May 1985

Going, going. gone ... for yet another record price. That story is being increasingly repeated at auctions of American art. Though price is certainly not the only indication of excellence. the high prices buyers are willing to pay for contemporary American paintings do signal a trend in art appreciation.

Featured here are some works that have sold for record prices in recent years. l. Classic Landscape, 1931, by Charles Sheeler (1883-1965). was auctiontOdin June 1983 for $1.87 million, then a record price for a 20th-century American work of art.

It is an idealized depiction of the then-modern Ford Motor Company plant in River Rouge, Michigan.

2. Reading "Le Figaro. ' 1883, an oil painting by Mary Cassatt (1845-1926) of her mother, was sold for $1.1 million, a record price for the work of a woman artist and for an American Impressionist painter.

3. Black, Maroons and White, 1958,

by Mark Rothko (1903-1970), set a record for contemporary art when it sold for $1.8 million in 1983.

4. Two Women, 1953, by abstract expressionist Willem de Kooning, 81, who lives in New York, set a new record price for contemporary art when it sold for $1 98 million last year.

5. Two Women, 1954-55, by de Kooning, also set a record in its time when it sold for $1,2 million in early 1983, That was then the highest price paid for a work of art by a living artist.

4

Art Fetches Record Pr,"ces

May 1985

SPAN 2 Luring the Young Reader

by Elizabeth Hall

6 Luring the Young Reader in India

by Jacquelin Singh

8 The Legacy of Grace Morley

by Kapila Varsayayan

10

Trends in Teaching Teachers Learn Too

by Cene I. Maeroff

Teenage Tutors

by Jilian Mincer

A Model Job Training Program

by Barbara Aarsteimen

16

Focus On ...

18

Trust Busters at Work

by Ellis W. Hawley

21

On the Lighter Side

22

Clear as Crystal

by Michael Olmert

28 Hope for Hearts

by H. Carreu DeYoung

33

Denton Cooley, Heart Surgeon Extraordinary An Interview by Jacob John

34

Man in the Middle

38 On the Fast Track

by Malini Seshadri

42

Jack London, The Man Who Inyented Himself

by A ndrew Sinclair

46

Baltimore Harbor, Boats and Boutiques

by Jenny E. Tippens

Publisher Editor

James A. McGinley Mal Oettinger

Managing Editor

Himadri Dhanda

Assistant Managing Editor

Krishan Gabrani

Senior Editor

Aruna Dasgupta

Copy Editor

Nirmal Sharma

Editorial Assistant Photo Editor

Rocque Fernandes A vinash Pasricha

Photographs: Front cover-Steuben Glass. 2-3, 5-Robert Morgan, except 2 left center by Susanne Page. 2 top right and 3 top left by Raphael Trujillo. 8 left-courtesy National Museum. New Delhi; Benson. 16-R.K. Sharma. right-Avinash Pasricha. lO-ll-Harry 22-27-courtesy Steuben Glass. 33-William Coutto. 34-36-Mark PoKempner. 38-39-courtesy Sundaram-Clayton. 42-illustration by B. Roy Choudhury. 46-47-Bob Jones Jr., except 46 left bottom by Sidney Tabak. Inside back cover.-Bob Jones Jr. Back cover-Greg Pease.

Published by the United States Information Service, American Center, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this maga· zine do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Government. Printed by Raj Kumar Wadhwa at Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana.

Use of SPAN anicles in other publications is encouraged, except when copyrighted. For permission write to the Editor. Price of magazine. one year's subscription (12 issues) Rs.25; single copy. Rs.4. For change of address send an old address from a recent SPAN envelope aloo"g with new address to Circulation Manager. SPAN Magazine. 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg. New Delhi 110001. See change of address form on page 48b.

Correction: In the "Anuradha"' story (page 34 of the March issue). lines 15·16 should read: "subjected to a series of tests conducted by the Indian Space Research Organization, Bangalore."

Front cover: This sliimmer· ing work of art in glass designed by Eric Hilton, Inner/and, was part of an exhibition by the New York fine-art glass firm Steuben Glass. See page 22.

Back cover: An aerial view of Baltimore's Inner Harbor. The tall building is the World Trade Center, the green-roofed structures are the two Harborplace pavilions. See also page 46.

Meetings between heads of state serve as occasions where existing ties may be strengthened between nations and a new impetus imparted to mutual projects. When Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met with President Ronald Reagan in the summer of 1982, they agreed on several areas of cooperation that are now bearing fruit. The Festival of India in America that begins next month is one result of their meeting, and important initiatives in science and trade were also set into motion.

Since then there have been a series of constructive dialogues between top officials of the two countries. L. K. Jha, Chairman of India's Economic Administration Refonns Commission, met with Vice President George Bush and Secretary of State George Shultz during a recent visit to the United States, and was quoted as saying that "the time is ripe for a major upturn in Indo-U.S. relations." When India's Finance Minister, Viswanath Pratap Singh, attended the International Monetary Fund meeting in Washington last month, he conferred with the new U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, James A. Baker, fonnerly President Reagan's Chief of Staff. Baker cited the "positive linkages" between the two countries, and the two officials agreed that trade between India and the United States should be increased • .An auspicious atmosphere is being created for the meeting between President Reagan and Prime Minister Raj iv Gandhi in June.

Malcolm Baldrige, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce, will visit India this month. He recently told a gathering of some 100 Indian and U.S. business executives that "Prime Minister Gandhi's statements and policies seem to point to a new era of free trade and growth in both countries. Opening the economy, giving freer rein to the private sector and streamlining bureaucratic procedures are all very positive directions to take. They are needed and will be extremely helpful."

Baldrige reported that President Reagan "is looking forward to Prime Minister Gandhi's visit to Washington in June, and I hope that my talks in New Delhi will contribute to making that visit as constructive as possible."

Secretary Baldrige is perhaps the most colorful member of President Reagan's Cabinet. He was born in Omaha, Nebraska, in the heart of the American Midwest in 1922 and was educated at exclusive eastern schools, Hotchkiss and Yale. He learned to ride horses when he was eight and spent his vacations as a $l-a-day ranch hand; now he is an accomplished steer roper and a member of the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association. He won his spurs in the business world at an early age, becoming managing director of a manufacturing company at the age of 29. In 1963 Baldrige became president and chief executive officer of Scovill Manufacturing Company, a brass mill that was in financial distress. His dynamic approach to management turned the company's fortunes around; he diversified its products and established 85 subsidiary plants in the United States and 22 plants overseas. >

During his visit to India, Baldrige says, he hopes "to learn first-hand about India's new policies and to assess the opportunities for U.S. business that are going to emerge from this changing economic climate. I hope to find ways for our countries to increase their dialogue and their cooperation, particularly in the commercial area." His department will sponsor seminars this fall in nine U. S. cities on how to do business in India; it will also assist several trade missions.

We were pleased with the response of SPAN readers to our invitation in an earlier letter to suggest articles from the past 25 years they would like to see reprinted. We received dozens of letters and almost as many different nominations ,and the winner was "Jack London, The Man Who Invented Himself," which appears on page 42 of this issue.

Luring the Young Reader Fun and games, adventure and mystery, fact and fiction, sugar and spice ... that's what children's magazines have' always been. But both in America and India, subtle changes are evident even within this formula. In America the trend is toward specialty magazines. In India there has been an improvement in quality, and an attempt to get children creatively involved in the magazines.

MAY, 1907

STNICHOLAS ILLUSTRATEDMAGAZINE

FOR BOYS AND GIRLS <

STONE bySOUP the magazine

children

evening stroll down the streets of any American neighborhood is likely to be punctuated by soundtrack ;\ laughter from TV sets or the screech of tires from a televised car chase. The flickering screens seen through most living room windows might lead the stroller to assume that every eye in America is turned to the magic screen. But television's conquest of the American home has not destroyed the juvenile magazine industry.

More than 20 different children's magazines go into millions of mailboxes across the United States each month. They range from the frank fun of WOW, an activity-packed magazine that's meant to be punched out, cut apart and turned into games and toys, to the simpler, more restrained Cobblestone, a publication meant to increase the young reader's understanding of American history. More than 10 million copies of these magazines are distributed each month, and about 30 million additional children read them in schools and libraries.

Children's magazines have changed dramatically in the past 30 years, taking a path similar to the one laid out by magazines for adults. Some of the most successful publications for young and old alike are specialty magazines aimed at people with particular interests. The children's magazine that attempts to be all things to all people has been overshadowed by the one that aims at being indispensable to a small group.

The giant in the field of specialty magazines is National Geographic World. With nearly two million subscribers, it has the largest circulation of any children's magazine. Like its parent magazine, National Geographic, it relies heavily on high-quality color photographs that portray natural history. A recent issue included articles on the school for clowns run by the largest American circus; a traveling show featuring birds of prey; diving among the coral reefs near Fiji Island in the Pacific; the jaguar, a Western Hemisphere relative of the leopard; and the "Confederate Air Force," an organization that restores, exhibits and flies World War II fighter planes.

Ranger Rick's Nature Magazine, a handsome publication of the National Wildlife Federation, also relies on good color photographs to give information about natural history, conservation and the natural environment to nearly a million children. It has spawned 1,300 Ranger Rick Clubs among its readers around the world. Each adult club leader gets a monthly Ranger Rick's Activity Guide, which suggests projects and readings in the topics covered by that month's issue.

The same company that publishes Astronomy magazine for adult enthusiasts produces Odyssey, a children's magazine about astronomy and outer space. Odyssey appeals to children between the ages of 10 and 14, and just under 100,000 of them subscribe. The space program and simple astronomy provide the basis for most articles, although from time to time the magazine publishes speculative articles on¡ such subjects as space colonies, travel through black holes and interstellar travel-features that owe much to the science-fiction tradition.

Many Odyssey subscribers are amateur stargazers, and each issue has a map of that month's night sky.

A different sort of specialty magazine is Ebony, Jr., which carries stories and articles aimed at black children. The characters in the stories are black, and some articles deal with black history and culture, but the general content of this magazine resembles that of other U.S. children's magazines.

One of the newer magazines for children, Cobblestone, was started in 1980 by two elementary schoolteachers in Peterborough, New Hampshire, a New England town of 4,500 people. The teachers saw a need for a magazine that could make history exciting for children. Their modest, 48-page

magazine how has 38,000 subscribers: About two-thirds of them are children between 8 and 13; the rest are schools and libraries.

Each issue of Cobblestone focuses on a single theme, making a specific part of America's past come alive through articles, stories, poetry, drama, illustrations and children's activities. Sometimes the theme may be a particular person: issues have featured the writer Willa Cather, the inventor Thomas Alva Edison and the escaped slave Harriet Tubman, who helped many blacks get out of the slave-holding South just before America's Civil War in 1860.

Perhaps the most unusual children's magazine in the United States is Stone Soup, which also has the smallest circulation. Only 10,000 people subscribe to this magazine, written entirely by children under 14. Published by the Children's Art Foundation, Stone Soup uses no color in its pages, which contain stories, poems; book reviews and pictures. According to its adult editors, Stone Soup aims to publish children's writing that "comes from the heart and reveals the writer's unique perceptions of the world." Fewer than one in 200 of submitted manuscripts meets these standards.

Just how much children's magazines have changed can be seen by looking at what children's magazines were once like.

The undisputed king used to be St. Nicholas, which published its first issue in 1873. St. Nicholas was intended to be a "pleasure ground" of literature, but along with good, clean fun, the editors tried to provide "examples of the finest types of boyhood and girlhood" while fostering "a love of country, home, nature, truth, beallty and sincerity." What's more, they would do this for children of all ages-from 6 to 17.

That they succeeded in this Herculean task for nearly 70 years seems miraculous to a contemporary editor. A proposal to publish a single magazine that could entertain 6-year-olds and 17-year-olds would be greeted with derisive laughter today.

In fact, one publisher prints eight magazines to cover the same special interest for children from 2 to 12. The magazines of this Indiana publisher are filled with stories, articles and cartoons about health, nutrition and preventive medicine. At one end of the age spectrum are Turtle, which contains stories meant to be read aloud to preschool children, and Humpty Dumpty's Magazine, which deals with health in easy-to-read stories for the beginning reader. At the spectrum's other end are magazines for 9- to 12-year-olds: Health Explorer, which tries to make clear the relationship between health and daily life, and Jr. Medical Detective, which introduces young readers to medical research by investigating "medical and health mysteries. " Such a narrow honing of interests might have evoked a snort of disdain from Mary Mapes Dodge, founder of St. Nicholas and author of Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates, a book for children that was an international bestseller in the 19th century and still is sold in bookstores today. Dodge wanted to publish the best in children's literature, and she did. English author Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Books and Just-So Stories were written for St. Nicholas. Among the American authors published in the magazine were Mark Twain, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Sarah Orne Jewett, Bret Harte, John Greenleaf Whittier and William Dean Howells.

In addition to these authors, who wrote primarily for adults, the best of children's authors wrote for the magazine, including L. Frank Baum, who created the land of Oz, and Laura Ingalls Wilder, whose tales of her frontier girlhood are still immensely popular and have inspired a television series, Little House on the Prairie. Even Theodore Roosevelt, while he was President

of the Vnited States, found time to write for St. Nicholas.

But St. Nicholas finally foldedin part because of changes in American life. When the magazine began ' publication, American families outside of large cities lived selfsufficient lives. Many were isolated frontier or farm families, whose children attended one-room country schools. Without television, radio, motion pictures, or automobiles, families had to provide their own evening's entertainment.

Reading aloud the latest installment of a serial from St. Nicholas amused the whole family, from youngest to oldest.

It was the "class" magazine for children, as opposed to the "mass" magazine, The Youth's Companion. In 1934, just six years before ¡St. Nicholas shut down its presses, poet Phyllis McGinley explained the difference between the two magazines in a poem written for The JVew Yorker:

For I never read St. Nicholas, St. Nicholas, St. Nicholas, The postman didn't bring it to that dear, unlettered canyon, So the weight of shame is on my back.

When I was young I lived, alack, On the other side of the railroad track And I read The Youth's Companion!

Neither St. Nicholas nor The Youth's Companion has ever adequately been replaced, laments John Rowe Townsend, a leading critic of children's literature. But one American magazine, Cricket, still tries to collect the best in writing for children between its covers. It prides itself on publishing great authors from the past as well as distinguished writers of the present. From 25 to 50 percent of the magazine's contents have been published elsewhere; the rest is written specially for Cricket. But Cricket has no intention of capturing the adolescent readers that loved its 19th-century forebears; its 130,000 subscribers are all from 6to 12-year aids. For 10 years, Cricket has been rolling off the presses in La Salle, Illinois, a town of 10,000 in the heartland of America. When the first issue appeared, a reviewer in The New . York Times wrote: "Cricket seems to fly out of the mailbox straight from neverland, trailing clouds of something very special. " Although the illustrations are excellent, they lack the bright colors that splash across the pages of many children's magazines. There is nothing in Cricket to distract its young readers from the poetry, stories, cartoons and puzzles that fill its 64 pages each month.

In contrast, Sesame Street, a magazine that grew out of the popular educational television program for children, fairly sizzles with color. It has more than a million subscribers, most of them less than 6 years old, and its attention-grabbing format is meant to educate as well as entertain. Sesame Street's aim is to encourage early reading, writing and mathematics skills, and to teach children how to relate to others.

A companion publication, The Electric Company Magazine, is for children 6 to 11 years old. Also intended to help readers learn, the magazine is full of feature articles, games, puzzles and things to make and do.

Another fran~ly didactic magazine is Highlights for Children, which goes to more than a million and a quarter preschool and elementary-schaal-age children. Its educational content is madeclearon the cover , which proclaims, "fun with a purpose."

Inside, a guide next to the table of contents notes

whether each stoty, game, article, poem or activity contributes to moral values, encourages "thinking and creating," prepares the smallest children for reading, or informs children about the arts, science and nature, or the nation and the world. Reading level is also marked as a guide to parents and teachers. A recent issue of Highlights contained articles about Abebe Bikila, the -late marathon runner from Ethiopia, and La Camargo, an 18th-century ballerina. It also presented a story about a little boy who learned to value his mentally retarded brother, ~nd a picture feature about aquatic mammals.

On turning the pages of most children's magazines, the adult reader is immediately struck by the absence of advertising.

Only in Boy's Life, a magazine published by the Boy Scouts of America, does one find the glossy advertisements that crwd magazines for adults. They appear in Boy's Life in prof~sion: ads for bicycles, air rifles, pocket knives, harmonicas, sne~kers, tapes and records, parlor games, model kits and video games.

Children's magazines depend almost entirely on subscription income, for few of them are sold on newsstands, although some, like Cricket, are available in bookstores.

Dynamite, a magazine that goes to subscribers but is also sold through schools and bookstores, is perhaps the children's magazine closest in content to the mass-market adult magazines that are sold primarily on newsstands and in supermarkets.

Dynamite, which goes to about a million 8- to 12-year-olds each month, is published by a division of Scholastic Inc., a company that also publishes children's books, reprints other publishers' children's books in paperback, produces instructional material and runs bookclubs through the classrooms.

Inside Dynamite's colorful, jazzy pages are interviews with television or movie personalities, comic strips, zany cartoons, riddles and contests.

One feature that distinguishes most V.S. children's magazines from publications for their elders is the close relationship a magazine tries to build with its readers. Dynamite encourages readers to form clubs and produces special stationery and stickers for club members as well as The Officially Official Dynamite Club Handbook. A letter from three young officers of the Dynamite -Club of Hendly, Nebraska, focuses on the club's money-making activities: "We have a Dynamite Club, and it's going well. We had a flea market. So far, we earned $2.66 plus an 1.0.V. for 30 cents. We're saving the money for Dynamite magazine and books. We are going to do several money-making events this summer, including a car wash, a bike wash and a dog wash."

Some of the magazines have a persona to whom the children write. The readers of Cobblestone write to Ebenezer, a New England character, and he replies to his Cobblestonians.

The readers of Cricket write to one of the insects-Everybuggy; Cricket or Ladybug-whose adventures are reported in the magazine's pages. The readers of Ranger Rick's Nature Magazine write, of course, to Ranger Rick, and he replies to his rangers. And the readers of Odyssey write to Ulysses 4-11, a robot, who replies to the Space Cadets As children come to identify with their "own" magazine, the editors hope that a fierce loyalty will develop. Their hopes seem to be achieved. In an era of television, perhaps it is this rapport with their readers that keeps American children's magazines solvent and their readers eagerly awaiting next month's issues. 0 Elizabeth Hall, a former editor of Psychology Today, is the author of Child Psychology Today, Possible Impossibilities: A Look at Parapsychology and Why We Do What We Do: A Look at Psychology.

About the Author:

Luring the Young Reader in India

by JACQUELIN

SINGH

A spacecraft carrying an exuberant threesome to the moon, sense, but stimulating and exciting enough to arouse the child's an adorable tiger cub with marvelously yellow eyes peering out intellectual capabilities." Balanced against this mental prodding from jungle foliage, grandma flying through the air on an and stretching is the need to sell, and therefore to be upside-down magic earthen bowl in the company of various entertaining. How do you reconcile the important with the birds and animals, the photograph of a boy receiving a prize for frivolous? How far do you go in exposing children to the wider his painting from Mrs. Gandhi, Lord Krishna hurtling along in a concerns of the "real" world without getting grim? golden chariot drawn by stomping, snorting black steeds ...

Obviously, all editors and publishers are not agreed as to these covers of Indian children's magazines and more invite what the best fare for children is, nor are they at one on where more than 100,000 Indian children each month to look beyond the desired balance lies between mere fun and solid content. the bright covers into a world of fancy and fact, adventure and. Whereas Chandamama was founded by B. Nagi Reddi and the imagination. late Shri Chakrapani to promote unity among Indian children The variety of subject matter and visuals offered through by acquainting them with tradition through folk tales and Indian children's magazines published in English would surprise stories from mythology, Champak editor Vishwa Nath has the adult buyer selecting some inexpensive recreational reading avoided using mythical fairy tales and has instead projected the for a child as an alternative to the ubiquitous comics. With the modern era. "Through Champak," he says, "we have been price of books out of the reach of many, and since a book's trying to wean children away from superstitions which are length is often daunting for a young child to get through without inadvertently imposed on their minds through folk and fairy adult help, the magazine-priced from Rs.2 to Rs.5 and of tales. That they will grow into adults with more rational manageable size-seems a good compromise. thinking is the most rewarding aspect of producing the Between the covers of a single magazine one finds re-told magazine." fairy tales, mystery serials, humorous cartoon strips, puzzles, Both Children's World and Tinkle have the stated aim of jokes, pen pal information, articles on science and nature. Thus using material created by children. But each uses them far, only one children's publication in India has limited itself to differently. Tinkle, whose editor Anant Pai has long crusaded a single interest-wildlife.

It is doubtful whether specialization for the cause of rendering the comic book form acceptable to will become a trend, however. In households where every rupee parents and educators, reworks stories sent in by children (not counts and where more than one child has to share recreational necessarily original plots, but selected and submitted by them) into the comic book format. Professional artists and caption reading, a wide age and interest range need to be covered.

Those publications offering the most for the least will always be writers do this, but credits include the names of children who preferred, if only for financial considerations. send in stories. Children's World, on the other hand, uses Magazines for Indian children printed in English are fiction, poetry and articles written by children, with a minimum necessarily few compared to those in the various Indian of editing. Occasionally even a cover design is the work of a languages. In 1982 there were only 12 as against 44 in Hindi. child. As editor K. Ramakrishnan states, "The magazine And of these, only about half can be taken as important on an devotes a large part of the space for children's contributionsall-India basis at present. Champak, Chandamama, Children's something unique about Children~s World.!~ This-may, in fact, be one of-the reasons for its reputed popularity with parents.

World, Cub, Target and Tinkle are all thoroughly professional Cub, with its emphasis on wildlife, also uses stories and products with firm financial support. Others have come up from time to time, but in the absence of clear-cut policies and first-person articles by children, presumably in the belief that this makes the message of conserving the environment less sound backing, have had to close down after a few issues.

Publishing in English has its drawbacks, but these are more preachy and more acceptable. Moreover, its editorial board than compensated for, in the view of most publishers, by the consists of teenagers. Editor Bittu Sahgal, who also edits the fact that only magazines in this language can go beyond regional adult magazine Sanctuary, of which Cub is the junior companboundaries and hope to be considered of national importance. ion, says, "We felt that introducing rational conservation Chandamama is a case in point. Begun originally in Telugu and thoughts into young minds would help by educating them on the Tamil in 1947, it found a vast new market with the first English vital importance of the good management of national resources. version in 1955. Suddenly readership was not confined to the These young persons, after all, will grow up to become doctors, ~outh alone, but spread throughout the country, creating in its lawyers, politicians, etc." As for the balancing act between the turn a demand for versions in other Indian languages. Today educational and the entertaining, Sahgal claims that although Chandamama comes out with 783,000 copies a month in 13 Cub was started with the purpose of languages, including Sanskrit, in addition to English, Hindi and "educating" young minds, nothing Tamil editions in Braille. Champak is published in Hindi, in the book says education cannot simultaneously entertain. "Cub is Gujarati and Marathi, as well as in English.

This reaching out to children all over India is done in as fun," he says, and a browse through many ways and in as many styles as there are publications, each the beautifully reproduced photoprojecting its own policy as to what editors and publishers graphs of plant and animal life and the articles in the magazine, prefeel children "ought" to be exposed to in their spare time. sented in an imaginatively varied As Target editor Rosalind Wilson says, "One always has in and easy-to-read format, bears this . mind, when producing children's books or magazines, that they out. ought to be of positive value, not educational in the narrow

"Besides opening new doors of experience, we believe in taking children seriously."

-ROSALIND

WILSON. Targel

Target's aim, according to Rosalind Wilson, is to expose readers to wider encounters than they would normally be expected to have in their own narrow physical and intellectual environments.

Mind-stretching puzzles, how-to articles, science notes and news about what's happening in the outside world are features that distinguish this magazine. Some of Target's innovations in these directions have stimulated other magazines to loosen up.

"Besides opening new doors of experience," Wilson says, "we believe in taking children seriously." Accordingly, Target has introduced a Letters to the Editor column with a difference: Children are invited to write in on any topic they feel strongly about. This has given rise to a whole series of letters on such subjects as boy-girl stereotypes, how to handle cheating, and learning tolerance.

- Going beyond mere magazine production, Target has sponsored activities for its club members that included a trip to the S.O.S. Village near Delhi where they were the overnight guests of orphaned children, and a Target birthday party where. they played games, planted trees, got acquainted with each other, and met some of their favorite writers and illustrators . who contribute to the magazine.

Roundtable discussions, -arranged by the staff, result in the regular feature "Target Talk." Pocket money and what children do with it, heroes and heroines, Hindi films and science as a way of life have all come up for discussion by children invited through their schools to the Target office on Saturdays.

Absolutely no competitiveness is involved, nor do participants know beforehand what they will be talking about. They do not need to be the bright, top-of-the-class type in order to take part.

This gives the ordinary child the feeling that what he thinks and says is worth paying attention to, and he learns at the same time to listen to his peers.

In a tangible way, then, policy dictates what goes into the production of these magazines and, ultimately the quality of the entire product. Predictably, the range of these magazines goes from strictly pop to quality.

All face the same problems, but they deal with them in different ways. For example, Children's World, amidst the dearth of writers for children, actively conducts talent searches and gives inexperienced, but potentially able, writers extensive encouragement and training-"to the advantage and benefit of other children's magazines, too," Ramakrishnan points out.

Other editors are able by various means and with various degrees of success to somehow get the best out of the writers

they employ. However, as Sigrun Srivastava, who is both writer and illustrator for children's magazines, points out, none of the periodicals even includes authors' names in the table of contents. This is, indeed, a small consideration; but failure to include them is symptomatic of the general lack of importance writers are given, and one of the reasons, aside from poor pay, that good writers are disinclined to put themselves out.

First-rate illustrators, too, are hard to find and for the same reasons. There are few draftsmen amongst the many "serious artists" who can draw the horses and cats, houses and castles, people and plants that are required for illustrations for children.

"There is no training in this specialized field available in India that I know of," Srivastava says. Furthermore, magazine illustrators, unlike writers, rarely build up a name; graphic artists would prefer to become known through their book illustrations or remain rich and anonymous in advertising. One notable exception is Target's Ajit Ninan Mathew, whose "Detective Moochhwala" has become the magazine's mascot.

This delightful cartoon character has as many devotees amongst Indian children as syndicated foreign imports have. ' So far no reliable studies have been made on which magazines children prefer, and one has to make do with circulation figures to arrive at an estimate.

By all accounts, the best sellers are those that follow the lead of. their perceived audiences rather than blaze some trail of their own.

Catering to children's tastes is not all bad, however; it is one way to reach a whole mass of children who lie on ,the other side of the big divide between those who can read English almost as if it were their mother tongue and those literate in the vernaculars for whom English is a whole new and different way of looking at life, a separate subject to learn in school where the" teaching medium is other than English.

Tinkle's editor, Anant Pai, feels their biggest single drawback is that English is a second language for both producer and consumer in this country. Champak editor Vishwa Nath says that, "even in English medium schools, children prefer to read regional language magazines for pleasure."

Accordingly, some popular English magazines make concessions to their audience, presenting stories and pictures in ways that make this foreign language less strange. On the other hand, Target and Cub and, to a great extent, Children's World, which visualize their audiences as public school students for whom English is the natural vehicle for intellectual expression, make no concessions. The writing is first rate and the editing rigorous.

The feeling is that children ought not to be written down to, nor patronized, nor offered anything but the best.

So although beset with many difficulties, the half dozen firmly established Indian magazines for children in English provide a rich range of recreational reading, and, fortunately for the Indian child, there is ample choice.

0 About the Author: Jacquelin Singh is a regular contributor 10 children's magazines in India. She has also written several educational books for children and one novel, Dee Kay and the Mystery of the Laughing

Natraj_

by KAPILA VATSAYAYAN

Gracious Grace, ripe, rich and mellow is no longer with us and yet her presence permeates the halls and corridors of museums and institutions throughout India, Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Museums in the United States of America, Europe and Mexico also carry the imprint of her life's work.

For me, Grace was friend, guide and philosopher, confidant, mentor and exacting master from the moment she arrived in India. Gentle as she was, Grace was nevertheless a symbol of flinty inner courage; a visionary who could concretize her dreams through unmatched precision.

- My memory travels far into the past.

These decades of knowing her have been a journey in learning, a journey of intellect and of the spirit. It seems only yesterday, though it was almost three decades ago, that I visited the Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco. An exhibition of¡the latest works of Henri Matisse sprawled over the spacious walls of the museum; its gray and brilliant blues left a deep impression on me. Matisse's work with scissors, papers and gum was much discussed, and it was exciting to confront it firsthand. Visiting this museum was a great change from my many months of wandering around England's Victoria and Albert, the Metropolitan in New York and the Detroit Museum.

The idea of space and light in a museum had never occurred to me, until I entered the museum in San Francisco. It aroused in me an insatiable hunger for visiting museums of modern art in Europe, especially the Museum of Modern Art in Paris. I asked many which was the best and in reply came only one answer: San Francisco. The museum and its galleries were the work of a lady named Dr. Grace Morley. She was known for her imagination and her exacting standards; an extraordinary scholar, she was said to be thorough, but inaccessible, and in short, the prototype of the professionally competent woman, much admired, and a trifle dreaded.

While the impression was strong and lasting in the intervening years, it receded into the grooves of my memory. Many years had elapsed. Moti Chandra had come and gone, others who had followed could not visualize a truly National¡

Dr. Grace Morley with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru at the National Museum in New Delhi.

Museum for India. An international search for a suitable director resulted in the fortuitous circumstance of Dr. Morley's 'arriving in India after years of valuable work for UNESCO in Paris, Mexico and elsewhere. One fine morning I met her and then the memories of the visit to the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco and its director's reputation were reawakened. My mind was flooded afresh with that first deep impression.

I had heard from friends she was unapproachable, aloof and an exacting taskmaster. As I now sat and heard her speak with a senior colleague, I wondered whether this was the same person: Here was a kind and gracious human being, who appeared generous but unsure of the nature of the task which lay before her in this strange, bewildering land. Many doubts were raised, public and private. How would a non-Indian, a specialist in modern art or Mexican art, be able to guide the destinies of a museum of Indian ancient and medieval art? Would she not be better suited to head the National Gallery of Modern Art? These and many other rumblings continued in Delhi circles, until one by one, each doubt and voice of skepticism was silenced and the National Museum acquired a character, a body and shape which in no small measure is the gift of Grace Morley to India. Years of arrears of accessions were cleared, photo indexcards introduced, Gataloging and documentation on scientific lines begun, conservation work launched and display galleries transformed beyond recognition in the course of two or three years.

Her internatitmal contacts with Paris,

Mexico and Rome brought in specialists of all aspects of museology. There was Plenderlieth from Rome, others from Paris, the United States and Mexico. Her great ambition was to put India with its vast and valuable art treasures on the world map. Assiduously she trained many younger colleagues, not only of the National Museum but from practically all other museums of India, in techniques of conservation, cataloging, documentation and display. The fact that today India can be proud of a young generation of competent museologists is to a large extent the result of Grace's single-handed initiative, drive and tenacity. Throughout she was as anxious to build institutions as to foster the growth of human resources, each time identifying with uncanny discernment the specific potential and then presenting opportunities for both challenge and eventual recognition. It was clear that Grace was a museum person first and last, and thus the specific areas of ancient or modern art, ethnology or science, textiles or jewelry wer-e only a matter of responding to particular needs rather than just being a subject specialist in the field.

Having watched her in operation emboldened me to request her to present two exhibitions on the occasion of the XXVI International Congress of Orientalists held in India in January 1964. One of them was particularly exacting: An exhibition of Indian manuscripts for the august body of Oriental scholars from all parts of the world had to be presented.

As the first session of this conference ever held east of Suez, this was a challenging organizational task. Grace helped and

guided in every detail but most ()f all in delight on her face watching the' to retain the flavor of the original style.

Above all, Grace was a full human the exhibition. The catalog was a difficult Ramayana panels in Prambanan, Indomatter. I watched her guide and direct its nesia, and her enthusiastic and sensitive being, generous and civilized, who idenpreparation and publication. She was response to the arts of Bali. She was tified herself with the complexities of this both tireless and exacting, and I rememresponsible for guiding the destinies of large continent and its plural cultures. ber clearly the manner in which she the National Museum, Thailand, and the She felt intensely and sincerely about causes and was deeply committed to the brought enthusiasm and hope at mo- conservation work at Pagan, Burma. ments when others felt a great dejection Everywhere she earned the reputation of wealth of Asian materials. One may not and a sense of hopelessness of achieving a fairy whose magic wand would find be a believer in rebirth, but in her case solutions. But those solutions were the it really did seem that perhaps the targets.

Soon after this I had my really intense results of perseverence, tenacity and in some previous birth she belonged to orientation under her stewardship. The ceaseless effort for the cause of the this part of the world. Spiritually and Teen Murti House was to be converted preservation of the cultural heritage of emotionally, she was Indian and Asian in into the Nehru Museum, innumerable South Asia. She was committed to pre- a manner that can have little rational polyvalent skills were required to make a senting it before the international com- explanation. It was no accident that she munity of museums. Her contributions in had chosen to make India her home home into a national museum. Although I was not her formal student, in six weeks creating channels of communication beyond the call of her vocation.

On January 10 of this year Professor she transformed me into a pupil, or may I among professionals of the area will have say a disciple, and I have so remained. far-reaching effects in years to come.

Morley was to be honored by the San Francisco Museum for her 50' years of Her sense of detail, her anticipation of Grace had many other passions. The problems, her ability to chalk out plans field of scientific conservation was close association with that institution. But her to her heart and I watched her stress the doctors in India advised her not to travel was as impressive as it was educative.

Above all her zeal and her energy and need for a separate institution with a all the way to America as her health was stamina put all of us, years her juniors in gentle but firm tenacity that was as much too tender to undertake such a long age, to shame, utter shame. For this impressive as it was effective. Her in- journey. It is indeed a pity that she could experience and the training imbibed, I spiration and work ultimately led to the not go because the museum had planned am beholden. foundation of a separate National Con- a really elaborate celebration for her.

Since then, there were other such servation Laboratory for Cultural Prop- There were to be 15 days of exhibitions, valuable occasions, too numerous to be erty. She was equally passionate about seminars and other cultural events. Grace science museums. She traveled far and Morley was herself to deliver three lecrecounted. Each provided an experience to learn and to receive from her, both in wide in the interior to help establish small tures to audiences of art connoisseurs. the context of the National Museum and science museums. The Birla Science Yet on hearing that such a big show was elsewhere. Throughout, I was staggered Museum in Calcutta, the Visesvaraya being organized for her, she remarked by her capacity for identifying herself Industrial and Technological Museum in with characteristic humility, "I don't wholly with an institution or a human Bangalore, the Science Museum in know why they are making so much fuss being's welfare, and striving in all possi- Bombay are deeply indebted to her about me." ble ways to find solutions. Such a capabil- guidance.

Last January, Grace visited Calcutta Natural history was another love. She and delivered an unforgettable address ity is given only to a selfless person: Grace had it in ample measure. Under- nurtured the museums of natural history. on Museums and Environmental Educastandably, she earned the appellation of like a mother. Today, museums of natution. Soon after a brief illness, she left us "Mataji" from many of her Indian sons ral history have become institutions in at the age of 84. Friends from all over the their own right. This, too, in no small world, her international family, mourned and daughters. measure was Grace's contribution.

But museums and museum problems her passing. Appropriately, her friends She also dreamed of a major museum and personnel were not her only passion. decided to cremate her and to immerse A discerning student of Western art and of war and peace, of implements, armory the ashes in the waters of the Ganga. music, she was an avid reader and most and weaponry. Much work had gone Museum directors, art historians, knowledgeable in her response to the into conceiving such a museum, and scholars-all paid homage to the urn in beauties of Indian architecture, sculp- perhaps this will also become a reality. that house of art: Bharat Kala Bhavan, ture, painting, music and dance. The Grace was moved beyond words when Varanasi, before the ashes were imKashmiri shawl was an old love of hers, she received the Padma Bhushan award mersed midstream. This was but right, for which the Indian experience rekindled in 1982. She wrote, "The Home Ministry Varanasi had been home to her in and extended to textiles in general. She has asked me to provide particulars. You more ways than one. Here she had shared was perhaps the stoutest spokesperson for really think that these details are re- her deepest thoughts with the founder of the collections of the Bharat Kala Bhavan quired? Do I deserve it?" the Bharat Kala Bhavan, that great and Calico Museum. Her impeccable Grace had another accomplishment for scholar savant Rai Krishnadasa, whose taste in texture, design and color was which many Indian and Asian scholars ashes had been immersed in the same evident in her choice of materials and are indebted to her. She was a meticulous timeless river.

0 fabrics-in furnishings and garmentsand thorough editor, who took pains to About the Author: Dr. Kapila Vatsayayan, both in the house and in the museum. peruse the writings of many art histoformer cochairperson of the Indo-U.S. Joint For me, all this and her enthusiasm for . rians. For me, this was a special educa- Committee on Museums, is Additional Secrethe heritage of Southeast Asia (where I tion and another reason for gratitude. tary in the Ministry of Education and Social have had the opportunity to be her Her keen eye identified every turn of Welfare. An accomplished dancer herself, she traveling companion) was an enriching, phrase, each punctuation mark, and has written several monographs on Indian eye-opening experience. I remember the proofreading error. She was always able dance and theater.

Trends in Teaching An educational reform movement has ~een underway in the United States for some time now, seeking higher¡ standards for students. Educators. have been pondering ways to make classes more interesting for students and get them more involved in their studies. One obvious answerbetter teachers and better teaching. Among the experiments being tried at various institutions are teacherevaluation and teacher-education programs, vocational training projects and peer teaching.

Right, above: In the peer tutoring program at Mountain View High School in Mesa, Arizona, 63 bright pupils-all but three of them girls-have volunteered to assist slower students. Peer tutoring gives the young

teachers personal satisfaction and academic credit. Right: Eleventhgrader Doh Mills has a hearing impairment that makes it difficult for him to keep up with his class.

Tutor Maxine Dressler reviews the material with him at a slower rate.

U

Teachers Learn Too "The push to improve the education of teachers has focused on tests and the role they can play in screening out those who do not measure up."

nlike General Motors or Chrysler, Eastern Washington University has no provision for recalling its product, but the university is trying to do the next best thing with the schoolteachers it graduates.

From now on, its education majors will in effect carry a warranty, anr any s~perintendent dissatisfied with the new teacher's performance may call on the institution to remedy the problem.

Eastern Washington's plan, the Successful Teacher Assurance Program, was put into effect last year to cover graduates of the last three years-about 200 teachers are turned out annually-and though there have been no complaints so far, the university is ready to respond by dispatching professors to work with the novice teachers.

Eastern Washington, in Cheney near Spokane in the state of Washington, is one of a small but growing number of American universities that are attaching guarantees to the graduates of their schools of education.

The trend is rooted in a belief that inept teaching has contributed to the ills condemned in the many reports on the schools in the United States issued during the last two years.

Thus an educational reform movement that started by urging higher standards for pupils has now widened to call for improving the preparation of teachers. School systems, colleges of education and state regulatory agencies are paying more attention than ever to the issues of who should be permitted to teach and how such people should be prepared for the job.

"It is a recognition of the fact that if we are to succeed in upgrading the quality of our schools we have to tackle the issue of what to do about the quality of teachers who are coming into those schools," said William Honig, the state school superintendent of California. "The reform movement is dead unless we can solve the personnel issue."

Much like the move to raise standards for pupils, the push to improve the education of teachers has focused on tests and the role they can play in screening out those who do not measure up. Examinations have been adopted to decide who gets into teacher education, who graduates from the programs and who gets licensed by the states to teach. Furthermore, some school districts are doing more to evaluate teachers once they are on the job. In just one example, 24 states have instituted tests that Copyright Reprinted

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1985 by The New York Times Company. by permission.

teaching candidates must pass to be certified, according to the Education Commission of the States.

These developments come in response to a widespread perception that the quality of people who go into teaching in the United States has deteriorated.

Cited as evidence of this trend are the scores on college-entrance tests taken by students who intend to major in education.

Between 1973 and 1982 the verbal Scholastic Aptitude Test scores of such students fell from 27 to 32 points below the average level, and the math scores fell from 32 to 48 points below average.

In one sense, the new attempt to screen out the least promising candidates comes at an il1auspicious time. A shortage of teachers looms and some experts feel that raising standards is likely to aggravate the problem, restricting the supply of teachers ever further. "There is the question of whether raising the scores will cut off the flow of people into the profession," said David G. Imig, executive director of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.

According to the U.S. National Center for Education Statistics, there are now 44 million pupils in the nation's elementary and secondary schools. That number is expected to rise to 46.6 million by 1990 and is likely to keep growing for the remainder of the 1990s. But on the other side of the teacher's desk, the number of men and women heading for teaching careers was only 108,265 in 1981, the most recent year for which statistics were available from the National Center.

That figure has been decreasing, and is not expected to start expanding at a rate that will avert the shortage.

The stage was set for this shortage in the 1970s, when fewer people sought to enter the profession because enrollments were declining.

Teacher employment in the United States peaked at 2.2 million in 1979 and has been dropping since.

Now even the possibility of a growing job market for teachers is not enticing young people into the field. Teaching has lost its attraction, especially to women and blacks, who have a host of opportunities not open to them 15 or 20 years ago. The average starting salary of $14,026 is far below what young college graduates entering business and industry in the United States are paid, and the average pay for all teachers in 1983-84 of only $22,000 represents little long-term inducement.

More-

tion, a 17-member panel of leaders' from over, working conditions and perquisites do education and government formed by the not equal those in the private sector, and there American Association of Colleges for is no longer enough prestige in teaching to Teacher Education. The commission, under offset the lack of material rewards. the sponsorship of the United States DeDuke University in Durham, North partment of Education, has held hearings Carolina, closed its education department altogether in 1981 after having to reduce the around the United States for a report on the faculty from 20 to 12 professors because so status of teacher education. few undergraduates were enrolling. Duke Any changes will have to take account of opted for offering postgraduate work to the three main¡ parts of a future teacher's education-the courses in pedagogical people already working in senior adminismethods that impart skills helpful to effectrative positions in school systems.

An evaluation prepared by a committee at tive teaching, the field experiences that involve being in classrooms with children as Duke that studied the former education department concluded: "The department is an observer and a student-teacher, and the general-education courses that provide not central to the mission of the university; knowledge of the subjects to be taught and it does not interact as much as might be expected with other academic areas; its of the world at large.

The basic controversy concerns the balappeal to students, at least at the undergraduate level, is quite limited; and its ance between methods courses and general education: in other words, how much time program is of a lower quality than Duke should expect." should be devoted to learning how to teach Only a few other institutions of the 70 and how much to learning what to teach.

Saul Cooperman, New Jersey's Educapercent of the American colleges and unition Commissioner, would like to do more versities that offer teacher-education programs have taken so drastic a step. And in to open careers to candidates who have no teacher training. Last year he promoted a order to keep their education departments change that will allow the state to certify operating, most continue to offer teacher liberal-arts graduates with bachelor's detraining even if it means admitting candigrees to teach on a provisional basis if they dates who may not be, fully qualified. pass tests of subject-matter competency.

Last year, in a report on the admission Then, if the school district provides a statepolicies of these programs, C. Emily Feistritapproved, one-year training and supervision zer, an education consultant, wrote in her program, the newcomer can be considered book The Making of a Teacher: "Not many for certification. institutions of higher education training However, Robert H. Koff, education teachers have well-defined, much less rigordean of the State University of New York ous, standards for admission into their Center at Albany, argues that it is "simplisteacher-education programs.

Fewer than tic" to say there should be no courses on one in ten use high school class rank or high theory for a future teacher. "The danger school grade point average as a criterion for with a plan such as that in New Jersey is the acceptance into teacher education." assumption that all you need to know is In light of such policies, pressure to be subject matter and that you will learn the more selective and to improve teachereducation programs is mounting; but until rest on the job. We don't presume that about people going into law or medicine." now, teacher education has tended to avoid Even with the scarcity of good research, most efforts to change it. some experts maintain that more is known "With few exceptions, the nature of the today than ever before about what it takes content of teacher education has changed to teach well. N.L. Gage, an education amazingly little over the last 50 years," said professor at Stanford University, says that a Donna H. Kerr of the Institute for Adscientific basis is finally emerging for the art vanced Study at Princeton.

And Imig of the teacher-education col- . of teaching. He contends, for example, that there are now research findings that give leges' association warned, "We have an insight into what actions by teachers are enormous image problem; and if we don't likely to raise the achievement levels of their make teacher-education programs more students. Thus, at the same time that there rigorous, we stand in real jeopardy." is a push to bypass the pedagogy of teacher One signal of the reassessment was the education, there are changes under way to creation early last year of the National Comimprove the teaching of methodology. mission on Excellence for Teacher Educa-

"There has been a significant change in course content in the last decade," according to Imig. "The research on what makes schools more effective is finding its way into the courses. You can still find-some horrible methods courses, but there has been a transformation."

One change is the linking of methods courses to field work, getting an education student into a classroom in an elementary or secondary school long before it is time for student teaching. A student learning how to teach reading, for instance, may now spend part of the course in a school watching a second-grade teacher leading youngsters in a reading lesson and may break off with a small group of children and emulate the teacher's techniques.

Increasingly, methods courses are being merged into the field experience for aspiring teachers. They are taught in what is known as a practicum, using a seminar as a forum in which to synthesize observations gained while watching and helping children in class.

Most c1asswork of future teachers is taken in regular liberal-arts courses with students majoring in the full range of programs offered by a college.

Education courses and student teaching account for about 30 to 40 percent of the undergraduate credits of an elementary-education major and about 20 to 30 percent of the credits of a secondary-education major. Some students preparing to teach in secondary schools may take no more than four methods courses in addition to their student teaching. Thus if new teachers, especially in secondary schools, turn out to have a poor grounding in the subjects they teach, the deficiency should reflect on the academic departments.

A person who wants to teach biology, for example, majors in biology.

In recognition of these weaknesses, the National Endowment for the Humanities intends to support a pilot program at the University of Kentucky to help future teachers get a stronger dose of the humanities. Kentucky's Honors Program and the College of Education will jointly use a grant of $142,967 to develop a sequence of courses delving into literary classics for future teachers of social studies and language arts.

In another kind of approach, Boston University's School of Education will no longer offer a major in secondary education to undergraduates.

Instead, students will have to major in an academic discipline and take education courses at the master's level.

In elementary education, according to Paul B. Warren, dean of the education school, officials are leaning toward reducing credit hours in education and requiring students to get a second major in an academic area.

One idea rapidly gaining favor as a way to give future teachers better preparation is to have them spend more time getting ready, either by internships or by adding a fifth year to programs. The University of Florida has taken the latter route, and last fall began admitting only those students willing to enter a five-year program. Students will still get a bachelor's degree at the end of four years, but unlike other programs in which a teaching certificate is granted along with the degree, they will have to continue through the fifth year to receive theirs.

"If you look at what is expected of a teacher in terms of sophistication, you see that a teacher has to know a lot more, and a fifth year will help provide this background," said David C. Smith, Florida's education dean.

Though laudable, attempts to improve teacher education by lengthening the preparation period could backfire if students who are already reluctant to pursue a low-paying field that takes four years of preparation are required to study a year longer and pay an extra year's tuition.

The U.S. Congress had this problem in mind when it enacted a bill last year to provide $20 million in scholarships to outstanding college students who intend to teach in elementary or secondary schools.

Individual states are taking similar action.

Connecticut will begin lending up to $20,000 to any student who pledges to become a teacher. A portion of the loan will be forgiven for each year the person teaches, and after five years the debt will be canceled.

Such measures may not be enough, however. Beyond the question of salaries, there remain other issues that the reform of teacher education will not affect. Working conditions in the schools, for instance, have reached so low a point that most teachers now say that they would not become teachers if they had the choice to make again.

Therefore, improving teacher education seems just the first link in an entire chain that must be reweld,ed if the United States is to have better teachers.

0 About the Author: Gene I. Maeroff is the author of Don't Blame the Kids: The Trouble with America's Public Schools and Schools & Colleges; Partnerships in Education.

Teenage F Tutors "Students with similar backgrounds can sometimes explain concepts to one another more easily than an instructor."

A Model Job Training Program "They actually let me do things ... the handson experience helped me decide whether I liked computers or not."

or years professors in Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, voiced concern over the quality of their students' writing. Eventually, in 1981, they began enlisting qualified undergraduates to tutor their classmates.

Brown's peer-tutoring program is but one of many that have sprung up over the United States in the last decade. "Peer tutoring marshals peer-group influence for an educational purpose," said Harvey Kail, director of the writing laboratory at the University of Maine at Orono. "We learn from our peers, and what peer tutoring does is tap into that energy."

Brooklyn College, one of the early pioneers, opened a drop-in peer-tutoring program in 1972 to provide remedial training to students enrolling under City University of New York's open-admissions policy. Today several hundred schools throughout the United States-there are no exact figures readily available-have peertutoring programs designed to benefit all students.

"Not only has peer tutoring grown tremendously," said John Trimbur, an assistant professor at Boston University, where

W

hile many of her fellow highschool students from Brooklyn's poorest neighborhoods spent last summer unemployed or among the ranks of fast-food workers, Andrea Barnes spent July and August as an assistant computer programmer. Back in the classroom now for her senior year, 18-year-old Barnes spoke with authority about logistics and inventory checking and routing as she recalled the details of her job with Prime Computer Inc. "They actually let me do things, and the hands-on experience helped me decide whether I liked computers or not," she said.

"My boss told me to take a year of Fortran [a computer programming system] and then he'd help me get a permanent job."

A classmate, Milton Vega, 17, spent his summer with Spectradyne Inc., installing and repairing closed-circuit pay television systems in hotels. He said he discovered he was "more interested in designing than servicing," and has been inspired to attend college to study engineering.

Though about half the minority teenagers in the United States who are looking for work are unsuccessful, Barnes, Vega and other students at George Westinghouse Vocational and Technical High School are fighting these odds with the help of a special

undergraduates lend a hand at the writing center, "it has shifted its focus away from being exclusively for remedial education to becoming part of a total writing program."

"Some people think it's the blind leading the blind," said Kail, referring to peer tutoring. "Students share different kinds of information. What peer tutoring does is put someone who knows about writing with someone who doesn't."

Kail and others said peer tutoring provided opportunities not always available in a traditional classroom setting. Students with similar backgrounds can sometimes explain concepts to one another more easily than an instructor. Additionally, they are less hesitant with their colleagues and often ask their peer tutors questions they might not otherwise raise for fear of appearing ignorant.

"I think part of the reason peer tutoring is so effective is that peer tutors are students and know what it is like to grope with their writing," said Sheila M. Reindl, director of the Harvard University writing center.

"It's not like a teaching session," added Sam Klepper, a Harvard sophomore who regularly visits the school's writing center.

"It's a discussion. They don't give you an

answer," he said of the students on the center's staff, "they prompt you to come up with the words."

Unlike most schools, Brown decided not to limit its program to English courses.

Insteac,i it requires peer tutors to review papers in all subject areas. "We wanted to send a clear signal to students that good writing Was valued in all fields," said Tori Haring-Smith, an English professor who founded Brown University's peer-tutoring program.

At Brown, professors ask for tutors to be assigned to their classes. The student aides read papers and make comments about their style and organization, according to HaringSmith. Those taking the course then rewrite the papers and turn in both versions to the professor, she explained.

"At first, students feel some resentment and skepticism," said Marc T. Silver, a 20-year-old tutor who is a history major.

"They think, 'What right does he have to comment on my paper?' But everybody can use a reader. Even English scholars send their manuscripts out to colleagues before publication. " Haring-Smith said there was already a

difference in the writing. "And writing has become a subject spoken about in the cafeterias and the dormitories."

Some conservative faculty members still oppose the concept because they do not want students to work together on papers. In addition, said Trimbur of Boston University, "There is an ever-present danger of exploiting peer tutors or of having them do faculty work at lower wages." The peer tutors receive either a small salary or academic credit for their work. "Another problem," Trimbur said, "is dealing with students who come to see if they can get their papers written by someone else. Tutors must be adequately trained to deal with this problem."

At Brown, as well as at many other American schools, peer tutors are chosen by a committee and receive special training in an English seminar. The tutors appear to benefit from this as much as their fellow students.

"Peer tutors are active learners," said Kail.

"They're involved with the process of teaching as well as learning."

"There's so much wrong with education today," said Kail. "This is something that's right."

0 It's a program for the future.

training project jointly set up by New York City's Board of Education and the Private Industry Council, a nonprofit corporation that organizes employment programs for the private sector. The project is part of a growing though unorganized movement across the United States to provide training programs that ease the transition from school to the workplace.

The project, called Partners for the Advancement of Electronics, is one of eight work-study programs recently awarded a Presidential Commendation by the United States Department of Education, and some education experts are holding it up as a model for similar projects. "Often these programs are superficial window-dressing, part of the rush to show that people are concerned," said Richard A. Lacey, an education consultant. "This one is qualitatively different."

The Partners project, which began in 1981, targeted the electronics industry because it is considered one of the fastestgrowing segments of the American economy. In New York City alone, the partnership discovered, 650 electronics companies employ 31,000 workers.

Forty companies were recruited out of the 650, and George Westinghouse High

was chosen because it already had an extensive electronics curriculum. About 98 percent of the students at the school, in downtown Brooklyn, are black and Hispanic, and live in some of the poorest neighborhoods in New York City.

Muriel Ollivierre is credited as the guiding force behind the program. As an ¡assistant to the Chancellor of the Board of Education, she helped recruit the Private Industry Council. And then, taking on the job of project director, she rounded up electronics companies to provide jobs.

Funding came initially from the Private Industry Council, the Board of Education and several foundations, but is now provided by the Federal Government under the Vocational Education Act. Several corporations have also made donations.

Students are selected on the basis of academic standing, level of skills, attendance and general attitude. Thirty seniors participate during the school year. Sometimes the companies contribute to the students' salaries; in other cases, the Board of Education and the council provide a subsidy. During the summer, the group is expanded to include juniors. This year, program officials expect to enroll 200 of the school's 2,000 students.

The summer students work three whole days and two afternoons at their jobs. On their two free mornings they meet at Long Island University, where Westinghouse teachers hold classes for them in employment skills.

Over the last four years, some 500 teenagers have been involved. Irving Rosenkrantz, an electronics teacher who coordinates the program, estimated that of these, 150 found full-time, skilled jobs when they graduated, while most of the others went on to college.

Employers said they participated in the program, and often permanently hired the students they work with, because the George Westinghouse teenagers were better trained than many other entry-level prospects and brought a good attitude to the job.

"The school screens them first, so you automatiqlly start with kids that have all the general qualities any employer looks forinterest, enthusiasm, reliability," said Joe Rabuse, director of operations for Spectradyne's Northeast division and himself a former George Westinghouse student.

"Then, they've got more hands-on experience than a typical applicant from technical schools, which gives them a good headstart."

And that is what makes it a success.

0

OPPORTUNITY

INDIA - .â&#x20AC;˘.......~4._ ....YOUNG STATESMEN

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"There's going to be a quantum jump in private American investment in India in the near future," says Margaret Herdeck, a senior insurance officer of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), who was in India in March to discuss with industrialists here how best to further" promote joint business ventures between the two nations. OPIC is a self-sustaining agency set up by the United States Government to promote American investment in the international marketplace, specially in the developing countries, through a network of incentives.

Herdeck's conviction is not mere wishful thinking; she supplies hard statistics to support her optimism. "In the last five or so years, U.S. companies have headed the list of foreign firms collaborating wi}h Indian business. And in one year between 1983 and 1984, American investment in India increased three-fold, from $10 million in 1983 to $30 million in 1984."

But important as these statistics are, the more vital indicator, according to Herdeck, is the new climate-the enthusiasm of the Indian and American governments and companies to join hands for mutual benefit. "Every time I come here (and I visit India quite often; this is my ninth visit in less than four years) I'm amazed at the vibrancy of the Indian economy, at the dynamism and the mental

alertness of the Indian businessmen.

India's progress in myriad fields is a tribute to the wisdom of the makers of modern India who so meticulously built the infrastructure-in education, in agriculture, in industry. The result is that India is now confidently opening up to the outside world and importing high technology to take the country to the 21 st century, as Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi has said."

In fact, Herdeck is so impressed by India's industry that she has coauthored, with Gita Piramal of Bombay, a book titled India's Industrialists. To be published in the United States this June to coincide with the Festival of India, the book is a three-volume study of the country's leading industrial families, all set in the historic socioeconomic context of pre- and post-independent India.

Unfortunately, according to 'Herdeck, there was no concerted effort, no machinery to tell the businessman in the United States that India was another industrial giant in the making, that it was opening up its doors to foreign investors. "Until about the end of the Seventies, American companies still harbored unfounded misgivings about India. So, OPIC started to fill the information gap.

We brought a delegation of American companies to India in 1983 to see for themselves the business opportunities available to them in India, which proved an eye opener to them. Like the U.S. State Department, the Department of Commerce and the Washington-based India International, OPIC conducted workshops, seminars and also published studies to convince American businesses of the advantages of doing business with India.

"The result is that now there's a sea change in their attitude. You can see the change right this moment if you visit the American Embassy in New Delhi, or the U.S. consulate offices in India, where you will find a number of American businessmen making inquiries about India."

Another not so tangible reason for Herdeck's hopes for better bilateral business relations is the vast amount of goodwill for India in t6e United States at the present time. "More than any other country, India has been in the news in America in recent years. Films like Gandhi, the assassination of Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the Bhopal tragedy have made Americans acutely aware of and sympathetic toward India. And most Americans have a tremendous fund of goodwill for Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.

"Looking at both the tangible and intangible factors, I have no doubt that before the end of this century, the United States will be, as with trade, India's biggest business partner."

Last month President Ronald Reagan nominated Clayton Keith Yeutter as .the new U.S. Trade Representative. Currently president and chief executive of the Chicago Mercantile Exhange, Yeutter will replace the incumbent, illiam Brock, who has been named Secreary of Labor.

As Trade Representative, Yeutter, 55, will be responsible for the formulation and execution of America's trade policy. He will Cleal with such vital issues as tariff and commoClity agreements, unfair trade practices, bilateral trade issues and U.S. participation in the General Agreement on ifariffs and Trade (GAD).

Researchers at the U.S. Department of Agriculture have developed a super carrot. It contains 60 percent more Vitamin A than the common variety. The orangecoloreCl carrot has 15,000 micrograms of carotene (transformed by the body into Vitamin A), which is 2.5 times the recommended daily allowance for adults.

The highly nutritious vegetable not only maintains its vitamin strength over time while in storage, but it is also nontoxic in large amounts.

"Vitamin A deficiency is a major world health problem, specially in the developing world. ifhe new carrot is the culmination of years of breeding, and it represents a significant improvement in value, taste and nutritional quality."

A lawyer by profession, Yeutter bri~gs to his job vast experience both within the government and in private industry. Yeutter served during 1973-74 as Assistant Secretary for Marketing and Consumer Services and later in 1974-75 as Assistant Secretary for International Affairs and Commodity Programs in the Department of Agriculture.

From 1975 to 1977 he was President Gerald Ford's Deputy Special Trade Representative, the second-.in-command in what later became the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. In this capacity he gained prominence for successfully negotiating an end to a trade dispute, known as the "Cheese War," between the United States and the European Economic Community (EEC).

In 1975 EEC was subsidizing cheese exports and, pursuant to U.S. trade laws, the United States planned to impose counter-

Last month a uni-

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INTERNATIONAL YOUTH YEAR Participation.o;v:-'.Peoce

four-day conference, which was inaugurated

by Jamaica's Prime Minister Edward Seaga on April 6, was attended by some 1,100 delegates and observers, about one-third of them WO-" men, from some 100 nations, including India and the United States. India was represented by V.K. Manchanda, Mohammed Khasim, H.R. Dase Gowda, R.P. Kathuria, Dharam Veer and R.P. Satija, all members of the International Youth Year Indian National Coordinating Committee.

In his keynote address, Prime Minister Seaga emphasized that although the young people atlending the conference came from different countries, cultures and backgrounds, "the common denominator throughout this group is their dedication to upholding democratic ideals." He added: "While it is true that some youth would seem to prefer the security offered by the state from the womb to the tomb, it is equally true that others-and I believe that this constitutes the majority of young people throughout the world-value the challenge of relying on their creativity arid initiative to make their way in the world. The fact that you have made the effort to be here

vailing duties on these exports. The dispute threatened to become acrimonious until Yeutter entered the scene. Using his professional and diplomatic skills, he worked¡ out an amicable agreement between the parties.

Yeutter left government in 1977 to become a senior partner in the law firm of Nelson, Harding, Yeutter and Leondar in¡ Lincoln, Nebraska. A year later, he joined the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, where world commodity futures are traded.

Yeutter is an avowed supporter of free trade. In an article, the National Journal quoted him as saying, "We cannot run and hide. Neither can we shelter ourselves behind trade barriers. All nations of the world must reappraise their available resources, determine how those resources might best be utilized, and make a concerted effort to use them."

today is a clear indication of your determination to accept the challenge of defending the sacred principles in which we believe."

The conference reviewed the U.N.designated themes for the International Youth Year-participation, development and peaceand drew a plan of action, called the Declaration of Kingston, for implementing these goals.

In its section on participation, the document states, "Our main objective is the total and responsible participation, not apathetic or forced participation, in the life of our nations."

On development, the Declaration says, "The right to personal and social development is a natural and inalienable right of every individual, but it can never be achieved without the basic freedom of emigration." The peace section emphasizes that peace "can only be secured if democratic societies are willing to pay the price of deterring aggression."

V.K. Manchanda called the conference a "major step toward the cause of democracy, human rights, freedom of association and freedom of press and expression."

In a speech at the opening plenary session on April 6, India's Khasim said: "It is a matter of honor not only for the youth of India but also for all young people of the world having faith in democracy to be invited to this very important conference.

It provided an opportunity, for the first time at such a high level, to the youth of the world to determine their destiny on the three important themes of peace, participation and development."

Trust Busters

In the United States the term "antitrust" has come to mean a set of legal activities intended to restore and maintain freedom of trade and competition.

Like classical liberals, "antitrusters" are opposed to planned or directed economies. Yet unlike them, they hold that While giving free enterprise and competition is not self-sustaining. industry a fair deal, antitrust laws Monopoly power can and will develop, in the U.S. actively protect rendering a competitive order unworkconsumer interests against cartels able unless the government intervenes to and monopoly price fixing. sustain it. And it is the efforts to do so that constitute a once unique and still distinctive facet of American historysort did seem capable of controlling their one that, according to some scholars, markets. And one response to their accounts for major differences between formation was an "antitrust movement" the American political economy and - manifested in a literature of alarm, govthose in other advanced industrial nations. ernmental investigation and the passage The remote roots of American anti- of state laws under which combinations in trust can be traced back to the English restraint of trade could be prose~uted and common law doctrines concerning "cor- broken up.' ners," monopolistic grants, and conIn 1888 the Republican Party platform certed action to restrain trade. From this pledged action at the national level, and English heritage came two forms of in December 1889 Senator John Sherman antimonopoly, one directed against spe- introduced a bill that after considerable cial privilege created by governmental amendment and a thorough revision by action, the other against private combina- the Senate Judiciary Committee became tions and conspiracies. And while initially in July 1890 the Sherman Antitrust Act. the American and English doctrines on As passed, it declared illegal all conthese matters were relatively close, the tracts, combinations and conspiracies in 19th century brought an increasing di- restraint of interstate and foreign trade, vergence. In England there was a grow- and all monopolies in or attempts to ing emphasis on freedom of association monopolize such trade. Against these the and sanctity of contracts. But in the government could bring both civil and United States the law moved toward criminal actions, and injured parties sustaining freedom of trade and competi- could sue for triple damages .. Yet notion, and in case after case, sometimes where in the act were the meanings of through the application of a "reasonable"restraint" and "monopolize" spelled ness" test and sometimes without, con- out, an omission indicating that its autracts involving restraints of trade or thors were content to have the courts efforts to monopolize were held to be apply the meanings that the terms had against public policy and therefore unen- acquired in the common law. forceable at law.

Initially, moreover, federal authorities In such a legal environment, it was showed little interest in developing and initially assumed that efforts to establish enforcing a body of antitrust laws. By private market controls could have no 1900 only 18 cases had been initiated, lasting success. But in the 1880s the most of them by district attorneys reemergence of a new and tighter form of sponding to local situations. And in the business combination led many Amer- first case to reach the U.S. Supreme the American Sugar icans to reconsider this assumption. First Court-involving used by the organizers of Standard Oil, Refining Company in 1895 (US. vs. E.C. weak prosecution led to an the new device involved a "trust agree- Knight)-a ment" under which the owners of the adverse ruling that became the excuse for even greater inaction. As interpreted and constituent companies in the combine transferred all holdings and hence com- enforced, neither the Sherman Act nor plete working control to a board of the state antitrust laws proved to be trustees, accepting in return trust certi- effective obstacles to a new merger moveficates that entitled them only to a share ment that between 1897 and 1904 found of the dividends. Combinations of this substitutes for the trust device and pro-

at Work

I

duced a new array of giant corporations and holding companies.

Once again, however, this search for private controls generated cries of alarm, and in two rulings in the late 1890s the Supreme Court embraced legal interpretations under which their legitimacy could be attacked. In the freight rate case of 1897 (US. vs. Trans-Missouri Freight Association) the Court rejected a defense of "reasonableness," holding that the Sherman Act had superseded such tests in the common law, and in the pipe cartel case of 1899 (Addyston Pipe vs.

0. S.) it scuttled the notion that manufacturers were outside the law and firmly established the illegality of the pricefixing cartel. By 1901, moreover, the nation had in Theodore Roosevelt a President willing to use the law to attack what he viewed as "irresponsible" concentrations of private power. During his administration an Antitrust Division and a Bureau of Corporations were established, thus institutionalizing the antitrust function in the federal bureaucracy. And by 1908 highly publicized cases had been won against a projected railroad holding company (Northern Securities vs. US.), the "beef trust" (Swift vs. US.) and organized labor's use of secondary boycotts (Loewe vs. Lawler). In all, the Roosevelt Administration brought some 44- cases, a number of them against the largest industrial combines in the nation.

In business circles there were calls for a "rule of reason" under which "responsible" combinations would be accepted as beneficial and legitimate, and with this point of view Roosevelt himself developed considerable sympathy. He established informal understandings with such "enlightened" organizations as United States Steel and International Harvester, and in 1908 he tried unsuccessfully to secure legislation authorizing the Bureau of Corporations to approve and grant antitrust immunity to the "good trusts." He was also highly critical of the antitrust policies pursued by his successor, President William Howard Taft, indicting them particularly for their scrapping of the earlier understandings and their resort to indiscriminate "trust busting." And by 1912, when he ran for President on the Progressive Party ticket, he had become a champion of commission-style regulation as an alternative to antitrust.

Taft continued to oppose such "statism," as did the man elected President in 1912, Woodrow Wilson. But both seemed willing to accept a new judicial contribution, a "rule of reason" enunciated by the Supreme Court in 1911 and applied in its decisions breaking up Standard Oil and American Tobacco (Standard Oil of New Jersey vs. US., US: vs.

American Tobacco). And in 1914 Wilson did support the transformation of the Bureau of Corporations into a new Federal Trade Commission empowered to bring antitrust actions and develop rules for keeping competition "fair."

Also added in 1914 was the Clayton Antitrust Act granting partial exemptions to labor unions and farm societies and prohibiting where the effect was to "lessen competition" such practices as tying contracts, discriminatory pricing and interlocking directorates. In such measures the period's "progressive reformers" sought to strike a balance between modern "organizational imperatives" and continued reliance upon competition to protect and advance the public interest; and with the completion of their handiwork, the basic laws underlying the continuation of America's antitrust enterprise were in place.

In some quarters the legislation of 1914 was hailed as a triumph for the antitrust cause. But as fortune would have it, the triumph was almost immediately followed by a long period of decline and retreat. In 1915 and 1916, federal policy became preoccupied with filling "organizational vacuums," primarily through the promotion of associational activities, community action and public-private partnerships. During the war period in 1917 and 1918, it turned to a form of administrative syndicalism, with the antitrust laws largely set aside, and with cooperating private groups sharing in the making and implementing of public poli~ cy. And while postwar efforts to create a continuing system of administrative exemptions were eventually unsuccessful, both the U.S. Congress and the courts kept narrowing the coverage of the antitrust laws. The Webb-Pomerene Act of 1918 exempted export associations. Postwar legislation exempted agricultural marketing associations and encouraged railroad combinations. And in the steel case of 1920 (US. vs. US. Steel), the Supreme Court defined "reasonableness"

in such a way that no combination seemed too large to be legal, provided it did not abuse its power.

In the 1920s there was an even more pronounced decline. Court rulings in the cement, milk bottle and harvester cases (Cement Manufacturers vs. US., Thatcher vs. F. T. c., US. vs. International Harvester), decided respectively in 1925,1926 and 1927, greatly weakened the capacity of antitrust authorities to attack anticompetitive statistical exchanges, mergers and price leadership behavior. Restaffings of the Antitrust Division and the Federal Trade Commission transformed these agencies into allies of business in its search for private controls that could be disguised as educational, waste-elimination, or ethical-improvement activity. And under President Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Department embraced and sought to implement the idea of an "associative state," meeting modern needs through "organized cooperation" built and fostered by "enlightened" administrators in both the public and private sectors. Only among rural and small business representatives¡ did much of the antitrust tradition remain alive, and even there it tended to be narrowly focused on the abuses of farmrelated industries and the "power trust."

Emerging as well in the 1920s was a new movement for legalizing formal cartel agreements. This, so it was argued, was necessary if the problems of disorderly industries were to be, solved and national economic coordination improved. And with the coming of the Great Depression in the early 1930s, the movement continued to grow and gain strength. During the Hoover Administration, it produced numerous schemes for suspending the antitrust laws and promoting "business planning," most of which Hoover rejected as too "statist"; and with the coming of the New Deal in 1933 it was chiefly responsible for the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), a measure under which the antitrust laws were suspended for two years and industries encouraged to form government-backed cartels as instruments of recovery. In the new order, antitrust functions were to be performed by a business bureaucracy operating through the new cartels and the emergency machinery set up to assist and coordinate them.

In operation, however, the NIRA system did not bring recovery. It brought

instead strong protests about abuses of business power. And by 1935, when the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional, the initial New Deal theme of businessgovernment cooperation had largely given way to one of attacking corporate power. In the Congressional sessions of 1935, 1936 and 1937, antimonopoly enjoyed a comeback, producing legislation against the "power trust," the chain stores and corporate "bigness." It was also inCFeasingly urged as the best route to economic recovery, particularly after New Dealers began blaming the new economic downturn in 1937 on the "administered prices" of business corporations; and by 1938 it was again playing a central role in national economic policy. A Temporary National Economic Committee was created to conduct a massive inquiry into the "monopoly problem," and a revitalized Antitrust Division, under the colorful leadership of Thurman Arnold, began an enforcement campaign designed to change business pricing and investment behavior. Between 1938 and 1942 it brought some 177 cases, ranging from suits against the oil, aluminum, automobile and movie industries to actions against patent abusers, medical restrictionists, and construction industry collusionists.

As the United States moved into World War II, antitrust was again set aside, business-govern'!1ent cooperation came back into vogue, and Arnold himself was persuaded to accept. a judicial appointment. But the revival associated with his name was only interrupted by the war, not derailed. During the postwar Truman Administration, the Antitrust Division filed and pursued numerous cases, and those espousing the antitrust cause won a series of victories in the Congress and the courts. In 1950 the Celler-Kefauver Act again made it possible to prevent mergers that would substantially lessen competition, and by 1951 judicial reinterpretations had created what commentators called the "new Sherman Act." In the Pullman car and movie cases of 1947 and 1948 (US. vs: Pullman, US. vs. Paramount Pictures), the Supreme Court granted structural remedies that had seemed foreclosed by earlier rulings; in the tobacco case of 1946 (American Tobacco vs. US.), it allowed the crime of monopoly to be inferred from evidence of market concentration

and parallel action; and in a line of rulings beginning with the Alcoa case of 1945 (U.S. vs. Aluminum Co. of America), it embraced a view under which mere possession of monopoly power came close to being illegal. Antitrust, it seemed, had now acquired a potential for major structural and regulatory reform, and as Truman's Administration ended in 1953, opponents of such reform were viewing the situation with alarm.

For critics of the "new Sherman Act," the need had again become one of creating a legal environment compatible with continued business progress. Antitrust, as they saw it, must again be brought into line with modern "organizational imperatives"; and by the end of the 1950s it had been substantially "tamed" and "modernized" along the lines that such critics envisioned. Judicial conservatism reasserted itself, particularly in two 1954 cases (U.S. vs. United Shoe Machinery, Theatre Enterprises vs. Paramount Pictures) backing away from the Alcoa and American Tobacco doctrines. Prestigious commissions, particularly the National Committee to Study the Antitrust Laws in 1955, rejected the views associated with antitrust expansionism. And even as the antitrust agencies enjoyed a continuing growth in their staffs, appropriations and volume of litigation, they lost most of their reformist zeal and became more and more preoccupied with peripheral actions, "cooperative" work and supportive as opposed to restructuring activities. Increasingly, as some commentators noted, they were becoming parts of the establishment and were being rewarded accordingly.

Nor did the 1960s bring a reversal of such trends. On the contrary, the growing volume of antitrust adjudication became even more concerned with maintaining and protecting an existing system, and in important respects the growing number of actors in the antitrust field became members of a specialized "industry" with vested interests in its own continuance and expansion. Antitrust became the work not of crusaders but of skilled specialists in the burgeoning disciplines of antitrust law and economics. It was they who extolled the virtues of a product requiring increasing inputs of arcane knowledge and expertise, then sold it to political supporters and business clients.

And so long as the economic system performed well and challenges to more powerful vested interests were avoided, their product claims went largely unquestioned.

20

SPAN MAY 1985 , â&#x20AC;˘

Given such developments, antitrust in the 1960s made relatively little news and remained, for the most part, noncontroversial. In only a few instances, mostly cases denying that vertical restraints could be reasonable and upholding increasingly tight barriers against tiorizontal mergers, were there protests about "populistic nonsense." Yet waiting in the wings as the decade progressed were more thoroughgoing critics, one group concerned with antitrust's failure to reduce corporate power, another arguing that it was wasteful and contributed to economic inefficiency. Their time would come in the decade that followed.

In the 1970s, as the American economy developed serious problems, debate over economic .matters again became widespread. Movements for "deregulation," "planning," "restructuring" and "organized cooperation" took on new life, and in this context the nation considered and engaged in heated controversies over three differing types of antitrust "revisionism."One came from critics of economic concentration and corporate power, making use in particular of the Senate's Antimonopoly Subcommittee to conduct studies, hold hearings and generate proposals for limiting size and market shares and dismembering corporate giants. A second came from academic and business critics of "inefficiency," offering formulas and analyses that would keep antitrust from protecting the "inefficient." And a third came from the antitrust establishment, seeking to defuse critics by moderate changes anq calls for more resources and better weapons.

Also attracting much attention in the 1970s were two "big cases" attacking the practices through which International Business Machines (IBM) and American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) had sought to prevent the emergence of competitive rivals in the technically innovative computer and telecommunications fields. Filed in 1969, the IBM case became, in terms of resources committed, personnel employed and documentation compiled, the largest antitrust case ever. And rivaling it in these ways as well as sheer complexity was that begun against AT&T in 1974. Both needed warehouses to store the evidence being amassed.

In part the "bigness" of the cases reflected the bigness and power of the companies involved. But contributing as well was a growing reluctance of the courts to find such technically innovative and efficient defendants guilty of

"monopoly" or "predation." The critics of "inefficiency" were helping to shape new judicial tests; and eventually in 1982, after deciding that its mountains of evidence were unlikely to satisfy these, the government dropped the IBM case. At the same time it announced a settlement divesting AT&T of its local service operating companies, thus bringing a major restructuring of the telecommunications field. But whether it could have secured this by proving monopoly is dubious. In return AT&T got rid of a 1956 decree limiting the markets it could enter.

Such other changes as occurred largely followed the prescriptions of the antitrust establishment. It was their program that produced the Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976, strengthening investigators, requiring pr~merger notices and authorizing state attorneys general to sue on behalf of injured citizens. It was they who controlled a new antitrust study commission in 1978, using it to counter both sets of their critics and keep the focus of reform on procedural matters. And it was they who led the partially successful campaigns to narrow existing exemptions, reduce local goyernment protectionism and link "deregulation" with the need for a stronger and more effective antitrust.

Those associated with antitrust activity also continued to argue that its historical impact had been beneficial; and in scholarly studies of the subject, this view, rather' than the revisionist perspectives, continued to be the prevailing one. In operation, they concluded, it had kept levels of cartelization and concentration in America below what they might have been, curbed numerous abuses of private power and provided a "middle way" allowing America to have modern organization without sacrificing too much of its individualisticheritage or falling into the errors of socialism or corporatism. It had worked, and with suitable. adaptations, it was argued it could continue to do so. Most would concede, moreover, that it had, despite recent assaults on it, retained much of its political viability. Its appeal in both elite and popular circles had remained strong; and substantial elements of it seemed likely to survive and continue, again confounding those who kept insisting that it was archaic and outmoded in a world of IBMs, mass unionization and national economic planners.

[J\ \

About the Author: Ellis W. Hawley is a professor of history at the University of Iowa, Iowa City.

ONTHE LIGHTER SIDE

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by

National Review. Inc .. 150 EaSl 35 Street. New York. NY 110016.

Reprinted

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with permission.

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I

BEWARE OF I)OG

---

II

Evening

©

Post Society.

1982.

t's a rough life, designing works of art in glass.

Lloyd Atkins has spent many a day with one or another of his fingertips burned and bandaged. He'd be working at the glass furnace with a crew of craftsmen, pointing to a spot on the gather of molten glass where he'd like a crimp or a tuck, and-sizzle-he'd invariably get a finger too close.

Peter Aldridge was in the habit of picking up 20kilogram blocks of crystal to be machined into his intricate geometrical designs, and in time picked up a hernia. And Paul Schulze was once whacked in the mouth with a gaffer's iron.

This too was during a critical time when a designer, with his plans, and a crew of workers were wrestling with an unforgiving glob of red-hot molten glass. Speed is the

1. Crystal bowl, The Crusaders, was a wedding gift from President Reagan to Prince Charles and Lady Diana. It was designed by Zevi Blum and engraved

by Roland Erlacher.

3. Passage: An Interval of Time is one of a series of abstract, futuristic sculptures in glass that Peter Aldridge designed and made.

I

2. The Unicorn and the Maiden was created by Donald Pollard with engraving by Alexander Seidel as a temple of crystal and gold. It depicts the Hunt of the Unicorn.

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4. New York, New York

by Paul Schulze is a solid crystal column. It is a shimmering evocation of and tribute to four famous New York skyscrapers.

~--

Clear as Crystal

key here, because all the while the glass is being worked-gathered, blown, cut, shaped with teflon paddies, compressed into cherrywood molds-it is also stretching, slouching earthward like a mass of new-pulled taffy. And it is all the while cooling as well, which means that it must frequently be returned to the furnace for a burst of new heat.

Each man. in the crew has a specific duty at each specific moment, and each knows just where he should be.

Elbows and glass irons fill the air. In fact, watching the craftsmen at work is much like watching an industrial ballet. Throw a designer in there, and ... In this instance, Schulze was being wary enough of the burning end of the iron; what he neglected was the cold end. He zigged when he should have zagged.

Recently Aldridge, Atkins, Schulze and about two score other American designers and artists working in glass were amply rewarded for all those pains and scars.

Steuben Glass, the venerable institution and landmark at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York City, has mounted an exhibition called "Fifty Years on Fifth," a retrospective showing of its best glass since its doors first opened on the avenue in 1934. About 90 pieces strong, half of them selected by a jury of curatorial experts, the show includes two of the so-called gifts of state for which Steuben is well known. A benefit for the Municipal Art Society inaugurated the exhibition.

The show dazzles, that being what crystal does.

And because the product is exclusively made of crystal glass-a special high-lead mixture of silica and lime that has great powers of reflection and refraction-it appears to be all surface and light rather than some mundane, dense physical material. So the thing to do with glass art is to walk about, to keep moving, to watch as the pieces subtly shift their highlights and colors, resulting in varied internal reflections.

The power and grace of this superclear glass was recognized by Arthur A. Houghton, Jr., in 1933, when he was first given the reins of Steuben, then a withering branch of the Corning Glass Works, the family business.

Actually, the company had just developed a new glass that seemed to hold great promise for the optics industry.

When it proved too soft for technological applications, however, Houghton was wise enough to see-clearly, it turns out-that this material could make a real contribution to American decorative arts, perhaps it could even raise glass objects to the level of a fine art.

Almost overnight, Steuben became a national tastemaker. Museums and well-heeled collectors began to grab up the company's offerings, and pieces of solid, chunky, otherwise undecorated clear glass came to be the hallmark of a fashionable home. (The proper pronunciation is Stew-BEN, accent on the second syllable, after Baron von Steuben of American Revolutionary fame and namesake of Steuben County, New York, the location of Corning Glass Works.)

Englishman Frederick Carder had founded the company in 1903, largely to provide crystal blanks, the prepared raw material, for the Corning glass cutters. But Carder was a great artist in his own right and the company thrived on his vividly colored glass products. In 1918, Steuben became a part of Corning Glass.

But as the Great Depression approached, Steuben fell on very hard times. The legend, subscribed to by many

Corning 'people to this day, is that in 1933, when the switch to clear crystal was announced, Houghton decided to do away with all past stocks of colored glass in one fell swoop. It is said that his henchmen destroyed a whole warehouse full of glasses, lamps, vases, bowls. The image is sharp: two men pass along a series of tables groaning with samples, each holding the end of a long stick between them. When they leave, the floor is a riot of colored shards.

All this, of course, was more a marketing decision than an act of unadulterated barbarism. It was just that the great age of colored glass seemed to have passed, and Steuben had hitched its wagon to the star of colorless purity. And as Houghton himself later recalled, he and his assistants first went through the Carder stock to cull out the artistically and historically important pieces and save them for posterity.

Over the years, the world has come to revere Steuben glasswork almost for its mass alone. Checking out a piece has much in common with going to the supermarket to pick up a few grapefruit. You want to pick up this art, feel its heft, cool to the touch. Indeed, designer Atkins-he of the burned fingers-has developed a line of small pieces called hand coolers, based on the marble and glass eggs that Victorian women took to tea dances to carry away a sudden flush. Atkins!' coolers-include a frog, an owl, a rabbit, a hen. See one and you want to cradle it in the palm of your hand, rub it against your cheek, look deep inside for its fire, feel its ice. (The coolers are the most moderately priced articles of Steuben's ware, selling in the $100 range. The prices of the monumental pieces like some of those shown here range upward into the hundreds of thousands of dollars.)

Since the administration of President Harry S Truman, Steuben has been a font of gifts of state, those elegant tokens of regard given by the U.S. Government to foreign dignitaries and nations. Recently, for example, President Reagan gave the great bowl The Crusaders, designed by Zevi Blum, to Prince Charles and Lady Diana for their wedding.

Perhaps the greatest of such gifts was a 1967 piece, The Great Ring of Canada, designed by Donald Pollard and Alexander Seidel. It includes 12 panels, one for each of Canada's 10 provinces and 2 territories, showing the heraldic device of each one. Inscribed "For the People of Canada on the Centenary of Canada's Nationhood from the People of the United States of America," it was presented by President Johnson to Prime Minister Pearson and exhibited at the Montreal World's Fair in 1967.

The whole is surmounted with 12 cut-glass balls, and a large one for the Commonwealth itself. Its crown shows the national coat of arms and the simple motto, AMari Usque Ad Mare, "from sea to sea."

Over 50 years, Steuben glass designers have created a wide array of styles, ranging from the starkest simplicity to incredibly baroque pieces that involve hundreds of hours of cutting, engraving, polishing and the additon of jewels, gold and other precious metals. Donald Pollard's Crown of Oberon (1982) is a case in point. Basically, this is a blown crystal dome engraved with scenes from A Midsum-

mer Night's Dream.

Somewhat less narrative-and making far more of the prismatic, refractive quality of crystal-is Paul Schulze's New York, New York, made for the show. His idea was

A compass rose is the theme of Sidney Waugh's Mariner's Bowl.

It was made in 1935. simplicity itself. Take a 43-centimeter blank of solid crystal and carve out four corners in the shape of one of the city's four great buildings: Woolworth, Chrysler, Empire State and World Trade Center. The cpmpleted piece exhibits the optical strengths of glass. Each cor¡ner now has two prisms and four reflective surfaces. In fact, there are images of so many buildings bouncing around inside the glass that you sometimes get a glimpse of a building in a building-just as you do on the real streets of New York.

"One of the great properties of glass is that when you look through it," Schulze explains, "two-dimensional figures engraved on opposite corners seem to be threedimensional. They gain volume. So here you see not just the facade of a building, but its whole. Also, I'm amazed at the happy accidents that glassworks create. This completed block itself looks like a building. I had no idea that would happen before I began."

Schulze, director of design at Steuben since 1970, actually straddles the fence between pieces that are purely narrative and those that are rigidly abstract. His reputation was made in 1969 with Cut Vase, which is little more than a series of intersecting planes with a hole deftly lodged in the center for flowers. "Why compete with nature?" he asks. "You add the narrative content when you add the flowers."

By contrast; Schulze has also created a nonfunc~ional, gem-shaped piece that was engraved with the image of dandelions in various stages of growth. The piece is so realistic that you want to blow on it to see if the tiny seeds scatter before your breath.

At the moment, the Steuben designer whose work exhibits the least narrative content is Peter Aldridge, a British glassmaker and teacher who lives in Corning, New York. He represents a new generation of glass artists whose work exploits the abstract qualities of the medium.

Typical of his work in general, Passage: An Interval of Time (1980) has been carefully machined, to close tolerances, to investigate the links between light, mathematics and transparency.

"The transparency of the glass seems to be its most critical property," Aldridge says. "It summons up rather more than just the shape of the piece itself." In other

words, form is fine, but what the glass does when it internalizes that form is even better.

As if to test the worth of that assertion, Aldridge has also created works in which the glass' transparency has been deliberately obscured.

He calls it "deglassing the glass." He explains: "Take a slab of glass, one you have worked to the shape you want, and heat it in an atmosphere of pure hydrogen. This turns the surface of the glass a deep black, although in fact the black is only a few microns deep. Mind you, if you polish the slab beforehand, it will come out a very shiny black. If you've left the surface rough, the resulting finish will be matte black. Very' nice."

Aldridge's Passage: A State of Consciousness (1981) is just such an experiment and includes a two-part base, the lower half of which is a bright black slab. The reflections of the other surfaces on the black perhaps suggest the material from which the whole work was originally wroughtnothing more than a mound of sand, lime and powdered black lead.

But the Steuben designer whose work is currently attracting the most attention, and whose monumental piece Inner/and is threatening to steal the show, is Eric Hilton. Like Schulze, his work, too, is a tribute to the way seem to float ethereally on thin glass surface-engravings air and yet are reflected on interior surfaces. AnotheL effect much used by Hilton is the way a semicircle cut in the back of a cube or out of a corner of a prism, for example, will appear to be a great circle or balloon in its reflected version.

There is a kind of multiplier effect in the deep recesses of artwork made of numbers of pieces of glass. It's as if you were still a child in the barber shop, looking into all those mirrors, watching the infinite motion of your o~n form in the past and future at once.

So it is in Inner/and (see front cover), which is a set of 25 crystal cubes engraved, sandblasted, blown and otherwise decorated with all manner of landscapes-lakes, valleys, mountains, rivers, bridges, clouds, orbs, even an all-seeing eyeball. Each individual cube seems to be a place in a dreamscape, representing a particular time, outlook and set of emotions. Best of all, the contents of each box are reflected and affected by the contents of its neighbors.

In fact, Inner/and is an elaborate deception. The whole is simply a gathering of images that reflect and grow and disappear, just as things sometimes do in life. Is that hemisphere becoming a planet or just a beachball? And what about those sandblasted clouds: Don't they have human faces? Or are they just cumulus camels like the ones Hamlet saw?

But the point is, you have to move to see it all. And that too makes sense. Glass is never static, whether in the form of a single piece or in its evolution as a medium. It was first created at some ancient hearth at least 3,500 years ago, and continues today to good effect in New York. "Fifty Years on Fifth" celebrates the best of the recent work, and it is good to report that these are full of the same inventiveness and joy, fire and light that flowed from all the great glassmakers of the past.

0 About the Author: Michael olmert writes frequently for Smithsonian magazine. He is also author of the occasional column,

"Points of Origin."

1. The Thousand and One Nights is a domed Oriental fantasy and was designed by George Thompson with engraving design by Zevi Blum.

2. The Merry-GoRound Bowl, designed

by Sidney Waugh, was presented to Princess Elizabeth by President Harry S Truman.

3. The Great Ring of Canada by Donald Pollard and Alexander Seidel symbolizes the country and the .components that comprise it.

4. The Myth of Adonis

by Donald Pollard and Jerry Pfohl represents in glass and gold the seed of life manifest in a grain of wheat.

5. Crown of Oberon designed by Donald Pollard and Beni Montresor in glass and gold, inspired by Shakespeare, is one of a kind.

New advances in medicine, like the artificial heart at right, bring encouraging news for people suffering from heart disease, which is America's number one killer.

First the good news. After a halfcentury of steady increases in heart disease fatalities in the United States, the rate now appears to be on the downswing. The death rate due to all types of heart disease in the United States slipped from 369 per 100,000 in 1960 to 362 by 1970 and to 343 by 1980.

The bad news: Heart disease is still by far the United States' leading killer, claiming almost 700,000 lives in 1981nearly twice as many as cancer and accidents combined. About a million and a half Americans will suffer heart attacks this year, and 500,000 of them will die as a result. Of those, moreover, approximately half won't survive long enough to reach medical care.

Cardiologists admit they aren't sure why the death rates are falling. Just as heart disease is a multifactorial process, so is its decline. Most of them agree, however, that technology is aiding the process. Here are three phenomena that are probably at least partly responsible: • Physicians are plugging into a new generation of early diagnostic technology, which alerts them to heart disease while it is still controllable (and perhaps reversible). Coronary angiography provides cardiologists with brilliantly detailed images of the heart's blood vessels. Other noninvasive techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and ultrasound provide information never before obtainable about the heart's structure and chemistry.

• From the emergency technician to the coronary care unit, new tools for treating heart disease are growing at a rapid clip. Most of these methodselectrical defibrillators, programmable pacemakers, synthetic replacements for the heart or any of its parts-were barely dreamed of just two decades ago. What's more, these devices in many cases represent only first-generation technology.

• Public awareness of heart disease risk factors is at an all-time high. "The population has been way ahead of the medical profession in this xegard," says Copyright © 1984 by High Technology Publishing Corporation.

38 Commercial Wharf. Boston, Massachusetts 02110.

disease until its damage is done. And despite falling death rates from heart disease, the American Heart Association notes that almost 43 million Americans have one or more heart or blood vessel disorders.

Hope for Hearts one physician. Among many of those who were once prime candidates for heart disease-mostly educated professionals in. early middle age-physical fitness is in, smoking and high-fat diets are out. ,Needless t9 add, the war is far from won yet. Lifestyle factors-especially smoking-still predispose huge segments of the pop~lation to heart and vessel disease. More than 37 million Americans have abnormally high blood pressure, and many of them will not learn of the

Looking for clues. Early heart disease diagnosis and treatment represent a medical benchmark of sorts, says clinical physiologist Donald Longmore at London's National Heart H<.1Spital: "For years, medicine had it all wrong. We used our technology to patch up our patients rather than to find their illnesses earlier."

During the early part of this century, when infectious disease was the leading killer, "patching up the patient" was the most logical approach. The introduction of antibiotics in the 1940s and 1950s virtually eliminated infections as major killers in the United States. Since then, heart and blood vessel diseases have soared into the number-one position, claiming nea ly a million lives in 1983.

The important difference is that the development of heart disease (like that of cancer, the second-place killer) is almost always accompanied by presymptomatic clues and warning signs.

As recently as the early 1960s, the most common early warning of heart disease was the chest pain called angina pectoris-the signal that a portion of the heart muscle (myocardium) is receiving inadequate supplies of blood. All too often, even that sign was absent. In any event, the cardiologist could do little more than speculate about the origins of the pain and provide the patient with pain-relieving drugs.

The development of coronary angiography (or arteriography) changed that.

By snaking a thin, flexible catheter through a patient's artery to the aorta and injecting a small amount of radio opaque dye, the coronary arteries can now be seen in brilliant detail on a conventional fluoroscope. In most cases so Gan the blockages responsible for the anginausually plugs of waxy cholesterol, accumulations of tiny blood clots or calcified combinations of'the two.

More than 400,000 angiograms are performed in the United States each year, at an average cost of about $1,500 each. Despite its invasiveness, its use of small but significant radiation doses, and its slight (0.2 percent or less) risk of provoking a heart attack, angiography is "the gold standard of coronary diagnosis," says Stephen Scheidt, professor of

clinical medicine at The New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in New York.

But angiography is not foolproof. The arteries may be obscured by other organs, and image interpretation is sometimes difficult, especially of the smaller vessels. One alternative is the dual-image process called digital subtraction angiography (DSA), in which images are produced a few milliseconds before and a few milliseconds after the dye flows into the arteries. Both images are digitized by a computer; the first (called the mask) is then electronically subtracted from the second. The result is a more easily interpreted image of the arteries.

DSA is now used mostly for imaging larger, relatively stationary structures such as the aorta, the carotid artery, and defects of the heart valves and ventricular septum (the muscular wall that separates the heart's two main pumping chambers).

Still, says Scheidt, "the resolution of coronary arteries isn't good enough yet, because the heart is constantly moving.

The principle of DSA is that one image can be perfectly superimposed on another. But those few milliseconds between images is enough time for the heart to shift position."

Pictures .from sound. While angiography provides valuable information about the condition of the coronary arteries, cardiologists often want to view other parts of the heart. Echocardiography, or ultrasound, has long been an important imaging tool for obstetricians and gynecologists because of its safety and noninvasiveness. Now cardiologists are also hoping to adapt the technique.

In an ultrasound examination, a handheld transducer is moved along the body over the region of interest. Inaudible, variable-frequency sound waves generateCl by a piezoelectric crystal pass through the body fluids, just as sonar waves travel through water in search of submarines. Many of these long waves strike various tissues and structures and bounce back to the transmitter (which also serves as a detector) in the form of echoes. The echoes are analyzed by a small computer, which then translates their int.ensities into a black-and-white image. ¡Older ultrasound techniques-especially the M-mode method (also called the "ice-pick" view)-generated a narrow stop-action image as the result of a single ultrasound beam. More modern versions

use a series of rapidly moving beams tb generate two-dimensional real-time images. As a rule, image resolution is directly proportional to the frequency of the transmitted waves; cardiac studies generally use a frequency of three megahertz. The system does not use radiation, dyes, or other chemicals, and is widely regarded as completely hazard-free.

To the untrained observer, the images are shadowy and hard to decode. Experienced eyes, however, may pick out structural irregularities of the valves, ventricles, aorta and the myoc~rdium itself.

Thanks to ultrasound's real-time capabilities, moreover, study of the heart muscle and valves in motion is becoming commonplace.

Contrast . agents which enhance the blood's echo-producing characteristics-injected microbubbles, for example~also promise to make ultrasound a valuable tool for studying circulatory defects.

One recent application of ultrasound technology is the calculation of cardiac output-the total amount of blood that is pumped from the left ventricle through the aorta with each contraction. "Cardiac output provide"s the physician with information about how well the heart is pumping," says Gary L. Tarbox, president of Lawrence Medical Systems in Redmond, Washington. "It also helps characterize the overall status of the cardiovascular system."

The company's UltraCOM furnishes the information with two simple, noninvasive ultrasound measurements.

In the first the transmitter measures the functional diameter of the aorta by transmitting the waves at right angles to the chest. The second measurement is made by pressing the transducer into the bony notch at the top of the breastbone and aiming it so that the waves. are beamed along a line parallel to and just behind the bone-"down the barrel of the aorta," as Tarbox puts it. Blood velocity is det~rmined through Doppler techniques, measuring speed by the changing frequencies of successive echoes. Aortic diameter and blood velocity together comprise a reliable gauge of cardiac output.

Not surprisingly, every imaging method has its devotees and its detractors. Ultrasound is no exception. Largely because of persistent problem in resolution and contrast, says Longmore at the U.S. National Heart Hospital, "It's about as good as it's going to get as a cardiac tool. In fact, it's probably now in its death throes."

NMR: a wild card. Longmore and a growing number of other researchers sum up the future of cardiac imaging in three words: nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Once a relatively obscure research tool for chemists and physicists, NMR is now being dubbed one of the most important medical devices since the CT scanner. The images not only are startling in their clarity and resolution but may also be used to provide information about tissues' chemistry, metabolism and blood flow.

Still, even NMR's biggest fans-the manufacturers-concede that the method is still in its infancy and is thus something of a wild card in diagnostic technology. A major problem, for example, is deciphering exactly what the images mean. "These pictures contain a lot of information about the tissues," says NMR researcher H.H. Tuithof at Philips Medical Systems in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. "But we're still not sure what it all means or how to use it."

NMR is based on the fact that the hydrogen nuclei in abnormal tissues behave differently in a magnetic field than hydrogen nuclei within normal tissues. A computer can manipulate these differences into detailed portraits of the organ under study. The technique is entirely painless and is generally thought to be safe (although safety studies are still being conducted).

The patient lies inside a huge doughnut-shaped magnet. When the field is switched on, all the atomic nuclei with an odd number of protons align themselves along a single axis within the. field.

When radio waves are transmitted at right angles to the magnetic field, the nuclei in the tissues to be imaged realign themselves with the waves. The radio signals are turned off, and the nuclei realign themselves with the magnetic field, emitting pulses of energy in the process. The pulse frequency depends on the location and chemistry of the tissues.'

Finally, the computer assigns numeric values to the pulses, converting them into various shades of gray in the completed image.

For now, nearly all NMR images (except in some research settings) are based entirely on the nuclei of hydrogen, the body's most abundant element. If the technology is ever to l!ve up to its manufacturers' publicity, however, it must be able to study other elementsphosphorus, for example, an oddnumbered element that takes part in

many biochemical energy-exchange reactions and is especially relevant to myocardial function. Whether such studies will ever materialize or be genuinely useful to heart researchers is uncertain, says Peter N.T. Wells, chief physicist at England's Bristol General Hospital, because of the element's relative scarcity in the body and its low NMR sensitivity. Tuithof, however, predicts hydrogen and phosphorus studies on the same scaIL within another year or two. "But that doesn't mean there will be a big market for it," h~ says.

With a few exceptions, other clinicians agree that NMR is still largely unproven, save for isolated applications. "It gives us beautiful pictures," says Eric R. Powers, director of Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center's adult cardiovascular laboratory in New York, "and it will have some important applications in cardiology. But it's a very expensive tool; I'm not sure the cost is justified by the information it provides now."

ing strenuous physical exercise, and a rotating camera that detects gamma rays records the emissions from the heart. The emissions are recorded again four hours later when the patient is at rest. Images produced by the computer-reconstructed data are then compared.

The images represent "slices" of the ventricular muscle in the form of a colored ring. A gap along the ring represents a perfusion defect. If a gap detected under stress persists in the image made while the patient is at rest, it signals previously damaged muscle. If the gap has disappeared on the resting image, it indicates ischemia.

"The major advantage of this method is that it accurately reveals insufficient or absent blood flow to the muscle without the need to superimpose two images," says Go. "Based on the result, a cardiologist may recommend a bypass procedure or a balloon angioplasty" -two surgical methods of restoring perfusion to the heart muscle.

Spotting heart attacks. No one knows how many heart attac~s occur every year without the victim's knowledge. Like "little strokes" -temporary blockages of blood In¡the brain which usually result in a complete and speedy recovery-small myocardial infarctions may be passed off as indigestion or a muscle cramp. Also like little strokes, however, such attacks almost -always spell the presence of potentially fatal blood vessel restrictions. . Nuclear imaging is a relatively new method of exploring not the arteries per se but how well the arteries feed, or perfuse, the myocardium. The information tells cardiologists not only about heart muscle damage that occurred years earlier, but also if the patient suffers from a transient shortage of blood to the muscle. The shortage is called myocardial ischemia-a potentially dangerous result of narrowed coronary arteries that puts the patient at risk for a sudden, total arterial blockage. One nuclear technique is¡the Cleveland Clinic's SPECT (Single Photon-Emission Computed Tomography) unit, which has provided perfusion <;lataon more than 800 patients during the past two years. SPECT's sensitivity rate (its"ability to spot abnormalities in a group of patients with a specific disease) is as high as 93 percent, says Raymundo T. Go,: chairman of the clinic's department o~ nuclear medicine.

The patient is injected with a tracer amount of radioactive thallium-201 dur-

Imaging with monoclonals. Another chemical diagnostic test, developed at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, combines nuclear methods with fastgrowing monoclonal antibody technology. (Monoclonal antibodies are laboratory-produced proteins that can be designed to recognize and bind to virtually any protein, cell, virus, etc.) The method determines not only if a heart attack has recently occurred but also in what part of the muscle and the extent of the damage.

Even a small myocardial infarction is accompanied by the death and rupture of heart muscle cells. When this happens, large amounts of the protein myosin are exposed to the surroundings for a few days. Massachusetts General Hospital rese-archer Ban An Khaw grew monoclonal antibodies that recognized and bound only to myosin; then he linked them to radioactive technetium-99m.

If a patient is suspected to have suffered an infarction, a small amount of the antibodies is injected into the coronary arteries. If an attack has actually occurred, the antibodies gather on and around the exposed myosin. Gamma ray~ emitted by their radioactive portions are detected and recorded on a gamma camera.

The damage appears on the film as white areas on a black background; the' greater the damage, the larger and more intense are the white spots.

Khaw notes that the method has

already been used in more than a dozen patients at Massachusetts General. "The value of this method is that it is a specific marker of cell death," he explains. "We often aren't sure whether chest pains are the result of such death or of a nonfatal ischemia. If it is the latter, this method will not produce an image." If the pain is indeed due to the death of a small portion of the muscle, however, the image furnishes a reliable indicator of its size and location, and therefore often suggests the most appropriate treatment.

Bypassing the problem. Once a heart disorder has been identified, cardiologists can select from a growing arsenal of treatments, many of which didn't exist even a decade ago. At the very least, these procedures often restore the patient to a relatively normal lifestyle, free of pain and the emotionally crippling fear of sudden death. In many cases the victim is able to resume a vigorous life.

The most common condition is the life-threatening blockage of one or more coronary arteries (which can be confirmed by angiography). In such . cases, surgeons usually elect to create a new route for the blood to reach the myocardium. In 1981 some 159,000 of these coronary artery bypass grafts (or simply "bypasses") were performed in the United States.

In bypass surgery a portiqn of a superficial vein is removed from the patient's leg and cut into segments. (The circulatory duties of this vein are quickly assumed by other vessels.) One end of the vein segment is inserted into a small hole cut into the aorta; the other end is inserted into the coronary artery downstream of the blockage. Most bypasses involve two or more of these grafts, and it is not unheard of for as many as a dozen to be implanted in a single operation.

The procedure in effect turns the clock back a few years for the patient. It does not eliminate the underlying' disease, however, any more than a dentist's filling eliminates tooth decay. About 15 percent of the bypass grafts develop new blockages in a matter of months following surgery. Data on long-term survival rates among bypass patients are scarce, although the consensus is that such patients can expect at least seven, and perhaps as many as ten or more, years of added life as a result.

Balloon therapy. Bypass surgery is a method of last resort. It is a major

surgical procedure; as such, it is expen-. sive, fairly risky and painful-disadvantages which might outweigh the benefits, especially in patients with a small number of relatively pliable blockages. For these, balloon angioplasty (also called percutaneous transluminal angioplasty, or PTA) is a promising alternative. Guided by a fluoroscope, a catheter with a tiny plastic balloon at its tip is threaded into the artery until it reaches the blockage. The balloon is then inflated slowly, compressing the fatty material (called plaque) against the artery walls and increasing the diameter of the vessel.

The balloon itself constitutes a total blockage, of course; if left in place too long, it could trigger an infarction, which is why the procedure is completed quickly-in 90 seconds or less. While not entirely painless, the procedure is far less stressful than bypass surgery, and recovery is much faster. "Patients who have had both bypass surgery and angioplasty tell me that they would rather have ten angioplasties than one bypass," says Andreas Gruelltzig, professor of cardiology at Emory University Hospital in Atlanta. In addition, Gruentzig says, the cost of angioplasty is about a fifth that of bypass surgery, and most patients are fully mobile after just one day in the hospital.

The procedure is 60-90 percent effective in relieving angina-causing obstructions, according to the Council of Scientific Affairs of the American Medical Association (AMA) and is most likely to benefit angina patients with a small obstruction in just one artery (although it is not uncommon to relieve two or more blockageS'in a single patient). For more complex cases, the procedure's effectiveness is still under investigation, says the AMA, adding: "Any candidate for coronary artery PT A also must be a candidate for coronary artery bypass surgery.... " Balloon angioplasty is still controversial among cardiologists. There is some debate, for example, about what happens to the compressed plaque. Some researchers are convinced that it is gradually broken down and consumed by natural cellular scavengers in the bloodstream.

Others are just as sure that the waxy remnants remain in the system and will eventually redeposit elsewhere.

Regardless of the exact mechanism, angioplasty is "an established, accepted method of treatment," says Dennis S. Reison, assistant professor of medicine at

Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center., "About 20 percent of the patients have recurrences within six months, but recurrence after a second angioplasty is only about 5 percent. Still, the procedure has been widely usea for only about four years; it's difficult to get long-term results. " New valves for old. The valves that regulate blood flow to and from the heart are subject to a variety of disorders. Over the past 20 years, the result has been a proliferation of artificial valve designs (and some 38,000 valve operations in 1981). None work nearly as well as a healthy human valve, but new materials and designs have virtually eliminated vahle disorders as il major cause of death in the United States.

Natural valves are often damaged by rheumatic fever, a streptococcal infection that invades and inflames not only the valves but also the myocardium and its protective sac. Although antibiotics have cut U.S. mortality from more than 22,000 in 1950 to about 7,700 in 1981, the infection may leave behind inflexible scar tissue that prevents the valve from opening and closing properly.

There are two basic types of artificial valves: totally synthetic models-the 20year-old-Starr-Edwards model, for example, which consists of a plastic ball enclosed in stainless-steel cage-and those fashioned from animal heart tissues. Both have their advantages and limitations. The plastic/metal units are highly durable but may be compromised by the steady accumulation of blood platelets and clots, which finally gum up the mechanism. "The problem is that these valves often fail without warning, because of breakage, gumming, or the ingrowth of natural body tissues," says D. Keith Gilding, president of Mitral Medical International in Wheat Ridge, Colorado. They also tend to be noisy, and many patients-not to mention persons nearby-are distracted by their soft but audible clicks.

Animal tissue valves are not as subject to platelet adherence but are prone to calcification, a natural process with the same outcome. Unlike the clogging of mechanical units, however, calcification is usually accompanied by warning symptoms, giving the patient time to have the problem confirmed and resolved.

During the past few years, Mitral has decided not to pursue mechanical valve technology. Instead, says Gilding, the

company is now focusing on its tissue valve made of bovine pericardial tissue mounted in a plastic and fabric frame.

(The pericardium is the tough sac that surrounds the heart and protects it from friction and bruises.) The assembly is chemically treated with glutaraldehyde, resulting in a crosslinking reaction that adds mechanical strength to the tissue and destroys surface immunoantigens, which cause rejection by human cells.

Since its introduction in 1982, says Gilding, about 900 of the so-called Mitroflow valves have been installed around the world.

But the pericardial valve is still subject to many of the same limitationsprimarily calcification-as others of its type. One result has been Mitral's interest in biologically compatible polymers. "We're attempting to mimic the body," explains Gilding, "first in cardiovascular applications and later in other medical areas." Within the next 18 months, he adds, the company will introduce an entirely synthetic heart valve with leaflets made of Mitrathane, a proprietary polyetherurethane urea that is structurally and biologically similar to natural body tissues.

Medtronic, a major valve 'producer in Minneapolis, has recently added a new twist to its marketing effort: Early last year, its Medtronic-Hallvalve was designated for use in the University of Utah's new artificia) heart. Using computercontrolled milling, the unit is fashioned from a single piece of titanium; it has no bends or welds to introduce mechanical stress, and features a strong, biologically inert carbon disc mounted on a central pivot.

The valve, priced at about $1,500, has been implanted in more than 12,000 patients since 1977. "An artificial heart exerts a great amount of pressure on the valve," says Medtronic vice-president Larry Whalen. "The Utah surgeons were most impressed by the fact that in the valve's history there has never been a structural failure."

Keeping up the pace. Although the first commercial pacemaker was implanted only about 25 years ago, today's models make it appear almost quaint. Size and weight have been cut by two-thirds, for example, and power sources are far more durable and dependable. And while early pacemakers were preset to maintain the heartbeat at a fixed rate-usually between 60 and 80 beats per minute-

modern units can track the body's demandior oxygen and eit1)er step up the pace or slow it down.

Some 1l0,000'pacemakers are installed each year in the Unit~d'States, according to James D. Maloney, hea9 of the Cleveland Clinic's cardiac electrophysiology laboratory. MQst recipients are victims of bradycareia-an abnormally slow heartbeat ~iess than 50 per minute )-which fails to meet the body's energy needs.

(Too fast a heartbeat is called tachycardia;"\a much more common condition which' is now treated largely with drug therapy.), .

The hear.t's natural electrical pacing mechanism is lo~ated within a bundle of specialized fibers in the right atrium and is controlled primarily by ion passage through the myocardial cells. Normally this region of the atrium constantly monitors the body's oxygen demands. When more is needed-during exercise or stress, for example-the fibers speed up the signals to the ventricles, resulting in faster" contractions and increased blood flow.

The ionic flow may be interrupted or \~ltered in any of several ways: coronary vessel disease, the formation of impermeable scar tissue by an infarction, chronic alcoholism, kidney disease, or neurological disorders. In extreme cases, the rhythmic disturbances 'c~ result in fatal ventricular fibrillation-virtual shutdown of the heart muscle.

Once a major operation, installation of pac.emakers is now relatively simple, and car~es no more risk than an angiogram.

The' ~it is placed in a convenient spot benea~ the patient's skin (usually near the collar bone, where it is almost invisible). The nontoxic, noncorroding electrical lead is run intravenously into the right atrium. Whereas older pacemakers typically had to be replaced every two or three years, today's lithium-iodide batteries provide 10 or more years of service.

Several recent innovations have added to pacemaker dependability, says Maloney-among them new lead designs. 'I'f,h,eolder leads just lay inside the heart and often came loose," he explains.

"As many as 30 percent of ventricular leads, and up to 75 percent of atrial leads, had to be reinstalled in just a few weeks."

One solution was the tined lead, developed by Medtronic's Bio Interface division, tipped with four tiny prongs that quickly become enmeshed in and overgrown by the atrial tissues. Reinstallations are now required in fewer than

4 percent of the patients who receive pacemakers, says Maloney.

The greatest strides in pacemaker technology, however, are represented by the new generation of adjustable and selfadjusting units. Medtronic, for example, has developed a line of pacemakers whose rates can be quickly adjusted by a physician using a microprocessor programmer without exposing the unit. And in late 1983,doctors at Houston's Methodist Hospital implanted America's first self-adjusting Medtronic pacemaker (dubbed the Activitrax) in a middle-aged woman. The device utilizes a chemically sensitive crystal. When the patient undergoes physical or emotional stress, oxygen levels gradually fall below a predetermined level, altering the crystal's electrical characteristics and stepping up the pacing mechanism. As oxygen levels rise, the mechanism goes into reverse by slowing the signals. Moreover, says one of the surgeons in the case, the pulse rates are altered slowly and smoothly, just as in the natural heart.

Meanwhile, Intermedics in Freeport, Texas, has announced clinical studies of its new COSMOS microcomputer pacemaker in 30-odd patients around the country. The company calls COSMOS "the world's most advanced pacemaker system"; it features a memory that electronically classifies various physiological events for later recall on a desktop computer and a telemetry system that allows_the'unit to "talk" with the physicianby telephone.

Preventing sudden death. The automatic implantable defibrillator is another device aimed at regulating the heart's electrical function. The titanium-encased unit-about the size of a deck of cards and weighing some 250 grams-was invented by Michel Mirowski, associate professor of medicine at the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions in Baltimore, and was first implanted in 1980. Since then, more than 200 patients have received the defibrillator.

Approximately 400,000 Americans die every year from ventricular fibrillation (also called sudden cardiac death)weak, uncoordinated contractions of the ventricles which are insufficient to push oxygenated blood through the aorta. If the disorder strikes in a hospital, regular contractions can be restored with a powerful electrical jolt to the heart. Most of the deaths, however, occur within minutes of the first symptom and far from

medical aid. And of those who survive an initial episode, says Mirowski, up to 40 percent will die within the following year.

"We can't always identify these patients in advance," he notes. "But if we can implant the defibrillator in 5 or even 2 percent of them, we will save thousands of lives each year."

For the patient known to be at fisk for fibrillation, the device is implanted beneath the abdominal skin, There it monitors the heart's electrical activity via two thin intravenous leads-one to the apex, or lower portion of the muscle, and the other to the right atrium, near the natural pacemaker tissues. When an electrical malfunction is detected, the lithium batteries deliver a jolt of 25 joules; if that isn't enough to restore normal contractions, the unit quickly recycles to deliver a second shock, then a third, if necessary.

The batteries last three years (or about 100 shocks-whichever comes first).

"It's a major development for the highrisk patient," says James A. Reiffel, associate professor of clinical medicine at Columbia-Presbyterian. "But it's difficult to program for distinguishing normal fluctuations in the heart's rhythm-during exercise, for example-from potentially dangerous rhythmic disturbances."

The automatic defibrillator is being manufactured-at $8,000-$9,000 eachby Intec Systems in Pittsburgh, and at least one other such device is said to be under study by other manufacturers. The simple, relatively minor implantation procedure is now performed in a dozen U.S. medical centers.

Despite the dramatic decline in heart di~s.e-Jatalities during the past two decades; the problem is far from solved. Of the 43 million Americans now estimated to have one or more forms of heart or blood vessel disease, more than half a million will die this year. "We've made great progress against this disease," says Reiffel, "but the death rate will never fall to zero. The best we c,an do is promote public awareness and better ways to identify and treat' the patient at risk."

Yet most authorities are confident that the past decade offers merely a preview of tomorrow's technology. If so, it seems reasonable to think that within most of our lifetimes-certainly within the lifetimes of our children-heart dis~ase will give up its title: "America's number-one killer."

D About the Author: H. Garret! De Young is a senior editor of High Technology.

Denton Cooley HEART SURGEON

Denton Cooley, whose name has become synonymous with open heart surgery, performed the first heart transplant in the United States on May 3, 1968. He remembers the moment to this day as "a thrill unequaled in surgery-I have never felt more exhilarated in the operating theater."

However, two years and about 20 transplants later, Dr. Cooley abandoned transplant operations and instead concentrated on the more conventional bypass heart surgery.

Surgeon-in-chief and founder of the Texas Heart Institute at Houston, Cooley's single-minded devotion to medical innovation is legendary.

Dr. Cooley was recently in Bombay to attend the World Conference on Open Heart Surgery, organized by the Association of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeons of India to commemorate a quarter century of open heart surgery in India.

The conference was attended by about 700 eminent medical men from 30 countries, including more than 100 from the United States.

During his brief visit, Jacob John of the U.S. Information Service, Bombay, interviewed the world-renowned surgeon.

JACOB JOHN: Dr. Cooley, almost 15 years ago you stopped practicing heart transplant surgery. However, in recent years you have once again embarked on transplants.

What made you change your mind?

DENTON COOLEY: Let me first tell you why we stopped heart transplants. There were numerous reasons for abandoning the program in that initial flurry around 1968. One was the inadequate donor supply, and the other, public sentiment. It took a while for the public to adjust to the whole idea of heart transplants; there were moral and ethical questions.

The major factor, however, was the management of patients with transplanted hearts. Their bodies rejected them. Now, with the advent of the new drug cyclosporine, the picture has changed quite dramatically. The use of cyclosporine to combat rejection and infection, even acute infection, has resulted in an improved prognosis for heart recipients. They have shown a good response to the new regimen of immunosuppression.

With organ transplants becoming quite commonplace these days, do you think the moral and ethical issues have been resolved?

For an answer to that we have to view life in its proper perspective. There is only one organ in the body that represents life, and that's the brain. That's where everything resides, the soul, the mind. It's the brain that makes you what you are. The rest of the body organs are merely servant,s of the brain. The liver is just the same as the heart, as the kidneys. True, you can't live without these things. But once the brain is dead, these organs, vital as they are, can be transplanted to give a new life to those who otherwise would be condemned to death. What can be more wonderful? That is as simply as I can put it in terms of the concept of life. And transplants.

In recent years the in vention of the man-made heart has made dramatic news .. What sort of future do you envision for it?

For one thing let me tell you that the Jarvik-7 heart is

EXTRAORDINARY

nothing new. A long time ago, we were using a similar machine, known as the Akutsu heart (named after the Japanese inventor Dr. Akutsu of Kyoto). As of now there is no artificial heart that is adequate; there are many problems with them. The basic problem is its bulk, its consequent lack of portability.

For one thing, its power source depends on a large console which pumps air in and out of the device somewha;t like a bellows. The patient must, therefore, be tethered to large hoses and pipes that come out of his chest wall, making him a prisoner of the console.

Moreover, the activation of the heart causes a great deal of impact and recoil each time the air is pumped in and out, which literally shakes the patient, causing a great deal of pain. So by and large, it's not a very satisfactory device. But I must add that it's time that we got on with using the artificial heart clinically. I believe that we should use this device in emergency situations to provide life support to patients until a heart transplant operation can be accomplished. You see, it takes time to locate a donor, and also to make sure that there is compatibility between donor and recipient.

Let me add that a number of institutions and individuals are engaged in developing improved versions of the artificial heart.

We at the Texas Heart Institute are trying to develop an artificial heart with a single pumping chamber called the univentricular heart. It has been observed in many cases that the heart's right chamber functions as a passive conduit while the left chamber sustains life for a couple of weeks. So why replace both chambers? When the univentricular heart is finally developed, we hope it will be a boon, specially to newborn babies with congenital heart defects. Of course, this again will be a temporary means to sustain life until a suitable donor organ is obtained for transplant.

You have performed thousands of open heart operations ..

What would you say is your single biggest contribution to humanity?

I've been fortunate to render in my own small way some service to humanity. But if I were to look back, I would say that the Texas Heart Institute that I have founded represents an important contribution that I have made to the field of medical science. I'm secure in the knowledge that the young people that I have trained will go out with that knowledge. In fact, improve upon and add to that, and administer a healing touch to the millions the world over. It might be relevant to add here that young doctors from India have also been among my students and they have proved to be the finest anywhere.

In sum I might add that the Texas Heart Institute will be my most enduring monument, and this I would much rather have than a stone in a cemetery.

0

M

ediator>Bruno T. Kozlowski of the U.S. Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS) is a , large, friendly man. His broad Slavic face communicates strength, confidence and humor. Upon meeting him for the first time, one says to oneself, "Now there's a fellow I'd like to have on my side in a fight."

But he is not a fighter, as he is eager to make clear quickly, although on occasion he has been close to fights.

He recalls one particularly tense session at the bargaining table when he stepped at the last second between a union representative and a company lawyer who were threatening to beat each other's brains out. "That's me," Kozlowski says, "the man in the middle." By the end of the meeting, he says, the two adversaries had not only shaken hands but were joking with one another.

"So far, no one has taken a poke at me," Kozlowski says, rapping his knuckles on the top of his desk for luck.

"But that's where I belong, in the middle. As a mediator, that's my role."

Kozlowski, one of eight federal mediators working in the Chicago office of the FMCS (see box), joined the agency 17 years ago from the labor side of industry. One of his earliest experiences with contract negotiation came in 1955, when he headed a bargaining unit of the United Auto Workers union (UA W) at an International Harvester Company plant on Chicago's South Side. He became a full-time international representative of the UA W in 1963 and joined the FMCS five years later.

"I observed mediators working," he says. "I saw the respect they were able to attract from both sides, and I just gravitated toward their role. After talking with several of them, I knew I'd like that for a career. I thought I was a natural for it, so I applied."

Kozlowski, 58, is the son of Polish immigrants and has lived on Chicago's South Side all his life. He attended local schools and De Paul University, also in Chicago. He recently talked with James Idema about his background and his job as a federal mediator.

Man in the Middle What happens when the process of collective bargaining between labor and management fails in the United States? Short of a strike, there are a number of courses open to them-one of which is to approach the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service. Bruno T. Kozlowski (left), a federal mediator, talks about what it takes to be a successful peacemaker.

IDEMA: Is there any reason to think that, because you come from the labor side of the industrial dichotomy, a representative of management might think you're biased?

KOZLOWSKI: No. Management today is sophisticated enough to recognize the mediator's limitations as well as what he's supposed to do, what he can do. A mediator cannot force either side into accepting some-' thing it doesn't want to accept. He suggests different ways of arriving at a decision, but the decision is always made by the parties to the dispute. Whether I'm from a labor union or a large corporation hardly matters to them.

What do you think qualifies you to be a mediator? What kind of training leads to your job?

The training I had-and I think this is true with most mediators-was my early experience with collective bargaining. That's one of the important things the service

looks for, experience. Also intelligence ¡and, of course, a spotless record of integrity. Above all, a mediator rides on his integrity. In his opening statement to the parties in a dispute, he generally tells them that whatever they say to him separately, in confidence, will be kept in confidence.

And he'd better adhere to that; it's a very strict ethical code with us. Basically, I believe I qualify because I like very much to deal with people and use skills I've acquired to help them solve their problems. I think one gets better at this job the longer he's in it. Every new experience is a learning experience in this line 6f work.

Familiarity with labor law is certainly useful, but the most important skills are the skills of communication, and high among these is the art of listening. I learned very early the importance of not talking too soon. There is a real art to listening sympathetically. Then there are the more obvious things: knowledge of all the ins and outs of collective bargaining and the latest changes in the field, knowledge of contracts, familiarity with the way U'1ions are feeling in the present economic situation, the way management feels about the competitive struggle. Suppose on one side you have a demand by a union for a certain improvement or benefit, and on the other side the response by management as to the potential cost of that benefit. How could you evaluate the alternatives intelligently if you didn't have a thorough knowledge of the situation industrywide? The union wants another holiday in the calendar. How many holidays are the current standard? What has been decided about holidays in other negotiations? You have to have that kind of information

at your fingertips, and the information changing with the times.

is constantly

What types of industries are you currently involved with and what kinds of disputes? Does the economic climate affect what negotiations are about?

Fabricating companies, communications, service goods, rental companies, building services, the oil, rubber and steel industries-I'll think of others. I am currently keeping tabs on some 35 cases. That's about an average load for a mediator, at least in this area. And I'm on call 24 hours a day. There's no telling when a negotiation might reach the critical point where our services are required immediately.

The basic arguments generally boil down to wages, benefits, pensions, medical coverage, cost-of-living raises.

Those are the key disputes, and they've been the key disputes for a long time. But what's coming more and more into the picture today is job security. This concern is the result of a long recession, and even though the country as a whole is experiencing an economic upturn, it's not reflected here in the Midwest, not in the "smokestack industries" like steel and hard-goods manufacturing, which have been suffering for years. Bargaining is a much more difficult process in this climate; often you're diminishing, taking away from employees instead of giving them concessions. That makes for hard bargaining.

Do both parties have to agree before a mediator enters the scene?

Yes, although the mediator becomes active when only one of the parties requests mediation.

But you must understand the role of the mediator here. If, when he contacts the other party, the other party resists, says "No," or "We don't need mediation ,at this point," it doesn't make sense to force the issue. At the very least, the other party has to be in a conciliatory frame of mind, to say, "OK, Commissioner, we have no problem with your coming in now." Then the mediator can go to work.

How long does a typical negotiation take after you have arrived on the scene? You told me about the threatened fist fight-do negotiations frequently reach the violent stage?

By the time I am called to the scene, it generally means the parties are ready for serious bargaining. They quite likely have reached an impasse, but they've gotten a few minor matters out of the way that would have been time-consuming.

So then it's a matter of days, sometimes just one.

As for violence, that seems to be a thing of the past. A common pattern is that the atmosphere is very tense at first; you can cut the enmity in the air with a knife.

Emotions are very high. Then, when a resolution comes, it's all smiles, almost like a party, the release of that tension. I think the tension comes from the fact that, on the union side, one or two people are negotiating for the welfare of other people who are depending on them. On the management side, there's the corporation, its profit margin, its stockholders .... Meanwhile, we're proud of the record-nine out of ten disputes are resolved peacefully when mediators are invQ!ved.

There are times, of course, when all mediation efforts go for naught, and there's a strike. There's nothing good

The Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS) is an independent agency of the Federal Government created by the U.S. Congress, with a director appointed by the President. The primary duty of the FMCS is to promote peace between labor 'and management.

The FMCS is an outgrowth of the U.S. Conciliation Service, which was organized under the Department of Labor in 1913. The FMCS was made a separate agency by the Labor-Management Relations Act of 1947. The service provides, at no charge, mediation assistance in preventing or settling collectivebargaining controversies.

The number of federal mediators, known as commissioners, has varied from time to time in recent years according to demand and budget' restrictions. At its peak, in 1977-78, the agency employed more than 300 mediators. In 1984, 243 were stationed in FMCS offices in all states except Alaska, which is served by the office in Seattle, Washington.

Mediation can be requested by either

about a stri~e; it's full of misery for everybody.

But sometimes the two sides are so dug in that they don't listen to each other or to the mediator. Grievances have piled up and festered, and the only thing that will clear them out is a walkout.

Obviously there's lot of tension for you. How does this affect your personal life and health?

During my first year in this business, we had an outing-mediators and their wives. The other wives got mine aside and gave her some advice. "He'll hardly ever be home for dinner," they told her, "so just make a big pot of soup and leave it on the stove for him." I've eaten a lot of soup in the past 17 years. Sessions often go round-the-clock, so I sometimes take a suitcase with a change of clothes with me. My wife has adjusted nicely.

I'm enthusiastic about the work, which keeps us both happy. Believe it or not, I do find time for golf in the summer, which I love, and my health is very good, though I chew a lot of antacid tablets when the going gets rough.

Nevertheless, the job has to be done.

The mediator plays several roles. He's a lawyer sometimes, sometimes a psychologist; sometimes a joke helps, so he's a comedian. But as the man in the middle, he's also a peacemaker.

That's where the tension builds.

I'll always remember a framed sign that hung in the council chambers when I was mediating a dispute between the city and the firefighters' union.

"Blessed are the peacemakers," it said, "for they shall catch hell from both sides."

0 About the Author: James ldema is a Chicago-based free-lance writer who contributes to several American magazines.

party in a dispute, or a mediator may volunteer his services when a situation seems to be deadlocked. This is possible because the Labor-Management Relations Act requires parties to a labor contract to file a dispute notice if agreement is not reached 30 days in advance of the date the contract is due to terminate or be reopened. These notices, filed with the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service and the appropriate regional office, alert the service to possible bargaining trouble.

It is a tribute to the nation's free collective-bargaining system that in more than 95 of 100 cases in which notices are filed, employers and unions reach agreement on their own without requiring mediation assistance. And in nine of ten disputes that do receive active mediation aid, settlement is reached without a strike. Last year, FMCS mediators were assigned to 16,200 contract negotiations, and only 7 percent of these ended in strikes.

Circumstances of disputes obviously

vary widely, but the mediator generally confers first with one of the parties involved, then with the other, to hear their separate versions of the pending difficulties. He usually then calls a joint conference with representatives of the union and the employer.

Mediators function informally-listening, analyzing, suggesting and reasoning to help the opposing sides find mutually acceptable solutions. Mediators are carefully selected and carefully trained. About equal numbers come from management and from labor, and many have had experience with both.

In addition to settling disputes, mediators serve as advisers, through the FMCS technical services, and are available free of charge. These services provide training and information to increase the knowledge and improve the skills of those persons likely to be involved in negotiations on both sides.

Mediators also speak to clubs, business schools, colleges and other organizations.

-J.I.

OAthe Fast

Track Remember the toy trains you played with -as a child? Remember the thrill of setting up your model set and seeing the wagons speeding across bridges and through tunnels? And remember the disappointment when one fine day it all just came apart? Maybe you cried, threw a tantrum, tried to repair it ... and then moved on to the next toy. Simple.

But when you get down to real tracks, it's not all that simple. Think of the mind-boggling logistics involved-millions of tracks and stations and lines and bridges and tunnels. And when things go wrong, they really go wrong.

But when things go right, you get one of the most fascinating stories of modern travel. Take the Indian Railways. With its approximately 60,000 kilometers of tracks it ranks as the second largest railway system in the world. According to National Geographic, which recently carried a cover story on India by rail, the Indian Railways carries 10 million pas-sengers a day, has 11,000 locomotives and 1.6 million workers.

The Government of India is planning progressive modernization of the Indian Railways system, seeking to increase efficiency, safety and profitability. The government has turned to private industry for the necessary high technology.

One of the latest such ventures aiding modernization is Sundaram-Clayton's Railway Products Division in Harita village near Hosur in Tamil Nadu, At the Sundaram-Clayton Railway Products Division in Hosur, Tamil Nadu, the latest electronic equipment is used to manufacture and test air brakes and signaling devices. Right: Testing signal relays. Clockwise from top left: Ensuring precision and quality; assembling air-brake distriblllor valves; precisionmachining center; drafting new designs.

close to the Karnataka border.

The Railway Products Division is one of the three divisions of SundaramClayton Ltd., the other two being the Brake Division in Madras and the Moped Division in Hosur. Sundaram-Clayton is a public limited company belonging to the TVS group of companies, one of the leading automotive industries groups in south India. It was set up in 1964 in equity-cum-technical collaboration' with Clayton-Dewandre Ltd. of U.K., which is now (since 1978) a part of American Standard Inc. of the United States. The American company owns just under 40 percent of the equity in SunoaramClayton.

The Brake Division manufactures air brake actuation systems as original equipment for every Indian heavy, commercial and defense vehicle and for earthmoving equipment. The Moped Division, set up in 1980, makes and markets the popular TVS 50 moped. In 1984, SundaramClayton turned from road to rail, setting up a high-technology plant to make railway air-brake systems and signaling equipment.

The technology for the air-brake systems comes from WABCO Westinghouse Air Brake Division, Wilmerding, near Pittsburgh, and from WABCO Westinghouse of Paris. WABCO, a 125-year-old company set up by the noted inventor and industrial pioneer George Westinghouse, is now a division of American Standard Inc. WABCO, world leaders in the making of railway air brakes, are engaged in a continuous updating of the technology in this area. The know-how and designs for the railway signaling equipment to be manufactured by Sundaram-Clayton are from the Union Switch and Signal (US&S) division of American Standard. US&S relays and signaling equipment have proven reliability, and are currently in use in several railway systems all over the world. Their state-of-the-art technology in these areas strives to stay a step ahead of the times, anticipating the problems and needs of railway systems of the future.

Setting up a manufacturing plant for high-technology railway products represents several "firsts" for a TVS company.

It is a departure from the automotive ancillary area, which has been the tried and tested area for TVS companies for decades; it has been set up for a single customer-the Government of India.

H. Lakshmanan, executive director of Sundaram-Clayton who has had a distin-

guished career in TVS group companies, explains the genesis of the Railway Products Division: "You could really say it first started when American Standard took over our erstwhile parent company, Clay tonDewandre in 1978. Our new parent company owned a transportation wing which was a world leader in brakes as well as in signaling equipment for railways. Our interest was aroused.

"But at first American Standard was very skeptical about our ability to absorb and transmit such new technology.

However, a high power team including the president of the company visited Sundaram-Clayton, Madras, in 1980, and what they saw there put their fears to rest. They were particularly impressed with our nonferrous foundry, because casting is very crucial in the manufacture of air-brake distributor valves. After that, the way was clear and we went ahead.

"The capital investment at the end of the last financial year was Rs. 26 million in the air-brakes section and Rs. 24 million in the signal equipment section.

Our personnel are being trained by WABCO in Paris and Pittsburgh in the areas of product design, systems engineering and after-sales service."

R. Srinivasan, general manager of Sundaram-Clayton Railway Products Division, sees vast potential in the manufacture of a wide range of products for the Indian Railways. "The real importance of our setting up this division," says Srinivasan, "is more than just the manufacture of sophisticated engineering products.

We have opened up a whole pipeline through which the latest technology will flow from world leaders in the field of transportation engineering, and become available to the Indian railway system.

This prospect is truly exciting, and we're going to be busy introducing new products as we go along." nthe opinion of railway engineers themselves, the most urgent need for change in Indian trains is in the area of brakes. The vacuum brakes, presently in use in the vast majority of trains in India, have serious limitations. The "stopping distance," that is the distance traveled by a speeding train after the vacuum brakes are applied and before it comes to a stop, can be as much as four to five kilometers, depending upon the weight and speed of the train.

Apart from the obvious disadvantages

I

of such long stopping distances from the point of view of safety, this relative inefficiency in braking also means that a greater time-interval has to be allowed between successive trains on the same track, and therefore optimum utilization of the track is not achieved. Besides, there is a distinct falling-off in brake power between the first and last wagons.

This deficiency automatically limits the length (and also the weight) of trains, particularly on gradients, and thus the hauling power of the locomotive is underutilized. A more efficient braking system would produce better speeds, more trains per hour, more wagons to a train, adding up to greater efficiency and profitability.

This is exactly what the "graduated release air brake system," under production at the Railway Products Division, is designed. to do.

A number of Asian and African countries such as Thailand, Pakistan, Indonesia, Nigeria, Ghana and Zambia have already gone in for the modern airbraking systems. India, which has been exporting wagons and locomotives to many of these countries, will therefore have to introduce air brakes to keep up and eventually enhance its level of exports. The spin-off benefits of lower maintenance costs, and a long six- to seven-year interval between overhauls, makes air brakes an even more profitable prospect.

Sundaram-Clayton has started its operations with a limited range of products.

First to be taken up is the gradual release freight wagon braking system, of which the vital component is the distributor valve. The C3W model valve being manufactured in the sophisticated Hosur factory has about 140 parts, separately made and then assembled.

The various stages in the manufacture of this critical component are closely overseen by G. Srinivasan, factory superintendent who has spent six weeks training with WABCO, Paris. The highprecision valve housing of aluminum alloy is cast at Sundaram-Clayton's own nonferrous foundry in Madras and brought to Hosur. This "main body" then undergoes a series of intricate machining operations in an ultrasophisticated gigantic, preprogrammable machine called the Precision Machining Center. Precision is indeed the heart of this stage of manufacture, tolerances being extremely fine.

The vast number of parts that go to make up the valve involve varying degrees of complexity in manufacture. The

simpler ones are entrusted to smaller ancillary units, while the more critical ones are made by the Railway Products Division itself. The turning operations for many of these parts are carried out on computer-controlled "turning center" machines.

All the valve components are meticulously checked for quality and dimension, and the aluminum parts are carefully anodized in the company's own modern anodizing plant.

Next comes the assembling operation.

This is carried out in a large dust-free room, where workmen are busy assembling the approximately 140 parts of the valve within the valve housing.

Other brake accessories being made by Sundaram-Clayton include the brake chamber, air filters, shut-off cocks, relay valves and pipe fittings, all of which will go toward making a complete air-brake assembly. The Indian Railways plans to fit the new brake assemblies on its newlydesigned BOX-N wagons, which will gradually replace the present vacuumbrake fitted wagons. The new assembly also incorporates a device which will automatically ad just the brake cylinder pressures in accordance with the wagon loads, so that uniformly good braking is ensured, whatever the 'load.

Locomotive air brakes will be another major product of the Railway Products Division of Sundaram-Clayton, says General Manager R. Srinivasan.

Here again, the complete system, including brake and control valves and brake cylinders, will be supplied as an integrated system for use in electric and dieselelectric locomotives.

At present, the Indian Railways is importing W ABCO air-brake systems for their locomotives.

Thus Sundaram-Clayton's production of locomotive brakes will result in a substantial foreign exchange saving. In addition, Sundaram-Clayton plans to produce electropneumatic brakes, which are used in suburban and underground electric trains. "The market for these is bound to rise sharply with the rapid electrification of more and more suburban lines," says Srinivasan. He also sees great potential for developing high-technology equipment in signaling systems which are crucial to safety and efficiency.

The ancient semaphore signaling system, operated by hand levers, is still used on some feeder lines in India. On the more heavily used trunk routes, modern signaling equipment is rapidly replacing the obsolete system. The role of the

signaling equipment is to guide the train' continuously from departure to destination, instructing the driver when to stop or slow down, and routing the train along the most appropriate track.

In and around busy stations and junctions, signaling is a very complex operation.

The Sundaram-Clayton range of signaling equipment, says Srinivasan, will ultimately include complete systems such as the sophisticated route relay interlocking and panel interlocking systems. These essentially consist of a series of relays that can be preset to select, by a logical operation, the most convenient free route that a train can follow in order to reach its destination safely and with minimum loss of time. All changes of track required for the new route are also automatically worked out, and the appropriate point machines are activated in order to switch tracks. These systems are "fail-safe"; that is, in the unlikely event of a system's failure, the trains are halted, and safety is never compromised. s a first step, Sundaram-Clayton has taken up the manufacture of a versatile, compact, plug-in type relay which goes by the code-name PI150 and also a modern point machine for high-speed operations.

R. Purushothaman, a consultant with years of experience in signaling equipment technology in the Indian Railways, supervises the relay assembly. Purushothaman explains that this relay conforms to the specifications of the International Union of Railways. Being a complete, prewired assembly, it only has to be plugged into place and does not require any skill or knowledge on the part of the signalman. It is designed to work at temperatures ranging from minus 40° C to plus 270° C, which, as Purushothaman points out, means virtually anywhere on the face of the earth.

The relay assembly takes place in a dust-free room. The 50 components are meticulously assembled, and the relay is tested for response to specific voltage levels. Then comes the "field testing" on a simulator machine. The electromagnetic make-break circuit is tested hundreds of thousands of times, because this is how it will be used when the relay is actually in place in the signal house or cabin. Perfection means safety in the area of signaling.

Factory Superintendent G. Srinivasan explains the inner workings of the point machine being manufactured at the other end of the factory bay. This is a machine which pushes a section of rail known as a

I

tongue rail against the main track, known as a main rail. When the point machine switches tracks, the train moves automatically onto a neighboring track to continue its journey.

This particular model is of a clamp-lock type, designed for high train speeds, up to 250 kilometers per hour. A heavy high-speed train puts tremendous pressure on the points, where temporary track junctions are made. The point has to stay firmly locked in order to ensure that the train does not derail. The automatic clamp lock on this machine ensures that the tongue rail is truly home against the main track and will stay firmly clamped in that position till it is disengaged.

The thruster unit, which provides the force necessary to push the tongue rail, consists of a direct current motor working on a 11O-volt supply. Through a system of gears, a shaft or thruster is activated, which pushes the rail into its new position.

One point machine made at SundaramClayton's Hosur factory is now being tested by the Indian Railways under actual field conditions.

Back in his office, R. Srinivasan exudes an air of optimism about the future. "We will soon expand our range of products, both in brakes and in signaling equipment. We are particularly proud to be part of the Indian Railways' new thrust toward modernization, since WABCO itself has played a very large part in the past, in convincing the Indian Railways of the need for change. W ABCO personnel paid repeated visits to India in the 1970s and were mainly responsible for stressing the necessity for air brakes. We will now be playing an important part in introducing the latest technology as and when it is developed by our parent company."

Commenting on the prospects for this fledgling manufacturing division, Managing Director Venu Srinivasan says, "We hope to get a market share of 30 to 35 percent in respect of air brakes and 30 to 40 percent of the total orders for relays.

Our capacity for relays is 20,000 a year against the total railway demand of 40,000 a year. Our capacity for point machines is 1,000 against the annual railway requirement of about 2,500. So we will be a major supplier of high-technology products to the Indian Railways."

As the Indian Railways moves on to the 0 fast track, so will Sundaram-Clayton.

About the Author: Malini Seshadri, a frequent SPAN contributor, is a Madras-based freelance writer.

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ac on on The ManWho Invented Himself Restless roisterer, sailor on horseback, the artist as outsider, Jack London wrote 50 books, dreamed of revolution and created his own celebrity in a way many 20th-century writers would copy. This saga of a twofisted man of letters, originally published in the March 1978 SPAN, was chosen a favorite by readers. ack London carved himself a special niche in the annals of startling as that of F. Scott Fitzgerald; his dedication to the American literature. Born in poverty in 1876, he spent his 'masculine ethos as profound as that of Erhest Hemingway; and boyhood suffering the rejection of an unloving mother and his instinct for the public eye as shrewd as that of Norman much of his young manhood as a careless delinquent, a Mailer. He preceded and presaged them all, for in the process water-front roisterer, and a road bum, quite as mindless of his of inventing himself, Jack London invented the idea of the American writer as personality own self-destruction as any modern youth who wastes himself quite as much as artist. with drugs and hitchhikes the interstate highways from nowhere The materials out of which Jack London constructed his life to nowhere else. were rich-if largely tormenting. He was born out of wedlock London pulled himself out of poverty and psychic and in San Francisco on January 12, 1876. His dwarfish, spiritualist physical ruin by writing, and by the time of his death in 1916 mother tried to kill herself when his vagrant, astrologer father was the' highest-paid writer of his time. He also was the deserted her. After Jack's birth, she married a Civil War best-known American writer of his time, for he was, by his own veteran and widower, John London, so that her child could creation, a public figure, a man who put more of his genius into bear his name. The little boy was brought up with his two his life than into his work, even though his output as a writer stepsisters like a tumbleweed, moving across the Bay to a was prodigious. He constructed a myth of himself as a hero succession of frame houses in'the poor parts of the new town of battling against the elements, against drink and death, a frail Oakland. His mother never touched him with love, and terrified him, yelping at her seances with the voice of an American superman always locked in a struggle for survival and success.

He was the prototype of the writer who tries to live out his Indian medium called Plume. words to the full-but cannot, except in his writing. His politics John London moved the family out to small farms off the were as radical as those of Upton Sinclair; his contempt for the Bay and then into the dry valleys of northern California, but his gaseous certitudes of middle-class life as scathing as that of wife's schemes for getting rich quickly ruined his agricultural Sinclair Lewis; his flouting of convention in his personal life as ventures. The boy began to have the nightmares that disturbed his short sleep all his life, as well as the dreams of escaping his Reprinted by permIssIon from Amencan Heritage, August 1977 Š 1977, by Amencan Hentage Publishing Company, Inc. pinchpenny world for one of glittering and lavish fantasy.

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Thrown back into the slums of Oakland, Jack became a and, finally, "just 'because it was easier to than not to." delinquent, a rebel without a cause. He wanted to leave his So Jack turned into a thoughtless road kid, until a month in Erie County Penitentiary loveless mother, and he bought a skiff to sail the Bay toward the Pennsylvania's on a charge of Golden Gate, challenging the rollers made by the side-wheel vagrancy made a radical out of him. Jack saw in the jail the steamers, beating against the wind to Goat Island, yearning depths of human degradation, a society of degenerates and after the clippers that tacked toward the west and the other side misfits tyrannized by a few trusties and hallmen, who shamefulof the world. The moment he could leave school, he joined the ly exploited their fellow prisoners. To him, it seemed a parable waterfront gangs, becoming an oyster pirate, a young drunk of the whole of industrial America. He found himself living one and a road kid, riding the freights up to the Sierra mountains. of his childhood nightmares about falling into the stench and He seemed reckless of his life, wasteful of his strong body, his darkness of a bottomless pit. The alternative was the tooth-andsmall hands battered from fights. claw fight for social success, and upon his release he returned to He might have died young like most of the other victims of his mother's home in Oakland, determined to educate himself. the raw port of Oakland, if he had not been bookish and determined. He had always loved reading-his mother had hen began a frantic pursuit of knowledge. Jack was brave slipped down the social scale from an educated family. To him, to go to high school after dropping out of the educational system for six years. His schoolmates were so young that the shortest way out of the slums was through the pages of the novelist Washington Irving or the historian Prescott. He also he felt he was in a kindergarten.

To them, he was an object of had the gift of organizing himself-so much time for earning fear, an unbelievably shabby and careless man who had been a money, so much time for reading, so much time for play. He tramp and who chewed tobacco. His determination was so great, knew that there must be a better world for him than the however, that after only two years he qualified in 1896 as a special student to enter the University of California at dockside saloons or the scrounging gentility of his mother's Berkeley. pretensions. His occasional months of dulling toil in a cannery Yet already a pattern in his career had begun to emerge. or a. jute factory gave him the resolve never to become an industrial slave.

The rootlessness of his upbringing made him stick at no job or So, in 1893, at the age of 17, Jack signed on as a sailor on a plan of study for too long. He had been brought up on the three-masted schooner, bound for the Bering Sea on a sealing move, and he remained on the move in restless California. expedition. He learned his new life quickly, even taking the Whenever the pressures on his life seemed too great for him, he wheel in a storm on one occasion. It was his first moment of would pack up and go. Early in 1897 he dropped out to become mastery, of power and conquest.

"In my grasp the wildly a writer, because gossip about his birth was too much to bear; careering schooner and the lives of 22 men," he wrote many what was more, by then Jack had learned of and had contacted years later. "With my own hands I had done my trick at the his real father-who had promptly denied his paternity. Jack wheel and guided a hundred tons of wood and iron through a was now determined to succeed on his own, without the help of few million tons of wind and waves .... When I have done some the society that had made him poor, of the mother who did not such thing, I am exalted." It revealed to him his pride in being a love him, of the father who had deserted and denied him. man who could pit his own small self against the worst that Isolated, he determined to be utterly self-made-and how nature could do to him. better to do it than by writing?

He worked at this new trade as diligently as ever, but found The voyage also taught him about the bloody business of life. There was month after month of following the seal herd, only frustration.

The one anchor in his drifting, driven young killing and stripping the skins off the pretty beasts, then flinging life was his socialism, to which he had been converted by ¡his their carcasses to the sharks that followed the boat for their jail, road and sea experiences and by the books he read so share of the massacre. This daily slaughterhouse was the young voraciously. Radical socialism, he was now convinced, was the sailor's first sight of nature red in tooth and claw. The men were only thing that could keep men from being degraded and more bestial than the animals they killed. It was a crude, thrown out of work and crippled by the factory system. commercial competition, dictated by the market in furs. Jack At the same time, the horror of the vicious struggle to began to see that the struggle among humans to live was part of survive in the gutters of America had hardened Jack's dreams' the battle among species to survive. The men got the wages, the into a fierce personal ambition. "I had been in the cellar of captain took the profits, the women wore the furs, the sharks society," he later wrote, "and I did not like the place as a devoured the meat, the seals died. habitation .... If I could not live on the parlor floor of society, I could, at any rate, have a try at the attic. It was true, the diet Yet the sea was only a place to escape to, not to work upon.

He returned to factory jobs and heaving coal in Oakland in a .there was slim, but the air at least was pure."

Although Jack's socialism was the passion of his life and time of national depression. When his free spirit could endure no more, he took to the road. Although he went with a made him many friends among 'the young radicals of San detachment of "Coxey's army" of the unemployed, which set Francisco Bay, he did not put the good of the cause before his out for Washington, D.C., in 1894, he was no radical when he ambition for himself. He left California to look for instant fame and fortune in the Yukon gold rush of 1897. It was a stampede started, just a young man on the loose. In fact, he rode a raft down the Mississippi like Huckleberry Finn, eating the food he to illusion. He started off with enormous enthusiasm and was supposed to be begging for the mass of the marchers energy, backpacking up Chilkoot Pass and getting to Dawson behind, and he deserted the army at Mark Twain's home town City before the ice froze the river. He staked a claim, but when of Hannibal. As he wrote later in The Road, he went on the he saw the actual grim drudgery of extracting a few ounces of bum because he did not have the price of the fare in his jeans; gold from tons of frozen gravel, he did not stay to work it. The he was so made that he could not work always on the same shift; fact that he caught scurvy and hated to be ill also sent him back

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home to cure himself. The trip back to the sea three thousand kilometers down the river inspired him to keep a detailed diary.

There was a gold mine, perhaps, in writing about Alaska.

Such was Jack's energy, such was his presence and power, that he ¡convinced everyone he met that he would finally succeed in spite of his chopping and changing directions. The descriptions of him as a young man were lyrical. "He had a curly mop of hair which seemed spun of [the sun's] gold," one of his friends wrote, "his strong neck, with a loose, low, soft shirt, was bronzed with it; and his eyes were like a sunlit sea.

His clothes were f1appy and careless; the forecastle had left a suspicion of a roll in his broad shoulders; he was a strange combination of Scandinavian sailor and Greek god." uch was the force of Jack's presence when he had achieved nothing. He could get what he wanted from people by awing them with his energy and conviction.

He could persuade them of anything that he passionately believed about his future. Now he had to get what he wanted from his prose, for he had decided that writing short stories for magazines offered the quickest rewards and the shortest route to fame. He modeled his style chiefly on Rudyard Kipling. Kipling had offered the world his myth of India and the mission of the British Empire. Jack would offer the world his myth of Alaska and the struggle of the fittest to survive in the northern wilderness.

Jack imitated his master well, but his Alaskan short stories possessed a raw force, a sense of elemental struggle, that Kipling never achieved. By 1903 the young Californian writer was a national name; three years later, he was known throughout the world. By 1906, before he was 30 years old, he had aliready written eight books, among them his two classics, The Call of the Wild and The Sea-Wolf. Yet the incredible swiftn'ess of his success led him to form a reverse myth about it-that he had been forced to fight every inch of the way against every possible obstacle to reach what all young writers dream of and few attain.

His determination to show his own life and his writing as a struggle for survival he justified by his belief in a combination of social Darwinism and Marxist dialectics. To him, evolution was the first faith, revolution the second faith. Mankind evolved by the struggle against nature, society evolved by the war of the classes. He himself had developed by his determined revolt from the slums and manual labor of l1is background.

His own efforts had made him an educated man and a famous writer. He would now impose his vision on his readers, and he would redeem a youth of failure by a manhood of success.

His first goal was to reach the parlor floor of society.

Already, in 1900, he had married a strong, practical, educated woman called Bess Maddern, so that she could look after his home and raise his children. It was a marriage of convenience for a young writer making his way, and he defended his cool choice with logic. Unfortunately, he soon felt confined by domesticity, and he began a passionate affair with Anna Strunsky, the beautiful radical heroine of the Bay Area socialists. He even collaborated with her in writing a book, The Kempton- Wace Letters, published in 1903; in it, as "Herbert Wace," he hopelessly defended his calculated marriage against the romantic criticisms of Anna, as "Dane Kempton." Much as he loved his two young daughters and his planned life, he could not suppress his feelings or his ferocity, and once again he

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translated frustration into movement.

He was offered a job reporting on the aftermath of the Boer War, but when he reached Britain, the job was canceled. He stayed in London to watch the coronation of King Edward VII, then disappeared into the slums of the East End to research and write his passionate outcry against the degradation of the London poor, The People of the Abyss, also published in 1903.

While he was aw~y, Anna Strunsky came to her senses and ended their affair. She would not risk a scandal by carrying on with a married man. Jack was bitter; but he had to accept the blow, stating that in the future he would confine romance to the pages of his books.

Yet he still chafed at domesticity, and his next two great books mirrored his mood-what he called his "long sickness."

The Call of the Wild, his third published book in 1903, was about a dog that reverted to savagery in the wilderness; but it was also about Jack's own demand to be free. Thereafter, he called himself Wolf to his friends and he identified his nature with that lone animal's. The Sea- Wolf, published in 1904, told of the fig/:1tto the death between an educated sissy, Humphrey van Wey~en, and a blond beast, Captain Wolf Larsen, on his sealing sahooner. The characters may have represented Jack's own divided nature, with his willed concentration on selfeducation and the discipline of writing at war with his passion to be a physical superman.

Actually, his body had already begun to crack up on him when he lamed himself permanently on a voyage to Korea, where he reported the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. There he began riding horses the way most sailors do, lurching in the saddle as if on the deck of his sloop. He never walked a long way again, although his Alaskan heroes like Smoke Bellew were capable of vast journeys on foot. In Korea, however, he displayed both his boldness and his new taste for authority, sending back the first photographs of the Japanese Army in action and engaging the first of his two Oriental body servants, who would travel with him and look after him all his life.

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3iting for his return from Korea was Charmian Kittredge, his new mistress. She was one of the rare liberated and independent women of California, a good. sportswoman and stenographer, five years older than Jack, with a trim figure. She flung herself into the affair with Jack, and she joined him in the horseplay and practical jokes that he loved.

There was a fight for Jack's possession between her and "The Crowd," the group of radical artists and writers led by Jack's great friend, the poet George Sterling. Charmian won and persuaded Jack to leave his wife and fqmily for a little ranch up in the Sonoma hills near Glen Ellen. The only way tb cure his "long sickness" of restlessness and divided loyalties and appetites, she argued, was to put down an anchor with her on a piece of land. He accepted the solution, divorced his wife, and married Charmian. Where his stepfather had failed on the land, Jack decided, he would succeed. Where his first marriage had foundered in domesticity, his second would work with Charmian as his true love and "Mate."

So began the happiest period of Jack's life, the years 1905 and 1906, when he indulged all his contradictory urges almost simultaneously.

When the Russian Revolution broke out, he toured the United States, giving a lecture on "Revolution" even at Yale and Harvard. He became the leading orator of the radical movement at the same time that he was setting himself

up as a California rancher and writing imperialist articles for the Hearst press. He believed both in the superiority of the 'white man and in the eventual victory of the proletariat-but it had to be the white proletariat that won. Yet when he came to write his chilling prophesy of the "inevitable" world revolution, The Iron Heel, published in 1910, he foresaw the triumph of fascism before the brotherhood of the workers could eventually rule the earth. And then-typically-at the height of his commitment to the Red cause and the California earth, he suddenly announced that he would set off in 1907 on a seven years' cruise around the world in a sailing boat-which cost him $30,000 to build and was rightly called the Snark, being a splendid illusion.

If that extraordinary energy, that superb body and willpower had remained as strong as they had been most of his life, Jack mighthave achieved many more marvels, and he certainly would have damned their contradictions. But his sea voyage began the rapid deterioration of his body. After two years of wandering about Polynesia, he was suffering from five diseases. The worst of thesewere pellagra and yaws. Unfortunately, no cure was known for pellagra at the time, while yaws was treated like a form of syphilis with arsenic compounds.

As a man who declared that he was self-made, he believed in self-help. Aboard the Snark, he was both doctor and dentist. He had a large.b'ooden medicine chest stuffed with bottles of drugs.

Hebelievefl in dosing himself and his wife and his companions. He didnot believe in tolerating physical pain that could be eased. Like manya Californian, he believed that the birthright of the western childwas a promise to live forever. It was intolerable that the body should go wrong.

The deterioration in Jack's physique and stability has been falselyattributed to many causes, chiefly psychiatric. In fact, the chief cause was bad medication. His kidneys and bladder were beingsteadily destroyed, until he could hardly sleep or concentrate, although he still managed to keep up a heroic schedule of work; he was a dying man, but he refused to admit it.

Unfortunately, as the pain grew more intolerable, so grew Jack's relianceon sedatives such as alcohol and morphine. He had to dull the pain. His pride and his sense of his body's worth would not allowhim to show weakness. In a way, he became the victim of his own myth, as a man who could endure all.

Ironically, his last years on his Beauty Ranch at Glen Ellen beganto resolve the contradictions in the man. He started to come to terms with the legend that he had created. Fiction and person approached each other. He learned to accept himself and to postpone some of his desires. He remained loyal to Charmian, if not always faithful to her. He devoted himself to the development of the ranch. Where the soil was looted, he enriched it. Where weeds grew, he put in crops and vines and eucalyptus. He bred prize pigs and cows and Shire horses. He wanted to redeem the failure of his stepfather on his small ranch by making a success of large-scalefarming. He countered the instability of his nerves with plans for the land that stretched over decades. Instead of a Red revolution in the cities, he now preached a green one in the countryside. He no longer echoed Marx.

The novels of Jack's later period were less successful, because he was giving up the pretense of himself as an Alaskan superman for a version of himself as the new California rancher . Yet one of them, The Valley of the Moon, published in 1913, was as poignant and modern as today's dream of organic living. Jack took as his heroes a young worker and his wife, Billy and Saxon Roberts, who are broken in the labor battles of Oakland and take to the road.

They go on a pilgrimage through rural California with tent and Hawaiian ukelele, seeking a patch of ground to farm and to set themselves up in life. It is a romance of young love and nostalgia for the soil, with a sweetness not to be found in the rest of Jack's writing-his admission that, when he was not racked with pain, he had found himself in his life with Charmian on the ranch. et even he knew that he could not keep up the fiction of himself as a superman. The two autobiographical books of the last decade of his life demonstrated his increasing awareness of himself as a tormented man rather than a legendary pioneer. Although Martin Eden, published in'1909, overdramatizes his struggle to literary fame and fortune, it faithfully records his turning away from middle-class values and bookish success. John Barleycorn is far more interesting, less as a history of Jack's drinking habits than as a confession of the white logic of his despair. Already unable to sleep because of the pain of his diseases and his remedies for them, he was forced toward self-analysis in the depths of the night. He had to examine the contradiction within himself, had to look at the tenuous links between his nature and the heroic myth that he tried to live. His process of self-awareness had begun.

In the early morning of November 22, 1916, a few weeks short of his 41st birthday, Jack London died of an apparent overdose of morphine and atrophine, a derivative of belladonna. As for the question of whether the overdose was an act of suicide or not, the answer is that the act does not seem to have been intentional, given the plans Jack had for the immediate future. The question is academic, in any case. Only Jack London's powerful will and his dreams for the future of his ranch had kept him going at all.

His reputation as a man and as a writer eroded after his death. He had to be alive to speak fully through his words. His image was as mighty as his pen, if not mightier. What he left behind him was the myth that a writer should live what he describes. Jack always complained that he had little imagination, so that he had to take his plots from his own experience or the newspapers. He could also have said that he strove to realize his dreams, not to analyze them. As he seemed to be larger than life, he wanted to do more than other men did.

Action to him was more satisfying than fiction. "Personal achievement, with me," he wrote, "must be concrete. I'd rather win a water-fight in the swimming pool, or remain astride a horse that is trying to get out from under me, than write the great American novel."

He did not write the great American novel, although he did write some good ones and some great short stories. He did, however, create the myth of the great American novelist. It was not an entirely self-conscious creation. He thought himself to be exactly what he appeared to be. If his torments and tensions were hidden by his myth of himself, it was no bad thing; for a man who has a heroic myth of himself can achieve more than a man who knows himself too well and is afraid to move. To deny weakness, to insist on excess and success, is to live at full stretch. Jack London lived nine lives and wrote more than 50 books and died young. A man like that is worth his own myth-and his contradictions.

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About the Author: Andrew Sinclair is a novelist and former screenwriter.

He is the author of The Emancipation of the American Woman, and of biographies of Dylan Thomas, Warren G. Harding and Jack London.

BALTIMORE HARBOR

Boats and Boutiques

After renewal Baltimore's harbor (l) has become a favorite picnic spot where thousands (2) throng each day for

fun and frolic. The fare offered at the waterfront is varied.

The visitors may watch jugglers perform (3), try their

Baltimore, America's eighth largest city, has reinvigorated one of the nation's most spectacular harbors as part of its ambitious downtown renewal program, whfch has fueled local pride and won numerous awards.

skill-or luck-at catching a crab or fish (4), enjoy music at Phillips Crab House (5), visit the nearby farmer's market (6), laze around on yachts (7), have cocktails at the American Bar in the Light Street Pavilion (8), or take boat rides (9).

hips entering Baltimore Harbor Science Center. The 9,850-square-meter encounter a panoramic vista of building, opened in 1976, offers exhibicommercial and industrial Amer- tion space, meeting rooms, a science ica. They slide past the sprawling steel museum and a ISO-seat planetarium. The mills of Sparrows Point, huge dock facili- Maryland Academy of Sciences presents ties for container cargo ships, thousands a full schedule of public education and of imported cars and trucks, factories that recreational activities for schoolchildren make soap and refine sugar and ware- and adults at the museum. The nearby houses that contain everything from ex- Public Wharf provides a fully equipped otic spices to coal. And, at the edge of the working quay where visiting ships can tie city itself, they come to Baltimore's up and hold open house for the public. newest and most spectacular addition: Across the water from Harborplace at Harborplace, the centerpiece of the new the foot of Federal Hill, the city has Inner Harbor development. constructed playing fields for the citywide Harborplace is a $20-million central amateur and semiprofessional athletic marketplace with 120 specialty shops, leagues. The open, grassy fields are also including fruit and vegetable markets, an ideal location for Baltimore's ethnic fresh fish stores that specialize in blue and festivals. Baltimore holds 13 such festisoft-shell crabs from Chesapeake Bay, vals each summer-Ukrainian, Finnish, restaurants and cafes-all neatly housed Czechoslovakian, German and othersin two pavilions set at right angles to each all sponsored by neighborhood groups. other on the north and west shores, with The celebrations culminate each Septemthe corner between the pavilions left wide ber with what some observers call the open for a sweeping view of the harbor. greatest urban event in the United States, The stalls and verandas inside the two- the annual Baltimore City Fair. More story concrete-and-aluminum buildings than 2.5 million residents and visitors are framed by glass walls for an unob- come to concerts, neighborhood arts and structed, uninterrupted view of the water crafts exhibits and to sample Chesapeake and ships.

Bay seafood and ethnic cooking. The Critics have called Harborplace a festivals have shown Baltimore's citizens triumph, and it is the catalyst city officials that their home is something special. hoped it would be. Harborplace and the Baltimore is America's eighth largest entire waterfront area have given Balti- city, with a population of more than more harbor the central focus it has long 800,000. It is acclaimed throughout the lacked. The place has provided new jobs nation for its downtown renewal proand attracts thousands of residents, tour- gram, and has received 17 national awards for design excellence and an award by the ists and businessmen to the downtown International Federation for Housing and area daily.

The first waterfront building of the Planning as the American city with the best Inner Harbor development to catch the urban revitalization program. eye is one of the earliest, the World Baltimore always has been primarily a Trade Center, headquarters of the Mary- port city-a workingman's town, charland Port Administration.

I.M. Pei, acterized by sea trade and populated by architect of the widely admired East immigrants. It flourished in the 18th Building of the National Gallery of Art in century, becoming the major center for Washington, D.C., designed the hexago- maritime commerce on Chesapeake Bay. nally shaped Trade Center, which rises 32 In this century, it fell into decay. The tax stories above the water. It represents a base of the city had to be increased if the commitment to first-rate design for the 96 city were to flourish again, and only by hectares encompassed by the Inner Har- attracting business back to the city could bor development plan. The Trade Center the tax base be restored. To do this, the also underscores the fundamental rela- . city had to invest in itself and make tionship between water and economy for itself a desirable place in which to live this city. and work.

Close by the Trade Center, on a Renewal was a gamble, but a few prominent pier, is the newly built Balti- forward-looking individuals b~gan to more Aquarium. The Aquarium, built work toward that goal in the 1950s. around one huge fish tank, displays 600 William Donald Schaefer, mayor of Baltispecies of marine life, as well as re- more, emerged as their leader. When creations of a Maine cove, an Atlantic Schaefer, a man known for his singlecoral reef and a tropical rain forest. minded devotion to the city, first ran for Just across the water is the Maryland office in 1971, he made several promises:

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He would do all he could to rebuild the decaying old neighborhoods, and finish the job of refurbishing the Inner Harbor.

Schaefer has accomplished all of those things.

A few blocks from the new Inner Harbor-in the Little Italy, Fells Point and Otterbein neighborhoods-are the results of one of Schaefer's campaign promises. There plumbers, electricians and masons have been at work renovating hundreds of abandoned, roofless shells of 18th-century brick buildings. By 1978, the city had restored and sold 2,000 houses to private citizens at or below the cost to the city. The city also held regular sales of dilapidated houses for only $1 eacht with the provision that the purchaser must live in ,the house and restore it, using low-interest loans from the government. Ugly, run-down houses that sold for $1 just a few years ago are now some of the most fashionable residences in the city.

But the rebuilding of the Inner Harbor is Mayor Schaefer's greatest triumph.

Baltimore has spent more than $300 million in public and private money so far on the Inner Harbor redevelopment program, adding about $30 million to the city's tax base. Yet the development, like all of the recent improvements, has been accomplished without creating the huge debts incurred by other cities that have attempted restoration. Baltimore is one of the few large cities with a budget surplus, and its municipal taxes, unlike those in so many other large cities, have remained unchanged for seven years.

Moreover, the number of people who work, visit or live downtown has tripled in the last nine years.

The city is attracting new business from across the country and encouraging existing firms to expand. But even with sound financial management and effective business strategies, Baltimore would not have become a showplace. What makes the city stand out is the notion that if Baltimore could do a good job, it could just as easily do a spectacular job.

Mayor Schaefer provided a unifying vision. He fought against the "secondclass" stigma that had become a part of the city's image. The mayQI<:;Q!1vinced Baltimoreans that their city could be as interesting and attractive as Boston or New York. For now, Harborplace and the Inner Harbor have set a standard of urban revitalization for the nation, accomplished with creativity, hard work and civic pride.

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Kanha's Tiger Territory 'The massacre of 30 tigers by a trigger-happy hunter led to the formation of the Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh in 1955.

Today the park has more tigers than any other sanctuary in India and is fast becoming an ecological paradise.

"What Then, Raman?"

Bettada Hoovu (Hill Flower) is an Indo-American venture all the way-from printed word to celluloid. Based on What Then, Raman?-a story written by an American woman who spent several years in India-it has been filmed by noted Kannada director N. Lakshminarayan with an Indo-U.S. cast. Marcia Jamal, an American living in Bangalore, plays the role of an American teacher who befriends a village boy, Raman, played by award-winning Kannada child star Puneet.

The Artist as Architect Several American painters and sculptors have become involved with architecture. They are interested in creating structures that are part of the everyday world, often serving a functional purpose, rather than creating sculpture for private owners and galleries.

Corporate Classrooms American corporations are spending more than $40,000 million a year to educate employees so they can keep up with galloping technology. This new approach has created some magnificent facilities like AT&T's center with 23 classrooms, seven laboratories, a library and an auditorium. The courses are result-oriented. "I'm going to take what I learn here Monday and Tuesday and apply it Wednesday and Thursday," says one employee-student.

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Short Wave: 13.9, 16.9, 19.8 Short Wave: 19.8, 25.1, 31.4, 41.5

Medium Wave: 190

"What makes the city stand out is the notion t~at if Baltimore could do a good job, it could just as easily do a spectacular job."

Top: On Harborplace Dedication .Day crowds view the Pride of Baltimore, a replica of a 19th-century Baltimore clipper. and hear Mayor William ~'chaeter (above) speak Left: Stately townhouses restored on Federal Hill. Opposite: The new Convention Center overlooks a circular staircase and walkway that lead to Harborplace.