November 1981

A FULLER LIFE FOR THE HANDICAPPED

"The human race isn't far from going to the stars."

Space shuttle commander John Young's words after Columbia's successful flight (see SPAN, July 1981) were more than wishful stargazing. The possibilities for research and development opened up by the advent of a reusable spacecraft, which has facilities for experiments and which can ferry laboratories and people -into earth orbit, seem limited only by human imagination. And the promise in Young's words is being realized in hundreds of experiments being carried out in the United States and elsewhere-in such areas as medicine, astronomy, solar and plasma physics, and earth observation. Two promising possibilities are depicted here.

When the National Aeronautics and Space Administraf16n (NASA) launches its multipurpose optical space tele-

scope (top) from the shuttle, scientists will be able to see seven to ten times farther into space than ever before.

Light from a distant celestial object (upper right) will strike the mirrors and sensors of the telescope. Data will be relayed (broken white lines) from the .space telescope to Earth-based computers. The shuttle orbiter is shown at lower left of the painting.

Another hoped-for and valuable contribution, electrical power, is depicted at left. A circular antenna, eight kilometers in diameter, is shown receiving solar energy from a solar power satellite ¡in geosynchronous orbit. A power plant reconverts the microwaves into electricity for use on Earth.

With NASA's future shuttle missions, the world of space will open up wide-for research, technology and manufacturi,ng.

SPAN 2

Roy Wilkins: 1901-1981

3

A World Strategy for Growth

by Alexander Haig

5 Wade Scott Makes a Comeback

by Sandy Greenberg

,8 Toward Full Participation

. 9

Reviving the Living Dead

11

Advertising for the Public Good

by Hafeez Noorani

18 Campaigning in India

20

The Chatham Swap

by Thomas McGuane

22

Technology for Development

by Philippus Willems

.

24

Future Bikes

by Barney Cohen

28 Raga Mala

by Sorab Modi

32

I

The Return of Handmade Paper

by Michael McTwigan ,.

34 A Village That Lives on Paper

by Alka Luthra

36

"People Don't Work to Pay Taxes" Largest Tax Cuts in V.S; History

by Jon Schaffer

The New Economics: the Pros and the Cons Arthur Laffer Debates George Perry

42

A Special Kind of Justice

by Jack Long

44 On the Lighter Side

45 A Pentagon Report: The 'Soviet Military Buildup

Acting Editor Managing Editor Assistant Managing Editor

Editorial Assistant

Jacob Sloan Chidananda Das Gupta Krishan Gabrani

Rocque Fernandes

Photo Editor

Avinash Pasricha

An Director

Nand Katyal

Associate Art Director

Kanti Roy

Assistant An Director

Bimanesh Roy Choudhury

Chief of Production Circulation Manager Photographic Services

Awtar S. Marwaha P.N. Saigal leA Photographic Services Unit

Front cover-courtesy of National Broadcasting Corporation. Inside front cover-NASA. 2-courtesy U.S. News & World Report. 5·7-Michael Wirtz. 8 (clockwise from top left)-Keith Bardin, courtesy Baylor University Medical Center (2); Cathy Beesley; Patricia Miller/Midland Cooperatives Inc.; Bob Rashid; courtesy Rochester Institute of Technology; courtesy President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped. l1-12-courtesy Hafeez Noorani.

13-16-from an exhibition of prize-winning posters, courtesy American Institute of Graphic Arts. 17-19-courtesy Hafeez Noorani. 21-Brian Leatart. 24-George Naum. 25-Darrell Spector. 28-paintings courtesy Klaus Ebeling and Ravi Kumar; photo-Miriam Caravella. 30by Lauren copyright © 1981 Marianne Barcellona. 33-Drawings Jerrett, copyright © Americana Magazine Inc. 34-35-Avinash Pasricha. 36-illustration

by Nand Katyal. 42-'- © 1980 Harald Sund.

Inside back cover-David Alan Harvey, © National Geographic Society; Avinash Pasricha (2). Back cover-James Drake, Sports Illustrated, © 1979 Time Inc.

Photographs:

Published by the International Communication Agency, American Center,

24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this magazine do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Government.

Printed by H.K. Mehta at Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana.

Use of SPAN articles in other publications is encouraged, except when copyrighted. For permission, write to the Editor.

Price of magazine,

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(12 issues) 21 rupees, single copy,

2 rupees 75 paise. For change of address send an old address from a recent SPAN envelope along with new address to Circulation Manager, S~AN Magazine, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001. See change of address form on page 48b.

Front cover: A fitting

symbol for the Year of the Disabled's theme of "fuller participation," Suzy Gilstrap, 14, a paraplegic since an accident many years ago, starred in Skyward, an American TV movie about a girl in a wheelchair who learns to fly. See also pages 5-10.

Back cover: Professional American basketball players caught in an exciting moment of a match. See also page 49.

-Quotation Michael Novak.

With the untimely death by assassination of President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, the world has lost, in the words of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, "a courageous man whose vision and wisdom brought nations and people together.

In a world filled with hatred, he was a man of hope.

In a world trapped in the animosities of the past, he was a man of foresight--a man who sought to improve a world tormented by malice and pettiness.

Anwar Sadat was admired and loved by the people of America. " And, indeed, Americans have joined in eulogizing Anwar Sadat for his courage, his political skill, and his efforts to bring peace to the Middle East. The Washington Post editorialized: "Anwar Sadat was, to put it simply, a great man, a historic figure, not the least of whose accomplishments was to rescue the notion of individual responsibility from the casual determinism that assigns all historical actions to the swirling of abstract 'forces.' ... A stunning confidence, not so much arrogance as a serene boldness, even a sassiness, finally distinguished Anwar Sadat.

When he said he would make war, no one believed him, and he made war. When he said he would make peace, no one believed him, and he made peace.

He did these things, moreover, with a flair and gallantry that swept all before him."

Senator Charles Percy, chairman of the U . S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee noted the largeness of Sadat's "uncommon vision" shown when he "reached out to Israel to end the state of war and to start the process toward Mideast peace.

He taught the lesson that long-held animosities and grievances can be overcome by a magnanimous gesture of conciliation and peace. " And Senator Io!'ln Glenn, looking toward the future, as President Sadat did called on all men of good will: "Let us resolve that this unspeakable act of violence will in no way deter or diminish our quest for peace in the Middle East." Henry Kissinger concluded: "Peace will be his pyramid."

A similar quest for conciliation between nations and willingness to work to that end characterized the remarks by Harry G. Barnes, Ir., the new U . S. Ambassador to India, when he appeared before the U.S. Senate Foreign.

Relations Committee, which approved his nomination unanimously.

Mr. Barnes, described by Senator Percy as one of America s' most distinguished diplomats, began his professional career in Bombay. He also served in Prague, Germany, Moscow, Bucharest, and Kathmandu. From 1974-77 he was U.S. ambassador to Romania. Most recently, he was director general for the U . S. Foreign Service and director of personnel, a position of considerable importance.

Under questioning from the committee, Mr. Barnes did not attempt to blur the recent differences between India and the United States over the Tarapur nuclear processing plant.

He informed the committee: "We have been talking to New Delhi about how to resolve these differences .... We must emphasize that the Untted States is concerned about the stability of the entire region and not just one country. " But, as Mr. Barnes told the committee, the United States and India have a great many goals in common. "We must reconfirm and re-emphasize our common strengths and trade interests and make sure lines of communication are kept open, " he said. Mr. Barnes added that he was an optimist.

"There is much we can do in increasing ties between our two countries industrially and socially."

On which hopeful note Harry G. Barnes begins his tour as U.S. Ambassador to India this month.

'--M. P. I

I

"Roy Wilkins worked for equality, spoke for freedom and marched for justice. His quiet and un~suming manner masked his tremendous passion for civil and human rights."

-President Ronald Reagan ''He seemed to be one of the rarest phenomena in the noisy and contentious world of politics-a cool, urbane, selfassured, and morally resilient gentleman."

-The New Yorker "Roy W~kins made history and made America a more just and decent place, for whites as well as blacks."

-The New York Times

Roy Wilkin,s 1901¡1981 As American flags flew at half mast by militant blacks. But they also met with rather than force. It reflected too his own a presidential order in early September, great success. He was the architect of the personality. "Gracious, deliberative and even-tempered, he apeared incapable of the United States mourned the death of a legal battle against school segregation man who had for five decades made an that culminated in the historic 1954 Su- raising his voice-as though that would have been a violation of principle or as enduring contribution to the cause of preme Court decision which, overturned though he were content to entrust his equal rights in the United States. But not' the doctrine of "separate but equal" case to argument rather than to volume. for him the rhetoric of slogans or the facilities in public education. violence of the militants, people who to Wilkins' involvement with the civil But his subdued voice and manner maskhim seemed more interested in protest rights movement began during his gra- ed what were probably the sharpest intelthan progress. Roy Wilkins worked duation days. Born on August 30, 1901 in ligence and the clearest eye in the civil quietly, embodying, as Newsweek put it, St. Louis, Roy Wilkins was brought up by rights movement." (The New Yorker) John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson "the will of the majority o( black citizens his aunt and uncle after his mother's early to work within the system." death. While atthe University of Minneso- both made valued use of these qualities Wilkins played a leading role in the ta, he heard about the lynching of a black. by taking his help in drafting the civil National Association for the AdvanceAn incensed Wilkins vowed to fight fOE rights acts of 1964 and 1965. His moderation notwithstanding, he could be very ment of Colored People (NAACP)-the black rights.

United States' oldest and largest civil His stint as managing editor of an . eloquent. Testifying in support of some made by President rights organization-at a time when the influential Negro weekly, The Kansas recommendations United States and the civil rights moveCity Hall, attracted the attention of Kennedy, he declared, "The players in ment were both going through critical NAACP director Walter White. Impres- this drama of frustration and indignity are phases. His tenure as NAACP's chief sed by Wilkins' crusade to stop police not commas or semicolons in a legislative executive from 1955-1977 proved to be ~ brutality against blacks and to defeat thesis. They are people, human beings, an era of great progress for black Amersegragationist politicians, White took citizens. They are in a mood to wait no icans. And Wilkins' greatest contribution him to New York as his chief longer, at least not to wait patiently and was in working toward his goal in a assistant. silently and inactively." spirit of interracial cooperation, in days Wilkins' start with the NAACP was on The strong language mirrored Wilkins' marked often by anger and hatred. He a more activist note than the stance he acceptance of the more radical blacks who were making their presence felt firmly believed that the best hopes of was to later become famous for. NAACP American blacks lay in working with was those days fighting the lynchings and vociferously and often violently. But whites toward a shared equality.

Wilkins masterminded some of their Wilkins would not accept their methods.

There was, inevitably, an increase in To quote the International Herald Trl- famed exposes. Dressed as a day laborer, bune, "Because he believed in a racially he infiltrated Army-run cons~ruction pro-. the conflict, the bitterness receding only integrated America, he fought the docjects in 1932 to see first hand the condi- when he resigned in 1977 to an outpouring of appreciation for his 46 years of trine of separatism espoused by black tions of the blacks there. His revelations dedication to the cause of a better life for militants with the same zeal that he had of the poor payment and unfair treatment brought earlier to his battles with the meted out to them resulted in congres- American blacks, for a better America.

Wilkins spent the last few years of his dogmas of segregation and white supresional action to improve their lot. macy."

Though he believed in fighting his life in quiet retirement with his wife . Even before joining the NAACP, Wil- battles through the law courts and news- Minnie, looking ba(;k on his eventful kins had spent many years battling to paper campaigns, Wilkins did not hesi- years for his autobiography. The man make the U.S. legal system wo.rk for tate to take the fightto the streets when he whose grandfather was a slave, who grew bl~cks. Under his leadership the NAACP felt it necessary. up in an America where the best things in used legislation and the courts as In 1934 he became editor of The Crisis, life were "for whites only," died in an its chief weapons in the struggle for the NAACP magazine, and in 1955 he America where flags were flown at half voting rights, integrated schools, fair took over as NAACP director after mast in homage to a black man who housing laws, increased job opportunities White's death. Under him the magazine fought to break the barriers between and many other goals. and the organization reflected his belief blacks and whites and make America a 0 His methods \met with resistance from in the power of reason and rule of law home- of interracial harmony. .

A World Strategy for Grow th

The United Nations-this parliament of man-offers us a unique opportunity to examine the human condition. We are each called upon to declare our national purposes. And we are all obligated to address those problems that obstruct the vision of the U.N. Charter.

I would like to focus on an issue of compelling interest: international development. International development reflects the worldWIde search for economic progress, social justice and human dignity. And although great progress has been made, we face today a crucial choice of strategy that will dramatically affect the prospects for future success.

The pattern of increasing economic growth, critical for development, has been slowed by inflation, high energy prices, severe balance of payments problems, heavy debt and the slower growth of markets. Political turmoil and instability have diverted precious resources into' arms and conflict. The necessary synthesis between traditional values and modernization, never easy to achieve, has grown more difficult under the impact of accelerating change.

Let us dispense with illusions. We must choose today between two futures: a future of sustainable growth, an expansion of world trade and a reduction of poverty-or a future of economic stagnation, rising protectionism and the spread of poverty.

Clearly, our task is to give fresh im-. p~tus to development by devising now a new strategy for growth. Such a strategy begins by recognizing the highly complex and difficult situation we face: • The poorest developing countries require long-term and generous concessional aid from developed and other developing countries to raise productivity through broadly based education and training, improvements in health and nutrition and better infrastructure. They also need sound economic policies, particularly in the agricultural sector. Ultimately, the objective must be to involve them in the international economic systern, thereby strengthening opportunities and incentives for self sus,taining growth.

• The middle tier of developing countries have made significant progress.

Nevertheless, they still suffer from widespread poverty. They are also acutely vulnerable to any economic dpwnturnespecially volatile commodity marketsbecause of their narrow range of exports.

These countries need foreign capital and

an open international trading system.

Developed and developing countries together face the challenge of strengthen---____________ ing the GATT (the General Agreement Pledging U.S. support, Secretary of on Tariffs-and Trade) and of the internaState Alexander Haig proposes a tional trading system to create mutual strategy for international economic deexport opportunities for all. velopment to the U.N. General Assem.

Today the trading system is, under bly in a recent speech, excerpted here. enormous stress-rising protectionist pressures, new and subtle types of import ---------------barriers, restrictive bilateral arrangeassistance in developing the experience .ments, export subsidies and investment and credit-worthiness to borrow on interpolicies which distort trade. . national capital. markets. Technical supThe industrialized countries have a port and manpower [training are imporspecial responsibility to work for a more tant to ensure that,their populations are open trading system with improved rules. productive and competitive. They also We -also ,look to' the more successful need an open international trading sys- developing countries to playa fuller role tern to encourage export development. in strengthening the trading system.

• The progr~ss of the more advaQced of For its part, the United States has the developing countries can be sustained long supported open markets. Despite best by a strong international economy current complications; America remains with an open capital and. trading system. a strong advocate of free trade. Although These countries also play a key role in our gross national product is only onehelping poorer nations, both directly and third' of the Western industrialized as policy models. group's total, the United States imports • The capital surplus oil exporting roughly one half of all manufactured goods countries need a stable and prosperous exported by developing countries. Earninternational market for their oil exports, ings of non-OPEC [Organization of Petand a favorable environment in which to roleum Exporting Countries] developing invest their financial assets and to de-countries from exports to. the United velop their domestic economies. The in- States amount to $60,000 million-more ternational system must reflect the grow- than double the foreign aid coming from ing importance ofthese countries, as they all Western developed countries. assume increasing responsibility for the We call upon all members of the management ofthat system and for assist- international community to join in resisting poorer n,!tions. ing growth in protectionism. Developing • Finally, the industrial countries are nations must have the greatest possible suffering from low rates of growth and opportunity to sell their commodities and high rates of inflation. They are trying to manufactured products. ~ increase savings and investment in order A dynamic and successful trading systo create employment, improve the en- temrequires a smoothly functioning invironment, eliminate pockets of poverty ternational financial system. We must and adjust to the changing competitivetherefore continue to work with other ness of their exports. They must sell more countries to encourage their support for abroad to pay for the increased cost of the International Monetary Fund and iml?orted energy. '. their constructive participation in the In a slowly growing world, these com- fund's programs to facilitate adjustment. plex and diverse requirements would We share the view that the responsibilibecome potent _sources of conflict. But ties of developing countries should be the struggle for the world product can be increased to keep pace with their growing avoided. The international economy can economic importance. help all countries to achieve their objecSecond, foreign assistance .coupled tives, through a strategy of growth which with sound domestic policy and self-help creates the resources and the employ- can facilitate the development process. ment needed for progress. And this The United States has long believed in cannot be the task of any single nation. assistance as an effective tool in helping It is on this view of a differentiated and to promote development. Over. the last interdependent world that we must build a three decades the United States has given new strategy for growth. . more than $130,000 million in conces-.

First, development is facilitated by sional assistance. Over the last decade c

alone, the total has exceeded $50,000 million. In 1980, the American people provided $7,100 million, almost twice as much as any other donor.

The United States has also been the major force in the creation and-support of the multilateral development banks.

There is no question about their value as development institutions.

As intermediaries, they help to mobilize the resources of international capital markets to lend to developing countries. The banks' loans for key projects are important catalysts for productive domestic and foreign private investment.

We recognize that many of the poorer developing countries must continue to rely heavily on concessional assistance for some time to come. Moreover, certain kinds of vital development programs will not pay the quick and direct financial returns needed to attract private capital.

For this reason, a continuing bilateral assistance program and continuing support for the multilateral banks will be essential.

It is especially important that concessional assistance be utilized as effectively as possible; that it focus on countries which need it most and use it best; and that it be a more effective catalyst for mobilizing other foreign and domestic resources. We must also recognize that a strategy for growth that depends on a massive increase in the transfer of resources from developed to developing countries is simply unrealistic.

Third, regional cooperation and bilateral consultations can be effective in promoting development. We are already committed to a close working relationship with ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations).

The United States has also worked with the capital-surplus members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries to attack development prob- . lems of common interest such as food production. This cooperation should be continued and expanded.

We plan to make bilateral consultative groups between our government and those of developing countries more effective and to give full support to similar private sectpr arrangements.

Fourth, growth for development is best achieved through reliance on incentives for individual economic performance.

The individual is the beginning, the key element and the ultimate beneficiary of the development process. The greatest potential for development lies in the hard

work and ingenuity of the farmer, the worker and the entrepreneur. They need incentives to produce and the opportunity to benefit from their labors.

Those governments that have been more solicitous of the liberties of their people have also been more successful in securing both freedom and prosperity.

The United States can offer what it knows best from its own experience. We have seen that policies which encourage private initiatives will promote better resource allocation and more rapid economic growth. Within a framework basically hospitable to market incentives, foreign private investment can supplement indigenous investment and cQntribute significantly to development.

But our goal is not to impose either our economic values or our judgments on anyone. In the final analysis, each country's development will be shaped by its own history, philosophy and interests.

Fifth, development requires a certain measure of security and political stability.

Political insecurity is a major barrier to development.

Weare committed to maintain and, where possible, to increase programs essential to deter international

"It is on the view o( an interdependent and differentiated world that we must build a new strategy for growth." aggression and to provide the domestic security necessary to carry out sound econ9mic policies. We have no intention of providing foreign assistance, moral comfort or the prestige of international political platforms to countries that foster international violence.

The United Nations has a key role to play in resolving conflict and providing international stability. One of the greatest dangers to the U.N. Charter today and to development itself is the willful violation of the national integrity of both Afghanistan and Cambodia by the Soviet Union and Vietnam. Their behavior challenges the basic rights of all sovereign states. The world's hopes for peace, for security and for development will be jeopardized if "might makes right" becomes the law of nations.

The United State~ also believes that efforts to control arms by either regional states or by the superpowers can make an important contribution to the security that facilitates development. But these efforts do not occur in a

vacuum. The international community has tended over the years to overestimate the beneficial effects of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in dampening regional conflict We have also tended to underestimate the impact of such conflict on the negotiations themselves.

The United States is strongly committed to balanced and verifiable arms control. We are equally committed to the peaceful resolution of regional disputes.

Clearly, the restraint implied by arms control must become a more widespread phenomenon if such agreements are to survive and to .make their proper contribution to a more secure environment for development.

The United States is confident that a strategy for growth guided by these principles can succeed. We believe that three areas of action deserve immediate international attention.

First, a global expansion of trade. A major priority should be to integrate more fully the developing countries into the international trading system on the basis of shared responsibilities and benefits.

Second, an increase in investment. Our common objective should be to stimulate domestic and international private investment. We must encourage and support the individual investor.

Third, stronger international cooperation in food and in energy. We must all work to engage more effectively private participation in exploration and production in oil importing developing nations.¡ Domestic and international action must also go hand in hand to achieve food security. The United States continues to be the largest donor of food aid and places a paramount emphasis on its bilateral program to help developing countries increase food production. Greater attention should be given to scientific and technological research that will yield more bountiful food supplies.

I have outlined today the broad ptincipIes that guide America's approach to new strategy for growth. These principles reflect our view that the United States can and will continue to make an essential contribution to the process of development.

Despite the difficulties of the moment, we should go forward in a spirit of optimism. We have the vision, bequeathed to us by the U.N. Charter. We have the potential of the peoples represented in this room. Let us go forward together to achieve a new era of growth for all mankind.

0

hen an out-of-control car crashed through the walls of a Dallas, Texas, restaurant and came to rest on top of Wade Scott's legs, life for the youngster was forever changed.

An energetic boy who loves sports and had demonstrated his potential for becoming a first-rate soccer player, Wade and a friend were on their way to basketball practice that warm spring day when they decided to stop for a bite to eat. The freakish accident crushed Wade's legs beyond repair. Within weeks both legs had been amputated, and ll-year-old Wade faced months of surgery, grueling physical therapy, pain-real pain from the surgery and therapy, and phantom pain from the sections of his legs he had lost-and the enormous task of rebuilding his life.

The story of Wade Scott's recovery is one of remarkable courage and bravery, and of the dedicated devotion of doctors, therapists

W

and family. It's the story of his adjusting to a far different-and more complicated-life than the one he'd known, and of Wade's ultimate acceptance of this difference.Wade's courage in coming to grips with his loss has been of great help to his parents as they cope with what has happened. According to his mother, "He's helped us as much as we've helped him." Like Wade, Mr. and Mrs. Scott have learned to make the best of the situation, and they encourage Wade to try anything he thinks he can do. Says his father, "I think as he grows and matures, he'll find things harder for him because he has a handicap. I'm here to help Wade if he needs me. I can give him all the mental and emotional support in the world. But I can't help him do the impossible."

In addition to the pain and physical trauma, Wade experienced bouts of fear, anger and depression in the growing realization that he would no longer be able to run around with his usual carefree exuberance. But Wade survived his ordeal with high spirits.

"He's not the kind of kid to feel sorry for himself," says his

At far left, Wade Scott holds back tears as he is comforted by his mother soon after the amputation of his legs. His first look at his artificial limbs (far left, bottom) is full of pensive apprehensiorl.

After that, hours of grueling exercises built up his arm stren!(th through wheelchair rides (left) and work on exercise machines. In between were visits from friends to cheer him up; below, Wade plays happily with a friend and an overstuffed bear. After days spent practicing how to walk on his new legs with the aid of crutches (bottom), Wade is at last on his own and walks unaided (right).

-mother. "He never whines or complains."

When Wade returned to school with his artificial legs, friends helped carry his books so he could better navigate the halls on crutches. All of his classes were scheduled for the ground floor of the school. And to prepare the other students, one of the teachers borrowed an artificial leg from a hospital to explain how Wade would be getting around. Says Wade's math teacher, Lisa Slayer, "He's adjusted very well, and so have the other kids in his classes.

He's not ultrasensitive, and the kids can ask him questions about his legs without getting embarrassed."

Now a junior high school student, Wade participates in many activities normal for his age. He's attended school-sponsored dances, bowls almost weekly, has played basketball in a wheelchair or using one crutch, and plays quarterback-"because I don't have to run so much"-when the neighborhood youngsters get together for a game of football. And less than a month after his release from the hospital, Wade was in his backyard kicking a soccer ball.

Suffering a devastating loss, Wade Scott turned it into nothing more than a temporary setback. With' courage, good humor, resourcefulness, determination, he now stands on his two feet-no parallel bars, therapists, crutches supporting him-as he negotiates the road ahead with confidence.

Photographer Michael Wirtz watched Wade's slow ordeal turn into a story of success. These photographs are part of a poignant photographic essay done for the Dallas Times Herald. The essay won a Special Recognition citation in the "World Understanding" category in the 1980 Pictures of the Year competition of the National Press Photographers' Association and the University of Missouri School of Journalism. In 1978, Wirtz was named Newspaper Photographer of the Year in the prestigious international competition.

0 About the Author: Sandy Greenberg is a picture story editor for SPAN in Washington, D. C. She has served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Kenya,

TOWARD FUll PARTICIPATION "All of us stand to gain when those who are disabled share in America's opportunities."

President Ronald Reagan's declaration from his proclamation naming 1981 the International Year of Disabled Persons in the United States, echoes the United Nations theme for the year: '''full participation of disabled persons in the life of their societies."

The U.N. urged each nation to develop goals and programs that would lead to a fuller life for the¡ world's 500 million disabled. Americans have responded to the Ichallenge.

Barriers are coming down for the 35 million disabled Americans, allOWIngthem to be integrated into all phases of daily life as a result of both a change of attitude toward them and innovations designed to give them greater mobility and fuller opportunities.

The wheelchair symbol on the parking sign and on the' car's numberplate is an international sign used to designate special facilities and access for handicapped persons. It is now increasingly seen at a variety of places such as building entrances, elevators, parking areas, shopping centers, airports, restaurants.

A grip of a pencil is a simple innovation-for a disabled person its significance is immense. Such specialized instrumoots are now used in physical and occupational therapy programs for the handicapped.

Many American firms are producing simple tools such as this grip for a water glass to help disabled persons perform everyday tasks when their bodies are not flexible enough to carry out such activities unaided.

Several institutions have made modifications necessary to enable disabled persons to work at their chosen professions. Some of these changes require only some thought and a little ingenuity. Above, a surgeon operates from a raised wheelchair. The operating table has been lowered for his convenience.

In an effort to heighten people's sensitivity to disabilities, the students, staff and faculty of the Rochester (New Yo'rk) Institute of Technology planned a "Handicapped Awareness Day" on its campus.

Above, as part of the program, one staff member helps another whose "disability" for the day is blindness.

Disabled players in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, play in a fast-paced wheelchair basketball game. Developed in a veterans' hospital following World War II, the sport was the forerunner of wheelchair baseball, football, marathons and a track for the blind. The U.S. National Wheelchair Basketball Association has 1,600 teams. Players are classified according to their disabilities. Most of them use lightweight wheelchairs with balloon tires and with small, easily maneuverable front wheels for quick turning.

A blind person uses the Optacon, a sophisticated tool that lets the blind read typed or printed material unaided. The tape-recorder-sized device consists of a tiny TV camera and a screen of 144 vibrating points which can be covered with a fingertip. The user moves the camera across the printed page with one hand, using the other to feel the vibrating image.

Revivinglhe living Dead Hansen's Disease has to be treated on two fronts: medically by doctors carrying on the tradition of Paul Brand (right); and through a change of attitude symbolized by the success achieved by the Bandorawalla hospital in Pune.

It begins innocuously enough, but insidiously. Often, only a tiny patch of numb and hypopigmented skin marks the onset of Hansen's disease, or leprosy, as it is more commonly called. But once it sets in, there is nothing innocuous about it. What it usually does to the victim is summed up in the secondary dictionary definition of leper: "a person shunned for moral or social reasons."

Even educated persons react with fear and revulsion at the sight of a leprosy patient-in fact, at the mere mention of the disease.

Consequently, the work of ~eprosy rehabilitation clinics and doctors goes beyond treating the patients. They have also to attack the attitudes-of both patients and the general public-to it. One of their first targets is tne name itself; for leprosy they want the scientifically correct term Hansen's disease*-or H.D.-substituted. The disease is infectious, mildly contagious, curable and nonhereditary. The visible manifestations of the disease-gross deformity, misshapen stumps, missing fingers or toes, leonine facies-must be seen as what they are: unfortunate secondary effects, not the direct results of the disease. Most of these can be prevented by early treatment and with a little care of insensitive hands and feet. Due to the initial loss of sensation and pain, patients don't realize when infection and inflammation set in, when they get bruised, when ulcers develop on their feet, or when the cigarette they are smoking starts burning into their fingers The problem arises because in the initial stages none of these merit serious attention. And the incubation period is so long-six months to eight years-that it is usually a problem to trace the source of infection and transmission. Besides, afraid of being shunned, most people balk from letting family and friends know and from going in for treatment.

Once the disease is diagnosed, if caught in time, it is curablewhich is more than one can say of many other diseases. Dr. J.M. Mehta, chief administrator at the Dr. Bandorawalla Leprosy Hospital in Kondhwa, Pune, has seen the happy change that the hospital has been able to effect in the lives of at least some of the H.D. patients. The early patients to this 71-year-old hospital came here to die. Humiliated, hounded, often literally stoned by villagers, they came broken both in body and mind. Here, too, they were treated with thoughtlessness-not out of cruelty, but out of sheer ignorance. Barbed wire fencing caged the patients in, police guards ensured that they did not escape. Not surprisingly, the patients reacted with a hostility and aggression to the world that took many forms: a doctor was once murdered by the patients. °The word "leprosy" originated from the Greek lepros, which means scaly, and was used to refer to a range of chronic skin diseases till 1873, when the Norwegian physician Dr. Armauer Gerhard Henrik Hansen isolated the bacillus Mycobacterium leprae. Since then there has been a deliberate effort to do away with the word leprosy and replace it with the term Hansen's Disease or H.D.

Today patients in that same hospital run a poultry farm, a flour mill and a dairy to meet their own needs. Over the years they have built some of the numerous structures that dot the sprawling grounds-a physiotherapy unit, laboratory, library, open-air stage and an orthopedic workshop. They work-and they play. All festivals are celebrated with enthusiasm-after all, the disease affects all castes, creeds and classes. There is also a school for the patients' children. And, moving with the times, the hospital has responded to the current energy problem by installing bio-gas plants and two solar water-heating systems.

But, most important of all, the hospital is no longer looked upon as a forbidden, out-of-bounds spot by villagers from neighboring areas. To them, it is now a hospital like any other, the patients like other patients. Yes, there is no getting away from the difference in terms of the seriousness of the disease, but there is also, they realize at last, no need to get away from the victims. Patients mingle freely with nonaffected people.

In the physiotherapy section, two people, both recently fitted with artificial legs, practice walking with the aid of a bar in front of a full-length mirror. One of them is an H.D. patient, the other an accident victim.

In the carpentry unit, the men at work building crates for despatch to various factories are not all H.D. patients; some are orthopedically handicapped, and 10 are blind.

Villagers unaffected by the disease queue up at the hospital's flour mill to get their flour ground. The initial incentive of lower prices worked-but only because the hospital had succeeded in changing their attitude to the disease and the patients. In the evenings, they crowd around the community TV set in the hospital premises.

This is no small achievement. For the hospital had to break down the barriers that the patients themselves had erected.

"Nothing we said to them seemed to have any effect. It was like talking to a stone wall," says Mehroo Boga, who has been active in the H.D. rehabilitation scheme for decades and played a major role in the establishment of the Pune hospital. She remembers the incident that was the turning point. One day, the hospital arranged for the burial of one of its patients. Till then lepers had always been carted away in municipal carts-like dead animals. The hospital's consideration-in a simple thing like a human funeralwon it the patients' trust.

Boga also remembers the reactions of the women when they found that they were being treated like other women. "I asked them what they wanted. 'A mirror so that 1 can put on my tikka,' one of them replied. 'Bangles,' said another, 'I miss my bangles.'

Their wants were simple, ordinary wants."

The patients at the Kondhwa hospital are the more fortunate among the unfortunate thousands who together form the largest 9

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~ Despite his deformed limbs and failing eyesight, this young ¡patient can express his artistic drive in the optimistic and encouraging atmosphere that pervades the Dr. Bandorawalla Leprosy Hospital in Pune.

population of H.D. victims in the world: an estimated 5.84 people in a thousand in India. Rehabilitation and a new understanding of the problems of the "living dead," goes back in India to the beginning of the century. Though nowhere as organized as it is today, the Kondhwa Leper Home was among the centers that marked the important start. The Scottish Mission set up the home in Kondhwa village 11 kilometers off Poona in 1910. They ran it till 1942 when it was handed over to the Bombay Government.

Meanwhile, in tiny pockets all over the country, concerned Indians began to work with and for the patients. In Sholapur, where there was a high incidence of the disease, Mehroo Boga, wife of the district collector, approached the state health minister Shantilal Shah with a proposal to help the victims. The minister agreed to "colonize" an area for them. Soon, food rations and medicine were provided for the inmates. They were discouraged from begging, and a widespread publicity campaign was launched to spread information about the disease among residents of the town.

Among the many visitors who came to see this successful experiment was Dr. N.J. Bandorawalla, founder of the Poona District Leprosy Committee. This became the sequel to the Poona Committee being given the Kondhwa hospital to run in 1956 (the hospital was renamed after Dr. Bandorawalla at his death in 1966). Rarely does the government hand over its institutions to voluntary organizations. But the exception they made in this case proved to be a happy one.

The hospital has grown from an original 4112hectares to a sprawling 33 hectares. Once considered a dry, infertile area, irrigation from wells now feeds 25 hectares planted with a variety of foodgrains, vegetables and fruits.

At Dr. Bandorawalla hospital every effort is made to treat and rehabilitate patients, as well as to offer custodial care. At any given time, the hospital has 400 to 425 patients, most of whom stay for periods ranging from a few weeks to a few months. , They come here-from all parts of Maharashtra mainly, though often enough from other regions in the country

too-for treatment of injuries and ulcers, bacteriological examinations, reconstructive and plastic surgery (the correction of facial and limb deformities is an essential part of the rehabilitation program), and for vocational training.

In 1970 a four-year project was set up to study the long-term effects of reconstructive surgery and to discover the rehabilitative potential of patients in terms of both employability and social acceptance. It was partly aided by the Social and Rehabilitation Service of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare with a grant of Rs. 750,000 under PL-480 funds.

The hospital's vocational training program centered mainly around self-employment. Tailoring proved the most popular, followed by carpentry, poultry farming, lathe work, and the manufacture of leather goods. The program, which began on April 1, 1970, and ended on March 31, 1974, generated valuable spin-offs. Protective apparatuses for anesthetic and paralyzed limbs and specially designed machines workable by the disabled were designed and created. A patient in the tailoring sectio:l demonstrates one such machine that enables him to work swiftly; he has no arms.

Economic independence, Mehta stresses, is a vital aspect of rehabilitation-both as a powerful psychological boost and as a way of easing the patient's entry into a particular social milieu.

Recently, for the first time, bank loans were granted to individual patients. To the delight of both the bank and the hospital, there were hardly any defaulters. "A bank loan," says Dr. Mehta, "really raises an individual's position in the village and gains him much-needed self-respect. Another way to hasten social acceptability," he continues, "is to impart training in fields where there is a demand for manpower. In most villages, for example, pump mechanics are always needed, and the men we have trained are doing extremely well."

The next logical step is integrated vocational and rehabilitation programs. The hospital has taken a first step with the Poona Leprosy Committee's setting up of a "Common Vocational Training Project for the Handicapped." Its symbol is three interlocked rings representing the integration of three types of disabled persons-those disabled by leprosy, the orthopedically handicapped, and those disadvantaged because of their socioeconomic position. Each ring is of the same size to emphasize that essentially th-eir problems are the same.

The story of the hospital is the story of the people who pass through it, of people like Jagannath Govind Datar, a double graduate of Bombay University and Banaras Hindu University.

He was 30 when he discovered he had H.D. By the time he arrived at Kondhwa-after several years of no treatment and a worsening condition-he was in a severely mutilated state, with death seeming a kind alternative to life. The hospital gave him plastic surgery, training in poultry farming-and a confid~nce in his capabilities that allowed him to start life afresh. He set up the hospital's poultry and soap-manufacturing units, both of which grew under his supervision; the units were able to absorb several other patients. As he grew older and frailer, blindness set in, followed by TB, but Jagannath Datar was undaunted.

He died at 68 in 1979 and remains a legend and an inspiration in Kondhwa. A year after his death, his son went to Rashtrapati Bhavan to accept a posthumous award, which declared his father the best handicapped worker.

"All that is broken shall be mended, all that is lost shall be found." This promise, inscribed on the letterhead of the Poona Leprosy Committee, is realized at Kondhwa.

0

Pearl Gibson,77, needs more than Social Security.

She needs us.

FOR THE PUBLI'C

GOOD Y""undme WllenftoOO "~lersIO«lhrou!hll(r bome .•• llorouIdPurl (ulnLO~ShenetdwclolhC». furnllure,food.' "'~lkef Andauenuon Wehrlprd Wenetd~hdp

+

American Red Cross

In the highly competitive business world of the United States, advertising is the prime mover in the drive to sell more goods. Yet the professionals who work in this hardheaded world, readily set aside some of their time, skill and money to promote the public good-without thought of profit.

A typical suburb of an American city. It is afternoon and the neighborhood is quiet. A delivery van pulls up along a street, and a man jumps out. He looks around him, dashes into the garden of the house in front, picks up a child's bicycle, throws it into the van and drives away.

But his smug grin soon gives way to shock as a police van greets him within a few furlongs. Unknown to him, a volunteer crime fighter has called the police even as he was putting the bike into his van. That volunteer, part-time cop was full-time grandmother Mimi Marth.

Mrs. Marth is one of 100 such volunteers who make up the Eyes and Ears Patrol in Hartford, Connecticut. Groups similar to Eyes and Ears are springing up rapidly throughout the country and are now in the region of 25,000. Individual participation in this effort is estimated to be close to 10 million.

Credit for this public interest and participation goes to an advertising campaign featuring Crime Dog McGruff, a floppy-eared dog in the typical detective's trenchcoat and gum-soled shoes. Witty and worldly-wise, McGruff gives practical advice on preventing crime in an advertising campaign based on the theme "Take a Bite Out of Crime." At the end of just a few months of advertising, a study showed that as many as 30 percent of a sample, valid on the national scale, could recall Crime Dog McGruff. Crime fighting had a powerful new symbol.

Law enforcement authorities credit timely telephone calls from volunteer crime fighters with reducing residential burglaries on suburban houses as well as in apartment buildings in towns. While no national figures are available, nearly all of the individual communities where volunteer groups have been organized

report declines in crime rates.

The advertising campaign is designed to make citizens aware that they have the ability to prevent or at least reduce crime.

The main goal of the drive is to change feelings of indifference, fear and an attitude of inevitability into an individual sense of responsibility and action toward crime prevention.

The three-year-old advertising campaign is one more success to the credit of the Advertising Council-an institution as typically American as apple pie and hamburger. In order to understand such an achievement, one has to look at a few basic facts about the United States.

No other country has such a highly developed access to media; 95 percent of households own television sets, mostly in color, 100 percent have radios'. In fact a third of American homes have more than one TV set, and half have more than one

ADVERTISING

continued

radio, not to mention the one in the automobile.

No other people are as responsive to advertising as the Americans: Expenditure on advertising in 1978 exceeded 38,000 million, or half that of the entire free world and $175 per capita.

The rapid growth of media in the U.S. can be explained quite simply: galloping postwar electronic technology leading into the space satellite era, a steapily rising purchasing power-and isolation.

It is only the last which perhaps needs some amplification. Isolation in the United States is of two kinds. The first is ,geographical and relates to the vast rural area where houses tend to be far apart.

The second is social in character and operates in the urban areas, reaching a peak in the big metropolises of the country. When not performing specific functions such as studying or working together, each individual tends to become an island. The media, and specially the broadcast ones with their reassuring human proximity, weld people together into a neighborhood, a community and ultimately a nation with a high degree of awareness. This public has developed a powerful voice, and responds with either anger or with approval to developments presented by media. The institutions concerned, governmental or private, have learned from experience that it is prudent to heed the voice of the public.

The origin of American advertising, too, can perhaps be traced back to isolation. Distribution of merchandise to far-flung villages would have been an expensive proposition. The alternative was mail-order advertising. One saw an ad in the local paper, wrote back to the advertiser with an order. One paid on the goods being delivered by the postman, hence the name for this kind of advertising. Quite a few companies developed their business as they gained respect for delivering value for money. These companies hardly manufactured anything; they bought goods from various manufacturers, using their own labels as assurance of quality.

Many mail-order companies became household names. Of these, Sears Roebuck & Company has risen to the status of a national institution. For decades, Sears produced catalogues so thick that they weighed a kilogram. The older catalogues have almost become collectors' items and a source of the country's history of material culture. Today Sears is the largest chain of retail stores in the United States and is also the third

After the war, the council voted to continue its effort and to welcome requests from philanthrophic organizations as well as government agencies. Reflecting entry into a new era, however, the name was changed to The Advertising Council. President Franklin D. Roosevelt said: After the war, there will be many critical national problems requiring the understanding and cooperation of every American, It is vitally important that the working partnership between business and government, which has so successfully brought information to the people in wartime, continue into the postwar period.

An advertisement in the campaign a1?ainst rumor during World War II launched by the American Advertising Council.

largest national advertiser.

With drugstores yielding to department stores and supermarkets sprawled over acres, the urban shopper understandably turned to media and advertising for making up the shopping list. This saves a lot of time in the store itself.

But the function of media is not confined to providing news and entertainment, and that of advertising is not confined to selling goods and services for profits. Effective testimony to both was provided as far back as 40 years ago.

In 1941, a group of communications experts met to talk about using advertising for the public benefit in the rapidly worsening situation of World War II. They consisted of ad agency specialists, advertisers and representatives of print and broadcast media. Shortly afterward, Pearl Harbor was attacked, the United States entered the war, and this group was immediately formalized into the War Advertising Council. The council's function was to use mass communications to inspire public support for conservation of materials, purchase of war bonds and enlistment in the armed services. Responding to requests from the Office of War Information, the council conducted over a hundred campaigns. Among the successful slogans of the time were "A Slip of the Lip Will Sink a Ship" and "Loose Talk Can Cost Lives."

The work of the Advertising Council has been abiding testimony to this partnership over 40 years.

The Advertising Council is the largest single advertiser in the United States, and in the world. The free space and time provided by media in 1979 were valued at more than $600 million at commercial rates. This matched the expenditure of the largest commercial advertiser in that year, Proctor & Gamble Company, and was far ahead of the next three: General Foods Corporation, Sears, Roebuck & Company, and General Motors Corporation.

Yet, the council itself does not purchase any media space or time. The campaigns are created free of charge by advertising agencies, coordinated by volunteers from amongst the advertisers, and disseminated to 20,000 media outlets. The production and distribution costs, averaging $150,000 per major campaign, are defrayed by the campaign sponsors. The free space and time provided by media for a major campaign can be as high as $40 million, far more than the support any single advertised product can hope to receive.

The council's own overhead costs are underwritten by philanthropic contributions from business corporation~ and the advertising and media associations that formed the council in 1942. The council has a full-time professional staff of just 18, with a matching number of clerical and administrative people.

Hundreds of requests are received by the council, each year, from private organizations and government agencies.

Each request is evaluated and substantiated initially by the council staff, then by a campaigns review committee, an independent public policy committee of leaders representing varied elements of Opposite page: Milton Glaser's poster to promote Wolf Trap, a park for performing arts.

ADVERTISING

continued

of the dimension of the crime prevention American society, and an industries advisory committee, whose support campaign featuring Crime Dog McGruff. keeps the council viable. Only after such Health and safety have been major close scrutiny does a proposal reach the considerations in selecting proposals. board of directors for final decision.

Thus the American Red Cross is one of When a campaign proposal is accepted, the longest running public service ad a volunteer ad agency and a volunteer campaigns, having started way back in coordinator are appointed. A campaign 1943. Advertising covers many areas of the service provided by the Red Cross. manager from the council staff is assigned to handle the project. Anything from Special campaign plans were drawn three to six months of research precede up for 1981-the 100th year of the Red the creation of advertising messages.

Cross.

A campaign in the Fifties helped elimThese, too, are tested and then produced in forms to suit the characteristics of inate polio by motivating Americans to different media. Only then is the Cilm- take polio shots. Since 1975 high blood paign ready for release, at the end of a pressure education has produced improcess that may take up the better part pressive results. One in every four Amerof a year. icans-possibly some 60 million peoOne can gauge the council's work from ple-is a victim of this disease. The ads the fact that in a given year there may be demonstrated that high blood pressure 24 ongoing campaigns. In the space of can be detected and controlled; since the six months another four major public ads' appearance, each year thousands of service campaigns may be launched, each deaths have been prevented from heart

disease, stroke and kidney failure. A recent report on the results of this public service advertising showed that the death rate from stroke was cut by 23 percent, and the death rate from heart diseases by 8 percent. Evidently, there is great persuasive power in the headline "If you won't take your high blood pressure medication for yourself ... take it every day for all the loved ones in your life."

"55 Saves Lives-It Works!': says the headline of an ad, another campaign that the Ad Council ran for three years. The campaign has encouraged adherence to the U.S. national 55 mph speed limit, established to save fuel in the wake of the petroleum price hike in 1974. In the process, the campaign has saved lives as well. At least half of the 9,000 lives saved each .year on the highway since the enactment of the law result from lower, more uniform speeds. Since the campaign stopped, fatality rates have risen again

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Subway: 0 4 to Bedford Park Blvd then take Bx17 bus eastbound ¡2 to Allerton Ave-White Plains Road then take Bx17 bus westbound Bus: Bx11 Qx31 Bx41 Bx55 Transit Information: (212) 330-1234 Conrail: Harlem Line from Grand Central or 125th St to Botanical Garden Conrail Information: (212) 532-4900

@

Metropolitan Transportation Authority Provided as a public service byM iI

Tony Palliadino designed this poster for New York City's School of Visual Arts.

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Having a Lalent isn't wOlth much unless )'oul<l1ol1' what to do with iL.

and the council may well have to consider a fresh effort.

The U.S. Savings Bonds program is the council's longest running campaign. This relationship dates back to Pearl Harbor, when the bonds were called War Bonds and the council was the War Advertising Council. This campaign was the first to respond to postwar needs as suggested by President Roosevelt.. Generations of Americans have seen the highway billboards which for four decades have exhorted the public to buy U.S. Savings Bonds.

And the American public did, in greater number each year, sending savings to new heights. Approximately 23 million families-one out of every three-own the bonds. More than 15 million people buy them each year. In 1979, nearly $ 7,000 million worth of bonds were sold.

Such a long-running campaign requires periodic changes in emphasis. Currently,

the emphasis is on buying bonds as a means of forced savings. Special promotion is given to the payroll savings plan, a safe and convenient way for employees to buy bonds systematically.

Smokey Bear is the best known advertising symbol in America. In a campaign as old as that for the Savings Bond, this lovable bear in a forest ranger's hat has been educating and warning the people on the terrible destruction caused by forest fires. Smokey Bear is such a popular symbol that he is featured with the other favorite characters of children in Macy's department store's annual Thanksgiving Parade in New York City.

What is Smokey doing in a big city?

Americans living in cities need to be consistently alerted against forest fires.

They visit forests frequently, yet their ignorance of safety precautions has proved to be a serious hazard. Rural areas, too, need to be reminded of the

One of the American Advertising Council's advertisements in aid of the American Cancer Society.

A

wer:One

of the rnouths i.smoking.

ADVERTISING

continued

consequences of carelessness and com- assist the U.S. Bureau of the Census,in placency. supporting the decennial enumeration The statistics on forest fires shows why with a major public service advertising the topic is one of perennial concern. campaign. This was a program with a During the 38 years of the public service difference: It was to be designed to reach ad campaign, the number of forest fires the total population of the United States has been cut in half. On the other hand, so that it would achieve 80 percent mail there are 10 times more people visiting returns of the census forms. Careful testing forests today than when Smokey Bear for nearly two years preceded the emergence of the final campaign. For, the first made his appearance. campaign simply had to work. There was Smokey Bear got busy in the summer of 1981 telling people "Please, America is no second chance.

The concept finally took shape in 1979. not your ashtray." This is in addition to the time-honored slogan: "Only you can The slogan was "We're counting on you. prevent forest fires." In a survey in 1976, Answer the Census." This was superimposed on a live map in the shape of the it was found that 96 percent of Americans polled recognized the slogan. (This United States made up of individuals acco~nts for the new, abbreviated slogan from diverse walks of life. The map was in which Smokey Bear emphasizes the featured in TV commercials, and the responsibility of each American citizen theme was sung over radio. The same combination was used in ads in newspafor his or her role in fire prevention.)

For the first time in its career, the pers, magazines, business journals, billboards and buses. The decennial census council has addressed itself to a problem received a magnificent response from the that goes beyond national boundaries, media: The time and space given free was the problem of world hunger. Another distinctive feature of this campaign is that valued at $40 million, spent in just six months-January to June 1980-setting a it is being conducted for the Interfaith Hunger Appeal. Catholic, Protestant and new record in ad exposure.

By February 1980 it was clear that the Jewish development agencies are working together with people in some 90 campaign had made such a great impact countries. Interfaith Hunger Appeal is that it was going to exceed its goal of 80 composed of sponsoring agencies from percent mail returns. The Bureau of the Census received by March 64,654,000 the three religions. double Hunger is a daily feature in the lives of questionnaires by mail-almost nearly 25 percent of the world's 4,000 million people. It is estimated that some 15 million people die each year from hunger, and at least 50 million suffer the n<i! crippling mental and physical disabilities of malnutrition.

-"-.....-/ Young people comprise over half of this malnourished population. Just consider: In the next 60 seconds, 233 children will enter the world; of these, 26 will die before their first birthday and 34 more before they reach the age of 15. Most of these deaths will be hunger-related. A large number of those who will survive will most likely suffer life-long mental disabilities due to malnutrition.

Hence, the campaign mounted by the council naturally focuses on the child. Its object is to inform Americans about the magnitude of world hunger and motivate people to contribute funds to programs that help to alleviate hunger. Increasing individual involvement is as much the goal of the ads as stimulating financial support from private agencies.

For the fourth time since 1950, the Advertising Council was called upon to

the forms returned in 1970. The production of this massive campaign cost the bureau $600,000, much more than the high average, because of the blanket coverage the campaign was to achieve.

But it saved the taxpayers approximately $12 million in personal follow-up calls by census enumerators.

In their 1979 Annual Report to the American People, the council's chairman Barton A. Cummings and president Robert P. Keim make some penetrating observations: Our communications for the public good are, in effect, a mirror image of our society .... The American Republic has been no stranger to problems. Its very founding was predicated on overcoming grave inequities and abuses. Two differences apply to our times. The first is our increased willingness to look our social problems squarely in the eye with less moral equivocation.

The second difference is that the mirror we hold up to ourselves is a vastly larger one because we have coincidently lived through an explosion of new communications technology that has enabled us to see, hear, learn and communicate ourselves-both good and bad-better than ever before.

In the process, the council has become an established living testimony to a powerful reality: Those who make profits out of big business, advertising skills and dynamic media can give freely of themselves to the very source of their gains-the American public.

0

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America is

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ADVERTISING

conrinued

Campaigning in India India has no dearth of the skills required for effective public service advertising. And a group of government and public sector companies has emerged over the years to support good causes.

In India, hope often lies in tackling problems at the micro level and here one finds some success stories.

The problem is the poor child. The solution is the campaign of public service advertising devised for the Bombaybased Children's Aid Society.

Starting in 1927, the Society devoted itself to the care of juvenile delinquents.

As the institution grew, it extended its attention to children who were abandoned, vagrant and uncontrolled. Handicapped children, too, were given attention as the Society increasingly took on specialized staff.

By 1974, the Society had developed facilities to accommodate 1,600 children residentially and help another 3,500 in a year. But 500,000 children in Bombay City live in the slums and at least 20,000 of these need institutional care every year. In other words, five children are left unattended for each one fortunate enough to be selected by the Society. So, project Bal Kalyan Nagari was conceived to provide residential arrangement for 5,000 children. The estimated cost was Rs. 20 million. The Maharashtra Gove~nment donated a large tract of land and a starter fund of Rs. 12 million. How to raise the remaining large sum was the Society's problem. That's where advertisin&.._ entered.

A group of sOclalry conscious, creative people' at Radeus Advertising devised six-month program, climaxing in the annual flag day in October 1974. Th~ campaign was planned and executed with all the professional skills that go into launching a new branded product.

The pivotal element of all visual advertising was the tearful face of a child, just skin and bones, wearing a tattered garment and holding his hand out for help.

All kinds of specialists worked to produce the campaign, charging nothing for their skills. The cost of materials was under careful watch and did not exceed Rs. 90,000. The cost of free media would run into Rs. 5 million quite easily. Add to that the editorial publicity and you have quite an exposure. Suddenly the entire city was involved in the efforts of the

a

Children's Aid Society. But what was the result?

Against a target of Rs. 1.5 million for the first phase of the project, the Society received donations of Rs. 2 million.

Advertising campaigns were repeated every year and Bal Kalyan Nagari is now a ryality.

Unheralded and unsung, a new configuration of government and public sector companies has emerged as a public service advertiser. Not only are the communications powerful, but they are backed by resources that permit the ad agencies working on them to do an effective national job. We will examine two suc- ' cesses here.

India's petroleum import bill has soared from Rs. 1.37 billion in 1970-71 to Rs. 55 billion in 1980-81, reflecting not merely increased consumption but also the escalation in price. In this decade, from 9 percent of her total export ~~t.7:f~~: ~'::;fi"nda:::·~ OV: earnings, India's expenditure on this account has gone up to 75 percent, the ~'tif< highest among the major nations of the world. To add to this crisis, every year level of response. Having been taken by surprise, over Rs. 2 billion worth of petroleum is we had to slow down the tempo of press ads.

The first burst of advertising was over in March wasted in one form or another.

1980, but even today, 50 coupons are received each A Petroleum Conservation Research day.

Association (PCRA) has been set up to analyze how the wastage could be re- Similar success was recorded with industry duced. The Delhi unit of Hindustan and with the farmers.

Thompson was called in to devise the The Loss Prevention Association communication plan. According to the (LPA) is a cell of the public sector, in the agency's research, as much as 25 percent same fashion as the PCRA. It was formed of current household usage, 20 percent of in January 1978 to minimize loss, of both small-scale industry usage and 20 percent life and property, by propagating effective of farm usage could be saved through prevention methods. The Association has well-directed campaigns. Different media been sponsored by the General Insurance combinations were determined for each Corporation and its four subsidiaries.

Clarion Advertising was commissioned to group.

A full-page ad was released in major prepare the public service campaign.

The ad agency created a set of powerdaily newspapers with the headline: "For every family using petrol, gas, kerosene, ful ads to deal with fire at home and at the here are tested money-saving ideas." The factory. Another set of ads were aimed at ad carried the offer of a free booklet as increasing safety on the roads. The camwell-later withdrawn because, as the paign started in 1979, and the ads showing too many plugs in one socket, a man agency explained: smoking in bed, and haphazard wiring in Coupons started coming in within a week after a factory, each had the desired impact. the first ad appeared. In the first four months, they came in at a rate of 500 coupons a day! PCRA was The campaign on road safety has been understandably not equipped to handle such a high released only a few months ago, but early Ruby Molly Clme 10 our dinic 6 yClrs ago, with whillshe u.ought Wl$. mmo. compbinl. A slight thickening of the left brent. Hn ehecl::-up revcalcd that it wu canc ••.

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The Indian Cancer Society, incorporated in 1951, has 30 chapters in various parts of the country. Over the years the Society recorded many achievements, including the setting up of several new departments at the Tata Memorial Hospital-one of the foremost in Asia. Yet, the Society had a problem. Very few people would come to its cancer detection centers; those who did, came too late.

It was in 1978 that the Society brought in Ogilvy Benson & Mather (OBM) to evolve a communication strategy to overcome this problem. Dr. D.J. Jussawalla, a pioneer in the cancer movement, was confident that research among BombaJites would provide the right direction.

The findings were thought provokingz but not very different from findings in other parts of the world. Ignorance coupled with fatalism and the belief that of all persons the respondent was least likely to have cancer. The ad agency was

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confident that these attitudes were not difficult to tackle. OBM, however, created two approaches and tested them with average newspaper readers. First was the Regret Approach summed up in "Death from a cancer that could have been cured." The other was the Hope Approach summed up in "There's life after cancer ... it's worth living." The latter won hands down.

After that, a series of ads were created for the newspapers and magazines, divided into two stages: In the first, testimonials of real people who had survived cancer were used to demonstrate that cancer is curable. In'the second, a wellknown authority like Dr. Jussawalla reassured readers on the same topic. A film was added to the program the moment funds increased. As usual, the Society only paid for the barest minimum cost of producing advertising.

About the Author: Hafeez Noorani is a Bombay-based commercial executive, photographer and writer. He is also the Indian correspondent for Advertising Age.

Considering that friends and relatives in turn may have been influenced by the campaign, advertising has chalked up a fantastic success.

OBM's approach to advertising cancer detection was presented to the World Advertising Congress in 1980. The delegates gave OBM a standing ovation and endorsed the Hope Approach for adoption everywhere. Evidently this included the agencies handling the advertising of the American Cancer Society. A careful examination of the Society's ads showed the dramatic switch to the Hope Approach in 1980, leading to even more pointed use in 1981.

What emerges very clearly from these successful campaigns is that there is no dearth of the skills required to organize good public service advertising.

The problems are of creating the financial resources, determining priorities among the causes, and arranging for sustained support.

The Advertising Council of the United States has 40 years' experience in each of these areas. With an environment so different and a society that is a complex mosaic, no one would dream of suggesting that the Council should be transplanted bodily to India. At the same time without a proper organization, called by whatever name but devoted exclusively to public service advertising, India's efforts in public service advertising will continue to achieve limited and perhaps temporary results.

In less than a year, New Delhi will be the venue of the 13th Asian Advertising -Congress. Public service advertising will be a major item in the program. A representative of the Advertising Council in the United States is expected to be the key speaker in this session. The Congress should provide a timely opportunity to Indian advertising practitioners to draw upon not only American but also European and Asian experience in this fieldbefore setting up an organization suited to India's needs.

0

¡!1!~EChatham Swap Here's a painter who literally paints for his bread and butter-also for a boat, medical care, firewood .... And once in a while, Russell Chatham may even sell a painting.

But he prefers to barter it away.

Recently I was surprised to see, in a famous art publication, great attention directed to paintings of innumerable pastel beans. Another page displayed a huge shadowless lozenge. A passionate column explained colored space units to me once and for all.

The only painter I know well is one of my best friends, and he lives up at the top of the creek upon which my ranch in Montana is located: I own a number of his paintings.

Most of them are landscapes, powerful evocations of Montana, full of light, shapes, and ideas ruled by the most dignified style.

His name is Russell Chatham.

I thought of Russ as I read about the pastel bean paintings. Frankly, the shadowless lozenge troubled me more than the others. I felt it was keeping customers of art from buying my ffiend's paintings, and, moreover, relegating him to life on the barter system when the rest of the world danced merrily to cash register tunes and credit rumbas. Why was Russ being singled out? Why was that lozenge after him?

One thing that might be considered is that the habit of trading still exists in Montana.

Whether this is a vestige of the old West, the Depression, or a reflection of limited job opportunities, I couldn't say. But ranchers couldn't operate on their limited (usually' one-family) work forces if they couldn't trade services and commodities-meat for hay, wire for water, horsebreaking for truck repairs. I traded a riverboat, a trailer, and a pair of oars for a small oil painting.

As I see it, current orthodoxy has it that a painting that you can describe is faulty, inherently so. There is a body of heretics, the superrealists, for instance, attempting completely describable paintings. Modernism has grown naughty. The last residue of the high-priest fools of earlier in the century is the attitude that the viewer knows either nothing of a painting's meaning or only and exactly what he is ordered to know. He is the fish perpetually shot in the barrel.

When I decided to go around the area to look at some of the paintings Chatham had done over this decade, I thought first of my neighbors, Wilbur and Dorotha Lambert.

On'e Chatham they own is a mysterious little grassy landscape with a rather expressionist sheep evaporating in the middle.

"What'd you give for this one?" I asked.

"A load of firewood and an armful of smoked whitefish."

On the far wall was an uncanny portrait of Wilbur in hard sunlight, with the ruination of a hat he wears while irrigating. That was exchanged for baby-sitting with Russ' daughter, clothing repairs, and zucchini.

They liked Chatham because "he don't have no airs and he don't go telling you how you should do it."

Next I went to see John Fryer, who runs Sa~ & Fryer, a family store that has been in Livingston since the 1880s. It's where you go for a cigar, a friend's book, school supplies, trout flies, or a state flag. It is one of those small businesses that are among the last perquisites of small-town living.

"I've got two paintings," said John. "One is a small oil. It was a gift from Russ. It was kind of a Christmas card one year. Then I've got a marsh scene I bought at a Ducks Unlimited auction. I was bidding against the First National Park Bank. I loved the painting, but I wanted to head off a situation where they could say they already had one.

They really should buy one of his big ones."

None of the banks in Livingston owns a Chatham. Banks in the West tend to commission sentimental western extravaganzas for their walls-cowboys, American Indians, and cavalrymen to hang over the secretaries' heads and the tellers' cages.

John Fryer said, "Chatham takes us away from the Kodachrome spectrum. we were raised on." Nevertheless, I wish his grave and deeply understood reflections on our beautiful region hung in our institutions.

I was sitting in William Hjortsberg's house at Pine Creek. He is the son of a Scandinavian immigrant and the author of cool and often terrifying works of fiction.

He is a Chatham owner. The first thing he bought was a sketch. "I was drunk when I bought it," he explained. At the time, the sketch seemed to contain all the world's happiness in a portable version. Sober, he paid for it in four installments. He also owns a mysterious, nearly monochromatic winter landscape with a single smoke like yellow aspen, odder than the pastel flying bean.

Hjortsberg indicated his large Chatham oil, a Yellowstone landscape. "It's against the wrong wall," he complained, "but it's the only place it can go. I bought a light for

it, but it just made a splotch on it. You have to wait for winter. Then the leaves fall and light comes through the windows, and that's when you have to see it."

I felt his intense pride in having it, the same thing I got from others in the Chatham barter zone.

Joe Swindlehurst, a Livingston attorney, bought a painting at an auction in precisely the circumstances that New York, Los Angeles, Santa Fe, and Scottsdale gallery people would find contemptible and hila-. rious. The auction was held around the swimming pool at a local motel.

Chatham priced this painting and asked Swindlehurst to bid it up to a certain figure.

Things got out of control, and Swindlehurst ended up paying twice the amount they'd been hoping for. Chatham winked at him and said, "Don't worry. You'll send your kids to college on it."

Swindlehurst said, "I'm embarrassed because I paid too little." This time, Chatham had come away with money and not a set of aircraft wrenches or portable kennels.

Mike Art of Pray, Montana, traded lifetime swimming privileges at Chico Hot Springs for a painting. Chatham swims less than he should, given that he is around 40 and has rarely had really thorough medical exams. Which brings us to his doctor, one Dennis Noteboom, a Dakotan.

The barter here is an obscure one. Noteboom ran horses for three summers on Chatham"s pasture. He did not charge Chatham for medical services. Then Noteboom bought a painting for three times what Chatham was asking, while insisting that that was half its worth.

Next, the Dakotan traded an airline ticket to San Francisco for a small painting and guide service in that city. Chatham was an excellent guide in every way but one: He sought to provide a duck dinner and headed out with his shotgun. As there were no ducks available, he shot and prepared numerous blackbirds.

The shotgun employed by Chatham was acquired in a deal with the sharp Montana trader Harmon Henkin. I called Henkin about the matter. "How did you find trading with Chatham?"

"No hard bargaining," said Henkin.

"Chatham panics and goes limp. It's like a Chihuahua facing a Saint Bernard."

"What sort of painting was it?"

"A small early landscape."

"Any other trades?"

"Yes," said Henkin. "I traded a fishing then portrayed Mrs. Huppert's dog. Both rod for a portrait."

Hupperts were delighted, but Chatham Carol Spalding of the Hookham & Linde- would accept only ducks in payment for this man real estate agency, traded an afghan last. Is he fatally drawn to barter? blanket for a painting. She has not comThe local tale goes on. Morris Blakeley, pleted the afghan, and Chatham has not cattleman, owns two paintings. Terry completed the painting. Both expressed Cousins, one (baby-sitting); Cindy Murphy, continued belief in the barter. . one (bartending); Dick Lamuth" one Becky and Peter Fonda live in an old log (accounting); Sandi Lee, four (ask her); home at the foot of a tall, sage-covered hill, David Colmey, two (veterinary services). popular with western diamondback rattle- And out of town, many others own snakes. Crossing the porch, range after range Chathams, even a few nabobs. of Chatham raw material faces behind you.

I went up to the head of the creek to Opening the front door, the cool wooden Chatham's place. There is a stucco house, a interior is ruled by 15 Chatham oils, perhaps log barn, a few old buildings, one of which the most wide-ranging collection of his has been converted into a studio. work. The effect is amplified by the roar of I went inside. Chatham was dressed in his children, the continuous smell of cooking, prison trustee's costume, disconsolately reand the constantly ringing telephone. It is garding a kitchen remodeling that had stalvery different from the quiet air-conditioned led out. A barter could be at hand. There rooms where the shadowless lozenge seems were, here and there, signs of Chatham's happiest. training as an artist-Ansel Adams' photoRichard Brautigan disliked the view from graph of Chatham's grandfather, Gottardo one of his windows. He had Chatham make a Piazzoni, at work on one of the 14 remarkbetter view from that window. Chatham's able panels that hang in the San Francisco recompense was a pig named Vivian. Vivian Public Library. has since nourished Chatham.

A self-portrait of Maurice Del Mue, Attorney Arnold Huppert, after a normal, Chatham's uncle, hangs on the east wall. Del grown-up negotiation, arranged a cash deal Mue was a commercial illustrator, and with Chatham to do portraits of his four Chatham used to paint at his house. sons..By the time Chatham had done three Chatham's scheme for breaking out of the the fourth had moved to Portland. Chatham circle of barter on this particular day went as

follows: A man in Los Angeles was very interested in an enormous painting. We would send the painting to Los Angeles in my pickup truck. Chatham would sell the painting for money, fill the pickup with California wine. Friends from the old barter days would split up the truckload of wine when it got back to Montana and share the travel expenses.

It was with some sentiment, perhaps sadness, that we viewed the possibility that a major blow to our time-honored system of swapping was about to be delivered. Even Chatham's friends wondered if it was going to be coin of the realm from now on. But Chatham has to live amid the franchises with the rest of us. They don't take trade-ins at Chicken Delight, no matter how hungry you are.

The painting arrived in Los Angeles, gliding into the metropolis on the back of my truck. The prospective buyer hated it.

The wine turned to vinegar. When we sampled it, Russ raised somber eyes to mine and said, "What we need is an unsuspecting buyer."

I guess the lozenge got the truck.

0 About the Author: Thomas McGuane ranches and writes novels (The Missouri Breaks, The Bushwhacked Piano, Ninety-Two in the Shade, Panama, The Sporting Club).

Technology for Development Intermediate technology has a place in development, but it is no universal panacea.

Some developing countries, including India, have successfully adapted sophisticated technology as and when appropriate.

It has been said that technological change was the engine of economic development that propelled the Western nations from agrarian feudal societies to their current industrial affluence. In fact, economic development is sometimes defined as economic growth (a sustained rise in per capita gross national product) combined with technological change that allows gains in income to be consolidated and built upon for future growth.

We ordinarily have a pretty good idea 'of what is meant by technological change: a shift in the way resources are used so that a combination of given inputs yields a greater output.

Technology is a less precise term, and its current vogue as a buzzword encapsulating all that is good and virtuous about science, research and commerce obscures its original, simpler meaning: the application of scientific knowledge to a society's economic functions. If, as proponents of a labor theory of value have argued since the time of the economist Adam Smith some 200 years ago, a machine embodies the labor of the workers who built it, we might view technology as embodied human thought: the knowledge, research and planning that make a machine something more than the labor hours that went into its construction. The question then becomes how to use this embodied science and thought to foster economic development.

That developing countries might benefit from an injection of technology has been recognized for decades. Unfortunately, development planners initially viewed the transfer of technology as the simple process of moving techniques and machines developed in industrialized countries to the fields and factories of developing nations. In many cases, the results proved little short of disastrous. Massive infrastructure construction projects soaked up badly needed foreign exchange and generated little employment and training for the local work force. Agricultural machinery designed to cultivate the endless expansive fields of the American Midwest proved cumbersome and inefficient in the smaller, intensively worked plots that characterize much tropical agriculture. The problem with these early efforts was that they mistook the machines that represented the technology for the technology itself. What was transferred was not the embodied thought or scientific knowledge but only the machinery. Designed to save costly labor in the United States and Europe, large-scale mechanized operations were ill suited to areas with cheap, abundant labor and scarce capital.

A more'recent concept linking technology and development calls for "appropriate," or intermediate, technology. One economist summed up the need for intermediate technology by saying that developing economies should switch from the $1 technology they were using to $100 rather than $1,000 technology. In addition, appropriate technology proponents stress decentralization, labor intensity, and the ability of technology users to remain independent of foreign sources of supply for repairs and maintenance.

The appropriate technology approach has yielded a number of successes, especially in agricultural equipment and local energy supplies, but it has its drawbacks. Too often, appropriate technology has come to mean relatively simple, unsophisticated, semimechanized equipment. And the application of such technology in all sectors of developing countries is bound to create problems.

To develop and modernize, developing countries ought not only to embrace the intermediate technolgy that has worked in some sectors; they should also take steps to move toward full-blown advanced technology as soon as practicable. Some of the more successful developing nations have been aggressive in reaching beyond technology normally considered appropriate for their level of development.

There are several reasons for this. As already noted, intermediate technology is said to be a response to prevailing labor and capital prices and availability in developing economies. But labor and capitai prices may not reflect their availability. That labor is, in some sense, abundant, may not mean that the individual eptrepreneur or state agency actually enjoys access to plentiful cheap labor. First, local conditions may combine with rigidities in the labor market to create labor shortages in certain parts of the country. Workers are frequently unwilling or unable to move out of labor-surplus areas to other regions where workers are in demand, so the wage differential persists. Moreover, the specialized, skilled labor required to make local manufacturing efforts productive may be scarce and expensive indeed. An entrepreneur looking for skilled machinists to operate lathes in' a metalworking factory is likely to find such labor hard to come by. naddition, a whole array of sociopolitical pressures may push up wages in spite of labor's relative abundance. Unions can exert strong political leverage over elected leaders to raise wages, and many governments woo voters with measures that serve to make labor costlier. Faced with such a situation, development planners should recognize that more sophisticated technology is essential to bring the productivity of workers into line with prevailing wage rates. Any interest group powerful enough to have won one round of income increases is likely to win more in the future, and such raises will eventually discourage new business and exacerbate both unemployment and social unrest.

Fundamentally, developing nations need an advanced technology as an.end in itself if they are to close the gap between themselves and the industrialized world. Developing economies must plan for future prices and market conditions. Most of the developed world now says that technology is the wave of the future. These nations are staking their future prosperity in the international market on their ability to use science and technology to generate new products and processes.

Developing countries should likewise seize any opportunities to enhance their own technological expertise. Technology

I

makes labor more productive and therefore more valuable.

Outmoded, less sophisticated equipment may forestall the ability of workers (and the country) to reap future income gains.

Technology is essential if the products sold by developing countries on world markets are to command respectable prices and generate export earnings. Foreign exchange is certain to remain vital to development efforts, to allow the import of crucial components of equipment, and to pay the staggering oil bills that most developing countries have faced in recent years.

Even the nation that exports unprocessed raw materials needs technology to improve production and raise output.

Producers of most agricultural commodities are likely to become increasingly reliant on the application of technological advances. Pest management systems, trickle irrigation, plant breeding, and animal husbandry all offer tremendous potential to boost yields, but all demand assistance from high technology, notably computers.

Once produced, primary products must be stored (often refrigerated) to keep from sp9iling while maintaining an orderly marketing pattern. Mexico, for example, has launched a massive plan to develop its fisheries, and is counting on modern, sophisticated freezing and processing plants to store the catch.

Sophisticated equipment and computer management will ensure that raw materials producers obtain the highest prices, take full advantage of marketing opportunities, and distribute at lowest possible cost.

Increasing the amount of value added to domestically grown or extracted raw materials enables developing countries to build growing export industries. Meeting the stiff standards of consumers in the industrialized countries requires top-notch quality control as well as attractive packaging. Advanced food processing and packaging equipment is a necessity if processed agricultural commodities are to bring the highest possible prices on foreign markets. Technologically sophisticated processing machinery also makes possible the redistribution of food supplies within a country to upgrade the diets of people living in rural regions.

Industrial process controls are used to monitor and regulate the extraction and refining of primary metals, other chemicals, and fossil fuels. While relatively simple controls are often available, the personnel to operate such equipment usually is not-hence the need of programmable controllers or other electronic apparatus. Malaysia has retained a significant market for its natural rubber despite stiff competition from synthetic materials precisely because it employs stringent quality control measures from the time a tree is tapped until the processed rubber is shipped.

The manufacture of consumer goods offers other opportunities to employ high technology to boost output. Programmable, numerically controlled machine tools or plastic extrusion and injection equipment can turn out a critical component of precisely the dimensions needed for a manufactured item. For the simpler pieces, more labor-intensive equipment would suffice. By combining the two processes a developing country can provide employment and training for more workers while still meeting quality standards.

Perhaps the most fruitful field for the application of technology is the manufacture of capital goods, when local industrialists build machines that enable the domestic economy to manufacture consumer goods for sale at home and abroad. The role of the capital goods sector in generating, diffusing, and stimulating

technical progress has long been noted. The knowledge embodied in new capital goods technology also spreads to industries and workers using the new equipment.

The interaction of worker and machine form a vital link in this process of technology diffusion. Technology must be learned, as a massive body of research has demonstrated A learning curve relates the knowledge of a machine or process to the time a worker spends with it. Workers learn from machines, i.e., they acquire some of the knowledge that the machine embodies.

Videnceis mounting that just such a transfer of knowledge is taking place and is being successfully exploited by a growing number of developing countries. Economist Sanjay Lall reports that more than a half dozen developing nations have in recent years become technology exporters.

India, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong have succeedeo in selling technological expertise to other less developed countries (LDCs). In some cases the technology sold is sufficiently sophisticated to encompass entire plants fully set up and ready to go-a level of refinement that requires development not only of machines, but of whole systems and processes. India has sold not only textile, sugar and cement plants, but also electricity-generating facilities, telephone exchanges, pharmaceutical plants, steel mills and machine tool, factories. Argentina offers meat refrigeration facilities, fruit processing lines and cotton oil extracting plants; while Brazil and Mexico have sold steel plants to overseas buyers.

Such technological development is the result ofa fairly long, but predictable, process. In most cases, technological changes made by developing countries have been based on imitative activity, after an initial input of technology from an industrial nation, usually in the form of a licensing agreement with a technologically advanced firm. Subsequently the developing country begins its own technological adaptation and improvement.

Initially, workers learn by doing and become more efficient, while supervisors, managers and engineers make small changes within a plant using the advanced equipment. As local engineers begin to replicate imported machinery and processes, they improve the design, making it more suitable for use in their own country. Finally, the emerging domestic industry sets up its own complete production systems and even designs new products and processes. Eventually, the LDC exports its technology to other LDCs. In the process technology-exporting developing countries have stimulated economic development¡ and raised living standards at home.

How should a country that hopes to initiate such a process within its own borders proceed? First, introduce technology through licensing or joint venture agreements. Second, use policy measures to maximize local innovation. Third, initiate local research and development, particularly applied research.

In most cases, outlays on basic research by developing countries have not proved cost-effective, and application of existing technological advances to local conditions have provided the major boon to production. Therefore, any domestic research plan should take pains to keep researchers in close contact with capital goods sectors and with export industries that are likely to be eager for new technology.

0

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About the Author: Philippus Willems is a Washington-based economist

and writer. Dr. Willems formerly taught at the University of Maryland.

As millions of Americans rediscover the pleasure and practicality of bicycling, engineers are developing bikes -with two, three, and four seats and wheels-that promise to be cleaner, cheaper and, some makers insist, even more comfortable than fuel-dependent automobiles.

Joe Wheeler finishes his breakfast and heads out for work. Entering the garage of his Scarsdale, New York, apartment building, he climbs into his brand-new Shooting Star, lowers the canopy and clamps it shut over his head. He slips into gear and eases silently onto the street. He leans forward and flips the switch activating his C.V.M.cardiovascular monitor-as he accelerates down the ramp into the lane reserved exclusively for vehicles like the Shooting Star. Gathering rain clouds don't dismay him as he zips through Bronxville at a

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reckless 96 kilometers per hour, passing a Mercedes, two BMWs and a lumbering old Chevy. Beads of rain begin to spatter on the canopy, but do not adhere to the aerodynamic curvature. The C.V.M. reads out, "A-O.K., All Systems."

Coming into Manhattan, Joe Wheeler gets into the lane marked "H.P.V.s Only," and drives to the heart of midtown, where he leaves his Shooting Star with a parking attendant, who will add it to the other such vehicles stacked on a hydraulic elevator.

Then Joe ducks inside the revolving door of

his office building, having completed his commute in just 25 minut~s-five minutes less than the best time he had ever made in his Renault Le Car. His final C.V.M. readout indicated that he had performed at full aerobic capacity and had burned away 657.8 calories in the process: What's more, Joe Wheeler didn't consume a thimbleful of gas, oil, electricity or anything. Because"' the Shooting Star is a bicycle.

A few years ago, a scenario such as the one above would have seemed utterly fanciful in the United States. Bikes were for kids,

Above and left, top: The experimental Vector has attained speeds of 90 kilometers per hour-a record for a single-driver human-powered vehicle-in test runs. Designed with the help of a computer, it has a third wheel, behind the rider's head, for stability. Wind-resistance is ensured by the driver's low-slung position and the streamlined contours of the Fiberglas shell. A plastic canopy keeps the rain and dust out. Above, left: Powered by a semireclining driver on a tricycle, this sleek bike too has a lightweight shell designed to glide through the air, reducing drag by up to 50 percent.

An entry in a recent human-powered vehicle championship, its maximum speed is 45 k.p.h.

not for commuters, and bicycles like the plosion" by--widening several bike lanes so But Voigt, who spends his days working Shooting Star were for writers of science that they were n¡ow.{ourmeters wide, and by for General Dynamics on a secret guidance fiction. But today the American bicycle in- placing orange plastic traffic cones at the mechanism for missiles, has designed with dustry is tinkering with ,something beyond outer edge to ward off incursions by autothree colleagues-John Speicher, Dan Ferthe two wheels and 10 speeds of familiar mobiles. The new, improved bike lanes nandes and Doug Unkrey-a series of bikes-something that may look a lot like were immediately jammed with still more Phase III bikes called Vectors. The twothe vehicles on the previous pages. Like the bikes. seater Vector Tandem recently set a world breakthrough in plastics that produced the speed record of 100.69 k.p.h.-twice as fast So began a chain reaction: Each increase wheels that spawned the skateboard and in the number of bicyclists forced a subse- as a "95 percent efficient" lO-speed can go span the roller-skating phenomenon into quent traffic accommodation, which made on level ground. Two riders recently high gear, a new technology is waiting for biking even more attractive, which prompt- pedaled the same bike on an interstate the opportunity to revolutionize bicycling. ed still another increase. highway from Stockton, California, to SacIt promises a kind of third phase for the The transit strike ended, but the bicycling ramento at an average speed of 80.8 k.p.h. bicycle, a quantum leap, say its proponents, boom didn't. Two months after the strike, the for 68 kilometers. As the test results pour beyond the Phase II bike that has been the number of commuter bikes entering Man- in, it becomes clear that something is standard for nearly a century. (All those gaining on the conventional two-wheeled wonderfully silly contraptions that predated bicycle. ith the number of It is a given of bicycle physics that the the bicycle as we now know it can be bikes in the United . average person puts between .2 and .3 considered Phase 1.)

Phase III bicycles will not only be miles horsepower into pedaling a Phase II bike.

States having MuC;p of this, tiny amount of energy is ahead of the currently ubiquitous' Peugeots quadrupled in 20 years, the and Raleighs in speed and comfort, they wasted in three ways. First, it has to may also represent part of the solution to bikesmiths perfecting their new overcome the friction of the bearings, and the problem of clean, cost-effective urban technology have a ready market the tires as they roll against the ground; second, some of this energy is dissipated transportation. They may be built in two-in both the racing butT into the frame of the bicycle, which bends three- and four-seater styles. There could be slightly as one pedals; third, a great deal of functional and sporty models, single- and and the average commuter. energy is required in order simply to push multiple-drive versions, high-torque types for hilly areas, and high-speed ones for flat hattan held steady at about double the the air out of one's way. The fraction of a prestrike figure. fraction of a horsepower that may be left terrain. They will all be low-slung, sleek, New York is not the only place where over accelerates the bike. with three wheels or more, covered against The best way to increase efficiency is to bicycling is booming. The estimated number the rain, heated against the cold, and they reduce this waste. Friction and flex (the of bikes in use in the United States has risen will require less effort to pedal than the from 23.5 million in 1960 to 95 million bending of the frame) have been reduced finest existing two-wheeled, lO-speed bikes. substantially during the past century; to. today.

Mainstream American manufactur"From where we are now," says a spokesat the Phase III reduce them further would yield only negers are taking a close look man for one of the United States' top bicycle cottage industries that have sprouted in ligible results, although Europeans keep on manufacturers, "I'd say that an H.P.V. Southern Cplifornia, Chicago, Seattle, Bos- trying. American bicycle engineers have [human-powered vehicle] like your Shootton-Cambridge and other places where a focused more on aerodynamics, on the ing Star is a good possibility for 1985."

Spurring an escalation i'n serious res.earch surplus of engineers, construction and test- assumption that the wind is the source of ing equipment, and a little start-up capital most of the trouble. and development is an escalation in serious use of the bicycle-such as occurred during can be found. Loosely gathered into the At a speed of 16 kilometers per hour Human Powered Vehicle (cruising speed for a rider who is moderately New York City's recent transit strike, Be- International fore subway and bus services shut down, . Association, which sponsors races and in shape), cyclists expend about a third of their energy just pushing away air. At full an average of 4,000 bicyclists pedaled into offers prizes for breaking speed barriers, Manhattan daily from other boroughs. On these bikesmiths are rapidly perfecting a speed (say, pedaling downhill), as they approach 32 k.p.h., that figure rises to over the first day of the strike, however, the new techI)ology that may be equally suited number of "commuter" bicyclists instantly to the growing market for commuter bikes. half of their energy. At racing speeds of 48 doubled. As the strike continued, the New It is no. longer a question of whether this k.p.h. and over, the figure goes all the way technology will be available to the public, up to 90 percent-9 out of 10 cranks of the York City Department of Transportation pedals are required to move the air around estimated that the figure rose quickly to but of who will market it first.

"You have to remember," says Al Voigt, a the bike.

25,000; then, after some bad weather There are two ways to overcome this.

California-ba,sed aerospace scientist, "that cleared, to 50,OOO-with some Transportation Department estimates of the total num- the bike is a very elegant design to begin One can apply more power to the pedals, or one can make the bike slip more easily ber of bicycles in use in Manhattan on peak with, and it has been refined and perfected days running as high as a quarter of a over a very long haul in literally millions of through the air. Adopting either alternative leads to the Phase III bicycle. applications. The drive mechanism of the million.

To deliver more power to the pedals, one Early in the strike, the Transportation contemporary lO-speed is 95 percent has to make better use of the human lever Department responded to this bicycle "ex- efficient!"

W

system-ankles, knees, thighs and hipsthat operates the pedals. The problem with the driving position on the existing Phase II bicycle-with the rider seated above the pedals-is that, when pushing down, most people can apply no more pressure to the pedals than their body weight. But anyone who has ever sat down to push a heavy object with his or her feet knows that when the lever system works outward rather than downward, the greater thrust can budge a much greater weight.

This leverage is built into the human body, and it can be used to propel bicycles.

To do this efficiently, bicycle seats should not be raised, but lowered to the same plane as the pedals, supporting the lower back.

"We're playing with that," says Rob Goodell, vice-president of marketing for the Huffy Corporation, the leading builders of bicycles in the Uni~ed States. In another form, this idea is already on the market.

Those little .low-slung plastic tricycles so popular with the post-toddler set embody the seated-position principle and, as such, are a signpost along the road to Phase III. To take the wind. head on demands another innovation, one that streamlines the shapes of both the bike and its rider so that they glide rather than. punch through the air."

The solution is to use a fairing-a lightweight shell such as that surrounding part or all of many motorcycles.

Problems still remain, however. Seatedposition two-wheelers with fairings are theoretically beautiful, but on the road they are nightmares-high-speed accidents looking for a place to happen. Fairings work well on motorcycles, whose weight and power add to their stability in motion. But put a fairing on a light and lightly powered bicycle, and a good crosswind will tip it over.

The fairing acts like a sail. Compounding the problem, the seated-position design lowers a bicycle's center of gravity so much that it does not allow riders to lean to either side without losing their balance.

For a while, it appeared that bicycle engineering had hit a dead end. How to make two highly desirable innovations compatible with the bicycle for which they were invented? The answer was in those kids' plastic tricycles. "Both the chicken and the egg arrived at about the same time," says Al Voigt of General Dynamics. "The remedy for both problems was to add another wheel." That would make the vehicle stable in a crosswind while eliminating the problem of its lowered center of gravity.

Now little stands between Phase 111 and traffic. An extensive network of bike lanes the marketplace except the conservatism of will be needed. Phase III is also likely to be the industry and a brooding question in the quite expensive, at least three times more minds of many bikelovers: Is the resulting than the $1,000 the best Phase II bikes now vehicle still a bicycle? cost. The new bikes will also be difficult to Of course, bicycles didn't always have two . piggyback on other forms of transportation wheels anyway. In its earliest phase(cars, buses, trains), and it will be difficult to bikelike contrivances are depicted in the secure them from theft. And what about frescoes of Pompeii-the bicycle had many parking, licensing, safety?

Every new technology creates problems, forms. Even in the mid-18th century, when it was a popular racing toy among European but new technologies also create new needs nobility, it was still polymorphous: big and solutions. If the present energy crisis wheels, small wheels, two wheels or more. continues, improved and more comfortable America discovered cycling in the 19th human-powered vehicles are bound to be in century and tried to improve the basic demand. If the efficiency of the conventionhardware, but the new designs only in- al bicycle can be improved by only another 5 . percent, Phase III may be the alternative. " creased the bicycle's diversity and danger.

In the mid-1860s, new macadam roads, For at least one. small but increasingly both here and in England, encouraged the important segment of the market-the comdevelopment of better bicycles. What was muter biker-Phase III might be ideal. Even needed was a utilitarian, working bike, and though Phase III technology is being d.ein England, in 1885, John K. "Starley's veloped by visionary designers and highRover caught the public fancy, inaugurating speed racers, its ultimate application will the bicycle's second phase. probably be workaday. Translated from the The Rover had two wheels of roughly speedways to the streets, the Phase III bike equivalent size, a seat atop the frame and a could be a practical commuting vehicle. chain-driven rear wheel-recognizably the By the end of this year,' a fairly expensive bike as we know it. It was called a "safety (between $200 and $400, according to the bike" (because it didn't tip over forward) maker), very lightweight "commuter bike" and it was soon adopted by policemen," .will probably be on the market. Its flattened handlebars will snake back toward the rider, postmen and commuters.

Over the next hundred years, the driven who will sit somewhere between the racing wheel changed back and forth, from front to position (which is considered too hunchy) rear; new materials and construction tech- and the upright touring position (which lifts niques lightened the frame; pneumatic tires the rider's shoulders too high into the' made it more comfortable, and a gearing airstream). The seat will be placed lower in system (evolving eventually into the present the frame for a better angle of attack. The 1O-speed gear system) made it more pedals will follow a new, low-center-ofefficient. In Europe and the Orient; where gravity, nonwobbling design. Cables and Phase II represented a practical means of wires will be tucked inside tubil)g; nuts and . transportation, it maintained a fairly steady bolts will be flush-mounted. These improveappeal. In the United States, where the ments will complete an airflow reduction bicycle has traditionally been considered a that may reach as high as 8 or 10 percent. A toy, bike. sales have been more erratic, new, aerodynamically designed spoke patdropping with the advent of automobiles but tern and large, two-inch foam-core tires will . soaring during the health boom of the 1970s, ease passage over potholes. Fenders will be when sales nearly doubled. rediscovered, on the theory that a commutFor a large number of enthusiasts, the ing cyclist should at least be kept clean, with appeal of biking is not simply the benefit of negligible increased weight. exercise-jogging with wheels, as it wereBy 1985, Phase III visionaries predict that nor is it cheap transportation. the commuter market will be big enough to Clearly, Phase III will not appeal to every- support the first three- or four-wheeled, one. It would mean losing the feel of the genuine Phase III bikes. By 1990, Phase III wind rushing through one's hair and the racing bikes will have blown the Phase lIs jounce of the street rushing up one's wrists. off most tracks. Perhaps there will even be a .

There will be other marketing problems rickshaw-type taxi.

D¡ with Phase III as well. The bikes are too fast and too low-slung to be operated safely in About the Author: Barney Cohen is a free-lance writer. thoroughfares that permit automobile

was t time for conductor Zubin Mehta to lead the sitar virtuoso on stage for his first appearance with the famed 140-year-old New York Philharmonic Orchestra.

Dressed in a beige kurta and churidar (one writer described it as peach-colored), with his Nodu Mullick sitar under his arm, Ravi Shankar entered the auditorium. He received the applause of a full house and settled down on the Kashmir-carpeted podium. A ,last-minute tuningparticularly of the chikeris-and Panditji gave Mehta the nod to say he was ready. Seconds later Mehta launched the New York Philharmonic into the extended orchestral introduction of the first movement of Ravi Shankar's Concerto No.2 (Raga Mala) for sitar and orchestra.

The first movement, based on the raga Lalit, is the longest of the four movements. It takes almost 22 of the nearly 52-minute work. The orchestral introduction re-

I

veals the scale of the raga and leads to the soloist doing the traditional alap. The drone effect is achieved by a subtle use of orchestral texture. The interesting thing is that the jod does not follow the alap. Instead, composer! soloist Ravi Shankar introduces patterns in rhythmic cycles of 6 beats and 8 beats and then enters the jod. This leads to some facile orchestral writing where a 5V2 beat cycle is used. The solo part is replete with exciting improvisations.

The second movement lives up to the Raga Mala concept. It features morning ragas, some of which are creations of Ravi Shankar. The ragas heard include Bairagi, Parmeshwari and Gunkali. The Gunkali comes in for special treatment. Composer Shankar, realizing that he has a virtuoso orchestra to work with, goes in for orchestral colorations in a wide range.

Ravi Shankar's second encounter with the concerto form is structured around a string of ragas, a Raga Mala. At its world premiere in New York, two of India's great musicians joined their talents-Ravi Shankar as composer-soloist and Zubin Mehta as conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.

The third movement makes extended use of the raga Yaman Kalyan. It has a somber introspective character, with subtle interplay of instrumental voices. It could be equated to the slow movement of a standard Western concerto.

The finale uses the ragas Desh and Marwa but also includes a Dhun and begins with the Megh Malhar.

Whatever be the story of Tansen, or Baiju Bawra's ability through their music-making to evoke the correct atmospheric response, it may be noted in passing that April 23, the day of the premiere of the Raga Mala, did prove to be a wet, wet day. Perhaps the gods were happy. What is interesting is that the composer has made use of devices such as a wind machine and thunder sheet apart from other rich orchestral textures. This storm music is very different from the storm scenes in say Rossini's William Tell, Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony or Berlioz's Les Troyens.

The solo part is highly improvisational, thus adhering to the basic concept of Indian music.

I'd prefer to refer to the work as Raga Mala for sitar and orchestra rather than Concerto No.2. The use of the word concerto in its usual Western connotation implies a certain concept of musical form. The work is way off the mark formally. With his use of some 30 ragas, some of which make very brief appearances, the work tends to be episodic in character. The transition from raga to raga and its consequent modulation in key, in the Western sense, has been achieved with a degree of smoothness. The composer's use of the harp for the chikeri effect is very imaginative. Shankar's writing for the strings is at times devilishly difficult. He showcases several lead musicians.

Stanley Drucker, clarinetist, has e~tended solos and so do flutist Julius Baker and Philip Smith, trumpet. The horns and bassoons are utilized for subtle tonal effects and coloring. The Raga Mala gives ample evidence of the composer's growing absorption of Western orchestral

Zubin Mehta (left) with his orchestra poised for the opening of Raga Mala, as composer Ravi Shankar bows to the audience.

. sound. From the earlier Concerto (1970) to the Raga Mala, composer Shankar's growing maturity is evident.

The audience reaction was very favorable, particularly when one considers the fact that first-night subscribers are generally not the younger ones. I learn that audiences for the other nights were most enthusiastic. John Rockwell, writing in The New York Times, said: "Shankar's ability to echo and extend the coloration of the sitar by the orchestra was often ingenious." Rockwell also said: "Shankar hOasbeen driven throughout his life to bridge the gaps he perceives between the classical Indian tradition and the music of the West, and his Raga Mala represents his most ambitious ecumenical attempt so far."

Shirley Fleming (editor of Musical America), writing in the New York Post, said of the Raga Mala: "It's a dazzling display of virtuosity for both the soloist and the orchestra, and a brilliantly attractive work. Shankar has written so sensitively for the instruments of the Western orchestra that a union of sorts is certainly effected here." Flemi~g adds: "The score is a kaleidoscope of colors, all pure and bright. In a startling episode in the fourth movement it might have been Copland." (Aaron Copland is one of the great American composers.)

While the Post writer found traces of Copland, the critic of the New York Daily News found similarities to Benjamin Britten, Alan Hovhaness and even Sibelius.

Back stage to greet the two Indian maestros were two representatives from the world of classical Indian danceRitha Devi and Indrani Rahman. Both expressed their delight with the Raga Mala.

Sometime before the world premiere of the Raga Mala, I had the chance to meet with both the protagonists

involved. Zubin Mehta, to whom Ravi Shankar has dedicated the work, had expressed apprehension, mainly due to the limitations of rehearsal time, specially as the musicians all had to tackle music which was way off their normal music-making. In fact, in order to have more rehearsal time for the Raga Mala, Mehta changed the program from the originally scheduled Haydn Symphony No. 98 to the Leonora Overture No.3. In our meeting Mehta said: "Ravi and I have been friends for many years, and I have admired his virtuosity. I have never believed that Indian music can be played by a Western symphony orchestra. Ravi feels that at this point he has done enough of it, and that he can write for us. His problem is that he cannot really read Western notation, and my problem is that I cannot read his. We have a catalyst between us who writes down what Ravi plays and who understands Indian music. Ravi worked individually with our solo players in every section so that he could really know each musician and the characteristics of his instrument. He has played me the solo part and we have had some long study sessions. I feel at the moment that it will work." And work it did. The maestro's first words to me after the premiere, in good Parsi Gujarati, were ghanu majhanu giyun (It went very well).

"I have known Zubin many years now," said Ravi Shankar. "We first met in Montreal, and then in Los Angeles sometime after he took over the Philharmonic there. We were talking about doing something together at that time. Somehow things did not work out then, and soon after I was commissioned by the London Symphony to do the First Concerto. For me it would have been a special pleasure if the First had been a collaboration between us. In 1977, I think, the idea surfaced again."

In 1979, Pandit Ravi Shankar made the first sketches of the Raga Mala and discussed the concept with Zubin Mehta, who liked the idea. In 1980, the two musicians spent long hours going over what composer Shankar had written. "It was at this point that Zubin suggested that I meet with the section leaders. This meeting helped me not only to know each musician personally but to get the best out of each of them in the medium I was writing in." That meeting evidently inspired the composer, and was evidenced in the exciting and extended solo writing he did for Stanley Drucker, clarinet; Julius Baker, flute; and Philip Smith, trumpet.

It is difficult to pass judgment about the Raga Mala at a point so close in time. Musically it is very different from anything being done in India. It is innovative in a remarkable way. While it retains much of the improvisational element of Indian music, it does manage to standardize much, and thus make it possible for the Western musician to play it. To the Indian master trained in the beenkar gharana this was a challenge. To quote Ravi Shankar: "In the First Concerto I built my own prison, and this one is going to be the same. In my sitar recitals I am free. Here everything is fixed-even in the improvisational sections, I have cues to give."

From the Western standpoint, the work fails to meet the formal concept of a concerto, and what it should be in an extended work. It is too fragmented or episodic, except perhaps in the first movement. To judge the work from the standpoint of an Indian aesthetic would be just as

wrong as to judge it by standards of accepted Western music criticism. Ravi Shankar seeks ways to bring two traditions together. He, of all masters in India, is the one to achieve this. As the English critic Edward Greenfield wrote years ago: "If East has to meet West, then few musicians have achieved it with the open joy of Ravi Shankar." Pandit Ravi Shankar has participated in many such encounters over the years. His records with Bud Shank, Paul Horn, Yehudi Menuhin, Jean Pierre Rampal, apart from the film scores he has worked out in the West are good examples. The Raga Mala adds a new dimension and opens up new possibilities. It is a mature work in every sense of the word. It is, to repeat John Rockwell's words, "his most ambitious ecumenical attempt so far."

To the purist and the orthodox pedagogue, a special word. Pandit Ravi Shankar is no iconoclast as a sitarist.

He remains faithful to the traditions of his great guru Ustad Alauddin Khan and the beenkar gharana. As a performer, Shankar is getting more classical and more orthodox. But composer Ravi Shankar is an experimenter, searching for new sounds, new expressions, and the Raga Mala is a vindication of his pioneering efforts.

The music of South Asia first captured the Western ear in the 1870s, when Paris was the site of a major international exhibition. Since then, media, the development of communication, TV, and the recording industry have all accelerated cultural cross-pollination at all levels.

Which of the Western composers has imbibed these influences? "Olivier Messian is the firsf name that comes to mind," said Ravi Shankar. He also admires the work of Alan Hovhaness, Henry Cowell, Karl Heinz Stockhausen and others who have sought inspiration in the Indian system. "Hovhaness, being Armenian, comes closer in spirit. Stockhausen's Mantra is a fantastic composition, but it's Indian only in name. Philip Glass has just written an opera Satyagraha, based on Gandhiji's life, orirather incidents from it. What Glass does is not Indian Indian, but he has his roots in a new style."

What is the possibility of a Western musician writing a work for' sitar and orchestra or perhaps sarangi and orchestra? Ravi Shankar hinted that there had been discussions between him and a great American composer, but "there has to be a deeper and more complete understanding on the composer's part of the technique of the sitar and its capabilities before something could happen." "After all," he added, "Brahms consulted the violinist Joachim when he wrote his violin concerto."

As this is being written, one is not aware if any Indian institution has made arrangements to secure a tape of the world premiere for playing to audiences in India. One can hope that that has been done. India is not likely to hear a "live" performance of the work, unless of course the New York Philharmonic comes to India on a tour and schedules permit the inclusion of the Raga MCila in the program. The instrumental writing is too complex and technically difficult for any but a great orchestra to tackle.

London audiences are'likely to hear the work in concert in March 1982. Since the First Concerto was issued on LP, let's hope that the Raga Mala too will be released. 0 About the Author: Sorah Modi, who now lives in Washington, was formerly a music critic with The Times of India and AIR.

Tbe Retarn of Handmade Paper New enthusiasts in the United States have revived the craft of papermaking. Their persistence and hard-earned skill have created an awareness of the "human quality" of handmade paper.

In India, handmade paper, besides being beautiful, provides employment to thousands of villagers.

The United States is currently experiencing a renaissance in the art of handmade paper.

In less than a decade papermaking has spread from the activity of a dedicated handful to a countrywide sensation. Artists, printmakers, publishers of fine books, craftspeople, and thousands of others are making handmade paper an art form.

At the center of the papermaking movement are such young people as Howard and Kathryn Clark, owners of the Twinrocker Handmade Paper Mill (established 1971), the busiest and best known American paper mill of its kind.

Twinrocker (their water mark is two rocking chairs joined back to back) is located on Howard's family farm in northern Indiana amid fields of corn,soybeans, wheat, and hay.

In addition to supplying custom papers to artists, fine-art publishers, and private presses, and producing a variety of stock papers for art-supply stores, the Clarks collaborate with artists on special projects, manufacture Hollander beaters (which beat the cotton fiber into pulp) and paper presses of Howard's design, and supply equipment and materials to other papermakers across the country.

They also lecture and demonstrate at more than 20 art centers, museums, and universities each year and engage in continuing research on papermaking techniques.

Although both Kathryn Haugh and Howard Clark grew up in Indiana, they did not meet until 1968, when they were well into their 20s, in Detroit. Howard was completing his second bachelor's degree while designing machinery fot a manufacturer of materials32

Reprinted from Americana. Copyright Americana Magazine Inc.

Š

1980 by

handling equipment. Kathryn was teaching art at the Detroit Art Institute and etching at Wayne State University, where she was also earning her master's degree in printmaking. At Wayne State, master lithographer Aris Koutroulis impressed upon Kathryn the value of fine paper-arguing that the sheet of paper was as important as the image drawn or printed on it.

In 1970 the Clarks moved to California, where Kathryn taught lithography and Howard continued his design career.

Determined to make a living at her craft, Kathryn began working as a lithographer at the Collector's Press, which was run by Ernest de Soto. At Collector's, a first-rate atelier, Kathryn was working with some of the best artists, printmakers, and printmaking equipment in the United States.

"Everything was great," she recalls, "except the paper." Like most American artists, the people at Collector's Press were using the only 100 percent rag papers readily available at the time-Arches and Rives papers from France. Although they are of high quality, those papers are machine-made and have little character.

"Handmade paper was being produced in Europe, but it was hard to get," says Kathryn, "and artists weren't using it. Because it was so rare, they were intimidated by it."

Clifford Burke, a printer of fine books, tried to convince the Clarks that they were ideally equipped to solve the problem by making paper themselves. "Kathryn knows how to make paper; you know how to make machines," he told Howard. On April Fools' Day, 1971, Howard left his drafting board to build a Hollander beat er in the basement of their

San Francisco apartment.

In the beginning, ingenuity was their most abundant resource, along with a good deal of help from friends. Soon, however, Howard and Kathryn realized that they could not operate in a cramped basement. "And landlords and paper mills don't get along," adds Howard. "All that water and equipmentthey just don't understand." So they packed up and headed for Indiana and Howard's family farm. By February, 1973, they had designed and built their new paper mill and were making the first sheets. Isolated on a 29-hectare farm a quarter of a kilometer from Brookston, a town with a population of 1,500, the Clarks had to resolve their papermaking difficulties alone.

Until a few years ago most people had never seen a piece of handmade paper. "We spent

years," Howard says, "just trying to convince people that they would like it!"

"Handmade paper is a charged object," Kathryn says.

"There's something subtle in it-natural little inconsistencies that tell us it was made by a human being." Those inconsistencies, in the fiber and in the surface, are what make handmade paper seem alive. And for the Clarks, the handmade is as important as the paper.

"That human quality is more and more the precious commodity," Kathryn explains.

The Clarks maintain that quality by specializing in custom papers for artists, fine-art printmakers, and private presses. Unlike an industrial mill, Twinrocker can create a special paper for every client, whether 100 sheets or 25,000, four by five inches or three by four feet ..~.

The best ingredient to use in making handmade paper is high-quality rag paper. The illustrations that follow demonstrate how to make a 1O-by-12-inch sheet of paper from bits of rag paper.

The required materials are a plastic or metal washtub; rag paper cut or torn into half-inch squares; a kitchen blender; a small bucket; a mold and deckle (see diagram); an iron; blankets or sheets of felt cut into 2-by-1Vz-foot sections (2 sections are required per sheet of paper); old bed sheets cut into 2-by-P/z-foot sections (6 sections are required per sheet of paper); and sponges.

The blankets and sheet sections must be larger than the paper, and the washtub must be large enough at its base to fit the mold and deckle. The washtub at right is 16 square inches at the base; the mold and deckle is 12 by 14 inches.

Paper made from paper alone is called waterleaf and can be used for printmaking, embossing, or water color. To make drawing or writing paper, a sizing solution must be added to the pulp (one teaspoon per sheet of paper) or brushed onto the dried waterleaf. Sizing solution consists of a package of gelatin, or 2 teaspoons of cornstarch, or 2 or 3 drops of glue dissolved in a cup of water.

To tint the paper, add chopped vegetables and a touch of preservative such as wintergreen or permanent dye to the pulp. To obtain variations in texture, embed objects such as dried grass, weeds, or small flowers between 2 sheets of paper (see step 7). For a finishing touch, add a personal watermark by weaving thin wire onto the screen of the mold with fine thread.

-ELLENZEIFER

()RA.::J,)

DRAWlNGSBY LAUREN JARRETT

CR.

\NINDOW

To make the mold, staple screening (the finer the screen, the less textured the paper) to j-by-j·inch pine strips and then nail another layer of j-by-}· inch pine strips underneath. Make the deckle frame with }-by-2-inch pine strips and glue rubber window strip· ping to the bottom edge, which will keep it from slipping. Fasten the two frames with a hook as shown at left.

.)<..RtENIN6

1. Make pulp by blending 2 cups of water and 2 or 3 tablespoons of cut or torn paper in a kitchen blender. Pour the pulp, which should have the c0nsisteacy of a milkshake, into a small bucket. Repeat the process 5 or 6 times, then stir to distribute the pulp evenly. If the pulp feels too thick, add a cup or more of water. Add any sizing or coloring required. 2. Place the mold and deckle in the washtub and fill it with about 3 inches of water, so the screen is totally immersed. Pour most of the pulp over the screen

surface as evenly as possible. After the pulp settles, 'pour the remainder over any thin spots or areas where the screen is visible. Alternatively, pour the pulp directly into the tub to a depth of about 6 inches, stir, .dip the mold and deckle, and scoop up the pulp. 3. After the screen sits in the tub for a minute, lift the mold and deckle out, carefully letting the excess water drain. 4. Place the mold and deckle on a flat surface and lift off the deckle to expose the delicate border, the hallmark of handmade paper.

5. Turn the mold over onto one of the blankets or pieces of felt. 6. The next few steps involve removing the paper from the mold, a process called couching. Sponge off as much water as possible from the screen, pressing evenly with the sponge while moving from one end to the other.

7. Beginning at one edge of the mold and moving evenly to the opposite edge, tap the screen lightly with your fingers. Slowly lift off the mold . .If any objects, such as dried flowers, are to be embedded between 2 sheets

of paper, this is the time to arrange them on the wet paper. Then repeat steps 1 through 4; turn the mold over directly onto the bottom sheet, containing the objects to be embedded, and then continue with step 6.

8. After detaching the paper from the mold, cover it with another blanket or felt. While working with the blankets, take care not to move or shift the wet paper in between in any way, or ridges, tears, and wrinkles in the paper will result. 9. Iron the top blanket at medium-hot heat for about a

minute. Carefully turn the sandwich over and iron the other blanket for a minute. Repeat again on each side. Remove as much water as possible without drying the paper. 10. After ironing each side of the paper sandwich twice, peel back the top blanket. If the paper clings to the blanket, replace the blanket and continue ironing, a minute on each side.

If the blanket can be removed, replace it with a dry sheet and iron again, concentrating on the middle of the paper to prevent the edges from drying

first and becoming brittle. 11. After replacing both blankets with sheets and steaming out as much water as possible, stack the paper between dry sheets and. cover with a heavy board. Distribute weights or books evenly on top and change the sheets daily until the paper is dry. Flush the used pulp down the toilet; if poured into the sink, it will eventually harden and clog the pipes. 12. The finished paper will have a rich texture and can be used for artwork or simply framed and displayed by itself.

"We try to provide the personal service and flexibility our small size allows," says Kathryn. The possibilities seem infinite: variations in color, texture, size, or deckle are just the beginning. Other fibers-flax, silk, jute, wool, or straw, for example-can be mixed in with the cotton, or colored pulps can be added and other papers laminated within the larger sheet.

In a craft such as papermaking, the apprenticeship system reinvents itself out of a need for more strong arms. At Twinrocker eight apprentices have worked their way through the mill, and all eight are now professionals on their own, of whom two have set up mills in Germany and Australia.

Perhaps most important to Howard and Kathryn is the knowledge that their hard-won skills are being passed on. Just how far papermaking has now spread can be measured by the fact that Howard has designed and helped establish new paper mills at more than 20 universities in the last few years. And as more people become papermakers, the Clarks feel more compelled to emphasize the importance of craftsmanship.

"Paper is'very deceptive," says Kathryn, "because it seems easy to make. But if the paper is lumpy or full of threads or contaminated with impurities, it won't work. In the years ahead, we have to be even more emphatic about quality and permanence. If a quantity of paper is made that's going to fall apart, the bad lots will give handmade paper a bad name."

The Clarks' own extensive research in paper permanence and the establishment of the Center for the Craft of Hand Papermaking at Purdue University under their guidance are important steps toward insuring the survival of their craft. 0 Michael McTwigan is coauthor of Clay Play: Learning Games for Children.

About the Author:

That

Lives on Paper PHOTOGRAPHS BY A VINASH PASRICHA

Amidst the rustle of paper rises the voice of Ali Baksh Quazi, whose family has been in the paper business for the past seven generations. He now teaches Urdu to the village children.

Reminisces the 70-year-old man: "I used to be one of the quickest papermakers." "I could make 500 sheets in six hours," he adds with a touch of pride in his voice. His large hands are gnarled.

Quazi lives in a village where in every house paper is made by hand-right from a single family which makes 500 sheets a day to a complete work unit which makes one ton a day.

Sanganer is a small village in Rajasthan inhabited by about 100 families, famous for its handmade paper (and its block printing of textiles). Goats and hens roam the kucha roads, and women dressed in colorful odnies wash pulp at the village well, which will be used . to make paper. Children, many of whom help their parents in the' papermaking, roam about in the blistering heat.

In a corner, there is a dingy little shop run by a Bengali with a famous name, Mujibur Rehman. He smiles a toothless smile of welcome. "I turn these beautiful papers into envelopes, bags and autograph books. I shifted from Delhi 15 years ago." He reels off names of famous shops that buy his wares.

The paper industry employs old and young persons alike.

Grandparents and grandchildren work side by side. I ask Khalid ifhe goes to school. "Yes," he says, "I go to school in the afternoon.

But when a lot of paper has to be made, I have to skip school."

Women get down to making paper as soon as they finish their cooking. Newlywed Noor Banu says: "Before I was married, I knew nothing about making paper. Now I can separate sheets as quickly as Razia." Razia, a harassed woman in her 50s, is the quickest sheet separator in the village. She opens her mouth to pop a pan while her nimble fingers separate sheets. Her chubby granddaughter scrambles on to her lap and falls asleep, sucking her thumb.

The village starts humming with activity as early as 5 a.m. Rags are sorted to be shredded. The shred is beaten into, pulp, which is

Sanganer's colorful, textured handmade paper (above) comes to the market after a laborious process. The pulp is first washed thoroughly at the village well (top, left) and then carried home to be put into a cement sink, from where it is lifted in a frame to form sheets (far left). After squeezing excess water, the sheets are hung out to dry (left).

then left to ferment for eight days. Afterward it is washed, and paper is lifted from a thin solution of pulp and water with bamboo or wire mats. The paper is then pressed and dyed. Next comes starching and smoothening. The paper is cut into uniform sheets, and then is ready for use.

In recent years, machines have simplified some tedious jobs, suchas shredding the rags, beating the pulp, pressing, smoothing and cutting paper. Everything else is done by hand. New machines for drying and glazing are now being introduced.

The largest building of the village houses the cooperative society, which owns a pulp-beating machine that the villagers can use for a nominal charge. The society also secures orders for manufacture of paper.

Handmade paper constitutes only 0.5 percent of India's total paper production of 10 lakh tons. Its potential in bridging the gap that exists between supply and demand has obviously not been adequately explored.

"The notion that handmade paper costs more than millmade paper is wrong. Prices are compared without thought of the fact that handmade paper can be tailored to suit requirements that millmade paper doesn't normally serve," laments Majid Khan, who owns a unit that produces 50 tons of Eaper daily.

"Yes," ¡agrees S.P.S Chauhan, technical manager of the Gandhi Darshan exhibition, Delhi. "Specialized paper requirements have increased manyfold over the past few years. Handmade paper can serve most specialized requirements: for instance, the Posts and Telegraphs Department needs clotb-lined paper, shippers need

packaging boards, breweries filter paper, and so on."

Chauhan adds: "Manufacturing thin writing or printing paper by hand is not an economical proposition. So, we have shifted to noncompetitive, decorative, commercial and industrial grades of paper which can cater to specialized needs at competitive rates."

Essentially, the paper industry is based on recycling. All industrial and agricultural wastes are used as raw material to prepare special types of paper and boards-rags, cotton waste, banana stalks, sisal waste, kenaf waste, bagasse, pineapple fiber.

One can get paper made of grains of rice husk, silk thread, golden or silver zari, chips of wood and jute. The list is endless.

Papermaking entails 15 processes from sorting of rags to packaging. Each sheet is handled 60 times in the three days it takes to make it. The industry in India employs 5,041 persons (excluding the children, who work in private houses). Handmade paper units need considerably less capital outlay than do big paper mills and generate more ~m'ployment in proportion to their production. The present cost of setting up a mill is Rs. 40 crore (with 100-tohs-a-day capacity), while the investment for a handmade paper unit, which can produce one ton a day, is Rs. 5.5 lakh.

The Khadi and Village Industries Commission extends technical and financial assistance to cooperatives, institutions as well as to individuals and private entrepreneurs. The commission offers a subsidy of 25 percent and complete exemption from .customs duty to smaller units. Besides, they are exempt from excise duty. The commission also arranges training courses for different cadres.

Sanganer is one of the many villages in India where handmade paper is produced. Uttar Pradesh has been the largest production center for decades, but other states like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are not far behind. Handmade paper is not only beautiful; it brings much needed employment to thousands of villagers. 0

Arthur Laffer and the Laffer curve-both shown on the facing page-represent a significant aspect of the economic recovery program adopted by President Reagan. The Laffer curve illustrates the relationship that economist Laffer sees between tax rates, revenues and productivity: when the tax rate is 100 percent, all revenue ceases. People will not work for nothing. On the other hand, if the tax rate is zero, there is no revenue, hence no government. The Laffer curve determines that optimum point where tax rates will produce maximum revenue.

The point is variable, but says Laffer, in a democracy it is usually "where the electorate desires to be taxed."

Laffer's perspective forms an important basis for the Reagan plan and has found acceptance in the largest tax cuts ever passed by the u.s. Congress. But Laffer has his critics too. One of them, George Perry, enters into a debate with Laffer as they answer questions from Jim Lehrer and Charlayne Hunter-Gault, associate editor and New York correspondent respectively, of the MacNeil/Lehrer Report, anAmerican TVprogram.

LARGEST TAX CUTS IN U.S. HISTORY

THE NEW ECONOMICS: THE PROS AND THE CONS

The U.S. Congress gave final approval to a major part of President Ronald Reagan's economic revitalization program by passing what the administration calls a "truly historic" tax bill-the largest tax cut in U.S. history.

Following 16 consecutive hours of conference working on relatively minor differences between two versions of the administration-backed bill, the two Houses of Congress passed the legislation August 4.

Approval of the tax program came less than a week after Congress voted more than $35,000 million in budget cuts the administration had requested.

Basically, the tax package will cut individual income tax rates by 25 percent over 33 months, give business greater tax benefits for investing in new plant and equipment and cut taxes in a number of other ways to stimulate savings and investment and reduce inequities in tax law.

For the 1982 fiscal year, ending September 30 of that year, taxes willbe cut $37,300 million. The size of the cuts will rise to $93,700 million in 1983, $149,500 million in 1984, $191,900 million in 1985 and $252,100 million in 1986.

The actual costs to the U.S. Treasury in 1985 and 1986 are rather speculative because it is difficult to predict the impact of an "indexing" provision that becomes effective in 1985. The provision will raise the income thresholds for the

Lehrer: The program President Ronald Reagan has in mind to solve our economic problems is two-pronged: on the one hand, deep cuts in the federal budget; on the other hand, deep cuts in the tax rate for individuals and business.

The tax cutting calls for 10 percent a year tax reductions for three years-30 percent in all. The theoretical underpinnings of cutting taxes as a solution to inflation are bound up in something called supplyside economics. Their number one theorist, the man whose ideas are most credited with converting Ronald Reagan to supply-sideism, is a California economist named Arthur Laffer. We look at those theories with Dr. Laffer on the one side, and George Perry, an economist from the Brookings Institution, on the other.

Jim

Charlayne Hunter-Gault: Arthur Laffer has been preaching the wisdom of tax rate cuts for years. Dr. Laffer got his first taste of presidential economics when he was chief economist in the Nixon Administration's Office of Management and Budget. He is a professor at the University of Southern California's Graduate School of Business.

Dr. Laffer, we've heard a lot about supply-side economics and the "Laffer curve." In the simplest of terms, can you explain all that?

Basically, supply-side economics is that brand of economics that focuses on very personal and very private incentives. The basic assumptions are that people don't work to pay taxes.

People basically work to get what they can after taxes. People don't save to go bankrupt. People save to make an aftertax rate of return on their savings, and it's the very personal and private incentives Dr. Laffer:

that matter in the disposition of income, of production and of savings.

How does it get to be called supply-side?

Hunter-Gault:

Laffer: I guess other economists ignored supply for so long, and focused exclusively on aggregate demand; we focus on the part which is supply. But it's very old and very traditional economics: it's called classical economics. And it's been around for a long time.

Dr.

Hunter-Gault:

Can you tell us how it

works, exactly?

Well, basically, when you change incentives-through either government spending or tax programswhat you'll do is change human behavior.

And when you change those programs, human behavior changes in such a way as to minimize the disincentives, or maximize the incentives resulting from work and savings.

Dr. Laffer:

Can you give me an example of what you are talking about?

Hunter-Gault:

Dr. Laffer: What we know is there are

two effects tax rates have on total revenue. One effect we¡ call the arithmetic effect: if you raise tax rates, it's unambiguously true that you collect more revenue per dollar of tax base. But there's an economic effect: if you raise tax rates, you reduce the incentives for working, and you shrink the tax base. These two effects always work in the opposite direc-

NEW ECONOMICS' various tax rates each year in line with increases in the general price level. In determining the cost of the tax cut in 1985 and 1986 the administration assumed an inflation rate in the range of 5 to 6 percent. If inflation is greater, the tax cur will be greater, and if prices go up less than 5 percent the revenue cost will be less than the above figures.

The purpose of "indexing" is to stop pushing Americans into higher tax brackets merely because their incomes are keeping up with inflation.

In a weekend news conference August 1, Secretary of the Treasury Donald Regan said the administration is "willing to stand by this bill

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and say we got what we wanted."

The bill contains about "95 percent of what the President wanted," Secretary Regan stressed, adding that with the budget cuts "I think we can now look forward to the start of the Reagan program."

Improvements in the economy will almost be "imperceptible" at first, the Treasury Secretary said, with a pickup being reflected in the

continued

tion, and as often as not, an increase in Hunter-Gault: Would it also reduce untax rates will ultimately lead to less . employment at the same time? revenues, not more. For example, New York City is nearly bankrupt primarily Dr. LatTer: Well, if you remember in the because tax rates are too high, not Kennedy Administration, in 1961 the because they are too low. unemployment rate was 6.75 percent, wasn't it? By the time 1965 came around, Hunter-Gault: Is there any place where it was below 4 percent. President Nixon took it from 3.5 percent to almost 8 peryour theory has been tried? cent in 1975. Frankly, tax rate reducDr. LatTer: In very recent times, it's been tions increase employment, output and tried in Puerto Rico. Governor Carlos goods, and lower unemployment rates, Romero Barcelo has cut tax rates across and lower inflation. the board there by a substantial amount, and the results have been really quite Hunter-Gault: What about the federal good. The results in California with deficit?

Proposition 13 have not been bad at all.

Also President John F. Kennedy cut tax Dr. LatTer: Well, when I look at Presirates in the United States in the early dent Kennedy's record again, in 1961 the Sixties, and the performance was out- federal [budget] was in deficit by almost standing. Presidents Warren G. Harding $4,000 million. By 1965, the federal arid Calvin Coolidge cut tax rates in the budget was in surplus. Governor Romero Twenties. If you take the opposite side, I Barcelo in Puerto Rico inherited a large guess it was President Herbert Hoover deficit in the Puerto Rican budget, and who raised tax rates in 1929, and the now he's running a surplus. Revenues worst depression followed. President have increased dramatically there. PresiJimmy Carter, most recently, raised tax dent Nixon took us from a surplus to a rates a lot during the past four years, and deficit by tax increases. you can see how the budget went into bigger deficit, and inflation rates in- Hunter-Gault: Dr. Laffer, as one of creased.

President Reagan's advisers, how closely do you think his proposals follow your Hunter-Gault: How soon and what kind ideas? of impact would the kind of tax cutting you're talking about have on inflation?

Dr. LatTer: Fairly closely. I would prefer to see larger cuts at the higher end of the Dr. LatTer: It depends on how the tax tax brackets. I'd also like to see a cuts are done, and precisely on the form complete elimination of the distinction they take. But in the Kennedy Adminis- between unearned and earned income. It tration they found the pay-back period makes no sense whatsoever to discrimiwas very quick indeed. In fact within a nate between sources of income. And year and a half, revenues were back to lastly, I'd surely like to see indexing in the where they should have been. proposals for income tax rate reductions.

Hunter-Gault: And what impact does it have on inflation?

Dr. LatTer: Basically, it lowers inflation.

It doesn't increase it. For example, do you remember what the inflation rate was like during the Kennedy Administration?

Hunter-Gault: think.

About

one percent,

I

Dr. LatTer: That was per year, by the way, not per month as it is now. . From "The' MacNeillLehrer Report,". February 18, 1981 coproduced byWNET-Tv', New York; and WET A-TV, Washington, D.C.. Š 1981 by Educational liroadcasting Corporation and GWETA.

Hunter-Gault: On that point of lowering the amount of the taxes that the higher income people would be exempt from, what impact would that have on President Reagan's plan as you see it?

Dr. LatTer: I see it as a very serious departure from the types of things that would be good economics. Now, that doesn't mean it can't be done in later stages. I'm sure that by the end of his term, the highest tax rate in America will be no more than 35 percent on capital and on labor. President Reagan has four years in office, and he has a lot of tax bills that will come through. I'm sure the highest rates will be lowered, and I'm

economic indicators in 9 to 12 months. The Treasury Secretary said he expects to see early positive signs in the financial markets and business investment decisions when people recognize the magnitude of "what has happened."

One of the bill's most welcome provisions for business relates to faster depreciation; depreciation deductions help reduce a company's taxable income. According to an analysisby the Congress' Joint Committee on Taxation, by 1985, when the depreciation benefits are fully in effect, the prime beneficiaries will be such industries as petroleum refining, tobacco, cement, electric utilities, water transportation, glass, pulp and paper, chemicals, railroad equipment and cable television.

High-technology firms benefit from a separate tax credit for added money spent on wages for researchers.

Though many small firms will profit from faster write-offs, the biggest benefit for most will come from cuts in personal income taxes.

Nearly half the businesses in the United States are unincorporated, and owners pay individual taxes.

Such proprietors, as well as farmers withsmall acreage, will benefit from reduced estate taxes, which will enable them to pass down business ownership to their heirs. ana third part of Reagan's recovery program-monetary policy-Secretary Regan said that the U.S. Federal Reserve is maintaining a policy "of slow, steady growth in the money supply." He said the monetary aggregates "are on target" and at levels consistent with noninflationary expansion of the economy.

The four-part Reagan program also includes reduction of government regulation.

Passage of the tax bill, however, is an essential part of the Reagan strategy. Administration economists say that in recent years the

sure the distinction between unearned and earned income will be eliminated.

Lehrer: Now, to an economist who sees

it differently. He's George Perry, the senior economist for the Council of Economic Advisers in the Kennedy Administration, and now chief economic forecaster and a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution. Dr. Perry, what's wrong with what Arthur Laffer just laid out?

Dr. Perry: When I hear Art talk about

these things, the theoretical part of it sounds almost mystical, and the evidence sounds very selective. Let me start with the evidence part first. As Art said, this is the kind of subject that has been around in economics for a long, long time, and there really has been a lot of study of it.

When we ask what are the effects of cutting taxes on supply, the answer is very different depending on what taxes you're talking about. When you talk about cutting personal income taxes in a massive way, particularly at the high end of the tax brackets, you have to ask yourself, is that going to make people work more or less? And who is going to be affected? Most people don't really have much option about working more or less, about putting out more work effort.

Most jobs are organized in a way that doesn't even allow that kind of response.

Take someone who does have the kind of response, though, just to crystallize the issue. You have a dentist who plays golf Wednesday afternoons. You now cut his tax bracket. What is he going to do? Is he going to play less golf and drill more teeth? Or is he going to take another afternoon off as well-and play even more golf? The answer in the case of a dentist is just about indeterminate as far as statistical studies go. By that I mean the answer in the case of a fairly highincome individual-the incentive to work more, and the incentive to work lessjust about balance out. If we ask what may really happen in the real world, I would expect to 'see some fairly noticeable effects-small but measurable-for second-earners. That would be the place where you would expect the impact. And that's a problem which the Congress is trying to address.

"Do you think a dentist is going to play more golf and drill less teeth just because his tax bracket is high?"-economist George Perry.

Dr. Perry: That's right. There is some little evidence that where there's an effect that's noticeable, perhaps large, it would be for a second-earner who now gets taxed at a relatively high rate, and who might be induced to work if the rate were somewhat lower. But on a national scale, you would have only a very small effect in the total additional labor supply. That is what a large mass of studies has been able to show. So much for the labor supply effect. There's a second effect which sometimes gets mentioned, and that is that you might induce more productivity growth. You might put the money in the hands of people who would invest in particularly useful kinds of ventures.

Once again, the effect there-from anyone who has been able to study it-is very tiny. Alongside these effects, we have to ask, are there other tax changes which could do the job better? And I think in the case of productivity growth, the right answer is to go directly to the things that affect the return to capital; worry about the fact that depreciation is not adequate, and ought to be corrected, for example.

Lehrer: You say the Laffer approach won't lower the inflation rate?

Lehrer: Second-earners in a household?

Dr. Perry: There's no evidence that it has

They might work more, they might go get a job that they might not otherwise get. Is that what you mean?

any direct effect on the inflation rate, and

marginal rates of taxation faced by people and the effective rate of taxation faced by business have been moving up so much that the responsiveness of production to demand has been less and less effective.

The combination of inflation and higher marginal tax rates has inhibited both savings and investment, they say, adding that the current tax bill will increase the savings pool, which will in turn help pull down short-term interest rates, increase investment and growth, and ultimately feed revenue back to the government.

The administration also argues that the tax cut is really not so much a tax cut as it is a way to neutralize the tendency for the U.S. progressive tax rate structure over time to increase the proportion of the national income going to taxes.

Critics of the Reagan tax bill argue that if the administration is wrong about the amount of saving and stimulus resulting from the tax cuts, the Federal Government will receive less revenue and experience higher budget deficits than officials have estimated. Higher deficits would require the government to borrow more, crowding out private borrowers, thereby increasing interest rates, the critics argue.

For both critics and proponents of the bill, the arguments are now relegated to the "wait and see" category.

Here are the major provisions of the tax bill as passed by Congress:

Individual income taxes • Beginning October 1, marginal rates for each tax bracket were cut by 5 percent, and will be cut by 10 percent on July 1, 1982, and by another 10 percent on July 1, 1983, for a total cut of almost 25 percent.

• Starting in 1985, the tax system will be indexed to prevent inflation from boosting people into higher tax brackets.

• Individuals will be allowed a limited amount of tax deductions for charitable contributions even if they elect to take a standard deduction for other deductible expenses.

there's no presumption that it does. I do think that the reference to the Kennedy tax cuts shows that Art Laffer is about 180 degrees off. The name of the game today is doing something about inflation.

There was no inflation at the start of the Kennedy tax-cut era. At that time, what was deliberately attempted was an expansion of demand; the idea was that we had a very underutilized economy, and we ought to put people back to work; one part of that program was tax cuts to increase spending by consumers.

Lehrer: What do you think the effect on

the inflation rate will be if President Reagan gets his 30 percent tax cut across the board?

Dr. Perry: President Reagan is proposing

a combination of large tax reductions balanced by large spending reductions.

The proposal that Art was making, which is large tax reductions because somehow they would pay for themselves, and we wouldn't have to worry about the expenditure side at all-if we stick to the Laffer proposal straight out, I think we would exacerbate inflation. We would push this economy too far, too fast; our financial markets would see this, and would panic; I think interest rates would be driven up; we'd have really a bad economic situation. Right now most mar-

kets are worried about inflation, and are looking for evidence that we're determined to restrain it. If you really didn't have to worry about inflation, sure you'd like to cut taxes; sure, you'd like to see a big expansion of jobs and output. That's what we were in a position to do in the early Sixties, and what we did do then.

I should mention that at the same time we introduced major supply-side changes in the tax system-both the investment tax credit, and accelerated depreciation to make investment more attractive and more profitable. That kind of change, I think, is overdue once again. We have to once again try to make investment more profitable, and there have been bills before the Congress to do that. What we're trying to distinguish here is whether that homely and slow approach-keeping the economy basically cooled down, encouraging capital formation, and gradually unwinding the inflation ratewould be better than making massive cuts in personal taxes, and hoping that we'll get some good out of that approach, that it won't be swamped by the big increase in demand which it would generate.

Hunter-Gault: Dr. Laffer, what about Dr. Perry's point-do you come from another planet in terms of the inflation environment of the Kennedy years and now?

• The top marginal rate on investment income will be cut from 70 percent to 50 percent.

• Americans employed abroad will be allowed to exclude from U.S. taxes as much as $75,000 of income earned outside the United States in 1982, rising to $95,000 in 1986. A housing-allowance exclusion also will be permitted.

• A married couple with two incomes paying more taxes than two single people with the same ,incomes will receive tax relief.

• The top tax rate on estates and gifts will be cut from 70 to 50 percent.

Business taxes • Businesses that invest in new plant and equipment will receive faster tax breaks. Under past "depreciation" rules, there were many different schedules for different classes of assets. This bill limits the classes to four, with businesses being able to write off autos, trucks, and equipment used in research and development in three years; all other machinery and equipment in five years; certain public utility property in 10 years; and all other buildings and structures in 15 years.

• Taxpayers will be able to exclude from the "windfall" profits tax up to $2,500 of oil royalties they receive during the current tax year.

For the next three years, they may exclude up to two barrels of oil a day, with the tax exclusion rising to three barrels a day during 1985 and 1986.

• All existing wells producing 10 or fewer barrels of oil a day will be exempt from the windfall profits tax, and the current 30 percent tax on newly discovered oil will be cut in half over five years.

Savings incentives • The tax bill will allow all taxpayers to deduct contributions to individual retirement accounts from taxable income, up to certain limits.

• Savers could exclude from taxation 15 percent of net interest earnings (interest receipts minus certain interest payments) beginning in 1985.

-JON SCHAFFER

Dr. Laffer: On the point of inflation-let

me ask you. If you have a bumper crop in apples, what happens to the price of each apple? It goes down; it doesn't go up. If you have a shortage of apples, the price of each apple goes up. If you have a bumper crop in the production of goods and services, the price of each unit falls.

If you have a shortage of goods and services-a recession, a contraction, a decline-the price goes up. By cutting tax rates, you increase the production of goods and services, and lower inflation.

Dr. Perry: It's not really a bumper crop

of apples we're talking about because that's not the way inflation works. The wage-setting in the United States is not an auction market; it is not a question: of as soon as you have some more workers, the wage comes down and inflation comes down. If it were that way, we'd have cured inflation long ago.

Dr. Laffer: You can see the record for the past 10 years. We've raised our tax rates dramatically over 10 years; we've devalued the currency; we've increased government spending, and you can see the inflation record. It stands as plain as anything. By raising tax rates, we've contracted the economy, and we've caused inflation to persist and increase.

Dr. Perry: But Art, the inflation problem is really more complicated than that.

Dr. Laffer: George, there is no clearly established relationship between inflation and unemployment.

Dr. Perry: Well, I think inflation is a

more complicated process. We can't use analogies with a big bumper crop of apples, because that's not the way most markets in this country work. If they were, as soon as we started to see idle resources, we'd see inflation go away.

The dilemma of fighting inflation in this country is that it works much more slowly than that. I think a kind of hoax in this plan isn't that you would do something terrible to the economy if you had what, on balance, was a package that combined expenditure cuts and tax cuts. But the problem is, you're likely to buy that package for all the wrong reasons. In particular, you're likely to buy it because you think it's the end of inflation, and it won't be.

Dr. Laffer: You know, basically, we've

tried the economics of austerity-and George Perry's economics has failed. It's failed us miserably during the Seventies.

The Nixon-Carter-Ford economics didn't work. The economics of John Kennedywhich was supply-side, and was argued as such by John Kennedy-the economics of Harding and Coolidge with Andrew Mellon was supply-side, and argued as such, did work. Look at Germany and Japan.

They've cut their tax rates throughout the entire postwar era. Look at their inflation record versus, let's say, Britain and Italy which have raised their tax rates. Austerity is not the solution. People are the solution. .

Dr. Perry: I would disagree with most of the facts that Art has thrown us. All countries-almost all countries-industrial countries-have had a lot of inflation during the past decade, and very few of them have managed to get rid of it. What has been, I think, correct is that people like me have anticipated the problems we've had, have correctly forecast them, and no one has liked the news. That's not a failure of the model. It's not a failure of the economic theory. Because the message was that this problem was a stubborn one, and that it would be made worse by a variety of things which in fact happened-like the big fuel price increases we had-and thqt the remedy for it was a number of things which would work slowly, and were not politically attractive. So, I don't think you can look at the past decade as one which disproves what we'll call mainline economics, because mainline economics has had it exactly right: it's been a bad message. Now, I don't think that we should dispute the medical community because they've got ~ad news to give us about cures for cancer, and we shouldn't all start using laetrile instead. Art is telling us, "Look, these guys haven't cured inflation." He didn't tell us that they've told us just about what would happen-they've been good forecasters, and their message has been bad news-but he says, "Look, they haven't cured it, so let's try something that I've got to offer."

0

A SPECIAL KIND OF JUSTICE Donald Dupuis (above), a native American Indian judge on a reservation in Montana, has found a way to satisfy the requirements of federal and state laws in the United States and at the same time meet the practical needs of his people. He adapts the law of the land to tribal custom in deciding cases outside the jurisdiction of tribal courts, which are limited to certain types of lawsuits.

One fine Saturday afternoon in 1979 in Missoula, Montana, referee Donald Dupuis officiated in a football game between Montana State University and his alma mater, the University of Montana, where he had once played offensive tackle. 'Though University of Montana won, no one questioned the impartiality of the referee, whom many in the crowd knew as the chief judge of the Flathead Indians' tribal court.

On the following Monday, Judge Dupuis donned his black robe and strode into the courtroom in the law enforcement building on the reservation, which lies on the western edge of the Rocky Mountains in Montana, in the northwestern United States. Attorneys, litigants and the court stenographer all rose.

Judge Dupuis gaveled the court into session, then listened to arguments involving conflicting claims in an adoption case.

The judge had to decide the future of a three-year-old girl, a ward of the tribe, who was sought f~r adoption by two couples, one wealthy and middle-aged, the other a pair of young

schoolteachers who already had a small child of their own.

"The older people talked about how much they could do for the little girl," Judge Dupuis said, "but I could see that she would fit right into that other family. So that was my decision, and I'm sure that I made the right one. But for a layman to be a judge-you certainly have a lot to learn."

And there is the point <?fthe story, for Donald D. Dupuis did not study law as a young man. Neither did he expect to-become a judge among his people, the Confederated Salish and Kootenai tribes of the Flathead Nation. Nevertheless, he now finds himself not only dispensing justice but helping to bridge the gap between the American Indian world and the surrounding, dominant white society. To understand how this came about, it is necessary to know both Judge Dupuis and some of the forces that are at work to bring native Americans-who have been called the most underprivileged of all U.S. minorities-closer to the mainstream of national life.

Don Dupuis was born 48 years ago to a half French and half American Indian father and a one-fourth American Indian mother. His parents both finished high (secondary) school with the Ursuline Sisters at St. Ignatius Mission on the Flathead reservation, and his father worked as a lineman and electrician with the Flathead Irrigation Project, which operates a hydroelectric plant on the reservation. All of Dupuis' brothers and sisters finished high school, and five of the nine went on to college.

Dupuis himself joined the U.S. Navy when he finished high school, and by the time he was discharged in 1955, he had traveled around the world on a hospital ship. He entered the UniversIty of Montana on a "GI" veterans' scholarship. In 1959, he graduated with a degree in physical education, but he still had no clear idea about the future. "I wanted to come back home," he pointed out, "but what was there to do? It's almost as bad today, with nearly 50 percent unemployment on the reservation."

Applying for work through the university placement office, Dupuis landed a job as a salesman with Upjohn Company, and for 14 years he sold pharmaceutical products, first in Burlington, Vermont, then in Spokane and Walla Walla, Washington.

For three of those years, he was the company's top salesperson, but then he began to feel the pull of home. By the time he finallydid come back to Montana in 1974, he was divorced and the father of two young daughters.

Soon after his return, the Flathead Tribal Council announced that it was about to appoint a new chief judge. Dupuis was chosen from a field of nine applicants and his two-year term has been renewed twice.

"I could see how important the law was to our people," he said. "And as for legal training-no one in the tribe had a law degree at that time. I thought I could learn."

Fortunately, there was an organization ready to help him: the National American Indian Court Judges Association in Washington, D.C. It currently has 200 members from 118 tribal courts. Since 1971, the association has held training sessions for American Indian judges under a program supported by the U.S. Department of Justice, the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Arrow, Inc., a voluntary organization providing funds for American Indian education and social welfare.

To those unacquainted with the separate world of the Indian reservation, the existence of a tribal justice system may come as news. In fact, tribal courts have functioned in some form since the treaties that recognized the tribes as sovereign, selfgoverning nations within the jurisdiction of the U.S. Federal Government. In general, tribal courts have jurisdiction over nonfelonious crimes; family matters such as marriage, divorce, adoption and probate; and civil suits involving damage and negligence claims. Felonies are usually tried by federal courts, but in Montana the state courts have jurisdiction. According to Dupuis, tribal courts may soon handle more felonies.

There are still areas in limbo, and new law is being made constantly by federal court decisions involving disputes between American Indians and non-Indians, hunting and fishing rights, and zoning on reservations. The trend is toward enlarged jurisdiction for the American' Indian courts and a greater burden on these courts.

Judge Dupuis is an enthusiastic participant in the American Indian court training program, and puts in 20 to 30 days a year at national and regional meetings held in various western cities.

He has become a lecturer as well as a student, and sits as a circuit judge on other tribal courts. He has studied such subjects as criminal law and procedure, family law and child welfare, sovereignty and jurisdiction, and the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, which for the first time guarantees American Indians the same rights of due process as other U.S. citizens.

"You've got to do more than write laws in the books," Dupuis explains. "For example, the Indian Civil Rights Act provides that a defendant in a tribal court has the right to legal counsel at his own expense. But what if the defendant has no money? Here and on some other reservations we've taken the initiative and tried to solve the problem by providing lay counsel who are tribal members and can act as public defenders. " In a year the court hears about 350 misdemeanor cases and an equal number of civil actions. An average week brings in two juvenile cases and two probates. The court serves a population of 4,000 American Indians on the reservation and another 2,000 Flathead people who live off the reservation but still add to the tribal court's' case load, particularly in civil and family matters.

A visitor to the reservation notes at once the beauty of the land, which includes a portion of 91-meter-deep Flathead Lake in the north and extends 88 kilometers down the Flathead and Jocko river valleys to within 11 kilometers of Missoula. The reservation boundaries encompass snowcapped mountains, pine forests, grazing lands, valuable water resources, a National Bison Range, mineral hot springs, several bird and wildlife reserves, and unspoiled hunting and fishing areas.

All of this totals 504,000 hectares, of which 350,000 hectares are still in tribal ownership. The rest is owned by non-Indians who have moved onto the reservation to open shops and banks, build vacation homes and run cattle ranches. Tribal law now forbids further sale of American Indian land to outsiders, and $1 million a year is set aside by the Tribal Council to buy back privately owned land. The Flathead Nation's income derives from tribal timberland, fees for hunting and fishing licenses, and a growing number of tribally owned and operated businesses. The council distributes about $1,000 a year per capita in dividends to members, and administers an annual operating budget of $3 million. But the Flatheads want still more control over their own affairs, and the increased authority of the tribal court is a part of this drive.

Judge Dupuis also looks beyond the law at the social and economic problems of the Flathead Nation and works with the Tribal Council to improve their lives. Education, jobs, justicethese are the three bases for American Indian progress that Judge Dupuis and other tribal leaders are determined to strengthen. They reinforce one another: to hold jobs and run businesses requires education, and to maintain order and defend 0 economic interests calls for an effective legal system.

About the Author: Jack Long was editor oj-The Lamp magazine till his retirement in 1977. He is now a free-lance writer.

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The Soviet Military Buildup A new studv.' of "Soviet 1\·li1itarv•• PmH:r'· condw:h:d bv• ttw U.S. Defcns~~ Denartmcntshows x tlw Stwiet Lnion moving rapidl~ alw:.HI in it~ \".oddwi(k mmtar~ blljldup~ Ex~€rpts from the rt'port~ ,which was recentl~' released hyU.S. Df:fense St'l'retary C:a~..;par .\Veinbcrger. follow.

As self-designated leader of the communist world and as a Trends in the Soviet military force buildup over the past 15 superpower with global ambitions, the U,S.S.R. and its years have resulted in a number of improvements allowing for expansionist efforts abroad are targeted at spreading and the increased use of military power to support foreign policy solidifying U.S.S.R. political, economic and military influence goals. Primary among these have been the development of an and drawing nations into its orbit. The Soviets view the effective navy with global capability and the expansion of projection of power in much more comprehensive terms than strategic airlift capability. Soviet military leaders have long commonly understood in the West. Their programs seek to recognized the political significance of these improvements, and. integrate all instruments at their disposal in pursuit of their in the early 1970s began making authoritative statements about goals. In the past decade, Moscow's increasing boldness can be the utility of Soviet armed forces beyond the borders of the linked directly to the growing capabilities and utility of its U.S.S.R. military forces, applied in a pragmatic, coordinated and flexible Soviet adventurism has been buttressed by the U .S.S.R.'s. manner with other military, political, economic and subversive belief that the correlation of forces has shifted in Moscow's measures to influence world events. The U.S.S.R.'s enhanced favor. Soviet leaders continue to refute any inconsistency confidence in its capabilities to project power through a variety between detente with the West and their growing support of of military and nonmilitary means has widened Soviet options revolutionary activism and insurgencies in the Third World. and has been a key factor underlying its increased activities in They believe that comprehensive aid to progressive forces is a Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Latin America. In the moral requirement rather than interference by an external militaryrealm alone, involvement abroad has progressed steadily power. Article 28 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution specifically from the limited use of military assistance in the 1950s, commits the Soviet Union to support wars of "national to the occasional use of its armed forces in defensive roles in the liberation. " To the Soviets, power projection does not involve the early 1970s, to the extensive use of proxies in advisory positions and combat operations over the last five years, to the direct episodic military reaction to regional or world crisis. Rather, it application of large-scale Soviet military force in Afghanistan is a continuously applied means of foreign policy activity.

Besides military forces, the Soviets project power and influence since December 1979.

Violence and coercion have played a central role in the through the employment of a mixture of less visible, integra;ed establishment and maintenance of the Soviet Union and its elements including the KGB, diplomats and traditional state-toEast European satellites. The Soviet need for and use of force state activities, military advisers and aid, treaties and legal ties, as a tool of domestic control, combined with the historic support for terrorists and pro-Soviet guerrilla groups, economic' Russian policy of security through territorial aggrandizement, aid, cultural media, and educational diplomacy, and the use of have given it the impetus to attempt to transform conflicts, what the Soviets call "active measures," such as propaganda, tensions and resentments into concrete political gains. While the blackmail and forgery. The coordinated use of these tools Soviets no longer wholly subscribe to Lenin's dictum that the allows Moscow to develop an "infrastructure of influence" in a advance of socialism " ... is impossible without a violent target country and to react rapidly to changing situations by revolution ... and the destruction of the apparatus of state applying the appropriate instruments, allowing the penetration power," they do believe that military force is the major of areas that may be beyond the immediate reach of Soviet propellant of change in international affairs. They see growing military forces.

In their projection of power the Soviets include the pursuit Soviet military strength as providing a favorable backdrop for of specific military objectives, for example, the acquisition of the conduct of their dual-track foreign policy: maintaining traditional diplomatic and economic ties on the one hand, overflight clearances and access to facilities abroad-to support while promoting subversion and revolution in the same states, the military operations of Soviet and friendly forces and to expedite the air- and sea-lift of military equipment to Third on the other.

SOVIET MILITARY

BUILDUP

continued

World clients and insurgent forces. Overseas facilities ease the World countries, providing Moscow access to nations and logistic problems of operating naval forces and aircraft at great regions where it previously had little or no influence. In the last distances from the Soviet homeland.

25 years, the Soviets have granted over $50 billion in military A broader, basic Soviet objective is the termination of assistance to 54 noncommunist nations, with 85 percent going to Western and Chinese influence in the developing countries, and nine nations in the Middle East and along the Indian Ocean the concomitant expansion of the U .S.S.R.'s own political, littoral. This is supplemented by $4.3 billion in arms sales by " military, and economic power and influence. The Soviets seek Warsaw Pact allies. to gain strategic footholds in a number of client states and to The Soviet Union's willingness to provide arms to almost any promote the accession to power of radical, "anti-Western customer at low prices has been an important inducement to regimes. In this process and in order to demonstrate that they newly independent former colonies eager to improve their retain their leadership of the world communist movement, the military capabilities. The favorable financial terms, eight-to-' Soviets portray themselves as the ideological vanguard of the ten-year deferred payments at 2 percent interest, coupled with world's "national liberation" movements. free training and maintenance services as well as fast delivery The Soviets 'are also seeking to develop a viable oil and schedules, prove to be important enticements in gaining early strategic minerals denial strategy, either through physical contracts. disruption, market manipulation, or domination of producing The Soviets have been adept at exploiting anticolonial or neighboring states. Soviet statements clearly reflect the nationalistic sentiments to the detriment of Western nations.

U.S.S.R.'s understanding of the extent to which the United The Arab-Israeli conflict, Indo-Pakistani tensions, as well as States and Western Europe currently depend on imports of vital "liberation" movements in sub-Saharan Africa and Central strategic materials from the developing regions. By undermining America have all been utilized by the U.S.S.R. to gain access Western ties with the oil and raw materials producers and and a subsequent political role in regional affairs. Major Soviet exacerbating differences in the Western alliance over policies resupply efforts following the 1967 and 1973 Mideast wars toward these regions, the Soviets seek to erode both the . contributed to the rapid growth in Soviet arms sales. economic health and political cohesion of the West.

Provision of more complex equipment at higher prices The planning and control of foreign policy is the exclusive resulted in a nearly threefold increase in Soviet arms sales in the period 1974-1980 in contrast to the previous 20 years. Four domain of the central organs of the Communist Party-the Politburo and the Central Committee. The orchestration of all major Arab client states accounted for over 70 percent of the foreign operations, including the broad range of subversive $37 billion in arms aid during this period. Sales to India and Ethiopia accounted for another 15 percent. Recent exports activities, is the responsibility of the Central Committee's International Department. The International Department's include such advanced systems as the Mig-25 and Mig-23 most important task is to advise on and implement the export of fighters,' the SA-6 and SA-9 missiles, the MI-24/Hind attack revolution. It maintains contact with scores of communist and helicopter, and the T-72 tank. Occasionally, these weapon radical parties and groups, allocating funds, providing training, systems have been exported to important clients before they have been provided to Warsaw Pact allies.

Military advisers: The dispatch of Soviet" advisers is a natural-and often required-complement to the provision of arms and 'equipment. In 1980, approximately 20,000 Soviet military personnel were stationed in 28 countries, where they play a central role in organizing, training and penetrating clieQt-armed forces. Heavy concentrations of advisers are found in those countries with large amounts of Soviet arms: Algeria, Libya, Angola, Ethiopia, Iraq, Syria and South Yemen.

Important missions are often headed by one or more Soviet flag or general officers.

Since 1955, some 52,000 military personnel from the lessand devising takeover strategies. The International Department developed countries have been trained in the U.S.S.R. and plans, coordinates and oversees the work of various Soviet East Europe. Soviet advisers are able to cultivate pro-Soviet party, state and military organs involved in" official activities sentiments, influence local military. policies and pinpoint abroad, as well as the KG~, front organizations, friendship promising candidates for further training and indoctrination in societies, insurgent groups, -and other elements engaged in the U.S.S.R. The importance the Soviets attach to the illegal, subversive; and clandestine operations. Possession of a missions and roles of military advisers is underscored by the highly centralized interlocking, authoritarian decision-making fact that a main directorate of the general staff centrally and decision-implementing apparatus facilitates the U.S.S.R.'s controls their operations. coordination of various tools and tactics toward basic goals Economic aid: Selective economic aid often follows arms and creates a synergistic effect difficult for Western democ- sales in Soviet efforts to increase its influence in the Third" racies to match.

World. However, total Soviet economic aid is well below arms aid, amounting to only $18 billion to 67 countries in the last 25 Instruments of Expansion years. The U.S.S.R. has achieved a number of important Arms sales: Since their origin in 1955 with a $250 million arms benefits from its small economic assistance program, at a very ,agreement with Egypt, the Soviet Union's' military sales have small cost to the Soviet economy. By concentrating on a grown into a multibillion dollar annual program. These sales number of highly visible showcase projects such as the Aswan form the basis for Soviet penetration of a number of Third dam in Egypt, the Bokaro steel mill in India and the

Tigris-Euphrates dam in Syria, the Soviets have gained maximum political benefits.

The economic aid program has also resulted in an expansion in Soviet trade with the nations of the Third World. In 1955 total Soviet trade with Third World nations was $260 million.

By 1978 that figure had increased to $13.4 billion, or roughly 15 percent of the Soviet total. An added advantage of this trade was that much of it was conducted in hard currency, which earned the Soviets funds with which they could purchase needed Western technology. Additional hard currency earnings from the. nearly 33,000 Soviet econoniic advisers worldwide have grown to over $100 million. Projects such as a gas pipeline in Afghanistan and an alumina plant in Turkey exported needed raw materials back into the Soviet economy, another benefit of the aid program.

The economic aid program has also enabled the Soviets to provide training for Third World nationals in the Soviet Union.

These trainees have returned to their native countries and now make up a considerable portion of the total number of professional and skilled workers in these nations. Roughly

31,000 students, mostly from African and Middle Eastern nations, were being trained in the Soviet Union in 1979. The Soviets view their economic aid program as an important tool for expanding Soviet influence in the Third World.

Proxies: The use of proxy forces has significantly augmented Soviet power projection capabilities. The Soviets have drawn on the political, military, and economic dependence of such allies as Cuba and East Germany in order to promote anti-Western causes and extend the U.S.S.R.'s own influence.

The dispatch of proxy military forces and advisers to contentious areas minimizes the U.S.S.R.'s risks and deflects charges of imperialism, while also giving support to progressive forces in a regional conflict.

Since the large-scale ¡introduction of Cuban troops into the Angolan civil war in 1975, Cuban units and military advisers have grown in numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, and have also appeared in the Middle East. There are currently approximately 35,000 Cuban military personnel in nearly 20 countriesabout 20 percent of Cuba's regular forces. In addition to Angola and Ethiopia, substantial numbers of Cubans are in Mozambique and South Yemen. Soviet-blessed or -inspired Cuban activities 'in the Caribbean and Central America are on the upswing. Cuban roles abroad include military, economic, and intelligence and security operations.

Fidel Castro has declared that it is Cuba's duty to help liberate the Third World from colonial, imperialist bonds, but Havana's capability to send military personnel overseas would be considerably reduced without massive Soviet support and sponsorship.

Castro's repeated assertion of a natural alliance between the less-developed, nonaligned nations and the Soviet camp is a

classic case of a proxy espousing Soviet propaganda.

Among the East Europeans, the East Germans are the most active proxies, specializing in the training of police and security cadres and intelligence operatives, the penetration of local governments, and the development of communist parties and front organizations. To a lesser extent, Hungarian, Czechoslovak and Bulgarian involvement has been noted in Africa and the Middle East.

The Soviets have also gained international advantages through other nations whose interests and aims often converge with the U .S.S.R. 'soVietnam's military activities in Southeast Asia and its posture as a counterweight to China, periodic South Yemeni instigation of instability in the Arabian peninsula, the involvement of the North Korean pilots in a number of overseas countries with sensitive political situations and Libya's support for a variety of radical and terrorist causes all serve as examples.

Subversion: Overt foreign programs are paralleled by covert action. The principal instrument for these activities is the KGB, although other party and state organs are brought into play.

The foreign operations of the KGB, which has a unique charter as the party's action arm for the projection of Soviet power. are of two complementary types: destabilization and penetration.

The destabilization of target countries is accomplished by the use of such techniques as economic disruption, labor strikes, sabotage, assassination, clandestine aid and-in conjunction with the main intelligence directorate (GRU) of the general staff-the training of local groups for terrorism, guerrilla and "national liberation" struggles. The Soviet intelligence and security apparatus has available a number of special purpose forces for sensitive peacetime and wartime missions abroad.

The Soviets have a tradition, dating from the civil war period following the 1917 revolution, of employing unconventional forces and methods. Special purpose units were used in the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 to arrest the Czechoslovak leadership and secure key objectives in Prague, and they played an important role in the invasion of Afghanistan and the elimination of President Amin. Soviet unconventional ~arfare operations are supported by agent networks in the target country. The KGB and GRU recruit local nationals and place their own agents in vital areas of a nation's social and political structure, such as the military, ruling and opposition parties, the press, labor, key industries, local intelligence services and student groups. Local communist parties, Soviet friendship societies, front organizations and leftist trade unions are often heavily funded by the Soviets and assist the U.S.S.R. 'in consolidating its influence. Some of these operatives actively engage in subversion, while others are "sleepers," prepared to act only in the event of war. Both types are trained to operate as political agitators, intelligence collectors and saboteurs ..

KGB subversive operations abroad are facilitated by allied Warsaw Pact 'and Cuban intelligence and security services.

These services, which were either created by the KGB and its predecessors or are guided by Soviet advisers, often capitalize on diplomatic access or other overt types of presence denied to the U.S.S.R., and serve as useful "middlemen" for the execution of Soviet strategy.

KGB activities are aided by the official Soviet presence in the target country-embassies, consulates, journalists, trade organizations and military and civilian advisers. These entities not only pursue their normal overt functions, but also provide useful cover mechanisms for Soviet intelligence personnel. A large percentage of Soviets with diplomatic accreditation are

SOVIET MILITARY

BUILDUP

continued

KGB or GRU intelligence officers, and KGB operatives are present in every visiting political, economic, and cultural delegation.

Propaganda and disinformation are essential tools serving Soviet international objectives. The Soviet Union's application of overt propaganda and covert action techniques has been vividly demonstrated by its continuing attempts to prevent the deployment of U.S. neutron warheads and to impede the modernization of NATO's theater nuclear forces.

Forces for power projection: The Soviets of late have been more aggressive in their use of military forces to project their power and influence. These activities have ranged from sizable Soviet and Cuban presence, including on-site participation by the current chief of Soviet ground forces in Ethiopia during the war with Somalia, to the invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet troops in 1979.

Airborne and special purpose units: Because of their mobility, the Soviet Union's seven airborne divisions are particularly well-suited for the rapid introduction of combat forces into a foreign country. The Soviets threatened such action in the Middle East wars of 1967 and 1973, and in 1979 airborne units were the spearhead elements of the move inte> Afghanistan.

Airborne divisions remain at a high state of readiness. While lightly equipped and not suitable for operations against a well ,

..

A recentexa,rnpleofthe Soviet exploitation of their access to air facilities in the Indian Ocean region: the transit of the 'Soviet aircraft carrier Minsk far into the ,gulf of Thailand in a not very subtle . attempt to pressure Thailand to accept . the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea. armed adversary, the combat elements of an airborne division, delivered rapidly to a distant region by military transport aviation and Aeroflot aircraft, could overwhelm the indigenous forces of a number of less developed countries, at least in the initial stages of an assault.

The speed with which Moscow can deploy an airborne force depends on a number of factors: the distance to be flown, the level and type of expected opposition, the granting of overflight and staging/refueling rights, and the availability of logistic support. While Soviet long distance airlift capabilities continue to lag behind those of the United States, the Soviets could move, under optimum conditions, major elements of an airborne division to a country such as Syria in three-to-five days. Utilizing its substantial geographic advantages, however, the U.S.S.R. could attack vital regions such as Iran and the Persian Gulf with massive ground and air forces staging directly from the Soviet homeland and secured contiguous areas. The only constraint to the overt application of Soviet military forces in a number of less-developed nations-assuming the lack of success of more indirect means of penetration and takeover-is the U.S.S.R.'s assessment of the Western response.

The Soviet navy: The Soviet navy has proven to be the most effective force thus far in projecting power beyond the U.S.S.R.'s borders.

Since 1966 there has been a dramatic increase in Soviet port visits focused on the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean and the coast of West Africa. Since 1967, the Soviets have established a number of forward naval deployments which provide the

nucleus for augmentation during periods of tension. The Mediterranean and, most recently, the Indian Ocean squadron in 1980, have both been reinforced to counter Western navies during times of crises. These deployment patterns demonstrate the Soviets' capability rapidly to assert their interests in regions far from the Soviet Union's borders.

The U.S.S.R. operates the largest fishing fleet in the world, with nearly 4,000 oceangoing ships. This fleet provides various types of support to Soviet naval units, including modest logistics aid and intelligence reports on Western naval units. The Soviets have also exported a substantial amount of fishing equipment and technology to Third World nations and entered into a number of agreements with 18 nations to help them develop their own fishing industries.

The Soviet merchant fleet has also grown considerably in the past decade, more than keeping pace with major Western shipping firms. Soviet market calls at Third World ports have increased by 60 percent in the past decade. In addition to its important economic activities, the merchant marine has also been used to ship Soviet arms to client states on a routine basis and during times of crisis. The addition of 40 roll-on/roll-off ships, which can unload cargo via large ramps, has increased the capability of the Soviet UnIon to deliver military cargo such as tanks to ports without sophisticated cargo handling facilities. In a contingency these ships could be used to support Soviet amphibious operations., The merchant fleet also provides logistic support to Soviet naval units on a regular basis, particularly to units that are deployed to distant regions. Merchant ships possess an important advantage in that they can obtain water, fuel or food in ports which might be denied to warships or auxiliaries, thus giving the Soviets an additional degree of flexibility in support of their forces.

The Soviet navy views access to support facilities and protected anchorages as an important adjunct to their operations in distant areas. Currently, the Soviets have access to such facilities in South Yemen, Ethiopia, Vietnam and Cuba and have recently made their first naval port call to Libya.

Access to foreign naval and air facilities has improved Soviet capabilities to monitor and counter Western naval units in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and in the South China Sea. Soviet naval and antisubmarine warfare aircraft routinely deploy to nations offering such facilities to conduct surveillance and training missions. Access to air facilities in South Yemen and Ethiopia has been particularly useful for the Soviets in gathering intelligence on U.S. naval units in the Indian Ocean and has improved their ability to conduct strike operations in this region. The operation of these aircraft from client state facilities gives a further visible presence to Soviet military'power and influence in the region.

In addition to enhancing the U.S.S.R.'s military capabilities, access to facilities also has important political utility. Political considerations certainly played an important part in Moscow's shift from supporting Somalia to aiding Ethiopia in 1977. Use of such facilities provides the Soviets with a presence in the region which they can then exploit to serve their interests. A recent example was the transit of the Soviet aircraft carrier Minsk far into the gulf of Thailand, a not very subtle attempt to pressure Thailand to accept the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea.

The U.S.S.R. will continue to use the power projection capabilities of its military forces as well as other tactics to support Soviet political-military objectives and those of U.S.S.R. client states. []

Architecture in Today's Churches "Why point to heaven?" Frank Lloyd Wright asked himself when designing a church early this century. Alld so setting cliches like the steeple aside, he ushered in the modern movement in church architecture.

The Gothic style, however, still has its ardent supporters andfinds expression in the United States' newest cathedral.

Walt Disney Reconsidered Walt Disney was not merely the creator of Mickey Mouse. By raising the medium of animation to an innovative art form, he was responsible for one of the major media developments of our day.

This classic Saul Bellow short story (anthologized as one of the best stories of 1978) is laid in Bellow's native Chicago. Its theme: the strength of the human will.

Farming for the Future In remarkable food-growing experiments in Arizona, harvests have multiplied as much as 20 times their normal yield, tomatoes grow from the ceiling, livestock forage thrives on salt water. Next may follow the greening of the earth's deserts-and, so, more food.

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Short Wave: 194.

197.198.307.309.311.

421. 422. 49.1.

Medium Wave:

169.

42.2.

19.5.

19.0

Short Wave: 139.

197.

254.

314.

16.8.

41.8.

ShortWave: 13.9.140.

16.8.16.9.

198. 25.4

Short Wave: 314.

41.8.

19 7.

254.

Short Wave:

139.

16.9.

197.309.

Short Wave: 254. 31.0

139.16.8.

0700-0730

Short Wave:

139.

16.8

2130-2230

Short Wave: 168. 19.8.

251 Medium Wave: 1 90.

PLAY BALLI Americans are among the world's most "sporting" people. Almost every sport has registered .an increase in participants in recent years; besides, 225 million fans annually attend sport meets. In fact, so popular. are sports events that there are even awards for cheerleaders-like the national prize-winning team from the University of North Carolina at leftwho inspire their favored team from the sidelines with well-practiced shouting, arm-waving, calisthenics and acrobatics.

The three most popular sports in the United States-the "holy trinity"-are baseball, football and basketball. Baseball, usually referred to as the American "national game," is making a gradual entry into India through its modified version, softball, which developed from indoor baseball in the 1890s. Softball teams of nine players compete in the seveninning game. During each half inning, one team occupies defensive positions on the field, and the other one takes turns at batting. The most important part of the field is the infield "diamond"-four bases which are corners of a 6O-foot square, and which are the targets the batsman has to reach after hitting the ball before the fielders can throw the ball there.

Softball in India can be traced back to the 1950s when foreign companies introduced the game in Calcutta and Secunderabad. Softball federations were soon formed in other parts of the country, and in 1965 the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi began its popular tradition of an Easter tournament.

The most prestigious tournament is the All India Gold Cup organized by the softball federations.

India is also a member of the International Softball Federation; players like Jacob Chandy of Lucknow and K. Vijay Kumar of the Black Sox of Bangalore have achieved international renown.

The recent tournament at the American Embassy ball field in New Delhi (left) attracted six Indian and two American teams. Indian player Johnny Lawrence is shown above ;umping out of the way of an errant pitch.