood from the box beside the Franklin stove and knocked him down. When he got up spluttering she knocked him down again. By 8:10 a.m. there was no doubt about who was foreman in that classroom, and she told me that she never again had any serious disciplinary problems-nothing that she couldn't handle with a cottonwood switch.

Didn't the children ever complain to their parents about such pedagogical methods?

"Of course not," she said. "They knew that if they did they would get another switching at home."

The Wheeler County school board offered her the job because she was better educated than most people thereabouts. For two years

she had attended Goodnight College'-more of a high school, really, than a college, but at that time the only place in north Texas offering any learning above grade school. It was a private undertaking, started in 1898 by Colonel Charles Goodnight, pioneer cattleman, near his ranch at the little settlement of Clarendon. He had never had any formal education after he was nine years old, but he felt that the North Plains needed some culture and that it was his clear responsibility to provide it. So he took $30,000 out of his own bank account to put up a building and import a faculty, including one Ph.D. from Heidelberg.

The college survived for only a decade or so, because there wasn't enough money in the community to support it. The students paid what tuition they could, often in beef and hides, and the boys-who usually commuted on horseback-tended a small garden and dairy herd on the back lot. The girls lived in and helped pay their way by doing the housekeeping. On at least one occasion the whole student body, together with the faculty and the Goodnight ranch hands, had to turn out with wet brooms and gunnys~cks to fight a prairie fire that threatened to wipe the place out. To hear my mother tell it, the college operated much like a modern commune.

Complete equality of the sexes, in both rights and responsibilities, was taken for granted.

Undergraduates never dreamed of rebelling against the Establishment, because there wasn't any establishment as far as the eye could reach, barring a windmill and a barbedwire fence. Their role was to learn to found some kind of establishment in an all-butempty country.

'Her attitude toward men was one of wary affection, like that of a lion-tamer toward her performing cats. If she didn't watch them carefully, they might get out of hand.'

About her studies my mother was never very specific, although to the end of her life she remembered a little Spanish, Shakespeare, and music. She also persuaded the school board that she was qualified to teach the only subjects required: reading, writing, arithmetic, and history. Politics also may have had something to do with her appointment. Her father had served as a Confederate cavalryman under General Joe Wheeler, as had a good number of other post-Civil War migrants to the area: hence the christening of Wheeler County. Fellow veterans weren't about to let the Caperton family starve, if a teaching job for one of its girls would helpand hunger, though not actual starvation, was no stranger in those parts. The staple diet for most families was beef, beans and cornbread, with maybe an orange for each of the kids at Christmas. And for the first few years after moving West from Alabama, the whole Caperton family-a big one-lived in a two-room sodhouse. Eventually, when the family got established in the cattle business in a small way, they managed to haul in enough lumber from the nearest railroad depot to build a proper house. Today it would be considered substandard, but my mother remembered it as luxurious; for one thing, it had a wooden floor.

So did her own house, or hut, when she embarked on her career as a landowner, soon after she started teaching school. Under the Homestead Law anybody could file a claim on 64 hectares of unoccupied government land. To "prove up the claim," you had to live there for at least a year, build a house, and produce some kind of crop. The law was originally designed for the Middle West, where a farm family could make a reasonable living off 64 hectares. In North Texas, however, it made little sense, because only about 50 centimeters of rain fell a year:. The only feasible crop, therefore, was the native grama and bunch grasses-and a mere 64 hectares of such pasture didn't begin to make a ranch big enough to support a family. So it was customary for every child in a family to file a claim as soon as he or she was old enough, with the idea of adding the new acreage to the original family homestead.

My mother filed her claim on a piece of land nearly half a day's ride from the home place, and her father and brothers put up the one-room shack where she was to live out the required year. Her school was only about three kilometers away, and a few other

homesteaders' shanties were within equally easy range, so she never felt too lonesome.

Besides, any cowboy whose work brought him somewhere near was sure to drop by for a chat and a cup of coffee. She also had the companionship, such as it was, of Little Blue, an elderly retired cow pony on whom she depended for transport.

Didn't a teen-aged girl ever get scared under such circumstances?

"Yes," she said. "I got real scared once.

I was about halfway to school one morning when a hailstorm broke. Some of the hailstones were nearly as big as baseballs, and if one of them hit me, I was pretty sure it would crack my skull. So I took the saddle off Little Blue, held it over my head, and ran the rest of the way to the schoolhouse."

What happened tq the horse, I asked.

"Oh, he got a few lumps, but the hailstones didn't really hurt him. His old head was too thick."

She was never sentimental about horses, and to my knowledge she never got aboard one except when necessary. Riding as a sport never occurred to her, for the same reason that truck drivers don't go pleasuredriving on Sunday mornings.

The U.S. Land Commission Office in Texhoma, where she had to file her homestead claim, was then being run on a parttime basis by a young man who also dabbled in politics and put out the weekly newspaper.

Like other land commissioners throughout the West, he realized that the Homestead Law couldn't be applied too literally in the semidesert climate of the Great Plains. Consequently he wasn't bigoted in his inquiries into how much farming a homesteader actually did, or even whether an applicant was of legal age. His duties did require him, however, to check on every claim from time to time to see whether the claimant was in fact living there. Perhaps he inspected Miss Georgie Caperton's homestead more often than was strictly necessary.

She didn't mind. As she remembered it a quarter of a century later, he was about the first man she had ever met who didn't have to make his living on horseback, or keeping store-certainly the first who owned a derby hat. He was better educated, too, than most eligible young men thereabouts, having finished the best part of high school in the effete East: i.e., Marietta, Ohio. Already, moreover, he had had the gumption to homestead a place of his own-not on the dry and windy plains, but in southeastern Oklahoma where there was enough rainfall most yearsto raise a crop of corn, cotton or broomstraw. Before her homesteader's year was out, she had made up her mind to marry him.

I don't think either of them ever regretted it.

Their mother raised all the Caperton girls to be experienced managers of men. Because she was too busy running the household to pay much attention to the younger children, she handed that responsibility over to her daughters as soon as they were old enough to change a diaper; they became, in effect, a built-in nursery and day-care center. Their home on Sand Mountain in Alabama, where most of the brood was born before the family moved West, was a log cabin, surrounded by woods and a few thin hectares of crop land.

Their life was not much different from that of Appalachian country people today: a hard scrabble all the way.

All the children beyond the toddling stage were expected to carry their full share of work. For the girls, the upbringing of their younger brothers was just a starter. They also shucked corn, picked wild berries, made soap out of bacon grease and leached wood ashes, and did the laundry over an outdoor fire in the same big kettle used for boiling soap and scalding pigs. They knew that these chores, plus any number of others, were just as essential to the family's survival as the work done by the boys. They never had any feeling of subordination to males.

On the contrary, they grew up knowing that one of their prime duties in life was to keep menfolks from doing something foolish.

For all of the Caperton men were, as my mother put it, "a little wild." George, her father, evidently fitted the traditional pattern of Confederate cavalrymen: debonair, charming, reckless, and hot-tempered. He also was given to sudden extravagances, such as buying a piano that the family could ill afford, or a

'In addition to protecting the men under their jurisdiction from the evils of drink, the Caperton women considered themselves guardians against sin in all its other guises .... '

fast colt instead of the mule he really needed.

From time to time, moreover, he drank too much.

Several of his sons inherited some of these traits: one died an alcoholic, another was killed in an accident while racing a quarter horse. It was hardly surprising, then, that the Caperton women regarded liquor as the devil's favorite weapon. Before her marriage, my mother asked her fiance to promise that he would never take another drink-a pledge he kept with no strain, since he too had been raised in a strict Methodist family.

In addition to protecting the men under their jurisdiction from the evils of drink, the Caperton women considered themselves guardians against sin in all its other guises, notably gambling and wastrel habits. Consequently my father never touched a card or bet on a horse; but his wife couldn't quite manage to suppress his inclination to speculate in land and livestock, which he insisted was investment, not gambling. As a result, on two occasions-the depressions of 1920 and 1932-he lost everything and found himself deeply in debt. These disasters reinforced my mother's conviction that frugality was a cardinal virtue. She cut down my father's old suits to make clothes for me and my brother, saved his worn ties to make piece quilts, and cooked on a wood range long after most of our neighbors had shifted to gas or electric stoves. Even in her old age, when she didn't really need to be so thrifty, she insisted on saving scraps of leftover food that any ordinary housewife would have tossed in the garbage pail; and I don't think she ever took a taxi without feeling a twinge of guilt.

Regular churchgoing was of course regarded as a prophylaxis against sin. My mother saw to it, therefore, that the whole family went to Sunday school and two services on Sunday, and usually to a prayer meeting or church supper in midweek. She also took us to hear every traveling revivalist who came to town and enrolled me early in the Epworth League, the Methodist youth group. The upshot of this enforced piety was that I felt, when I was old enough to leave home, that I had heard enough sermons for one lifetime; I have avoided churches with marked success ever since.

Among her maxims for the governance of males, one of my mother's favorites was: "The devil finds mischief for idle hands to do." My brother and I were saved from idle-

ness, so far as she could help it, from the time we were big enough to make ourselves usefu1.At the age of six, for example, my list of chores included taking care of a pen of chickens, smelly, addlebrained creatures that I loathed.

The anti-idleness program also included such jobs as chopping firewood, stoking and cleaning the furnace, mowing lawns, peddling comb honey from door to door, delivering papers, and selling the Saturday Evening Post.

For the household chores I got no allowance -Mother didn't hold with such foolishnessbut I did keep anything I earned from outside enterprises.

All this, I am afraid, sounds a little grim; which would be misleading. Like all small boys, I developed a considerable talent for passive resistance, thus defeating many of my mother's schemes to lead me into the paths of industry and righteousness. She gave up on piano lessons, for instance, before I was 10, and at all times I contrived to spend more hours at play than at work. Besides, for all her determination, she didn't have a grim bone in her body. She loved gaiety of all kinds-at least those that didn't cost much money-and was forever organizing picnics, fishing trips, and hayrides. She also loved to dance (as my father, alas, did not), and one of her abiding sorrows was that neither she nor anybody else could teach me how to waltz.

A boy who couldn't waltz, she felt, was as illeducated as one who couldn't ride, shoot, fish, swim, or handle an ax.

She disapproved of fighting, but she disapproved even more of my getting licked.

When I came home from school one day, bloody and blubbering, at about the age of seven, she insisted that my father give me boxing lessons. Though she didn't know it, he was nearly as unskilled in that art as I was;

'One of her more original political notions was that all bachelors should be heavily taxed. The duty of every man, she believed, was to get married early .... '

but he dutifully bought boxing 'gloves for both of us, and sparred with me in the backyard until he thought I was passably nimble, or he got bored.

In public life, as in the home, she believed that women were divinely appointed to serve as custodians of morals. She worked hard for the Women's Christian Temperance Union and for its main cause, Prohibition; and she was an early, enthusiastic advocate of women's suffrage. She also held strong, if sometimes eccentric, political opinions, which occasionally led to a certain amount of domestic strife. The earliest arguments I can remember between her and my father were about politics -for she was a hereditary Democrat and he was a hereditary Republican, and neither ever succeeded in changing the other's mind.

One of her more original political notions was that all bachelors should be heavily taxed.

The Christian duty of every man, she believed, was to get married early, raise a family, and support it as best he could. Any shirker ,manifestly should be made to feel the teeth of the public fisc. Sometimes, usually after she had been condoling with an old maid, she went further.

"An old bachelor," she would proclaim, "is the meanest thing in the world. If I had my way, I would shoot them al1."

I wish she had lived to discuss that proposition some day with Betty Friedan or Gloria Steinem. She would, I am sure-well, fairly sure-have tried her best to be gentle and understanding, She realized that she had grown up with advantages no longer available to them, and perhaps never again to any but a negligible number of American womennotably an early chance to sprout confidence and self-reliance under the best of growing conditions. She would have sympathized, too, with Women's Lib in its complaints about the current crop of young men, whom she mostly considered a sorry lot-lazy, uncurried, rarely harness-broken, and unschooled in the deference they owe to the more responsible sex. But she also believed that those failings were largely the fault of today's women, who had failed to enforce Decent Standards; and for the whining self-pity that seem~ to afilict so many Lib types she would have had no patience whatever. If she had ever heard one of those lectures in which Miss Steinem tells women "how to seize control of your own lives," I suspect my mother would have exploded. Seize indeed!

Any woman who ever lacked control of her own life after the age of 10 had, by the Caperton lights, only herself to blame.

0 About the Author: John Fischer has been an associate editor of Harper's Magazine for many years.

NUTRITION & DEVELOPMENT Reviewing an important new book on nutrition, economist da Costa describes it as 'authoritative and timely' and predicts that it will receive a warm response in India.

Alan Berg, author of the book, spent several years in this country as head of the food and nutrition division of the U.S. Agency for International Development.

Social engineering is all the fashion, and one assumes that the economic historian can tell us what, indeed. it contains that is new.

"The Great Society" in the United States and Garibi !fatao in the Indian Union made national purpose look new, though, in retrospect, for alarmingly short spells. In both countries it was quickly found that all that glittered was not gold. But equally, it should be clear that the impulse to reach down to the underprivileged with the massive machinery of the state does indeed represent a new dimension in social obligation, not recognized a generation ago.

Both the United States and India have thus defined a new frontier and there are many areas of co-operation between the two countries where the experience in one country is relevant to work, or at least thought, in the other. The fields of social engineering did not figure very largely when the TCM (Technical Co-operation Mission) reached India in the early '50s. In the '60s, however, health, nutrition and feeding programs grew apace. No one need claim that all these programs had a catalytic effect in generating spontaneous growth thereafter. But there is one area where Americans and Indians have written a substantial new chapter of vital interest to all the world. This is in the area of applied nutrition, a multidisciplined attempt to diagnose and remedy the handicaps which, research has shown, follow on acute malnutrition, particularly in the case of lactating mothers and children less than six years of age.

In the mid-'60s, the United States Agency for International Development (U.S. AID) opened in New Delhi its Food and Nutrition Division. In 1966 this was headed by Alan Berg who in four years placed the philosophy of social engineering in nutrition on an entirely new base. For India at least, several new approaches in the study of nutritional deficiencies originated with Alan Berg.

He built successful bridges to many research agencies, not least

to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in New Delhi and the Institute for Nutrition in Hyderabad. With India's Ministry of Food, he initiated a breakthrough in the fortification (the addition of nutrients) of bread, bringing Modern Bakeries into the limelight with the Protein Foods Association. He placed nutrition needs at the center of the production of a wide range of new foods particularly to assist pregnant and lactating mothers and young children. He initiated with two research agencies in the United States-Sidney M. Cantor Associates and the American Technical Assistance Corporation-a massive study of a "systems approach" to tackle malnutrition in the state of Tamil Nadu. Now, as head of a special nutrition division in the World Bank he is sponsoring one of the most farsighted investments of the Bank: an attempt to avert the disasters of malnutrition in developing societies, and thus to raise productivity sufficiently to make World Bank loans viable.

In one sense, Alan Berg's book The Nutrition Factor,* which has recently come to India as a paperback, will find in this country an especially warm response. This is, in part, because Alan Berg is widely known in every area of nutritional study and is highly respected for work he has done particularly after the great Bihar drought of 1966-67. Also, his examples in the book are dominated by his Indian experience. If the United States has contributed more in preparation and presentation of this study, India has provided the fertile soil both for its theory and practice. There are few comparable cases where two countries have contributed so much in a co-operative effort to devise a global policy of value to all mankind.

Of special interest to a contemporary social historian is the manner in which the new direction given to applied nutrition was proclaimed by those who led innovation on both sides. Perhaps somewhat in excess of evidence in hand, they claimed "viability" for nutrition expenditure. They believed that apart from its compassionate appeal, it was good "infrastructure" investment. They were good social engineers, but they had in addition a powerful entrepreneurial base. They conceived projects; they found finance; they marshaled skilled personnel; they all but obtained operational viability. They sought not only to design the future-they did much in this field to make it happen.

The Nutrition Movement There is a great difference between the nutritional studies of the first half of this century and the current wave of applied nutrition harnessed, so to speak, to the massive chariot of the welfare state. In India one has only to compare the "balanced diet" studies in the '30s sponsored by Dr. W.R. Aykroyd of the Pasteur Institute in Coonoorwith the current output of hundreds of diverse approaches to deliver a minimum calorie/protein intake to target

*

The Nutrition' Factor. Alan Berg. The Brookings Institution,

Washington.

'It has taken a generation for the lessons of nutritional science to enter the world's highest councils of decision. How long will it take before these respond to the anguish of millions dying?' groups, particularly pregnant and lactating mothers. What was once a person-to-person diagnostic and curative approach affecting at the most 100,000 persons per year has developed into an all-embracing protective strategy which one day could conceivably cover 100 million persons in India.

This massive broadening of nutrition operations reflects the entrepreneurial quality of men like Alan Berg, who brought an international outlook, international finance and a stirring of local entrepreneurship to provide a grand design for what may be called "macro-nutrition"-nutrition viewed from a national perspective rather than from the framework of limited projects for curative treatment after the ravages of malnutrition have taken place.

Berg and others achieved this by a process of imaginative presentation of a single neglected theme: that malnutrition, particularly in children under six, is as serious a malady as malaria and smallpox. It must be eradicated, like the infectious diseases, by an extensive preventive program co-ordinated with the public health policies of all state governments.

Largely because of the acute poverty and malnutrition in many developing societies what might have been a purely domestic responsibility has become a matter of international concern. With the Bihar drought in 1966-67,then Biafra, and now the catastrophic droughts in North Africa, there is increasing interest in an international nutrition movement. It is to that movement that Alan Berg's book is addressed. It has come none too soon.

The book is valuable not only because it is authoritative and timely. It also has literary merit; indeed, in some sections, it shows outstanding journalistic skill. Consider this introduction to Chapter II: "The light of curiosity absent from children's eyes.

Twelve-year-olds with the physical stature of eight-year-olds.

Youngsters who lack the energy to push aside flies collecting about the sores on their faces. Agonizingly slow reflexes of adults crossing traffic. Thirty-year-old mothers who look 60. All are common images in developing countries; all reflect inadequate nutrition; all have societal consequences."

Or, later, on the merits of breast milk. "Human milk is in many ways the perfect food. In the words of Oliver Wendell Holmes: 'The breasts were more skillful at compounding a feeding mixture than the hemispheres of the most learned professor's brain.' " The relevant statistics are all there; Appendix B contains many statistical tables and, for the truly curious, Appendix C provides a "Methodology for Computing the Value of Human Milk." But these have been wisely removed from the written text which is concise and flows smoothly.

Malnutrition and Poverty Malnutrition is linked, quite naturally, in the public mind with poverty. And it is generally assumed, quite wrongly, that the burden of malnutrition falls equally on all the destitute. This is not the case. At almost every age above six years, corrections for malnutrition are physiologically possible, and clinical treatments have now advanced so much that complete cures can be achieved in a very short time. This is not a new discovery: In World War II, POWs who had lost half their weight because of inadequate diets recovered their full weight in less than six months. With children the effects of malnutrition are irreversible, for brain cells do not multiply; as a consequence physical disabilities which are con-

nected with brain functioning may not be remedied. Dwarfism, low weight and mental retardation may run together, inflicting on children a life-long disability.

The technologies for preventive action have been proved. The Tamil Nadu study, sponsored by U.S. AID, developed a total strategy, sometimes called a "systems approach," by which the production of appropriate foods and their distribution to target groups are programed together.

What is to be consumed must first be produced and processed or fortified. But delivery to the right households and then to the right individuals in each household requires elaborate food habits studies, for which much factual preparation is still required. However, two or three central conclusions reached in Tamil Nadu suggest that the problem may not be as acute as expected. First, protein deficiencies were found to be surprisingly low suggesting that fortification of existing foods-a matter of great difficultymay be of low priority. Second, calorie deficiencies are high but are not related only to income-curiously, many lower castes with low incomes are better protected by traditional diets than are those of higher castes in higher income brackets. At the severe deficiency level of 60 per cent of calories required, however, there is generally an income threshold. If households are given income in money or in kind of about Rs. 30 per adult per month, based on 1972-73 prices, calorie deficiency becomes marginal at the 80 per cent level at which permanent brain damage to children below six years can probably be prevented.

Nutritional Deficiencies

While The Nutrition Factor represents the current state of knowledge of nutritional deficiencies and the extent of their prevalence, there are many cases where, because of famines since the book was published, the situation is much worse than is indicated.

This is particularly true of the nutritional disease marasmus which is caused by a gross shortage of both calories and protein, or kwashiorkor, which is the result primarily of a shortage ofprotein.

It is stated that kwashiorkor, with its trade mark of bloated bellies and glassy stares, affects 0.2 to 1.6 per cent of the population in low income countries apart from the un hospitalized victims which may be six or eight times as many. Today, famine is rampant in Ethiopia and the African nations of the Sahel (Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta). Chronic food shortages exist in some areas in Nigeria, Tanzania and Kenya. In the Sahel, rains have failed for six years running, and at least 100,000people are believed to have died of starvation already. An emergency worldwide program launched last year is believed to have saved one million Africans from starvation.

But, even with aid of up to one million tons of food, malnutrition is twice as high as estimated in 1973 and appears to be doubling in 1974. Rickets, scurvy and beriberi are all back in some degree although Alan Berg states that "for policy purposes in most countries they have become of secondary importance." •.

However, he is right for normal times to deal more specifically with Vitamin A and iron deficiency, both of which yield to fortification at very low cost. He states that processed foods can be fortified with vitamins A and D by an addition of 0.04 cents (one-third paisa) to the cost of a quart of milk; the iron compound necessary to fortify salt costs four to six cents (30-60 paise) per

capita per year; the iodate (to prevent goiter) one-sixth of a cent (1.3 paise). Thus, if the new foods are being absorbed anyhow by those most in need, vitamin and mineral deficiencies can be cheaply remedied. But how does one overcome a shortage of calories when the main foods are insufficient or there is a deficiency of animal protein when the diet excludes meat and fish? These are problems which have not yet yielded to any easy solutions.

productivity of four per cent would result, the evidence would be strong. In fact, however, all labor will not be affected. Nor is the fact quoted that returns on education have been estimated at between nine and 16 per cent really relevant. Education and nutrition are separate activities. It is difficult to establish that the returns run parallel and, when money is terribly short, as in developing countries, where does one draw each line?

Feeding Programs

Nutrition and the Population Dilemma

Feeding children through public programs (which has been widelypracticed in India) has been very disappointing. It is stated that, "the one unambiguous finding of the Orissa study was the absence of any significant physical differences between students who participated in school feeding programs and students who did not in a random sample of 24,000 schools. However, a careful correlation of physical measurements and number of feeding days showedthat a well-administered and consistent program produced positive nutritional results. The failure of the feeding programs may lie not in the concept but in their implementation-insufficient or poor food, or inadequate administration."

In the Philippines and EI Salvador, protein supplements provided over extended periods brought no significant change in health status. At the end of a long period of experimentation, it is becomingincreasingly clear that much correction must come from changes in the diet at home. In any case, for children below four years, who are most vulnerable, the school comes too late. Nutrition protection should come before a child is born by protecting the pregnant mother. Far too little has yet been done in any developing country to accomplish this in the lowest income groups.

. There is even more skepticism possible with regard to overcoming the objections raised by neo-Malthusians who maintain that saving human life or raising the normal expectations of human life will not aggravate a serious population problem. That the birth rate will eventually respond to higher standards of living may be conceded, even though this, too, is an assumption. But the very long period for population control is quite unacceptable to those who are fearful of the next 10 years. Surely the argument should be accepted that nutrition policies will reduce the death rate. Why else are they being instituted at all? To the extent that they increase the demand for food, they will also create a food problem. The solution is in greater agricultural productivity and more effective measures of birth control. Clearly, it is wrong to permit death to decImate children before they have lived at all.

That is the purpose of a new policy on nutrition.

It may be interesting to speculate on the future of nutrition policies and to end this review by quoting the first sentence of Alan Berg's book: " 'I think it could be plausibly argued,' wrote George Orwell in The Road to Wigan Pier, 'that changes of diet are more important than changes of dynasty or even of religion.' " For whom and for what? There is no proved link between adequate nutrition and genius, though there is clinical proof that malnutrition can lead to mental retardation. Are adequately nourished men and women happier, as well as weightier, than their fellow citizens? Would nutrition make any difference to the character and behavior of working people? There is at least one Indian view to present: Malnutrition is lower in the Punjab than in any other state; the capacity to work, with apparently the will to eat well, produces a kind of camaraderie in the Punjab not readily seen elsewhere. It may be that, after all, working forces, like Napoleon's armies, march upon their stomachs. This does not, of course, solve all problems. But a hard-working, cheerful and wide-awake community is less likely to press for swift and violent changes in the social order. At turning points in history the quality and quantity of food available are often linked with the passion for stability. Perhaps George Orwell was right after all.

And now with millions dying of famine in North Africa, hunger is again in 1974 replacing energy as the world's major challenge.

The greater the shortage of food, the more pressing is the need that it should be used with efficiency. It is all to the good that in the process we should learn anew the perennial debt the world owes, but never pays, to lactating mothers. This is, indeed, the miracle of human life: that it renews itself at all with so tenuous a thread between generations. It has taken a generation for the main lessons of nutritional science to enter the world's highest councils of decision. How long will it take before these councils respond to the anguish of millions dying?

0

Malnutrition and Development - While there appears to be a major breakthrough on welfare strategy, one cannot assume that what is desirable on a welfare level can establish viability in an economic sense. There are, indeed, substantial reductions of productivity losses caused by debility of a portion of the labor force. But malnutrition also reduces the number of working years by causing premature death.

There are substantial savings in medical costs through less hospitalization: "In Caribbean hospitals 20-45 per cent of the pediatric beds are filled by nutrition cases; in India, 15 per cent; in Guatemala 80 per cent."

The author lists four other areas of possible economic return: • As the incidence of communicable diseases among the adequately nourished is lowered, the exposure of others to these diseaseswill be reduced.

• The increased income of well-nourished workers should improve the living standards of their dependents, thereby raising both their current consumption and their future productivity.

• Housewives, whose activities are not measured in a market economy, when better nourished should show improved performance on a number of economically important functions, not least of which is the quality of care for the young.

• Returns may be raised on other investments closely related to human well-being, particularly education. (Low-income countries nowspend nearly four per cent of their gross national product on education, almost a third more than in 1960. The efficiency of the education systems they support may be reduced as much as 50 per cent by the dropout and repeater rates to which malnutrition contributes heavily.)

Why in the face of all these advantages is the investment in better nutrition not easily accepted? In part because returns take a long time and, even when assured, appear small. If a rise of

About the Author: Eric P. W. da Costa, a well-known economist, is editor and publisher of Monthly Public Surveysand Monthly Commentaryon Indian Economic Conditions. Both are publications of the Indian Institute of Public Opinion. of which he is the founder and managing director. From 1948 to 1962, da Costa was editor of the Eastern Economist.

LECTURING

Americans, jaded by the fare they are fed on television, radio and in the movies, are reviving an ancient art-the public lecture-and they are paying some $100 million a year to do so.

W

IS BIG BUBIIIIS

hat American in his right mind would sit voluntarily for two hours in a drafty gym listening to humor columnist Art Buchwald talk when he could read him over breakfast in the daily paper? What American of good sense would trek halfway across town in the slushes of March to hear Hugh Downs, instead of simply tuning him in on TV? Nobody, one would suppose, yet today millions of Americans are dressing up, going out and paying an amount estimated to be as high as $100 million annually for the privilege of hearing other people talk. At a time when the mass media are already bombarding us with more information than we can possibly absorb, the archaic art of the public lecture is, in fact, booming.

A Ralph Nader, a Shirley Chisholm, a Gloria Steinem, a Dick Gregory-people who speak to the current demand for the socially or politically significant-could be booked around the circuit 365 days a year, according to the lecture bureaus. Some of the biggest draws, undoubtedly, are the investigative reporters: Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, the Washington Post reporters who exposed much of the Watergate scandals, muckraker Jack Anderson, et al.) although the number of their engagements must of necessity be limited. Probably the two people most in demand are two who won't speak at all, novelist Kurt Vonnegut [see July 1974 SPAN], who industry sources say is too shy, and Henry Kissinger, who, of course, is not but who isn't available; when he becomes so, he will be the "hottest property in the history of the. lecture business."

The hot properties of the past have been those who dealt heavily with the spiritual, or literary, or humorous; the audiences wanted to be uplifted, or amused. Today, howeverthough Erich Segal is, to be sure, still out Reprinted Magazine.

with special permission from the New York Times Copyright Š 1974 by the New York Times Company.

there explaining "The Future of Literature" and Anthony Burgess, "The Nature of Comedy"-people get much of their ordinary entertainment from television and look to lectures for something else. Dick Gregory especially is a phenomenon all by himself.

Several years ago he abandoned a highly lucrative career as a night-club comic to devote himself to lecturing on social issues.

The gloomy prognostication was that he had foolishly destroyed his career. Now he lectures about 300 times a year for a gross price approaching a half-million dollars and a before-tax net of something between $150,000 and $250,000. Despite this awesome income, a lot of which he gives away, nobody doubts that Gregory's real motivation is a fervor about social issues, which is one reason for his popularity. Incredibly, he is being booked not merely to college audiences, but also at business conventions of the sort that once would have insisted on a speaker from the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.

'H social fervor moves the lecture business today, the grease that keeps the wheels from squeaking is money.'

Of course there are fashions in lecture topics as in anything else. Right now, says Bob Walker of the American Program Bureau, "ecology is slipping; the feminist movement is slipping. The American Indian movement is getting big; so is the UFO [Unidentified Flying Objects] thing. And we've got 50 dates for Stewart Udall on the energy crisis." The crucial point is that the lecture must have some fairly cosmic importance. Audiences are just as willing to become exercised over pot laws as election laws, so long as they are exercised by something of significance.

Even the traditional opening jokes tend to be socially relevant. Ramsey Clark, who has designs on the Democratic nomination for Senator from New York, sometimes begins a lecture by saying, "People have short memories. Ever since Mitchell and Kleindienst had the office, people keep forgetting that I was Attorney General once myself. I aggravated most, infuriated many-but I never bugged any." So, too, the opening

lines for special audiences may have a special sting. In speaking before a group of 900 neuropsychiatrists, Art Buchwald began by saying, "I was once in therapy myself, and this morning I told my wife that it was kind of a patient's dream come true to stand up here. She said, 'Just make sure they pay you for it-otherwise it won't do them any good.' " If social fervor moves the lecture business today, the grease that keeps the wheels from squeaking is money. There is so much lecture money around that Ralph Nader, who gets up to $3,500 a speech, counts on his lecture fees as an important source of support for his various organizations. A top-drawer speaker like Buchwald or actor-director David Niven could, like Gregory, gross well over $250,000 with a net after expenses and agency fees in the $150,000-to-$200,000 range.

The trouble is that few famous people have the time or inclination to stay out on the circuit constantly. Even so, Buchwald, who likes to lecture about once a week during the season-say 35 times a year-can net something like $50,000 a year. Spiro Agnew could still make a million dollars lecturing, Bob Walker says, and Agnew is interested-but he isn't ready yet.

The business end of the business is mainly in the hands of a dozen or so bureaus which, for a cut of the fee ranging from 20 per cent to 40 per cent, bring speaker and organization together. The Tiffany of the bureaus is probably W. Colston Leigh, which has been in business since the 1930s.Leigh handles 100 or so speakers, whom it books about 1,000 times a year. The list includes hotshots like Niven and Buchwald, but tends to run generally to classy types like Harrison Salisbury, Eugene McCarthy and Max Lerner. Bill Leigh, son of founder Colston Leigh, who is still active in the business, says, "Some of our people seek us out, sometimes through their publishers. In other cases we actively go after somebody we want. We don't audition them. Generally, you can tell by talking to a person whether he's going to be able to give a good lecture. We've hardly ever been wrong about this. We don't write their speeches for them either, but we do work with them on topics, to make sure that their subject is salable, interesting, and appropriate to them." Bill Leigh's speakers get fees ranging from about $500 to above $2,500, with the norm running somewhere around $1,500; the buyer may also be paying trans-

portation expenses, but the arrangement differs from speaker to speaker.

Bob Walker's American Program Bureau (APB, as it is known in the trade) claims to be the largest bureau in operation today, booking some $4 million worth of speakers a year.

Walker, who dresses in modishly checked trousers and ties 10 centimeters wide, and who possesses a verbal flow that few of his speakers can match, says, "I started the whole boom in college speakers in the mid¡'60s .... The colleges were terribly stodgy, booking the cellist, the Senator, the guy who plays the spoons.

We started to rap with the college kids to find out where they were at. They said they were interested in civil rights, drugs, the poverty problem. But they said that administrations wouldn't book people like this. I told them that it was their money; they ought to have a say.... Well, the kids were getting more control of activities on the campus anyway. So I went out and got the controversial speakersthe Rap Browns, the Stokely Carmichaels. I had Timothy Leary, Ti-Grace Atkinson; I had Julian Bond before the Democratic convention; I had witches and warlocks two years before Time had them on the cover."

Unlike other bureaus, APB does hold auditions of a sort. Prospective clients are asked to come to the headquarters in Boston, where they are introduced to the agency's salesmen, most of them young, who spend their time phoning around the country selling lecturers.

The prospect doesn't give a lecture to the salesmen so much as he simply raps with them, so they can get a feel of the kind of person he is, and what he's interested in, in order to get an idea of what audiences, if any, will be interested in him.

H

owever useful the bureaus are, it is the audiences who finally decide who is going to cut into all that $100 million. Surprisingly, the Steinems and Bonds are being booked by more conservative organizations with increasing frequency. Godfrey Cambridge has spoken to meetings of police chiefs several times recently, and Nikki Giovanni, the black feminist poet, has been speaking to women's groups in the suburbs. Two of the speakers in greatest demand now are Christine Jorgensen, who speaks about her life and transsexualism in general, and a metaphysicist named Uri •.

Geller, whose principal stunt is to make keys bend by mental energy or something. That

Jorgensen, Geller and such old Hollywood pros as Vincent Price are at the top underscoresthe fact that lecturing is always, at least in part, show business. Social significance is important, but you'd better be lively, too. For example, Bob Walker is booking on the college circuit a descendant of Dracula, who combines some scholarly information about the real Dracula with a touch of the horrific.

C

onversely, conservative speakers are a booking problem. Andrew Wirtz, director of the Bristol Campus Center at Bamilton College,says, "We've had many liberal speakers here-Kunstler, Julian Bond, Shirley Chisholm. We hear from the students all the timethat they'd like equal time for the conservative position. The trouble is that when you're fighting for an audience, the conservatives don't attract. We had Ron Ziegler here in the spring of 1971and he pulled about 300 people. Lester Maddox would probably pull here, although he'd be a gamble, and if he were out of the wheelchair, Governor George Wallace. We've tried to get William Buckley,but he's on a three-year waiting list becausehe doesn't speak that often."

'Lecturing is always, at least in part, show business. Social significance is important, but you'd better be lively, too.'

Monty Kaufman, in charge of hiring speakersat New York University, agrees that conservatives don't draw well, but he adds, "People will not come out to hear the good speaker,they'll come to hear the name speaker. Linda Lovelace of Deep Throat is speaking, Georgina Spelvin of The Devil in Miss Jones is speaking, on pornography and permissiveness.

A portion of the lecture trade still goes to the travelogue-such as those presented by Norway's Thor Heyerdahl or John Rogers, who was associated with Lowell Thomas for many years. And there are hundreds of lecturers with their own special topics. One is a former space scientist named Stanton T. Friedman. He says, "I had 14 years of experienceworking in nuclear aircraft, rockets and so forth for General Electric, General

Motors, Westinghouse. I've always been interested in UFOs, and I started by giving a talk insomebody's living room. After I gave a few more I was shocked to discover the kind of fees that were involved. Three and a half years ago I got caught in an aerospace lay-off crunch and I said the hell with it, and went into the lecture business." Today Friedman gives a lecture called "Flying Saucers Are Real" about 100 times each year, mainly at colieges. Five or six times a year he swings through a section of the country, hitting as many places as he can. His fees range around $650 per lecture.

Time is a key factor. An author like Alvin Toffler can fit his speaking engagements into his writing schedules, and Vance Packard dovetails his lecture dates with his research trips; but the investigative reporters who are in such great demand have newspapers to help put out, and can't thoroughly capitalize on what's probably going to be short-lived fame.

Their impact, at least for the moment, is important, particularly in creating a muckraking cast of mind on college campuses. When Les Whitten spoke at Hamilton, he made a point of visiting the offices of the college newspaper, The Spectator. In the course of conversation, editor Fred Bloch mentioned that his staffers had been doing some investigative reporting themselves, and had discovered two of the three names on the highly secret list of candidates for the vacant college presidency.

Said Bloch, "The administration doesn't want us to run the story." Whitten exploded. "A college newspaper that isn't in trouble with the administration half the time isn't doing its job," he said. Bloch ran the story, and it was, no doubt, a valuable lesson learned for both administration and newspaper staff.

A lecture committee's problems aren't necessarily over once it contacts the lecture bureau. Artist Andy Warhol, shyer than most, once agreed to a lecture but apparently panicked at the last moment and sent an actor, with his hair dyed silver, to deliver the talk.

Then there is the college president who arrived at the airport to pick up his speaker, only to discover that the man, an old actor, was barely able to totter to the lectern. (Nevertheless, the president made the introduction, the actor struggled to his feet, gave two hours of absolutely brilliant readings and collapsed again-with everyone so pleased with the talk that he was booked for the following year.)

And as Buchwald recalls: "One time these people met me at the airport, right at the foot of the stairs getting off the plane. They got my baggage and then they took me off to this party they had going. Meanwhile, the program chairman was sitting at her dinner party where I was supposed to be, waiting for me to show up. The people who collected me at the airport had nothing to do with the lecturethey knew I was coming in and they kidnapped me for a lark."

W

hy, considering such pranks, considering the inevitably rushed meals, the mandatory cocktail parties, the two-hour drives to airports, the fogged-in planes, the drafty halls, the malfunctioning P.A. systems, why does the lecturer inflict such punishment upon himself? For one thing, there's the money, certainly. The wages of poetry being what they are, for somebody like Nikki Giovanni lecture fees constitute the bulk of her income. Dave Meggyesy, the football player turned hippie, admits that he needs the money.

But both Giovanni and Meggyesy insist that there's something else to it. Says Meggyesy, "I've got something I want to get across. I've got something I want to tell the people."

Giovanni says, "You have to take your stuff to the people."

But what about Art Buchwald, who is hardly one of your Hundred Neediest Cases?

He explains: "Sure it can be a pain in the neck. Sandy Vanocur says that the worst thing is to drag yourself back to the Holiday Inn and discover that you don't have a quarter for the vibrator in the bed. And the partying-they get smashed and start telling you, 'Buchwald, your column stinks.' I don"t drink," Buchwald g0es on, "so I have no defense at a cocktail party. But I've been doing it for more than 10 years and I'll go on doing it. For one reason, it gives me a chance to get out of Washington. It takes me to places I have no other reason to go to. I talk to every conceivable kind of person. I feed on this; I live on this; I get a feel of Americans I'd never get in Washington. On top of it, I'm a ham."

0

About the Author: James Lincoln Collier is afreelance writer '(he doesn't lecture) whose articles "" often appear in such magazines as the Reader's Digest and the Baltimore Sunday Sun. He has written a number of books on music for children.

WEIGHING THE PROS AND CONS Dr. C. Fred Bergsten, a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, believes that the interplay of interests among the host country, the foreign investor and the foreign investor's home country distributes economic leverage in a manner enabling the host country to determine how the benefits shall be shared.

Dr. Bergsten is interviewed

by USIS staff writer Sam Burks.

BURKS: Dr. Bergsten) what are your views concerning the proper role of private foreign investment in promoting economic growth) particularly in the less developed countries ( LDCs)?

BERGSTEN: It differs by country and it differs by industry. But to the extent that you can generalize, I think that the things the multinational corporations have that nobody else has are technology in production and an international organization for marketing. And marketing is crucial because as you look at the efforts of a number of developing countries to boost their foreign exchange earnings through exports, you often find that the crucial problem is an inability to market effectively-by which I mean to figure out what products are needed and will sell around the world, how to tailor their products to the demand, how to package and put them attractively so that they will be picked up. The multinationals do bring that kind of expertise through their own marketing networks and through the connections they have back in the big markets in industrialized countries.

If you look at some success stories-such as those of Hong Kong and Singapore-you see that instead of producing something and then going out and trying to sell it, they send people around the world to decide what is needed and then they produce it.

Now it is not inherent that you must have multinationals to do that function. Hong Kong did not in most industries. You can build up the expertise and contacts yourself. But it does take time, and you can get a head start or faster jump into the process by having the multinationals help you out.

On the technology side, a number of multinationals have access to particular technologies that might be very difficult for the countries to get any other way. Again, it depends a little bit on their leverage and how they would play it. The Japanese, for example,have gotten access to certain technologies without taking the foreign firm, by simply insisting on licensing agreements rather than on actually having the firms come in. But not many LDCs have the same kind of economic leverage that the Japanese have in terms of a big market and all that. So I would think most LDCs would benefit on the technology side from getting the firms in.

Here you have to make some distinctions between manufacturing industry and extractive industry. In extractive industry, the marketing advantage is often the more important. On the manufacturing side, the technology may be the more important. That's not to say marketing is unimportant in manufacturing or that technology is unimportant in extractive industries.

national structure to avoid paying a fair share of taxes to a particular host country.

Now I happen to think that virtually all of those costs are susceptible to corrective action by the government of the host country. I don't think that it is inherent that a host country suffer those costs. For example, there is no reason for them to give tax breaks beyond a certain point. There's no reason for them to let the company get away with intra-corporate pricing gimmickry.

They simply should demand open, audited books for purposes of tax levies. And if they don't believe what they are given, then they can question the companies on the prices, just as the U.S. Treasury questions the accounting practices of U.S. corporations. When it thinks that intra-corporate transactions are not based on armslength prices-prices that would ordinarily be expected to prevail in the open market-it attributes what it considers a fair and reasonable price to the transaction and levies the tax on that basis.

On the question of jobs, if the country feels the firm is pursuing a capital-intensive technology that does not help with its unemployment problem in a way it wants, it can insist on the use of labor-intensive technology-not labor-saving technology. Now every time it does this, of course, it runs some risk that the firm willjust pull out and not pursue the investment at all. So it has to be careful in calculating how far it can go.

BURKS: One hears the criticism that the technology introduced by investing firms is sometimes inferior and does not fill the needs of the host cOllntry. Would you care to comment on this?

BERGSTEN: The less developed countries, paradoxically perhaps, often may not want the best technology because many of them are preoccupied by their unemployment problem ....

It is quite conceivable that some developing countries, faced with high unemployment, would prefer a foreign firm not to use its most recent technology if that technology were highly capitalintensive, but rather would prefer labor-intensive technology which would put a lot of people to work even if the output were not quite as efficient.

The industrialized countries, on the other hand, would be most interested in receiving investment that carried with it high technology, because they are interested in pushing out to the frontiers of new developments and achieving a technological lead, participating in the leading industries that have the highest technological components.

BURKS: Another criticism heard in the less developed countries

BURKS: You have touched upon some of the beneficial aspects of private investment abroad. What are some of the costs incurred by the host country?

is the claim that foreign investors take more out of a countrythrough repatriat ion of profits and other outflows-than they contribute. What is your view on this?

BERGSTEN: There are psychological and political costs which, I suppose, are really the most important-the feeling of "dependencia," as the Latin Americans refer to it; the feeling that your destiny is in the hands of somebody else.

There may be some economic costs in that the multinational may siphon off your best manpower-hire your best people to work for it and then absorb them into its network, rather than encourage their working for the country or any of the country's other enterprises in the future. In some cases, the multinationals maytake advantage of tax breaks or take advantage of their inter-

BERGSTEN: This criticism is heard mainly in extractive industries, where you get heavy repatriation, and industries that are well-entrenched. You don't get much repatriation in new industries that are growing very rapidly. They plow back most of their profits.

You have to ask first what you mean by excess profits, or excess repatriation. It is completely fallacious for a developing country to say that company "X" takes out $100 million this year and only puts $5 million in, so there is a loss of $95 million. That is nonsense, because the $100 million of profits is based on the

The host country 'has to try to figure out in a negotiating strategy how far it can push to achieve its objectives without driving the firm away.' thousands of millions, probably, of investments that have been made over the last 20, 30, 40 years, ¡in some cases, which have brought lots of jobs, lots of exports, Jots of tax revenues.

BURKS: What about the claim thatforeign im'estors borrow money in local markets and thus make it more difficult for local investors to obtain credit? Is there any justification for that criticism?

BERGSTEN: Yes, I think there probably is-':'in that it both makes it more difficult for local investors and obviates any input of foreign capital that might ease their balance of payments in the short term. Now, in the longer term, of course, it means they are repaying those loans in the local capital market, which will put more capital back into that market and avoid repatriation of higher earnings abroad.

If corporations borrow abroad, as U.S. firms have been forced to do by the U.S. balance-of-payments controls for the last nine years, then host country entrepreneurs can make the criticism: "They are buying us up with our own money."

If the host countries want to bar the foreign firm from access to the local capital markets and force it to bring in money, they can do that. And some have. The Australians have done that to some extent. So, again, it gets back to my basic theme that any sins that may exist are remediable by the efforts of the governments of the host countries.

BURKS: What can the host country do to maximize the benefits of foreign investment and minimize the negative aspects?

BERGSTEN: It has to try to figure out in a negotiating strategy how far it can push to achieve its particular objectives without driving the firm away, or without driving the home countrythe United States in many cases-to itself place impediments in the way of the investment. It has to array its priorities, zero in on those two or three things that it may feel most undercut its own interests and then negotiate improved conditions in that regard.

BURKS: Some economists claim that there has been a shift in recent years in the balance of power, from the investing firm to the host country, in setting the terms of foreign investment. What are your views on this?

BERGSTEN: The balance of power shifts very rapidly between firms and the host country. When the country is trying to attract more investment, then the firm really has the bulk of the leverage,

and the host country will give concessions-of a tax variety or other varieties-in order to get the firm in. Then once the firm is in, it turns out that the operation wasn't all that mysterious after all. And it looks like you could do it yourself or get somebody to do it on cheaper terms. Or the benefits aren't being shared in some fair way.

So then two things happen: The country decides it gave terms that were too lenient; and the firm, now having been locked in by the major input of all sorts of resources, has a very high stake in not being kicked out. So the two things combine to give the country a much greater degree of leverage than it had just a few years earlier. And that's why these long-term concession arrangements are probably a thing of the past. You won't get 99-year agreements any more, but maybe IO-year concessions, because both sides know that the balance of power is going to change.

I would stress that the host country does have it within its scope to do something about the problems that it feels it has incurred and to tilt the benefits toward it. Now when it does that, there is a feedback effect to some extent on the firm, but even more, perhaps, on the country from which the firm comes-the home country, the United States-and we may think about it in terms of hurting the U.S. trade balance, hurting the U.S. balance of payments, even costing jobs at home. We really have a drama in which there are three players: the host country government, the firm and the home country (of the investor). And all three are now very much in the act.

BURKS: Can you foresee any adverse effects of foreign investment on the host country's balance of payments?

BERGSTEN: The foreign investor, by hypothesis, is developing resources that would not otherwise be developed in the host country-or would not be developed as well. It might not be a U.S. investor; it could be German or Japanese or British investors, but it would be some foreign investor. So presumably the foreign investor is doing something that otherwise would not be done.

That is likely to include the development of industry or extractive resources, the products of which will be exported. It is true that if the economic development of the country is greatly promoted by the foreign investment, then its imports are going to rise, too.

And so the upshot is you shouldn't worry much about the balance of payments, because the objective of the foreign investment is to improve economic growth in the country.

BURKS: On balance, then, do you think the advantages of private foreign investment outweigh the disadvantages from the host country's point of view?

BERGSTEN: Again, you have to distinguish between different countries and cases, different investments and industries. I would say, on the whole, that foreign investment does benefit the host country. The host country may not be reaping all the benefits it cal).get because of shortcomings of its own policy. They may need to adapt their policies to better reap the benefits of foreign investment, but I think on the whole it does provide benefits.

Indeed, the fact that it is providing those benefits to the host "country, I think, shows up in the concern now being expressed about it in the home countries.

0

u.s. BILL OF RIGHTS IN ACTION

A Bill of Rights can only have 'substance and life' in a nation which believes in the Rule of Law, says the author. And this Rule of Law must be the same for every man, whether he is a poor black unable to pay for a lawyer or whether he is the President of \the United States.

On July 24, 1974, Chief Justice Warren Burger read a unanimous (8-0) judgment of the U.S. Supreme Court directing President Nixon to turn over documents and tape recordings of 64 White House conversations for use in a trial of his former aides. Until that ruling, the President had contended that he had a right to withhold the material on the ground of "Executive pri vilege."

After the Supreme Court order, however, President Nixon announced through his lawyer, James St. Clair, that he would comply in all respects with the order.

This sequence of events was a dramatic illustration of the operation of the Rule of Law under the U.S. Constitution. It meant one thing above all others-that in a free society solidly based on a constitution, no one, not even the President, is beyond the reach of the law of the land. "If one man can be allowed to determine for himself what is law," wrote Justice Felix Frankfurter in a Supreme Court case, "then every man can. That means first chaos, then tyranny."

The President of the United States has great, and even awesome, power; but his power is limited by the Constitution as interpreted and applied by the courts. The President is not supreme; the Congress is not supreme. Only the Constitution is supreme-the Constitution and the laws enacted by the legislatures and the judgments and orders of the courts constitute the Rule of Law. This is what is meant by a ~'government of laws and not of men." Only in such a political order can a bill of rights have substance and life.

For the essential idea of a bill of rights is that the government has only certain delegated, enumerated powers; it is not allpowerful; and the powers that have been withheld from the government remain with the people. The Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution thus specifies the powers kept back from the government and reserved to the people; for example, the power to limit in any way freedom of religion or freedom of speech and the press.

But such freedoms would be meaningless unless citizens could vindicate and enforce them against the government by proper procedures in the courts, and unless all government officers and agencies, including even the President, could be reached by the orders and judgments of the courts. Thus the Bill of Rights and the Rule of Law become intimately c.onnected.

Each tests the relevance and sincerity of the other. This is why . there was so much at stake on that eventful day when the President's lawyer stated, for Chief Justice Warren Burger and all the world to hear, that the President of the United States submitted himself to the authority of the Court.

The Constitution of the United States, the Supreme Court has said, "is a law for rulers and people, equally in war and in peace, and covers with the shield of its protection all classes of men, at all times and under all circumstances."

*****

The U.S. Constitution as originally adopted in 1789 contained no bill of rights. It did, however, contain a number of important provisions that restricted the Government, such as the guarantee of the writ of habeas corpus, which safeguards against illegal detention or imprisonment, and the guarantee of trial by jury in criminal cases. Many proponents of the new Constitution argued that since the Federal Government had only the powers delegated to it by the people, there was no need to spell out in detail the powers denied to the government; for all powers not granted were of course denied. But there were some leaders, notably Thomas Jefferson, who contended that the new Constitution was defective without a bill of rights that would provide clearly for freedom of religion, freedom of the press and other fundamental liberties.

"I have a right to nothing," he wrote, "which another has a right to take away .... Let me add that a bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth ... and what no just government should refuse."

There was also a popular demand for a bill of rights; in some of the states ratification of the Constitution was won only upon the understanding that a bill of rights would be added. Accordingly, when the first Congress met following ratification of the Constitution, James Madison proposed, almost as the first order of business, consideration of a bill of rights. On December 15, 1791, the II th state necessary for ratification acted affirmatively and the Bill of Rights became effective on that date.

The American Bill of Rights reflects and assimilates mankind's highest ideals as well as English and American colonial history, thought, political theory and moral and social ideals. The modern constitutions of many nations throughout the world, on every continent, have paid it the compliment of copying or adapting many of its provisions.

While all of its amendments are important, it is the Fourteenth Amendment that has served as the basic instrument by which the Supreme Court has effectively established the Bill of Rights throughout the nation as a common standard for all Americans when they need a shield to protect their fundamental rights and liberties against adverse actions by government, whether federal or state. This process of unification has been accomplished within the last 50 years.

During this period, only wars and the Great Depression of

the 1930s have received more intense and sustained attention from the American people than have problems of civil liberties and civil rights. Since the Supreme Court is not invested with power to conduct wars or to regulate the economy, it is probably no exaggeration to say that civil liberties and civil rights issues have occupied first place in the work of that tribunal.

It would take many books to spell out the details of this judgment, to show what the Bill of Rights has come to mean with respect to the separation of church and state; the rights of religious conscience; the right to have a press free from censorship; freedom of speech; the right of assembly and of demonstrations; the rise of the new constitutional right of privacy; the right to the use of contraceptive devices and the right of a woman to abortion; the outlawing of capital punishment; the right to counsel in all criminal cases; and the recognition of academic freedom as a right under the First Amendment. This list is not intended as a complete inventory; it comprises only some of the developments that readily come to mind. I Wish, however, to single out several developments for fuller, though still far from complete statement.

Just as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Supreme Court decisions have given the Negro the right to human dignity, so the Voting Rights Act of 1965, with the amendm~nts of 1970, has reinforced his right to vote, so that he may fully exert "Black Power" in the political sphere on a basis of full equality with all other American citizens. The law not only prohibits racial discrimination but also reaches out to induce blacks to exercise their right to vote by easing residence and other traditional requirements and by suspending, at least to 1975, literacy tests as a qualification for voting.

As a result of these acts of Congress and of important Supreme Court decisions, blacks today hold important political offices to which they have been elected by coalitions of black and liberal white voters.

This advance has been accomplished~and the process is a continuing one~as the Supreme Court and Congress have enforced the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and other provisions of the Constitution to give the Negro citizen full equality of rights and equal dignity.

Women have enjoyed the constitutional right to vote since 1920. But the Nineteenth Amendment did not go beyond the right of suffrage, and winning the right to vote seemed to have. left untouched women's inequality in education, employment and other important spheres of life. In the 1960s, perhaps stimulated by the success of the civil rights movement, the women's liberation movement became more 'aggressive with demonstrations, one-day strikes and pressures on legislatures. Leaders of the movement instituted many court cases which, for the first time, tested the constitutionality of laws discriminating on the basis of sex.

The success of the movement in the courts and in winning legislative reforms has been dramatic. Congress enacted the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which for the first time commands equal pay for equal work regardless of the worker's sex. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in employment on account of sex, race, color, religion or national origin.

In 1971the Supreme Court handed down a unanimous decision that, by clear implication, gave a death-blow to countless laws that discriminated against the female sex. An Idaho statute had provided that in appointing the administrator of a decedent's estate, when two persons are equally entitled, the court should appoint the man rather than the woman~for example, as between a brother and a sister or as between a father and a mother, the court sho~ld appoint the brother or the father. In Reed vs. Reed, the Supreme Court held that the statute was unconstitutional

as violative of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

A third group that has come to enjoy the protection of the Bill of Rights, in no less dramatic ways than the black race and women, is the poor. In 1969, 12 per cent of the American people were defined as poor according to the criteria of the U.S. Manpower Administration. In 1959, poor persons constituted 22 per cent. Thus, in the decade from 1959 to 1969, the number of poor was cut almost in half.

While many factors account for this gratifying development, by no means least among them was the contribution of the Supreme Court which, in a series of notable cases, vindicated ,-the rights of the poor and the disadvantaged to equal justice under law.

In a decision made in 1970, the Supreme Court discredited the view, deeply embedded in the human collective consciousness, that public assistance benefits, whether called relief or welfare, are a "privilege" and not a "right." The Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment required that due process must be afforded to a welfare recipient if there is a proposal to terminate his benefits~he has a right to a fair hearing, just as if he were threatened with, for example, a loss of his license to operate an automobile or a particular business. He must be given adequate notice, with reasons for the proposed termination, and he must be afforded an opportunity to confront and crossexamine witnesses, to be represented by counsel, to present evidence and to have the hearing before an impartial decision maker whose decision must rest on the evidence presented before him and on the legal rules adduced at the hearing, and who must state the reasons for his conclusions and the evidence on which he relied.

In another far-reaching case, decided in 1969, the Court removed some of the serious obstacles and burdens that the Anglo-American welfare system had imposed on poor and disadvantaged people since the time of the Elizabethan Poor Laws. There was an almost universal requirement that before a person could qualify to receive public assistance, he had to establish that he had lived in a state for at least one year. But the Supreme Court declared that this requirement was an unconstitutional penalty on citizens' rights to travel freely among the 50 states of America.

The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment has moved the Supreme Court in recent years to broaden constitutional rights in the field of criminal justice so that poor litigants may find shelter under them. In a series of cases the Court has held that the Federal and State Governments must furnish the poor with free legal representation at all important stages of a criminal prosecution and must furnish the poor with a free transcript of record. It has also held that a person may no longer be sent to jail simply because he is too poor to pay a fine.

The developments we have discussed~only a small sample of a huge volume~constitute a significant demonstration of the American impulse to assimilate rights and powers under the Rule of Law and to place them under the umbrella of the Bill of Rights. Whether the claimants for protection are persons on relief or the publishers of the New York Times, whether standing before the judge are the attorneys for the President or the attorneys for a group of women or blacks or welfare recipients, whether the issue is one involving freedom of the press or the right to vote or the right of privacy or the right to counsel~ all look for vindication of their claims and for protection to the same Constitution and the same Bill of Rights.

0 About the Author: Milton R. Konvitz is Professor of Law at Cornell University and a leading authority on the u.s. Constitution.

EARL WARREN

CATALYST FOR SOCIAL CHANGE Earl Warren died a few weeks ago at the age of 83. For 16 years he presided over the U.S. Supreme Court, delivering landmark judgments that have helped bring about 'a revolution in the field of human rights.' This article recalls his life and his remarkable judicial career.

"A man who has no end to serve except the United States."

President Eisenhower used these words to describe Earl Warren in 1953 when he appointed the then Governor of California as Chief Justice of the United States.

Several years later, the San Francisco Chronicle said: "Under the present Chief Justice, the Supreme Court has undoubtedly done more to strengthen the rights of the individual than it ever did in all the years up to his appointment."

Others hailed the late Chief Justice for bringing about, through the Supreme Court, "a revolution in the field of human rights."

The Warren Court will be remembered for some epochmaking decisions that brought about basic changes in .the legal, social and political structure of the United States. It set the U.S. on a new path in race relations, declaring segregation in public schools illegal. It gave impecunious defendants the right to counsel when brought to trial in a state court on a crimihal charge. It imposed the rule that all citizens must be represented equally in state legislatures and the national House, thus changing the character of American politics. .

The Warren Court broadened the citizen's freedom to criticize public figures, and the artist's to express himself in unconventional, even shocking ways. It greatly restricted government authority to penalize the individual because of his beliefs or associations. The court outlawed TV commercials that tried to buttress the claims of products with phoney demonstrations.

Despite this astonishing record, Earl Warren was "not a philosopher and made no attempt to propound a consistent theory of how a judge interpreting the Constitution should approach his

task." But the legal revolution in the U.S. could not have taken place without him. "He saw the movement and got behind it the weight of his character and position and public reputation; they converted what might have been lost legal causes into the wave of the future."

Earl Warren was born in Los Angeles on March 19, 1891, the son of a Norwegian immigrant who worked for the Southern Pacific Railroad. He knew poverty and personal tragedy. As a young man he was a railroad callboy, and he saw men with their legs cut off in accidents. His father was murdered. In college and law school he worked at a variety of jobs. He earned pocket money as a newsboy, later as a cub reporter: After graduating in arts and law from the University of California with a rather undistinguished record, Warren worked for three years in a law office and served in the Army during World War 1.

His public career began when he was appointed a deputy city attorney for Oakland in 1919, a stepping stone. to the office of Alameda County district attorney, to which he was twice reelected. His outstanding record during 14 years in that position brought him statewide prominence, and led to his election in 1939 as attorney general of the state. He ran for attorney general, winning the nomination of the Democratic, the Progressive and the Republican parties. ' Four years later, when Warren ran for Governor, he carried every county in the state. He never lost a California election, but was defeated in 1948 as the Republican Party's candidate for Vice President in the national slate headed by New York's Governor Thomas E. Dewey.

During his 10 years as Governor of California, Warren built a reputation for integrity and as a leader in social progress. "He went into both major parties for good men," observed a commentator, "and even beyond the parties into the nonpolitical world of civil service."

As Governor, Earl Warren was credited with putting through a liberal social security program and with notable work in developing schools, roads and hospitals. Legislation adopted during his first term reduced the state sales tax, raised old age pensions. Unemployment insurance coverage was widened.

He usually walked the one mile between his home and the state Capitol each morning and evening. The father of three sons and three daughters, he devoted most Sundays to his family and outdoor recreations-hunting, fishing, golfing and horseback riding.

In 1954 began the most significant period in Earl Warren's career-when he took over as Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court following the death of Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson.

The Supreme Court is in a strong position as the judicial branch of the Federal Government-on par with the President (executive branch) and the Congress (legislative branch). The men who wrote the Constitution gave each branch powers which in some areas overlap, so that one branch can check certain activities of the others. This has come to be known as the "system of checks and balances."

On May 17, 1954, the Warren Court took its first momentous decision, in the case Brown vs. Board of Education, by declaring school segregation unlawful. It was a unanimous decision. Seven southern and border states with 40 per cent of the country's school enrollment practiced segregation then.

"In the field of education/' said the Chief Justice in his pronouncement, "the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place.

Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

The unanimity was a striking aspect of the decision. Earl Warren's national standing and experience helped bring about unanimity. A year later, he wrote an opinion on implementation of the decision, calling for desegregation to be carried out "with all deliberate speed."

Reaction to the decision, particularly in the south, was violent.

But with liberals, Warren became a beloved symbol. The atmosphere created by the decision led to the enactment of comprehensive civil rights legislation by the U.S. Congress some years later.

In 1967, a Warren Court decision declaring invalid state laws prohibiting racial intermarriage received a quiet reception. In an earlier day, this decision would have set off violent tremors.

In 1966 Chief Justice Warren read out another landmarkjudgment. Deciding on the Miranda vs. Arizona case, the Chief Justice laid out a new charter of protections for a criminal suspect immediately after arrest-the police must warn him before interrogation that he had a right to remain silent; that any statement he made might be used against him; and that he had a right to see a lawyer before or during the interrogation. Moreover, if he could not afford to retain counsel, one must be provided for him. If the police omitted any of these requirements, no confession obtained would be admissible.

Miranda was an earthquake in the world of law enforcement. As with other Warren Court judgments, its wisdom came to be appreciated slowly. According to Warren himself, it was the court's most significant contribution to the process of change in criminal law.

In the field of citizen votiI)g, the Warren Court in 1964 broke a gigantic logjam in state legislatures, dominated for many years by lawmakers elected from sparsely populated rural areas. These men were not particularly concerned with housing, transportation and

other matters vital to urban living, so they were reluctant appropriate m6ney for such purposes.

to

Under the leadership of Chief Justice Warren, the court in a precedent-shattering ruling required the states to realign the districts from which state lawmakers are elected so that the population in each is substantially equal. This reshuffle, which gives many more representatives to urban centers, has been in progress in all 50 states. Already much new legislation of benefit to city dwellers has been enacted.

The decision became known as the "one man, one vote" ruling.

The idea is that each citizen has a right to share in the business of government through his elected representatives on the same basis as everyone else.

The Supreme Court ruling in 1957 in the case Sweezey vs. New Hampshire was one of a series of decisions protecting individual liberty. Economist Paul Sweezey declined to answer questions about lectures he had given at the University of New Hampshire or about the Progressive Party; he was convicted of contempt.

The Supreme Court reversed the conviction by a vote of six to two.

Eight years later, the Supreme Court held unconstitutional a 1959 statute making it a crime for a Communist Party member to serve as a labor union officer.

Just one thread unites all of Warren's decisions-his passionate commitment to law and order. "He's the fairest man I ever met," said a former law clerk, "and the most direct." When a lawyer started buttressing his client's case with a formidable array of legal precedents, the Chief Justice occasionally broke in to ask, "Yes, but were you fair?"

About criticism that the Supreme Court had become an allpervasive body under him, Earl Warren observed: "The accelerating rate of scientific and technological change in the world makes the pace of legal change look like a tortoise chasing a hare."

The saddest day in all his 16 years as Chief Justice, Warren once said, was the day President Kennedy was assassinated. Soon after, at the request of President Johnson, he agreed to head a judicial commission to explore all the facts behind the assassination. "I spent 10 months on that. I think that was the unhappiest year in my life, because I spent at least half of each day and night reviewing the terrible happenings."

The Warren Commission ruled out the possibility of any conspiracy behind the assassination, and drew up a set of recommendations concerning security measures for the President of the United States.

During a 1956 visit to India, Earl Warren received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Delhi. Former President Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, then Chancellor of the university, said that Justice Warren "symbolized the spirit of law and justice which are the ultimate justification of states." In the course of his l8-day stay in this country, Warren visited law courts and addressed law faculty students in Delhi, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. He said he was greatly impressed with the Indian judiciary which "is striving exactly for the same ideals we have in our country. " According to one assessment, Earl Warren was not a creative thinker but had some of the essential qualities of a statesman-a sense of history, an understanding of people, and firmness of character. Once convinced of the correctness of his stand, he did not buckle to opposition-whether from the Congress, the organized bar or public opinion.

The hallmarks of Warren's life were simplicity, humanity and courage. In an age of character assassination, he saw good in other human beings. In an age of doubt and cynicism, he was a robust optimist. His idealism had no base in any ideology.

-S.R.M.

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Autumn in the East One of the great exit scenes in Mother Nature's drama of the seasons is played annually in the woods and hills of the eastern United States. After a brisk spring and a hectic summer, autumn is a favorite vacation time for many Americans, who take to the highways and byways of the Great Smokies, the Blue Ridge and New England to savor the chromatic splendor of the waning season.

Visitors from abroad who are familiar with the Eastern Seaboard have long hailed this natural marvel. In 1838, an Englishman named James Buckingham wrote: "The gorgeous colouring of an American autumn [is] alone quite worth a voyage across the Atlantic." Bliss Carman, a Canadian poet from just north of the border who spent two decades in New England, was moved to write: There is something in the autumn that is native to my bloodTouch of manner, hint of mood; And my heart is like a rhyme, With the yellow and the purple and the crimson keeping time.

(From A VAGABOND SONG)

Above: Autumn leaves stipple the sidewalk of a street in Deerfield, Massachusetts. Right: Honeymooners, framed in an orange autumnal haze, wash off the "Just Married" signs on their car. Far right: Seasonal alchemy glorifies a country lane. Overleaf: A highway coils through Great Smoky Mountains National Park.