March 1988

Global Treasure in Peril

Deregulation: Let Markets Be Markets

Disease Detectives If one American institution can claim to be the family physician of the nation, it is the Centers for Disease Control (CDq in Atlanta, Georgia. It embraces virtually every aspect of health and health education-from venerealdiseases to leukemia and other kinds of cancer, smoking, family planning, nutrition and vaccination.

CDC is a lab of last resort, deluged each year with more than 170,000 specimens from around the world-diseases in need of diagnoses. It is a zookeeper, riding herd on quarantined cultures of deadly viruses. Some, like smallpox, are extinct. Others-the Lassa and South American hemorrhagic virus, for example-still need to be eliminated.

With its massive serum banks containing more than 25,000 samples of every kind of disease, CDC is America's collective memory of recent human afflictions--each sample cross-listed under more than 250 categories.

The CDC's Computer Data Storage facility

(above, right) has one of the largest collections of tapes, holding a wealth of data, gathered in the course of its search for answers to many health riddles.

CDC is in a real and active sense a detective agency, relentlessly verifying and quantifying disease statistics from around the world.

To carry out its diverse functions, CDC is organized into six operational divisions-Infectious Diseases; Environmental Health; Health Promotion and Education; Prevention Services; Professional Development and Training; and Occupational Safety and Health.

CDC employs more than 4,000 persons,

half of whom are based in Atlanta at any time.

Others may be assigned to field stations in the country or posted overseas.

The agency actively collaborates with foreign governments and international organizations in an effort to control disease and improve health worldwide. It played a vital part in the massive immunization campaign that led to the total eradication of smallpox by the late 1970s, which, before the advent of modern medicine, regularly killed millions.

(Above, left, CDC's Assistant Director, Dr. Donald Hopkins, holds the figure of a smallpox god, Sapona, from the Yoruba tribe of West Africa. The god was believed

to be the conveyer of and protector against the disease.)

Because its scientists work with. diseaseproducing organisms, like these magnified colonies of diphtheria bacterium (above, center), CDC strictly controls access to its many labs. In its Maximum Containment Lab (top), for example, workers must wear pressurized protective garb to avoid introducing organisms into the experiments-and to protect themselves from the diseases they may contact from the organisms they are investigating.

CDC's job, in short, is to identify and eliminate, as far as possible, illness from the world.

SPAN 2 In the Service of Nature

8 Choosing the Next President

12 Let Markets Be Markets

14 Deregulation The Case of the Airwaves

18 Focus On...

20 Sun City-It's

Fun to Be Old

by Shail Mayaram

22

Full, Bright Memories

by M.S. Rajan

24 A White- Tie Affair

26 Understanding INF Inspections

27

On the Lighter Side

28 Where Americans Shop

by Kathy LaTour

31 Half a Heart

34 Women Executives-Substance

Plus Style

by Ann M. Morrison, Randall P. White and Ellen Van Velsor

39 A Daughter's Father

by Richard Sandza

40

Home Delivery

by Jo McGowan

42 An Air of Uncertainty

by Noel Grove

Managing Editor: Himadri Dhanda. Associate Managing Editor: Krishan Gabrani. Senior Editor: Arona Dasgupta. Copy Editors: A. Venkata Narayana, Snigdha Majmudar. Editorial Assistants: Rocque Fernandes, Rashmi Goe!. Photo Editor: Avinash Pasricha. Art Director: Nand Katya!.

Associate Art Director: Kanti Roy. Chief of Production: Awtar S. Marwaha.

Circulation Manager: Y.P.' Pandhi. Photographic Service: USIS Photographic Services Unit.

Photographs: Front cover-painting by John Dawson, courtesy National Audubon Society. Inside front cover top & center-eenters for Disease Control; bottom left and right-Barry Fitzgerald. 2-JelI Foott, courtesy National Audubon Society. 3 top & center-eourtesy Obst Productions; bottom-National Audubon Society (2). 5, 6 bottom left-National Audubon Society; 6 top & right column-eourtesy Zoological Society of San Diego. 18to~Avinash Pasricha; bottom-Abhijit Mitra. 2l-eourtesy Del E. Webb Communities Inc. 22-eourtesy Prof. M.S. Rajan.23-Avinash Pasricha. 24-25-Nancy Mehta/Sipa Press. 28-Bill McCurdy except top courtesy The Raymond D. Nasher Company. 31, 32 left & center-eourtesy Novacor. Medical Corporation; 32 right-eourtesy Stanford University Medical Center. 33-University of Arizona Medical Center, Tucson. 35illustration by Nand Katyal. 4O-A vinash Pasricha. 42-48-photographs by Ted SpiegelfBlack Star; paintings by William H. Bond, all Š National Geographic Society. Inside back cover to~Jacques M. Chenet/Newsweek; bottom & back cover-Elliot Varner Smith.

Published by the United States Information Service, American Center, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this magazine do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Government. Printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana.

STATEMENT FORM IV The fo1101"ingis a statement of ownership and other particulars about SPAN magazine as required under Section 19D(b) of the Press & Registration of Books Act, 1867, and under Rule 8 of the Registration of Newspaper (Central) Rules, 1956.

United States

Information

Service

24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg. New De/hi II()()()/ Monthly Aroon Purie Indian Thomson Press (India) Limit~d Faridabad. Haryana James A. McGW/ey American 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg. New De/hi I J(XXU Warren W. McCurdy.

American 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg. New Delhi /1()()()1

2. Periodicity of Publication 3. Printer's Name Nationality Address 4. Publisher's Name Nationality Address 5. Editor's Name Nationality Address 6. Names and addresses of individuals wbo own the newspaper and partners or shareholders holding more than one percent of the total capital.

I, James A. McGinley, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.

(Signed) James A. McGlDIey Signature oj Pub/isher

ISÂŁ IGlobal Treasure in Peril I

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Front cover: The Audubon Society, founded more than a century ago to make the world a safer place for birds, has now broadened its scope to include the protection of all wildlife and Earth's fragile environment.

Back cover: Ever one of the most beautiful cities, San Francisco takes on a celestial hue in the moonlit summer night.

Now that General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union has set the date of May 15 for beginning the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, people throughout the world are looking to the day when that beleaguered country can once again determine its own destiny as a free and sovereign nation.

In its ninth year now, the Soviet occupation of its southern neighbor has generated more than five million refugees who fled their homeland--a third of the Afghan population before the invasion.

Moreover, the economy of Afghanistan, including its agricultural sector, has been shattered to an extent that will take many years to repair.

In establishing his timetable for the withdrawal of troops, General Secretary Gorbachev seemed to be taking steps to meet the concerns expressed by world leaders, including President Reagan himself at the December surmnitmeeting in Washington, D.C. The move is also responsive to the objective of the United Nations General Assembly resolutions passed overwhelmingly each year since 1980 (most recently on Despite the occupation, life goes on in Kabul.

February 22,1988), which have called for "the earliest possible withdrawal of Soviet troops; the restoration of an independent and nonaligned Afghanistan; self-determination for the Afghan people; and the return of the refugees in safety and honor."

The Soviet leadership seems to have recognized that the presence of their troops in Afghanistan is the principal reason for the intensity of the armed conflict and the existence of millions of refugees in Pakistan and Iran. It is also the primary obstacle to Afghanistan's free exercise of its right to self-determination.

There are many details still to be worked out, including assurances to Pakistan that the more than three million Afghan refugees within its borders will be able to return to their homeland safely. How the Afghans themselves will manage the transition to self-rule is also a key issue. The United States, while not a party to the United Nations-sponsored talks, has made clear its willingness to lend support to any agreement that is consistent with the United Nations resolutions and that brings about speedy and complete withdrawal of Soviet troops. These points, and the several others that follow, have been made in exchanges with the Soviet leadership, most recently during Secretary Shultz's visit to Moscow in late February.

• Will, in the absence of a settlement involving withdrawal of Soviet troops, continue its strong support for the struggle of the Afghan people; • Wants to see a comprehensive solution to this problem, not a prolongation of the conflict; • Has no strategic designs in Afghanistan, but believes the nation should be truly nonaligned, neutral and free from all foreign forces; • Believes that an enduring solution requires genuine Afghan self-determination, a Kabul government with the confidence of the people, including Resistance Alliance participation; and • Accepts that a true test of national reconciliation would be an outcome that leads to the voluntary return of the millions of Afghan refugees.

--J.A.M.

Facing page: A newly hatched cygnet.

Left: A cameraman filming the movie Condor, as a symbol for all endangered species. Below and below left: The camera crew prepare to do close-ups near a condor's nesting site by using camouflage. Bottom right: An Atlantic Puffin. Bottom left: A young camper at the Audubon Society's Youth Ecology Camp in Maine discovers that starfish come in assorted sizes.

F

ewissues exercise thoughtful citizens of our global village more than the imprudent use of wildlife, land, water and other natural resources, a concern that has been around longer than most of us suppose. More recently, ways to find rational strategies for fuel development and use; means to provide protection oflife from pollution, radiation and toxic substances; and methods to provide solutions to problems generated by overpopulation and the alarming depletion of natural resources have proliferated as technologies outstrip the human ability to keep up with them.

For more than three-quarters of a century, the National Audubon Society in the United States has been doing something about these long-standing issues by taking a vigorous lead in scientific research, wildlife protection and conservation education. More recently, the Society has aggressively committed itself to environmental action as well by maintaining a dialogue with federal government agencies.

The Society is named after the American naturalist and wildlife painter, John James Audubon (1785-1851), best known for his stunning, life-size paintings of North American birds (see SPAN December 1985). It was founded in 1886 by editor and big-game hunter, George Bird Grinnell.

Grinnell and others were appalled by the wanton killing of millions of birds each year for the marketplace, especially the egret, whose elegant plumes were used to decorate ladies' hats of the time. Using the forum of his sportsmen's magazine, Forest and Stream, Grinnell alerted his readers to the crisis of rapidly disappearing species and encouraged them to join him in forming the country's first bird preservation organization.

Leadership subsequently passed to other equally dedicated hands, and the range of work expanded. Today, the American National Audubon Society provides sanctuary for birds, wildlife and plants on more than 101,000 hectares of unique natural habitat in 80 different locations, ranging in size from five hectares surrounding President Theodore Roosevelt's grave in New York State (Roosevelt was a pioneer among world leaders in recognizing the value of conservation) to 10,500 hectares of coastal marshlands in Louisiana.

Recognizing that the greatest threat to wildlife is loss of habitat, the Audubon Society's efforts are directed to preserving wilderness areas by buying, leasing or volunteering to patrol selected tracts. Some of these American preserves are closed to visitors, since any human presence would cause harmful disturbance, while other areas are accessible only in a limited way, with visitors required to make advance arrangements to visit. Most Audubon sanctuaries, however, are open regularly, although with restrictions against camping or picnicking. However, helpful wardens can usually direct visitors to suitable camping and picnicking sites nearby.

Furthermore, recognizing that an educated citizenry is the conservationist's best ally, the Society has placed conservation education high on its list of priorities. It reaches out to the nation with several types of publications, most notably its bimonthly magazine, Audubon. It has also produced a About the Author: Jacquelin Singh, afrequent contributor to SPAN, is a Delhi-basedfree-lance writer. She has written several educational books and one novel for children.

television series and a separate TV special on the Society's attempts to save the California Condor. In addition, the Society, relying heavily on volunteer support, operates workshops and camps, and has five educational centers placed strategically around the United States-in California, Connecticut, New Mexico, Ohio and Wisconsin. At these centers, professional naturalists and volunteers hold wilderness classes for interested people of all ages. Community outreach programs and teacher-training workshops are also regularly sponsored there. Another four summer ecology camps located in Connecticut, Maine, Wisconsin and Wyoming conduct intense natural-history study sessions for adults who may, if they wish, earn college credit. Separate camp sessions for families and for children cater to their special needs-eombining recreation with substantial input about the environment.

In addition, the Society's Audubon Expedition Institute offers full-year, semester, or summer travel-study programs in the United States for high school and college students.

Another program for children in grades three through six is called Audubon Adventures, and provides membership cards, club stickers and a bimonthly publication for its members. Teachers can use an accompanying "Learner's Guide" suggesting how material from the magazine can be integrated into the classroom curriculum.

In keeping with its commitment to foster better understanding and resolution of global environmental problems, the U.S. National Audubon Society participates in several international organizations and in 1987 introduced a series ofInternational Ecology Workshops, beginning in Trinidad.

In future, such destinations as Kenya, Costa Rica, Brazil, the arctic reaches of Scandinavia and the Galapagos Islands are envisaged.

A firm scientific base underlies all Audubon programs and lends authority to its positions on key issues. Research on endangered species, such as the whooping crane and wood stork, make it possible to develop sound wildlife management practices as a consequence. The Society maintains a permanent staff of scientists, augmented by outside experts, to keep abreast of facts concerning wildlife and its habitats.

Through conferences, workshops and seminars, scientific findings are disseminated. Research is designed not just to learn about animals, but to provide the knowledge needed to save them from extinction. The greatest success in long-term field research is the re-appearance of a species. In 1985, for example, the Brown Pelican was removed from the endangered species list, thanks to long and intense efforts by the Society. Another success was with the whooping cranes along the Texas Coast. In 1941 there were only 15 of these birds; today there are 96.

The Audubon Society also plays a leading part in a newly reconstituted California Condor Research and Recovery Team dedicated to saving that rare bird. The team agreed that the last three condors in the wild should be captured, and that some captive birds should be returned to the wild as soon as they begin reproducing. The urgent need is to ensure a habitat for a wild population, and the Society is pressing the U.S. Oepartment of the Interior to conclude acquisition of the Hudson Ranch in California where frequent condor activity has been observed.

In an age of political activism, Americans from all walks of life deeply concerned about conservation issues are bonded together by the Audubon Society in a unique network. Members belong to 503 local chapters that are connected through nine regional offices to the National Audubon Society. These regional offices give the volunteer chapter leaders access to the Society's expertise in technical, legal and managerial matters, while the local chapters throughout the United States represent the Society in their communities and espouse its causes.

The hub of action, however, is the Audubon Society's Capitol Hill office in Washington, D.C. Recently it succeeded in registering the final passage of a law reformulating a huge irrigation project in North Dakota that, in its original form, would have wiped out the state's wildliferich prairie pothole country with its thousands of hectares of wetlands.

This so-called Garrison Diversion project was authorized by the U.S. Congress in 1965. It would have irrigated a million hectares of North Dakota farmland, planted primarily in surplus crops. For almost 20 years' the Audubon Society fought the implementation of this project in the courts and Congress, using powerful legal, scientific and technical ammunition, and aided by the power of its grassroots volunteers. As a result, an agreement was reached to remove more than 373,000 hectares from the authorized irrigation area, create wildlife refuges, protect Canada's watershed, establish a wetlands trust and shift emphasis from irrigation to municipal and industrial water supplies.

Although the National Audubon Society's activities are wide-ranging, they constitute an integrated effort aimed at environmental literacy in the United States. The sanctuaries, the core of the Society's concern, are not only havens for wildlife but also provide unique research opportunities to specialists and hobbyists alike. They also serve as bases for education, outreach and advocacy. The Audubon Society in the United States has come a long way from its beginnings a little over 100 years ago as an organization for protecting birds.

0

A Brown Pelican finds shelterfor her brood on the Alexander Sanctuary, an Audubon wildlife preserve in South Carolina.

Birdwatching in the :4udubon Society's Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, in the state of Florida. Below: The Society's posters spread awareness of endangered species.

Sprunt

Clockwise from top left: A California Condor, one of the world's most endangered species with only six adults known about at the time these photos were taken, is shown emerging from its shell; being handled with great care; in an incubator with its surrogate puppet parent, which does most of the feeding and handling of the chick for the first weeks of its life; on its own several days later, having doubled its birth weight; an Audubon Society naturalist rescuing a waterfowl in distress.

Herring Gull Length: 59-66 em. Wingspan: 140 em.

Habitat: along riverbanks and shores.

Food: a scavenger, eats almost anything.

Nest: grasses, seaweed.

Canada Goose Length: 63-1 10 em. Wingspan: 127-173 em.

Habitat: ponds, lakes, marshes.

Food: roots, leaves. grains, insects.

Nest: mound of grasses and feathers.

Bald Eagle Length: 76-110 em. Wingspan: 204 em.

Habitat: shorelines of oceans, rivers.

Food: fish, some birds and reptiles.

Nest: large'stielc:s in big trees or on cliffs.

Great Horned Owl Length: 59 em. Wingspan: 139.5 em.

Habitat: forests, sometimes parks.

Food: insects, snakes and skunks.

Nest: abandoned nests of crows, hawks.

Great Blue HerOD Length: 106-132 em. Wingspan: Habitat: wet places.

Food: fish. frogs.

Nest: built of sticks in trees.

House Finch Length: 12.5-14 cm.

Habitat: yards, parks.

Food: mainly insects and seeds.

Nest: almost anywhere, tightly woven.

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Black-eapped Chickadee Length: 12-14.5 em.

Habitat: yards, parks, forests.

Food: insects. seeds. berries.

Nest: holes in trees.

Blue Jay Length: 28-31.5 em.

Habitat: yards, gardens, parks, woods.

Food: insects, acorns, other nuts, seeds.

Nest: builds a cup of sticks.

Red-winged Blackbird Length: 17.5-24 em.

Habitat: marshes, farms near woods.

Food: mainly insects and seeds.

Nest: cup built of grasses, plant fibers.

Downy Woodpecker Length: 16.5 em.

Habitat: yards, parks, forests.

Food: probes insc~'ls out of wood.

Nest: hole in deaG Lees.

Barn S""allow Length: 15-19.5 em.

Habitat: open places.

Food: catches insects in flight.

Nest: cup made of mud, grasses, feathers.

Northern Cardinal Length: 19-23 em.

Habitat: yards, gardens, parks.

Food: mainly seeds and fruits.

Nest: cup of twigs, grasses, barks.

Northern Mockingbird Length: 23-28 em.

Habitat: yards, gardens, parks, farms.

Food: insects, seeds, berries.

Nest: made of twigs. grasses, tiny roots.

Mourning Don Length: 30.5 em.

Habitat: fields, parks, along streets.

Food: seeds. grain.

Nest: built of twigs.

House Wren Length: 11.5-12.5 em.

Habitat: yards, gardens, woodlands.

Food: insects, spiders.

Nest: builds in hole in tree or nest box .

American Robin Length: 23-28 em.

Habitat: forests, fields, lawns, parks.

Food: earthworms, spiders, berries.

Nest: mud-lined cup of grasses and small roots.

Eastern Bluebird Length: 17.5 em.

Habitat: fields, orchards, garden.

Food: insects.

Nest: cup made of twigs in hole or nest box.

American Goldfinch Length: 12.5 em. .

Habitat: fields, gardens, roadSides.

Food: mainly seeds.

Nest: cup of grasses and plant fibers in fork of a branch.

Northern Oriole Length: 17.5-20.5 em.

Habitat: gardens, parks, orchards.

Food: insects, spiders, seeds and fruit.

Nest: grasses and plant fibers woven into hanging pouch.

Ruby-throated Hummingbird Length: 7.5-9.5 em.

Habitat: gardens, meadows.

Food: nectar of flowers, some insects Nest: cup of plant fibers tied with spider webs and covered with lichens.

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As nearly a dozen Republican and Democratic aspirants battle to win their parties' nominations for America's highest office, says the author, "To foreigners and even to many citizens, the American process of selecting candidates [for President] can easily appear to be one of chronic turmoil punctuated by frequent surprises."

America's political climate in 1988, as the long process of selecting presidential candidates accelerates, resembles that of 1960 in important respects. Then, as now, a President enjoying great personal popularity approached the end of his second and last term in office. Dwight D. Eisenhower dominated the 1950s much as Ronald Reagan has the 1980s in the United States. On the criterion of political support, another four years in power was within reach of President Eisenhower, despite his health problems, as it is for President Reagan, despite his bouts with illness and his age. But an amendment to the U.S. Constitution had taken effect in 1951, limiting a President's tenure to two terms. So then, as now, Republicans and Democrats had to begin choosing candidates for what was certain to be an election of unusually great significance.

The end of a long incumbency is a cue, in American politics, for re-examination of where the country stands and what new policies might be necessary. Even when a President has been perceived as successful, the nation's instinct is to ask: "But what next?" Hence the truth of the axiom that American presidential campaigns are much more likely to be debates about the future rather than arguments about the past.

Another resemblance between the two periods can be called the legacy factor.

Going into the election of 1960, Eisenhower's Vice President, Richard M. Nixon, won the Republican nomination-though he had competition for that-and then lost the general election to John F. Kennedy.

Vice President George Bush has been striving against several ri \ ..lIs to become his party's nominee for President. But Bush well knows that holding the second office in the nation is no guarantee of victory in

the next contest for the top position. The voters demonstrated that most recently in 1968, when they chose a former Vice President, Nixon, over a sitting Vice President.

Hubert Humphrey.

Recalling that election and the one in 1960, both of which were decided by very narrow margins, brings to mind another axiom about American politics in the modern era: The electorate is dynamic rather than static. Its will cannot be predicted with certainty very far in advance. It is willing to consider a fresh face or someone it rejected in the past. Therefore, individuals who may be out of office, or who lack the support of either party's hierarchy, still can compete for the presidency.

This dynamism creates diversity of choice, as well as complexity in the nominating system of the two major political parties, unusual even among the world's democracies. To foreigners and even to many citizens, the American process of selecting candidates can easily appear to be one of chronic turmoil punctuated by frequent surprises. That perception is an ironic contrast to history. For two centuries power has passed from President to President in strict conformity with the Constitution. The institutional stability of the succession has survived wars, the deaths of incumbents and other crises.

Since George Washington's time a na tional election has been held every four years. No President has gained office or extended his tenure by illicit means. Not even the unprecedented circumstances of 1973-74-when the discovery of improprieties, albeit unrelated, caused first Vice President Spiro Agnew and then President Nixon to resign--eould jar the system's order.

"Order" is not a term easily applied to

the nomination of candidates in recent years. One reason is that, like certain other features of American society, the party system is a prod uet of pragma tic evolution rather than mandates III the Constitution or in statutes. NeIther the original charter nor the amendments enacted over the decades even mentioned nominations by national political parties. Though some of the nation's founders, including Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton, became very effective party leaders, that role was never carved in legal stone.

In fact, the original concept of presidential selection was closer to consensus among the elite in the several states than to

George Herbert Walker Bush, Republican, 64; Vice Presidenr of the United States since 1981. Born in Milton, Massachusetts; B.A., Yale University, 1948; U.S. Navy pilot, World War II; corporation executive, 1951-64; U.S. Represenrative, 1966-70; U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, 1971-73; chairman, Republican National Committee. 1973-74; chief, U.S. Liaison Office, People's Republic of China, 1974-75; director, Central Intelligence Agency, 1976-77.

:iiia.

Robert J. Dole, Republican. 65; U.S. Senator from Kansas since 1968. Born in Rus.sell, Kansas; B.A., LL.B., Washburn Municipal University, 1952; U.S. Army, World War II; Kansas House of Representatives, 1951-5.{ practicing attorney, 1953-61; U.S. Representative from Kansas, 1961-68; chairman, Republican National Committee, 1971-73.

Michael S. Dukakis, Democrat, 55; Governor of Massachusetts, 1975-79 and since 1983. Born in Brookline.

Massachusetts; B.A., Swarthmore College, 1955; LL.B., Harvard University, 1960; U.S. Army, Korea; practicing attorney, 1960-74; Massachusetts House of Representatives, 1962-70; moderator, The Advocates national television show, 1971-73; director, 1ntergovernmental Studies, Harvard University, 1979-82.

Albert Gore, Jr., Democrat, 40; U.S. Senator from Tennessee since 1985. Born in Washington, D.C.; B.A., Harvard University, 1969; U.S. Army, Vietnam, 1969-71; land developer, homebuilder, Tanglewood Home Builders Company, 1971-76; reporter, editorial writer, The Tennessean, 1971-76; U.S. Representative from Tennessee, 1976-84; livestock and tobacco farmer since 1973.

Richard A. Gephardt, Democrat, 47: U.S. Representativefrom Missouri since 1976. Born in St. Louis, Missouri; B.S., Northwestern University, 1962; J.D., University of Michigan, 1965; practicing allorney, 1965-76; St. Louis City alderman, 1971-76; president, Children's Hematology Research Association, St. Louis Children's Hospital, 1973-76.

Jack French Kemp, Republican, 53; U.S. New Representativefrom York since 1971. Born in Los Angeles. California; B.A., Occidental College, 1957; U.S. Army. active duty and reserve, 1958-62; professional football player, 1960-69; cofounder and president, American Football League Players Association, 1965-70; special assistant to the chairman, Republican National Committee, 1969.

Jesse L. Jackson, Democrat, 47; founder and president, National Rainbow Coalition, Inc., since 1983.

Born in Greenville, South Carolina; B.A., North Carolina Slate University, 1964; cofounder, Operation Breadbasket, Chicago, Illinois, 1966;founder, executive director, People United to Serve Humanity. 1971; founder. PUSH-Excel and PUSH Economic Justice; lecturer for high school and college audiences.

popular choice. Each state would choose "electors"-the number of them fixed by the size of that state's congressional delegation-and the electors, in turn, would caucus for the purpose of choosing the President and Vice President. In the earliest elections, the person getting the most "electoral votes" would be President and the one with the second highest total became Vice President. That system created the possibility of electing two rivals instead oftwo allies.

(The procedure was later eliminated.)

Even in that early period, infant parties were forming. They became the means by which different groups in society could organize for the purposes of pursuing their goals and choosing leaders. It was Thomas Jefferson who took the first important strides in establishing a coalition of allies in the states. That coalition became the Democratic-Republican Party, antecedent of today's Democratic Party. The word "Republican" was soon dropped, to be adopted a half-century later by a new party that, beginning in the late 1850s, absorbed other factions to become the great, enduring rival to the Democrats.

From Jefferson's presidency onward, party structures evolved rapidly. The constitutional system of electors chosen in the states remained a fixture, but the ways of choosing those electors changed in important respects-always in the direction of expanding the right of citizens to vote.

In 1903, Wisconsin became the first state to adopt a modern, comprehensive system of primary elections for selecting presidential candidates. Under this approach, a primary, or preliminary, election is held within the party to select those who will run for office in the general election later. The primary system soon gained acceptance in many other states as well. Gradually, it also came into use in some areas for the selection of delegates to each party's national nominating convention. Under the concept of federalism, each state continued to set

Addressing a crowd recently in Concord, New Hampshire,former Senator Gary Hart announced his re-entry in the race to become the Democratic Party candidate for President in this year's election. One of the first to announce his candidacy, Hart had dropped out of the presidential race last year for personal reasons.

the rules for delegate selection. Thus the elected government of each state can still decide-within certain broad guidelines designed to protect fairness-the form of the delegate-selection process and the timing of the event prior to the national election. Although the primaries have come to exert decisive influence, some states still choose candidates through party-related caucuses held at the local district level.

In the cycle leading to the 1984 Democratic national convention, for instance, 23 states plus the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico held "binding" presidential primary electionscontests in which voters chose delegates committed to a single candidate to attend the party's national convention. A few states held nonbinding primaries, while the rest held caucuses. But nearly all of the

heavily populated states that have large delegations, including California, New York, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania and Ohio, chose their delegates in binding primaries. Therefore, more than half the delegates at the 1984 Democratic. national convention were chosen by direct primaries in which three or more candidates competed. (The Republican Party's nominating structure is almost identical, but in 1984 no Republican challenged President Reagan for the party's nomination.) By the time the convention is held, in July or August before the November general election, it is usually clear which candidate is well ahead in the competition for delegates.

Looking back over historic trends in the nominating process, Professor Gary R. Orren of Harvard University wrote recently: "Primaries have become the heart of the selection process, thereby transforming nomination politics." The most important part of that transformation, particularly since World War II, is that the influence of each party's established leadership has diminished and the chances of a determined "outsider" to win the nomination of a major party has increased.

Determination and tenacity are critical elements because of another important aspect of the transformation. In the days when the nominating decisions were actually made at the conventions, the most active part of the election campaign took place after the conventions, between late summer and early November. Now, however, those who seek the nomination must begin organizing and campaigning early in the previous year. Typically, they must concentrate on states such as New Hampshire and Iowa, which hold, respectively, the earliest primary and the first caucuses.

(This year the New Hampshire primary was held on February 16 and the Iowa caucuses on February 8.) When a number of candidates are competing for each nomination, it is considered critical to do well in the initial contests. An early show of strength brings a presidential candidate attention from the media and respect from party workers in other states. This effect will be magnified in the 1988 election, which will see the first regional primary.

Twenty states are planning to hold their primaries on March 8, less than a month after voters in New Hampshire, Iowa and

South Dakota were heard from.

Hoping to become known and popular in these regions, candidates must go to work very early. The candidates who are perceived to be "dark horses," those who begin farthest back in the competition, usually start earliest. During the 1960 campaign Senator Hubert Humphrey was the first to announce his candidacy officially.

He did so in December 1959, II months before the general election, and it was considered an "early" move. Today that would be considered quite late in the cycle.

The first formal announcement of candidacy for 1988 was made by Pierre du Pont, the former governor of Delaware, in September of 1986--26 months before the election. On the same day that he made his announcement speech in his home city of Wilmington, he set off for visits to New Hampshire and Iowa.

Du Pont was hardly alone. Throughout 1986 public officials far better known than he were visiting critical states. The fact that no incumbent will be running this year means that neither party will have a head start. Further, within each party, policy debates were under way about a number of issues. Candidates had to begin telling constituents where they stood.

A quick look back over recent nominating periods makes clear that a tenacious dark horse can make a strong showing against, or even overtake, rivals who are

Marion G. (Pat) Robertson, Republican, 58; host. national religious television program since 1968. Born in Lexington, Virginia; B.A., Washington and Lee University, 1950; J.D., Yale University, 1955; ordained minister, 1955;founder and president, Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) , 1960;founder and chancellor, CBN University since 1977; member, President's Task Force on Victims of Crime, 1982-83.

better known and more deeply entrenched in th~. party. Before 1976, for instance, Jimmy Carter was an unfamiliar name to most voters outside his own state of Georgia, where he had previously served as governor. A number of nationally recognized figures, including Washington Senator Henry Jackson and Arizona Congressman Morris Udall, appeared to have the advantage in the Democratic nomination contest. But Carter spent a great deal of time in Iowa and surprised the nation with his success there. Carter did well in several primaries between February and April, getting a firm hold on the nomination well before the Democratic national convention in July 1976.

Intense television coverage of the primaries and caucuses magnifies their effect. In earlier generations, an individual candidate relied heavily on the party organizationnot only to help win delegates but to get his ideas across to rank-and-file voters.

Now that can be done largely through television. Personalities who emerge on the national stage these days are less likely than in the past to have worked their way up the conventional party ladder.

That difference can be seen in comparing two of the most successful politicians ofthe century, Franklin Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan. Each was highly skilled in the dominant medium of his day-Roosevelt on radio, Reagan on television-and both

Paul Simon, Democrat, 60; U.S. Senator from Illinois since 1985. Born in Eugene, Oregon; LL.D., Dana College, 1965; editor-publisher and newspaper owner, 1948-66; U.S. Army, 1951-53; Illinois House of Representatives, 1955-63; Illinois Senate, 1963-69; Lieutenant Governor of Illinois, 1969-73;faculty member, Sangamon State University, 1973-74; U.S. Representative from Illinois, 1974-84.

Gary Warren Hart, Democrat, 50; U.S. Senator from Colorado, 1974-86. Born in Ottawa, Kansas; LL.B., Yale Law School; practicing attorney, 1967-70 and 1972-74; campaign director, Senator George McGovern's presidential campaign, 1972;founder and first chairman, Environmental Study Conference, 1975; chairman, National Commission on Air Quality, 1978-81; author offive books, including two novels.

knew how to articulate the concerns of the electorate. But Roosevelt rose to prominence gradually in his native New York state, holding local office as a young man and building strong ties to the Democratic Party officials who wielded power.

Reagan, in his fifties when he ran in his first election (for governor), was initially opposed by the Republican establishment in his own state of California and later on the national level. He overcame that opposition by taking advantage oftelevision and the primary election system.

As in any significant transformation, the change, from a nomination process dominated by party organizations to the freeform exercise today, draws some critical commentary. No one doubts that the present system gives ordinary citizens much greater opportunity than previous generations to participate in selecting presidential candidates. But because the timing of primary elections gives a candidate the chance to come from nowhere to prominence in a matter of weeks by winning in two or three small states, some experts believe that the arrangement needs a more logical structure.

Professor Orren commented recently that "short-term forces dominate the topsy-turvy world of nominating politics."

Several members of the U.S. Congress have introduced legislation that would create a schedule of six primary-election dates, between March and June. On each date, several designated states would hold their elections or caucuses. The point of that approach is to diffuse the influence of any one state or region and to reduce the competition of states to be first in line.

Meanwhile, a bipartisan commission of experts has proposed a number of other reforms aimed at restoring a degree of order without reducing voter participation.

This kind of debate will doubtless continue well beyond 1988. It is typical of the American political system, which, as is the case with the American society as a whole, never ceases to examine itself. As the candidates for the nation's highest office travel in search of support, we cannot be sure what changes will take place affecting future presidential elections. But there can be little doubt that the political structures will continue to evolve during the American Republic's third century, as it has during the first 200 years.

0 the Author: Laurence l. Barrett is a correspondent of Time in Washington, D.C.

About

Let Markets Be Markets The United States has just entered the second decade of a public sary to implement the divestiture of AT&T ordered by a federal policy revolution that has helped to strengthen the American judge in 1982. One of President Reagan's first steps in office was economy. In a total reversal of corporatist policies dating back to immediately to lift the oil price controls and allocation quotas that the New Deal-President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1933 package had been instituted by President Richard Nixon and were graduof social and economic measures-and, in the case of railroad ally being phased out under President Carter. And in the face of regulation, to the 1880s, the federal government has been getting congressional opposition, especially from midwestern and northout of the business of sanctioning and enforcing cartels in such eastern legislators, President Reagan has been steadily whittling industries as airlines, trucking, railroads, telecommunications and away at the convoluted regulatory apparatus governing the pricenergy. The result of this deregulation has been to lower prices, ing and distribution of natural gas.

The industries experiencing this deregulation have been thorimprove customer service and choice, hasten technological change in the previously cartelized industries, and to bolster the competi- oughly shaken up, with the result that their efficiency and ability to respond quickly to changing technologies and customer prefertiveness and efficiency of the American economy as a whole.

The deregulation revolution began under President Gerald ences have substantially improved. Brash new competitors have Ford, accelerated under President Jimmy Carter and is continuing revolutionized the transportation and communications indusunder President Ronald Reagan. It has been truly bipartisan in tries-from People Express and New York Air in airlines, to sponsorship, and has been supported by three Administrations Overnight Transportation Company and A-P-A Transport in and five Congresses. Democratic Senator Edward M. Kennedy trucking, to MCI and GTE in long-distance calling and Rolm in cooperated with Republican Ford Administration officials in telephone switchboards. Obsolete plants and equipment, such as championing airline deregulation. Senators Howard Cannon, a inefficient oil refineries, have been closed, and labor productivity Democrat, and Robert Packwood, a Republican, played impor- has soared-particularly in transportation, as downward cost tant roles in deregulating trucking. The academic groundwork was pressures have forced changes in inefficient work rules and prepared by economists spanning the political spectrum-from inflexible labor" contracts. the Harvard Law School and the University of Chicago, to the The process has been painful for many established American conservative American Enterprise Institute and the liberal companies that depended on regulation for guaranteed markets.

Brookings Institution.

Some business giants such as Braniff Airways and Continental One of the first experiments in deregulation came in 1968 when Airlines have gone bankrupt or near-bankrupt. Dozens of truckthe Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed limited ing companies have gone out of business. However, deregulation competition against the American Telephone and Telegraph has been a golden opportunity both for imaginative entrepreneurs Company (AT&T) in the sale of non-AT&T system terminal and for their customers. The entire American economy has equipment. The FCC continued to open up more and more benefited from lower costs of freight, communications and energy. telecommunications services to competition during the 1970s. In Dire predictions that costs would rise after deregulation have 1980, it permitted AT&T, through a separate subsidiary, to simply not come true in industry after industry. In 1977, for market such enhanced services as its advanced communications example, Senator George McGovern entered into the Congressional system on an unregulated basis.

Record a statement by Donald Moran, vice-president for sales and The most significant transportation deregulation in America traffic at North Central Airlines: "Competition would prompt took place during the Carter Administration, when the Civil reduced fares at first, but then fares would return to what they are Aeronautics Board (CAB) and the Interstate Commerce Commis- now because cut-rate competition will have put everyone else out of sion (ICC) began to repeal the rules that set prices, allocated business. Small carriers will disappear. Big airlines will get bigger. markets and restricted the entry of new competitors into the There wouldn't be more competition. There would be less." airline, trucking and railroad industries. In 1977, the CAB allowed What happened was just the opposite. Between 1980 and 1985, the first certification of a new airline for interstate travel since the 76 major new carriers and 203 commuter lines entered the industry 1940s;it had previously blocked entry by 79 straight applicants. in the United States. Other local service carriers were suddenly free By 1985,the CAB was totally out of business. Today airline entry, to extend their networks. The result was more competition than fares and route structure are almost completely unrestricted, ever before, with fare wars and massive discounting often initiated though airline safety and access to airport gates are still tightly by the new entrants. Majors and new competitors alike could regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration. survive only by carrying fewer empty seats, making more efficient During the Reagan Administration, the FCC has substantially use of their airplanes, and boosting worker productivity. United deregulated television and radio broadcasting and computerand Western Airlines, for example, use their planes 10.5 hours per related telecommunications services; it has also taken steps neces- day, compared with 8.5 hours before deregulation. Airline pilots

have had to give up their insistence on three pilots in cockpits designed for two, and the average size of crews per aircraft has declined since 1979 without any sacrifice in service.

Thanks to competition, these improvements in efficiency have been translated into savings for consumers. By 1984, according to the CAB, American travelers had saved $3,500 million on air fares since deregulation. Though short-haul fares between smaller cities rose considerably, the declines in long-distance fares between large\ cities were even greater. Today Americans can sometimes fly from' coast to coast for less than $100. Thomas Moore, currently a member of the President's Council of Economic Advisers, calculates that the average per kilometer airline fare in the United States fell by 8.5 percent in real terms between 1976 and 1982, even though the inflation-adjusted costs of air travel (primarily fuel and capital) rose by 15 percent in the same period.

Critics of deregulation were also wrong in energy markets.

When President Reagan decontrolled prices for crude oil and refined petroleum products in January 198 I, Edwin Rothschild, director of the Energy Action Education Foundation, predicted that rising oil prices would add one percentage point to the rate of inflation. Senator Howard Metzenbaum was even gloomier: "I believe we will see 40 cents a liter gas this spring and maybe earlier.

And it is just a matter of time until the oil companies and their associates, the OPEC nations, will be driving gasoline pump prices up to 52 cents a liter."

Fortunately for American consumers, these predictions proved false. Prices did rise initially. But the average price per liter of leaded gasoline has fallen. The price of crude oil has fallen 20 percent in real terms and continues to decline. The reason is simple. The removal of allocation quotas and the lifting of strict price controls on oil produced by "older" wells led to an increase in domestic oil exploration and production. Meanwhile, higher prices throughout the world had led both to energy conservation and new oil discoveries and hence to a worldwide glut that progressively lowered prices. After deregulation, American energy producers and consumers were for the first time able to respond quickly to changing market conditions around the world.

The partial decontrol of natural gas, limited to about half of domestic gas supplies, has similarly led to lower prices in defiance of alarmist prophecies.

Some of the most dramatic savings from deregulation have come in American trucking, where tariffs must still be filed with the ICC, but substantial discounts are now permitted, and truckers have much greater route flexibility for most commodities. In many instances, trucking companies need no longer return from their destinations with empty trailers. No longer must a hauler prove that it will not harm existing firms when it wants to serve a new route. New competitors-the ICC has authorized more than

30,000 new carriers over the past few years-are taking full advantage of technologies that are dramatically lowering distribution costs: Containers that fit on the back of flatbed trucks, fuel-efficient engines and on-board computers.

Thanks to these changes, the average shippers' discount in trucking since 1980 has been 20 percent of tariff, and discounts are frequently as high as 40 percent. In 1986 Lever Brothers, the giant consumer goods firm, estimated that its shipping costs had declined by ten percent in real terms since 1980. And the Intermodal Transportation Association estimates that the American economy is saving between $40,000 million and $50,000 million ayea¡r in¡ logistics and distribution costs as the result or transportation deregulation, as well as improvements in handling inventory.

Communication costs, which had already been falling in the United States as the result of advances in microwave, satellite and digital switching technology, fell even more rapidly after deregulation. AT&T lowered its long-distance telephone rates by 'six percent in 1984, its largest decrease in 14 years. Another 5.7 percent reduction followed in June 1985. Price pressure is,coming from competitors that are selling long-distance service at ~rices 12 , I to 20 percent less than AT&T. I Prices for local phone service have been rising as a result of the delayed impact of the inflation of the late 1970s andsev#ral pre-divestiture rulings by the FCC, which were designed to Imove the United States toward more cost-based telephone service. However, the residential telephone flat rate for local service still averages $14 a month in urban areas and $10 a month in the suburbs. And for the American economy as a whole, the advantages of competition in long-distance calling and switchboard equipment are dramatic. Americans today can buy wireless telephones, or obtain such features as customized dialing, call holding and call conferencing. According to the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, the communications costs for a major New York City bank, Irving Trust, rose less than/three percent annu~tlly in 1985 and 1986, compared with 15 percent before deregulation. i ,.

Railroads are the one deregulated American industry where prices have risen. Indeed, without the flexibility to charge higher rates that was granted by the Staggers Rail Act of 1980, a number of railroads probably would have gone bankrupt. But even here> . though there are claims of unfairness by some coal shippers and electric utilities, railroads have not raised their prices dramatically.

Bureau of Labor Statistics data indicate that rail rate increases, adjusted for inflation, averaged one half of one percent per year from 1980 to 1984, after deregulation, compared with 3.3 percent from 1976 to 1980. Clearly, competition from other modes of transportation-trucks, air freight and pipelines-diminishes the possibility of monopoly practices by American railroads in trans-

pIe-the airwaves belonged to the nation and were to be used in the public interest by licensees. Over the years the FCC acquired considerable power and influence as the watchdog of public interest. Its decisions form a solid corpus of case law.

A good book explaining the workings of FCC is Reluctant Regulators by Barry Cole and Mal Oettinger (a former SPAN editor). In 1949the FCC took a highly significant decision, when it adopted the Editorializing Report of 1949 which contained a comprehensive discussion of the obligations of licensees of radio stations to the public. One significant passage, while acknowledging the freedom and responsibility of the individual licensee in determining the specific program material for broadcast over his or her station, emphasized that he or she owed a clear duty to the public in two major respects-"that the licensees devote a reasonable percentage of their broadcasting time to the discussion of public issues of interest in the community, and such programs be "designedso that the public has a reasonable opportunity to hear differing positions on the public issues of interest and importance in the community." Thus was the Fairness Doctrine born.

Underlying it was the basic premise that the licensee is a "trustee impressed with the duty of preserving for the public generally radio as a medium of free expression and fair presentation." To leave no room for doubt, the FCC declared that the radio was a medium of free speech for the public rather than "an outlet for the purely personal or private interests of the licensee."

No such obligation is imposed by law on American newspaper owners. FCC's ruling was based on the principle that the ownership of the airwaves vested in the nation. It was a scarce resource on which many claims were made----<iefense, police, aircraft, navigation and amateur operators among others. Licensing was inevitable. So was the duty to act as trustee.

A decade later, in 1959, Congress moved in the same direction to amend the Communications Act to give statutory recognition to the Fairness Doctrine. A proviso was added to the law emphasizing "the obligation imposed upon [the licensees] under this Act to operate in the public interest and to offer reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance." A licensee may not devote a broadcasting station entirely to entertainment. Nor may he or she present only one side of any controversial issue of public importance.

Based on the credo of the Fairness Doctrine, but distinct from it, are two other rules that the FCC laid down in 1967-the personal attack and the political editorial rules. A person attacked must be notified of the fact and offered "reasonable opportunity to respond over the licensee's facilities." If a candidate to an election is endorsed or opposed, his opponent must be notified and offered a reasonable opportunity to respond. It may be mentioned here that the Communications Act imposes the equal opportunities rule. If a licensee of a station permits a candidate "to use a broadcasting station, he or she shall afford equal opportunities to all other such candidates." The owner is, of course, not bound to allow any candidate use of his or her broadcasting station in the firstinstance. But once done, the rule of equal opportunities comes into play. Bona fide newscast, news interviews and news documentary are exempted from the rule.

Twenty years after the FCC propounded the Fairness Doctrine, it received the imprimatur of a unanimous judgment of the U.S. Supreme Court. It all began in Red Lion, a small town in Pennsylvania and the hometown of radio station WGCB. One day, late in November 1964, WGCB played a prerecorded tape in

which Billy James Hurgis, an evangelist preacher of strong rightwing views, attacked author Ffed Cook who had written a critical biography of Senator Barry Goldwater, then a candidate fot the presidency. Cook asked for free time on the station to respond.

WGCB refused on the grounds that the Fairness Doctrine was unconstitutional. The FCC supportedC66k but to no avail.

The legal challenge wended its way to the Supreme Court.

WGCB did not stand alone. It was supported by the Radio and Television News Directors Association (RTNDA), the National Association ¡of Broadcasters and two television networks. The big guns of the industry were up in arms against the Fairness Doctrine, arguing that it violated their First Amendment rights.

In 1969, five years after the event, the Supreme Court handed down its ruling in Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. Federal Communications Commission, in favor of the FCC. It was not only a landmark as a judicial pronouncement in the United States on the law of broadcasting, but was regarded as an invaluable and' enduring contribution to the subject in all countries where the values of free speech are cherished. It recalled the history of broadcasting in the United States and the genesis of the doctrine.

y rescinding its own Fairness Doctril1e that demanded radio stations to give equal time to both sides of controversial issues, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission has started an avalanche of deregulation opinions.

The court's observations are all the more weighty for the fact that its 'ruling was unanimous and was couched in lucid prose.

They merit quotation in extenso: "Where there are substantially more individuals who want to broadcast than there are frequencies to allocate, it is idle to posit an unabridgeable First Amendment right to broadcast comparable to the right of every individual to speak, write, or publish. If 100persons want broadcast licenses but there are only ten frequencies to allocate, all of them may have the same 'right' to a license; but if there is to be any effective communication by radio, only a few can be licensed and the rest must be barred from the airwaves. It would be strange if the First Amendment, aimed at protecting and furthering communications, prevented the government from making radio communication possible by requiring licenses to broadcast and by limiting the number oflicenses so as not to overcrowd the spectrum."

That did not imply that the lucky licensee could operate the station as he or she wished, the court explained: "By the saine token, as far as the First Amendment is concerned, those who are licensed stand no better than those to whom licenses are refused. A license permits broadcasting, but the licensee has no constitutional right to be the one who holds the license or to monopolize a radio frequency to the exclusion of his fellow citizens. There is nothing in the First Amendment which prevents the government from requir-

ing a licensee to share his frequency with others and to conduct himself as a proxy or fiduciary with obligations to present those views and voices which are representative of his community and which would otherwise, by necessity, be barred from the airwaves."

The logic of the ruling was clearly spelled out: "Because of the scarcity of radio frequencies, the government is permitted to put restraints on licensees in favor of others whose views should be expressed on this unique medium. But the people as a whole retain their interest in free speech by radio and their collective right to have the medium function consistently with the ends and purposes of the First Amendment. It is the right of the viewers and listeners, not the right of the broadcasters, which is paramount."

Critics of the doctrine had lost in the U.S. Supreme Court but were not silenced. Proposals for deregulation in the 1980s gave them a shot in the arm. The debate had now begun in earnest. Two articulate advocates of deregulation in broadcasting are Mark Fowler, who became chairman of the FCC in 1981, and Senator Robert Packwood (Republican from Oregon), chairman of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation.

Fowler based his case on the First Amendment and on the undesirability of the federal authorities in a vast country taking decisions on "certain amounts of programming" under the doctrine. "I would rather have broadcasters and viewers making those choices."

Packwood based his argument on technological change: "A statute which originated in the days of the crystal radio set is still the guide that the FCC, the Congress and the courts follow when they must deal with microwave transmissions and digital signals from geostationary satellites. The Act [of 1934] was designed from AM [amplitude modulation] radio broadcasting, but it is now the Procrustean bed into which all of the newer technologies have been fit-including FM [frequency modulation] broadcasting, VHF [very high frequency] television, UHF [ultrahigh frequency] television, cable television (even though it is not delivered into your homes over the supposedly scarce airwaves) and direct broadcasting from satellites."

Scarcity may have been a reasonable concern in the 1920s and 1930s, he argued. But "scarcity is no longer an issue today." In an article in The New York Times, A.M. Rosenthal advanced the same argument: "There are about 10,000 radio stations and 1,800 television stations in the United States, not coullting cable. And 74 percent of households with cable can get more than ten signals.

Compare that with newspapers: 1,650 dailies, most of them in towns with only one paper." .

In October 1981, the FCC, now under a pro-deregulation chairman, recommended to Congress that the Fairness Doctrine be repealed. Meanwhile, the FCC went ahead in matters where it did not need congressional endorsement and adopted a series of substantial deregulatory steps.

Under the FCC's earlier regulations, station owners had to "ascertain" community needs and interests through a formal process; keep records of programming to demonstrate that those needs were being met; and generally could broadcast no more than 18 minutes' worth of commercials per hour. Eventually, the rule that stations must offer listeners something of social value was quantified in the requirement that FM stations fill at least six percent and AM stations eight percent of their airtime with "nonentertainment programming" such as news, community calendars, talk shows and public service announcements.

Station owners complained that the amount of paperwork

involved in meeting such rules was out of all proportion to the return to listeners. Advocates of deregulation argued that the number of radio stations in each market was so large that diversity in programming, which is the real aim of the public-interest standard, could well be accomplished through competition.

In 1981, the FCC initiated deregulation of the radio industry in earnest. Specifically, it deleted guidelines encouraging radio licensees to present a certain quantity of nonentertainment programming responsive to community needs; abolished the ascertainment procedures by which the licensees identified community needs; eliminated guidelines that limited the amount of broadcast time devoted to commercials; and repealed the requirement that radio stations maintain program logs that recorded information about each program or commercial aired during the broadcast day.

In 1984, the FCC instituted a proceeding to examine the rationale for the Fairness Doctrine. In 1985, it held two days of hearings in public on the doctrine. The FCC's "Fairness Report" issued in August 1985, however, passed the buck to Congress, with the view that since the doctrine was embodied in the Communications Act, Congress alone could discard it. A petition to review this report was immediately filed in the U.S. Court of Appeals by the Radio- Television News Directors Association.

dvocates of deregulation argue that the number of radio stations in the United States is so large that diversity in programming-the raison d'etre of the public-interest standard-could well be accomplished through competition.

In another proceeding, the Court of Appeals ruled in September 1986 that the Fairness Doctrine was not a statutory requirement.

Congress had merely ratified it in 1959 by amending a section of the Communications Act. Matters were soon brought to a head in another court case. In the summer of 1984, a television station, WTVH in Syracuse, New York, sold time to the Energy Association of New York for commercials advocating the continued construction of the Nine Mile Point II nuclear plant in upstate New York. The Syracuse Peace Council, a group opposed to the use of nuclear power, asked for free time to respond. It argued that though the program was a commercial, it dealt with an issue of public importance which was con troversial.

By four votes to one, the FCC ordered WTVH to abide by the Fairness Doctrine. The owners of the station, the Meredith Corporation of Iowa, appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, on the grounds that the doctrine violated its First Amendment rights. The court held in January 1987, that the FCC ought to have considered and ruled on the constitutional challenge, especially in view of its own finding in 1985, in its "Fairness Report," that the doctrine has a "chilling effect" on free speech in the electronic media. Needless to add, the

FCC was only too glad to act on its findings, having received a judicial green signal.

Meanwhile, Congress was not idle. Two bills were introduced to repeal the Fairness Doctrine. One, moved on January 5, 1987, by Senator Proxmire, was called the First Amendment Clarification Act and the other, moved on March 24, 1987, by Senator Packwood, was entitled the Freedom of Expression Act. Both were repeat performances by these Senators of earlier efforts that had failed to win acceptance.

What eventually won congressional endorsement was a bill entitled Fairness in Broadcasting Act, 1987. It was introduced on March 12, 1987, by Senator Ernest F. Hollings with Senators Inouye and Danforth as cosponsors. It introduced a new provision of the Communications Act, 1934, to lay down that "a broadcast licensee shall afford reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance."

Congress was alarmed at the Court of Appeal's ruling that the FCC could repeal the doctrine of its own accord without congressional approval. It was determined to prevent that from happening. On April 21, 1987, the Senate approved the bill by 59 votes to 31. On June 3, the House of Representatives adopted an identical bill by 302 votes to 102.

The bill records some congressional "findings": "(1) Despite technological advances, the electromagnetic spectrum remains a scarce and valuable public resource; (2) There are still substantially more people who want to broadcast than there are frequencies to allocate; (3) A broadcast license confers the right to use a valuable public resource and a broadcaster is, therefore, required to utilize that resource as a trustee for the American people."

And finally comes the heart of the matter: "A broadcast licensee shall afford reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance."

President Reagan vetoed the bill in a message to Congress on June 19, 1987. He said, "After a massive study of the effects of its own rule, FCC found in 1985 that the recent explosion in the number of new information sources such as cable television has clearly made the Fairness Doctrine unnecessary. Furthermore, the FCC found that the doctrine in fact inhibits broadcasters from presenting controversial issues of public importance, and thus defeats its own purpose.

"Quite apart from these technological advances, we must not ignore the obvious intent of the First Amendment, which is to promote vigorous public debate and a diversity of viewpoints in the public forum as a whole, not in any particular medium,.let alone in any particular journalistic outlet.. ..[The bill] simply cannot be reconciledwith the freedom of speech and the press secured by our Constitution. It is, in my judgment, unconstitutional."

Emboldened by the veto, the FCC went ahead with its own proceedings pursuant to the court's order in the Meredith case. On August 4, 1987, it vacated its 1984 ruling that the Meredith Corporation had violated the doctrine and ruled that the doctrine itself was "unconstitutional."

The commission's action was praised by broadcasters and criticized by public interest groups and denounced by some members of Congress. Ralph Nader, known for his espousing of causes concerning citizen rights, staged a demonstration at the FCC meeting, displaying banners that read "Save the Fairness Doctrine. " As far as the FCC is concerned, the doctrine is dead. The personal attack and political broadcasting rules of 1967 are not

covered by the decision but the FCC's general counsel, Diane Killroy, indicated that both may be on the way out.

It seems a logical step once the FCC's basic premise is accepted-parity between the press and radio in regard to the First Amendment. The FCC's new chairman, Dennis R. Patrick, declared that "we seek to extend to the electronic press the same First Amendment guarantees that the print media have enjoyed since our country's inception."

Let us turn to the other side of the question. The arguments in support of the Fairness Doctrine were set out eloquently in the report of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation on the Fairness in Broadcasting Act: "The primary argument of opponents of the Fairness Doctrine is that the spectrum is not scarce because there are many more broadcast licenses than in 1949, or since the Red Lion decision. However, the fact remains that the demand for broadcast stations far exceeds their availability. The most obvious measure of relative demand for broadcast frequencies is the economic value of the valuable license conveyed by the government. The evidence shows that today millions to hundreds of millions of dollars are paid for

he commission's action in overruling its Fairness Doctrine has been praised by broadcasters and criticized by public interest groups and many members of the U.S. Congress.

broadcast stations and that the value of stations has increased greatly over the past 30 years. Independent VHF stations have recently sold for as much as $450 million in Boston, $510 million in Los Angeles and more than $700 million in New york ....

"Another gauge is the demand for new stations. It is as true today as in 1969 that 'comparative hearings between competing applicants for the broadcast spectrum are by no means a thing of the past....'As of November 1986, the commission had 142 pending comparative proceedings involving multiple applicants for broadcast facilities. Moreover, many of these proceedings, particularly those for facilities in major markets, involve large numbers of applicants. For example, 47 applicants recently applied for authorization to operate a new FM radio station at Orlando, Florida." In short, the scarcity of the frequency spectrum argument is still valid.

Significantly, both sides of the debate, Congress and the FCC, rely on the First Amendment. Congress insists on the trusteeship of the licensee under the Fairness Doctrine assuring that the guarantee offree speech is respected. The FCC wants the doctrine itself to be overturned for the same reason. When the application of a constitutional guarantee is in question, the last word belongs to the U.S. Supreme Court.

0 About the Author: A.G. Noorani, a frequent contributor to SPAN, is a Bombay-based constitutional expert and attorney.

To a long list of honors that have come his way-including a Sahitya Akademi Award and the Padma Bhushan-Raja Rao, 79, has added yet another award. Last month, the renowned novelist shared with ten others one of America's most prestigious literary awards-the $25,000 Neustadt International Prize. The award, sponsored by the University of Oklahoma and its international literary journal, World Literature Today, is given every two years to outstanding writers.

Raja Rao, who has been living in the United States since the early 1960s, recently reti red from the University of Texas, Austin, where he was a professor of philosophy.

He won international fame in 1960 when his novel, The Serpent and the Rope, was published. Raja Rao's other works include The Cat and Shakespeare, Kanthapura and The Chessmaster

and His Moves.

In a talk with an Indian writer in 1977, Raja Rao observed, "By force of circumstance, purely accidental and sentimental, I have lived abroad. My roots are in this country. That is why I come to India every year."

About his country of adoption, he said, "America has great splendor, and now she is turning inward, for true splendor is ever inward. America has the makings of a great classical civilization. Like every classical civilization, it will be a true expression of the worth of man."

Recently, four Indian Americans were appointed to various offices of the Massachusetts state government. Seen here is Governor Michael Dukakis (a candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination for President) administering the oath of office to (from left) Mrs. Visakha Desai, appointed to the Massachusetts Foundations for Humanities and Public Policy; Dr. 'victor Saldanha, to the Statewide Health Coordination Council; Dr. Dinesh Patel, to the Board of Registration in Medicine; and Ramesh Kapur, to the Minority Business Development Committee.

Kapur is also the cochairman of the finance committee for the presidential campaign of Governor Dukakis.

According to a study, conducted over a period of nearly five years at Boston's Brigham and Women's Hospital, an aspirin tablet taken every other day can reduce almost in half the risk of a heart attack.

The study, which began in 1981 and was funded by the U.S. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI), included more than 22,000 male physicians who had never suffered heart attacks or other serious illnesses. Half of the physicians took aspirin for nearly five years while the rest received a placebo. There were 104 heart attacks among the aspirin users, five of them fatal, and 189 heart attacks in the comparison group, including 18 fatal. There were also 80 strokes in the aspirin group and 70 among the others. The results showed that an aspirin taken every other day cut the risk of heart attack by 47 percent.

Speaking at a press conference, American heart specialists said that the research provides strong evidence that aspirin, a common painkiller, will be a major weapon against cardiovascular disease, the United States' number one killer. "There is little reason to suspect that the biologic effects of aspirin would be different in other populations with comparable or higher risks of cardiovascular disease," Dr. Lawrence Cohen, professor of medicine at the Yale University School of Medicine, told reporters. "Therefore it is possible that thousands of individuals may have their heart attack prevented yearly by administration of aspirin every other day. As such, the results of this trial are exciting and have tremendous public

health implications," he said.

However Dr. Claude Lenfant, NHLBI director, cautioned that the general public should not take the findings as an indication that everyone should start taking aspirin. A decision to use aspirin to prevent heart attacks should only be made after consulting with a physician.

The heart experts however agreed that, in general, anyone with risk factors-such as high blood cholesterol, hypertension, diabetes or a family history of heart attacks-for heart disease should be considered a candidate for routine use of aspirin.

Medical experts believe that aspirin works by inhibiting the aggregation of platelets, a cellular component of the blood responsible for clotting. At the site of a narrowed artery, platelets form a mesh that ultimately leads to a clot, completely obstructing the flow of blood through the artery.

However, doctors cautioned that aspirin could decrease blood clotting too much in some individuals. For example, the study showed that there was a small, though not statistically significant, increase in death from strokes among those in the study who received aspirin. The strokes were presumably caused by hemorrhaging in the brain.

India's Largest Trading Partner

According to a recent study, conducted by the Federations of Indian Export Organisations, the United States remains India's largest trading partner.

The United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, Japan and West Germany, according to the study, are India's top buyers; together they account for nearly 55 percent of the country's exports. Of this, the United States imports about 40 percent and the Soviet Union about 30 percent.

The study, based on a computerized analysis of data fed by the country's 425 trading and export houses, concludes that 75 percent of India's exports comprised handicrafts, woolen carpets, cotton textiles, processed foods, engineering products and leather goods, in that order.

According to Bruce Smart, U.S. under secretary of commerce for international trade, who recently visited India, the substance of Indo-U.S. trade is shifting from commodities to manufactures. This assessment is also shared by the Indo-U.S. Joint Business Council, which views the United States and India as "real naturals" in the competitive world of high-technology products. For example, an official of the council says that India has the potential to become one of America's-and the world's-main sources of computer software.

Two recent pointers in this direction are Texas Instruments (India) Ltd., in Bangalore (see SPAN January 1988), a wholly owned subsidiary of the Dallas-based electronic giant, which takes all of the software the Indian branch can generate; and Digital Equipment (India) Ltd., a joint collaboration between the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the United States and the Hinditron Group of India,. for the manufacture of Micro Vax Computers.

Although only two months old, Digital India has already bagged one of India's largest software export orders from its parent company--eventually to be worth more than Rs. 50 million. The contract, signed late January between Vice-President Richard Poulsen of DEC (USA) and Hemant Sonawala of Digital India in New Delhi, is to be executed in phases, with the first phase grossing software exports worth Rs. 6.5 million.

Although it may take a few years for India to appreciably increase its exports of high-technology goods, one traditional item-eashew nuts-set a new record in 1987. America bought 11,264 tons of Indian cashews last year, as against 9,071 tons in 1986.

The United States now buys more cashew nuts from India than from Brazil, which until recently had been the largest supplier. The United States, the world's largest buyer of cashews, imported a total of 1,281,977 cases in the period January-September 1987, of which India's share was 737,988 cases and Brazil's 366,173.

Last month, Ambassador John Gunther Dean inaugurated the All India Carpet Trade Fair in Varanasi at the invitation of the former Maharaja of Benaras, Vibhuti Narain Singh (extreme left). Participating in the week-long fair were carpet manufacturers from throughout India and several foreign exhibitors and buyers. The United States is one of the largest buyers of Indian carpets.

While in Varanasi, Ambassador Dean also visited the American Institute of Indian Studies (AilS). Addressing a gathering at the Hotel Taj Ganges, he said that the U.S. government has created a fund of $200 million to assist the AilS in its efforts for promoting greater Indo-U.S. cultural exchanges in

the next ten years.

The Ambassador also visited the Banaras Hindu University, where he met with students from the University of Wisconsin, studying there under a bilateral exchange program. He also held discussions with Dr. M.S. Kanungo and Dr. T.P. Singh, principal investigators of two Indo-U.S. research projects under way at the department of zoology.

The Ambassador and Mrs. Dean also saw some of India's ancient treasures at the university's world-famous Bharat Kala Bhavan, visited the historic archaeological site of Sarnath and, accompanied by the project director of the Ganga Clean-Up Project, took a tour on the Ganga River.

Three Indian American teenagers-Vijay Satyanand Pande, 17 (McLean, Virginia); Mohamad Shahn All, 17 (Queens, New York); and Chetan Nayak, 16 (New York City)-have joined an exclusive band of America's whiz kids of science. They are among 40 high school students who have made it to the finals of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation's national science talent search-the most rigorous and prestigious science competition for American high school students. They will now compete for cash scholarships of varying amounts; the winner will carry home $20,000.

What distinguishes these young people is their mastery 0f such esoteric science subjects as particle physics, quantum theory and space defenses. For example, Pande used the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, where both his parents work, to simulate the laser system of the U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative (SOl).

Speaking of his project with the kind of self-assurance that comes with years of study and research, Pande says that the United States needs to develop much more powerful lasers for the SOl. Pande believes that even with lasers ten times more powerful than those now in use for the SDI program, America would need 8,000 satellites to defend itself against a nuclear onslaught.

"However, with lasers about 100 times more powerful, the number of satellites needed to defend the country would be reduced to 400. This is more within the realm of possibility," he says.

s the greyhound bus departed from the terminal at Tucson, now become popular in other cities of the United States as well.

Arizona, for Sun City, on the outskirts of Phoenix, the If life begins at 65, so can golf. Almost all the residents are capital of Arizona, I snuggled sleepily into my seat, avid players of this game for the leisured. And it is golf, not the anticipating a pleasant but routine holiday. In a few hours we were weather, that constitutes the main source of small talk at in the city that lived up to its name-a sunny, warm, cloudless sky evening get-togethers. In fact, social life is organized around the greeted us even in the normally frosty month of December. I two major golf clubs. disembarked into the welcoming arms of my aunt. Little did I Eating out is popular, as prices have been kept low in considerrealize then that I was bidding farewell to youth for the next week. ation of persons living on pensions and retirement incomes. Three We got into her unusual vehicle, small and very open. "It's a of us had a sumptuous smorgasbord meal with a number of dishes golf cart," explained my aunt, in response to my astonished look.

And so we ambled home. Golf carts, it turned out, were the. primary mode oftransport in Sun City. There were hardly any cars DELE. WEBB around, and certainly no traffic congestion, in contrast to most A Visionary Developer urban areas of the United States.

We met other golf carts on the way and their occupants waved at The first real retirement community in the United States was a small us cheerily. They were all elderly people. Sun City had been development called Youngtown, created near Phoenix, Arizona, in the specifically developed as a settlement for retired persons, my aunt late 1950s. A visionary developer, Del E. Webb, saw in Youngtown the informed me. As the Arizona desert climate is eminently suitable seeds of a totally new lifestyle for America's elderly. He perfected that for those who suffer from the ills of cold climates, this model concept, and in January 1960 opened Sun City, a master-planned settlement has a1tracted many Americans. community also on the outskirts of Phoenix.

With-street"slaid out at right angles, the town plan was fairly Sun City's 3,960 hectares offered extensive recreational facilities to easy to comprehend and the golf carts simple enough to manipu- home buyers and more than 100,000 visitors flocked to this mecca for late even for a bad driver like me with an atrocious sense of senior adults in its first weekend. By year-end, Sun City had a population direction. So, during the next few days, my curiosity-driven cart of 2,500 "active adults." Eighteen years later every lot in the community rambled all over the place. This popular vehicle was indicative had been sold, and with a population of 46,000, Sun City had become America's largest adult community. also of the relaxed pace of life in Sun City. It felt strange, Much of Sun City's growth can be attributed to the quality of life especially after the hectic pace I had become accustomed to in the afforded by the community's numerous recreation facilities-swimming, University of Chicago. tennis, shuffleboard, miniature golf, exercise, therapy, racquetball, jogSun City is a perfectly planned urban center. The houses are ging and a wide range of crafts. Residents own seven fully-equipped small, compact and very modern compared with the more Euro- recreation centers and have established a nonprofit corporation with a pean style of architecture prevalent in the U.S. Midwest and East. paid staff to govern and maintain the centers.

During my outings, I was amazed to see residents armed with The city also offers residents 11 golf courses, nine neighborhood mechanized garbage trucks picking up the plastic bags of trash in shopping centers with more than 500 businesses and professional offices, front of each house and compressing them into the bowls of the a 335-bed hospital and numerous other amenities, including financial vehicle, and cleaning and sprucing up the streets. I learned that the institutions, medical services and religious organizations.

The success of Sun City, coupled with the increasing numbers of retired responsibility for such municipal functions is rotated among the Americans, spawned the development of a nearby sister city-Sun City citizens. Each week a particular area is kept clean by a block of West-in October 1978. Like Sun City, Sun City West is a complete residents. A strong community Sense binds the self-governing environment geared to the needs of persons over 50. When completed inhabitants of Sun City, in. stark contrast to the individualism sometime in the early 1990s, Sun City West will comprise more than 3,000 experienced in many American cities. Crime is kept down by the hectares with about 25,000 residents.

Sun City sheriff's posse of some 300 volunteers. Decked out in In September 1985, Webb announced Tucson as the site of his third regulation bro,wn-and-beige uniforms and Stetson hats, this group active adult community. Sun City Vistoso represents the next generation has an average age of 68. Volunteers patrol by twos in cars 17 of Webb communities. Smaller, it will encompass 400 hectares (for 5,000 hours a day and summon professional cops by radio if they spot se- residents), but still deliver the rich mix of amenities that have made the rious trouble. A "vacation watch" ensures regular checking of Sun Cities famous. In expanding the Sun Cities, Webb has stressed doors and windows for residents who have gone out of town. smaller communities near major metropolitan areas. Climate, demoEncouraged and trained by the local sheriff in 1971 to bolster his graphics and access to services are all important factors in site selection.

A recent study conducted by the University of Arizona reported that thinly spread paid forces, the posse has already cut petty theft (the residents of Sun Cities are "on the average healthier" than are older number one crime here) by more than 30 percent. Such posses have Americans in general.

A

While life in Sun City is pleasant, it is not filled only withfun and games. There is probably no community anywhere in the United States that is more concerned with being involved and helping others. Over the yearsJor example, residents have donated beds, baby cribs, high chairs, hospital equipment and thousands of other items to Sunshine Services, a community organization that keeps them for use by the residents whenever needed. Another volunteer organization is PRIDES (Proud Residents Indep'endently Donating Essential Services), a corps of about 500 from various walks of life-lawyers, physicians, artists, housewives-who perform such municipal functions as picking up trash and sprucing up streets and other public areas to keep their community beautiful.

to choose from, for only $10, including delicious ice cream from a machine that oozed out many flavors and sauces so that one could experiment with combinations.

Though the pace is easy and life comfortable, it has not come to a standstill. Most residents are busy pursuing one or another of a large number of hobbies taught at the community center. Learning has not stopped-at the hobby center new talents are discovered and hidden sources of energy tapped. John fashions delicate jewelry, Carol uses autumnal shades to detail a vast canvas in needlepoint, and I watched Geraldine making candles in many molds and shapes using even ice cubes to create new designs.

Despite my moving around Sun City and meeting many residents, Ijust could not get used to the concept of a place just for the elderly. The mix of ages that we take so much for granted in our lives is missing here. Coming from an American university campus, I missed the jeans and backpacks. I had never conceived oflife for the old without the young. But there is no place for the young at Sun City. There are no schools or colleges. It is even against the rules to keep children here for very long.

Don't the old need the young, their tempestuousness and buoyancy, the reassurance of their love? I asked. "No, we don't," was the confident reply. "We cherish our independence. Children would interfere with our lifestyle. Yes, they visit us and we visit them, but after a few days we want to get back to our privacy and lead our lives according to our own preferred pattern."

0

Full, Bright Memories AmonÂĽ theftrst batch of Fulbright scholars selectedfor study at U.S. universities, Rajan recaptures his memories of American hospitality and some initial problems he faced in adjusting to the new environment. He is seen here (secondfrom left) with the Deckmans, his Phi/adelphia hosts, their daughter and his young Indian friend Kochukoshy.

he other day I read a brief notice in Foreign Affairs (New York) about Loy Henderson's memoirs. My mind immediately went back to the early 1950s when he was the U.S. Ambassador to India. It was largely to him that I owe my first visit to the United States-on a Fulbright fellowship.

I used to work at New Delhi's Indian Council of World Affairs (lCWA) in those days. One day, ICWA General Secretary A. Appadorai asked me to fill out a form for a scholarship to study in the United States. I did so, but without any expectation of success in what, I was told, was an all-India competition. A couple of months later, I was informed by the U.S. Information Service that I had been selected for a Fulbright scholarship and for admission to Columbia University in New York. I was naturally thrilled, especially because I belonged to the very first batch of Fulbright fellows (1950-51) from all over the world.

Just before leaving Delhi for New York, I calle<;lon Ambassador Henderson at the American Embassy, which was then located at Bahawalpur House, Sikandra Road. My happiness at getting the scholarship redoubled when he told me that my original application had been lost in the U.S. State Department (which, in those days, handled the applications) and that he had sent them a stinker and insisted that I

T

should, come what may, be offered a scholarship, because I was with the ICW A. He told them that I would fill out fresh application forms after arriving in New York.

Although I was then older (at 30) than most Fulbright scholars of today, I was not as self-confidently knowledgeable of America as students these days. The first thing that unnerved me on landing in New York was the fact that few understood my English pronunciation, nor I theirs! I had often to repeat myself-slowly-in order to make myself understood. Of course, there was a lot more about America that I still had to understand.

Before getting into a taxi at New York airport, I tipped the porter who had carried my heavy suitcase. Seeing the amount, instead of the customary "thank you," he laughed and putting his head and the hand with the tip into the taxi said to the driver, "Hey, Buddy! you'll like it" (or words to that effect). I wondered what he meant.

Many days later, having gotten used to American money, I understood-and even appreciated-the porter's comment. For I had calculated the dollar equivalent of Indian rupees (in 1950,it was about Rs. 5 to a dollar) and offered him a measly 50 cents.

At Rs. 2.50 that was two-and-a-half times what I would have offered an Indian porter at that time and I thought I was being generous! Actually, it was a ridiculously

low tip for New York. But, instead of offending me by rejecting the tip, perhaps because he realized that I was a foreigner on my first visit to America, he had taken a good-humored view of the incident.

I had been put up at the YMCA Sloan House. Soon after arriving there, I felt terribly thirsty. Not finding a tap in the room or outside, I went to the reception desk and asked where I could get a glass of water. "Oh, every floor has a fountain," I was told. Puzzled at this rather curt reply, I went up to my floor looking for a "fountain." I found none. I was feeling miserable and wondering how to quench my thirllt, when I saw a young man go near something embedded in the wall and drink water that seemed to suddenly spout from it. This, I realized, was the American fountain. I drank my fill.

In the bus to the university the next day, I offered my seat to a lady who was standing, and she reacted angrily in words I could not follow. Shocked and humiliated, especially because many co-passengers were staring at me as though I had offended the lady, I asked a neighbor (in whispers) what the lady had said, and he smilingly repeated her words, "I am not that old." To her my offer, by implication, referred to her age since people in America only offered seats to elderly women!

I had another encounter with this age factor at the home of an American family whose guest I was for the weekend about a year later. The old American couple who had invited me to their place near Philadelphia had also asked their married daughter (who lived nearby) to join them for supper.

That young lady was enthusiastically explaining to me (and an Indian friend who was also with me) her exploits as a hockey player in her younger days. At one point she said, "Now that I am 38..." and suddenly stopped in her tracks. "Oh, mummy," she screamed and there were some moments of embarrassed silence till her mother tactfully changed the t0pic. My Indian friend, who had arrived in the United States just the previous day, nervously asked me whether he or I had done something wrong. Better used to American customs I was able to explain to him that she was shocked at her slip at having unwittingly blurted out her age.

In fact, I was quite proud at being in the position of explaining features of the American lifestyle to this young Indian who was in the position I had been a year earlier. After dinner, my friend, who had

seen a TV for tLe first time in his life, moved to the sitting room to watch a program.' My hosts and I went into the kitchen to wash dishes. About an hour later, as we got ready to sleep, he as~ed me in shocked tones, "I say, what were you doing in the kitchen?" I replied in a matterof-fact manner, "Oh, I was helping them wash the dishes." Incredulous, he asked, "But why did you do it? I would never do such dirty work even in my own house." I then had to explain to him that a houseguest helping a family wash the dishes after a meal is part of the American way of life.

But this was something he just could not understand or get accustomed to. He then told me that he had, in fact, peeped into the kitchen earlier and seen me with an apron but just could not believe that I could be doing such "dirty" work.

Discovering American restaurant culture was another experience for me. At one, I asked for a "glass of milk." The waiter produced a small carton of cold milk from the refrigerator. I told him that I wanted a glassof hot milk. Puzzled, he said, "But sir, we don't sell hot milk." With some difficulty, I opened the carton, poured some sugar into it and sipped the milk from a straw. An elderly lady, who was observing all this, paused by my table on her way out to say, with a sweet smile, "Hello, sonny, you drink hot milk, with sugar?" American adults, I learned, do not drink hot milk or milk with sugar.

One Sunday morning soon after my arrival in the United States, I went in search ofa copy of The New York Times. I saw a young man hurrying by with a pile of papers and asked him for a copy. He was startled and said, rather curtly, "You get it there," pointing toward a newsstand. I was puzzledat the boy's reaction and wondered what I had done wrong now. Anyway, I went to the newsstand and asked for a copy of the paper. The man pointed to a tall pile and said, "There, pick up one." I went near the pile and could not understand how I could pick up a copy-they all seemed folded together in one huge mass. I continued to stand there, pretending to be looking at something else, till another young man came in, put the cash on the counter, picked up a huge bundle out of the pile and hurried off. It then occurred to me that a copy of the Sunday issue of The New York Times was a huge bundle, as much as four times the size of the paper during the week (which itself was five to six times the size of an Indian paper of those days). And, then, I

also realized the mistake that I committed in asking the youngster whom I had met earlier for a copy. Seeing him with the huge bundle, I had mistaken him for a newsboy.

Among the best moments of my American trip were the visits to American homes.

I would get invitations for meals and weekend stays even from people I hardly knew. I spent my 1952 Christmas with an American family in far-off Champaign, Illinois.

M.S. Rajan, Professor Emeritus at New Delhi's Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) , was formerly director of the erstwhile Indian School of International Studies (now the School of International Studies of JNU).

On the evening of my arrival, the lights suddenly went out. My friend's mother called for an electrician. He arrived within minutes. He was a tall, heavyset gentleman in his sixties. He took out a screwdriver from his hip pocket and moved around the house in a lordly gait (with one hand in his trouser pocket), tapping the wiring here and there. On one such tap, the lights came on. The electrician smiled, took out a bill book, wrote out a bill and handed it over to the lady. She looked at the amount and exclaimed, "What? $1O!You did nothing!"

To which the electrician replied in firm, dignified tones, "Look lady, you pay for what I know, not for what I do!" For some reason-perhaps the electrician's dignity or my hostess's immediate acceptance of his explanation-this episode is still vivid III my memory.

In my international relations masters class I was surprised to find young and notso-young men and women who had worked or who were still working as painters, musicians, nuclear physicists, haberdashers and so on. Intrigued I asked some of them why they were studying a subject which was unrelated to their present or

former vocation. Invariably, their reply was that they were dissatisfied and were looking for a more rewarding career.

This willingness to start education all over again and to make midcareer changes in pursuit of happiness impressed me.

I was also impressed by the students working to pay for their education. In fact, the hostel and tb~ cafeteria in our university were run with the help of students, who apparently managed to study even while doing these part-time jobs. (I could not join them, because I was getting a fellowship.)

They would do my typing work, laundry and even supply ice cream, nuts and fruits late at night. The money that these boys earned went toward their education and their availability helped the university reduce its establishment costs.

I have tried to sell this idea to some of my students at the Jawaharlal Nehru University but haven't found any takers.

One serious problem faced in Columbia University was my own vegetarianism. I was, I suppose, too old to change my food habits, unlike many younger Indian students. On the eve of my first Christmas, the maid cleaning my room asked me what I planned to do on Christmas. I told her that I had an invitation for dinner from an American family living outside New York City. "Ah! you will have lots and lots of turkey and cake!" she said. I explained that I wouldn't eat turkey, because I was a vegetarian. "You are what?" she asked, surprised. When I explained, she refused to believe me. "You are kidding! How can you live without meat?" She was so astonished that she called some of the other maids and I had to give them a lecture on vegetarianism. I told them that millions of Indians for hundreds of years have survived on vegetables, that vegetarianism is healthier than living on meat, and so on.

The maids were shocked. One of them blurted out, "And you look so healthy!" As further conclusive evidence of the virtues of vegetarianism, I gave them the example of the elephant. They were even more amazed. They had apparently never heard that elephants are vegetarian.

Even the university doctor believed that eating meat had something to do with healthy living. When I fell ill, the doctor insisted that it was because of lack of nutritious foods, and insisted that I supplement my diet daily with at least an egg or two. When I told him that I could not do so, he threw up his hands in despair, and recommended some tonic!

0

AWhite-Tie Affair This population of penguins, probably the most forrfially dressed birds in the world, provided New York Philharmonic Orchestra conductor Zubin Mehta an appreciative audience when h~ was on a sabbatical vacation crqise in the Antarctica region.

Not to be outdone by his audience's night:.out. attire, . Mehta too donned his evening clothes for the whimsical performance. Though Mehta bas a busy

Scltect.-le,1m says he win kee . hi,s Pe.nguing.jp mind

becaflSe "now I baft enOOih ~~'~ldoQl-perf~dled

.

ns to' ~

Understanding INF Inspections As part of the treaty eliminating intermediate-range nuclear forces, which was signed in Washington, D.C., in December, the United States and the Soviet Union agre.ed to on-site inspections to ensure that the treaty is adhered to by both sides.

Below are answers to frequently asked questions about the nature and purpose of the inspections required by the INF treaty.

What are the kinds of on-site inspections that will take place?

Baseline Inspections: To help in verifying the initial exchange of updated data, there is a right to conduct on-site inspections at the types of facilities listed in the treaty in the period from 30 to 90 days after the treaty enters into force [it has to be ratified both by the U.S. Congress and the Supreme Soviet]. Specific facilities and bases subject to such inspections are listed in the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) and are located in Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the German Democratic Republic and Czechoslovakia as well as bases and facilities in the United States and the Soviet Union.

Close-out Inspections: When bases or missile-support facilities no longer contain items or systems limited by the treaty, the parties will have the right to conduct inspections to observe that activities prohibited by the treaty have ceased.

Elimination Inspections: The United States and the Soviet Union have an obligation to observe the destruction of missiles and launchers at elimination facilities. Detailed destruction procedures are set forth in the Elimination Protocol.

Short-notice Inspections: For 13 years after the treaty enters into force, the sides are entitled to conduct inspections on short notice at facilities that have been agreed on. The types of facilities subject to inspection are identified in the treaty and

specific facilities are listed in the MOU. Continuous Portal Monitoring: The Soviet Union has agreed that the United States can establish a continuous portal monitoring system at a missile facility at Votkinsk. In return, the United States has agreed to allow the Soviets to establish a continuous portal monitoring system at the former Pershing II missile facility-Hercules Plant Number One in Magna, Utah.

Since more than one missile or launcher can be destroyed at a time, there is no set quota for Elimination Inspections. During the three-year elimination period, th~ sides will conduct as many inspections as are necessary to observe the elimination of all items in the treaty that are subject to elimination.

During the first three years of the treaty, that is, before all systems have been eliminated, the parties have the right to conduct 20 Short-notice Inspections per year at facilities that are subject to Baseline and Short-notice Inspections, regardless of whether they remain operational or not.

For the following five years, each party can conduct 15 Short-notice Inspections per year. For the last five years each party can conduct ten Short-notice Inspections per year.

Both sides have the right to conduct Close-out Inspections at facilities as they are eliminated.

How much notice will the Soviets provide before they carry out Short-notice Inspections at U.S. and allied bases?

The Soviets must notify the United States at least 16 hours prior to the planned arrival of the inspection team at one of the points of entry for the United States or Europe. The points of entry in the United States are San Francisco and Washington, D.C. At that time, we would know only that one of many facilities would be subject to inspection soon. When the Soviet inspectors arrive at the point of entry, they will inform the United States after four hours but before 24 hours have elapsed which U.S. facility will be inspected. The United States will be obligated to transport the Soviet inspectors to the inspection site within nine hours of notification of the site they wish to see.

Identical procedures will apply when the United States conducts Short-notice I~spections of Soviet facilities.

Will U.S. officials accompany Soviet inspectors?

U.S. officials will accompany Soviet inspectors for the entire time they are in a country inspecting U.S. facilities just as Soviet officials will accompany U.S. inspectors for the entire time they are in a country inspecting Soviet facilities.

However, the Soviet inspectors at the Hercules plant in Utah and the U.S. inspectors at the missile facility at Votkinsk, U.S.S.R., will not be under constant escort. These inspectors will be able to move around subject to some restrictions within a 50-kilometer radius of the factories where they will

be performing their inspection duties.

Can the inspectors move all around a base or will their movements be limited?

Inspectors' movements will be limited to those areas within the boundaries depicted on the site diagrams that are part of the Memorandum of Understanding. In addition, if a building within those boundaries is too small to contain an item limited by the treaty, then the inspectors will not be permitted to inspect the inside of that building.

How much time will the inspectors spend at the bases?

It depends on the type of inspection. For Baseline, Closeout and Short-notice Inspections, inspectors can spend up to 24 hours at the facility they are inspecting. If the inspected side agrees, inspectors can spend an additional eight hours at the same facility. Because a large number of missiles will be eliminated, there is no specified time limitation for each Elimination Inspection. The Soviet plant at Votkinsk and the Hercules plant at Magna, Utah, may be subject to Continuous Portal Monitoring for up to 13 years after the treaty enters into force.

How many inspectors will be on an inspection team?

That depends on the type of inspection. Baseline, Close-out and Short-notice Inspections will be conducted by inspection teams with up to ten members.

Elimination Inspections will be

ON THE LIGHTER SIDE

conducted by teams with up to 20 members. Up to 30 inspectors will be allowed at each Continuous Portal Monito'ring site.

Will the inspectors bring any special equipment with them?

Inspectors may bring linear measurement devices, such as tape measures, as well as cameras, portable weighing devices, radiation detection devices and other equipment as specified by the parties to assist them in conducting inspections.

Will the inspectors be military officers?

Some inspectors may be members of the military, but this is neither required nor prohibited by the treaty.

Will the inspectors have diplomatic immunity?

Inspectors will have limited diplomatic immunity. The treaty spells out specific grounds for which the United States or the Soviet Union may object to or expel an inspector.

"So you're ordering a dozen boxes of vanilla creme-filled cookies and a dozen of the chocolate."

"Due to late-breaking technological advances, please disregard your freshman year. "

Reprinted with pennission from The Saturday Evening Post Society, a division ofBFL and MS, Inc. © 1986.

Reprinted with pennission from The Saturday Evening Post Society, a division of BFL and MS, Inc. © 1987.

Since both sides have National Technical Means (NTM) ofverifying compliance with the treaty, why is on-site inspection needed?

There are some activities that cannot be monitored by NTM alone. That is why the INF treaty established unprecedented onsite inspection rights to assist in verification of the treaty. On-site inspections allQw both sides to monitor some activities .more thoroughly. The combination of NTM, the data exchange and the on-site inspection regime will have a synergistic effect that will strengthen each side's ability to monitor compliance with the treaty. [] "For heaven's sake, Gerald, must you keep bringing your socialism home with you?" © Pyne, Punch/Rothco.

American shopping malls come in different forms, but are essentially variations on a common theme: broad corridors lined on both sides by shops ranging from compact bookstores to multistory department emporia. Represented here are shopping malls in Dallas, Texas (right) ,featuring a work of sculpture as a centerpiece; Bakersfield, California (bottom right), with trees growing inside; and Failfax, Virginia (below, bottom and right center) with open spaces and skylights.

ere Americans

Shop I

ist 9:00 a.m., Friday, November 27, and the parking lot of Northpark Shopping Center in Dallas, Texas, is already filling. These eager shoppers have arrived early in hopes of beating the crowd that will soon be crushing in. It is a scene that is being played at virtually every shopping center in America. For today is the day after Thanksgiving holiday, the biggest shopping day of the year in the United States.

Christmas is only one month away.

In the next month, Americans will have spent the better part of $27,000million on Christmas presents. Christmas sales represent about half of retailers' annual profits and a third of their annual total sales.

America is a nation of consumers, and the consumers of the 1980sare smarter, more particular, wealthier and have less time than ever for the great American pastime of shopping. Retailers have met this challenge in a variety of ways. They have specialized for the particular consumer, offering complete inventories and knowledgeable help. They have stacked their goods in a warehouse where no-frills shopping means little service but lower prices. They have opened entire malls of discount goods, where seconds and overruns mean bargains in an unmerchandised atmosphere. And there is even shopping at home via catalogs and computers.

Roger Blackwell, professor of consumer research at Ohio State Universityin Columbus, Ohio, has followed consumer trends for 25 years and authored numerous textbooks on the subject. He says consumers in America are being attracted by large mass retailers suchas warehouse clubs while at the same time seeking out specialty stores that offer a very narrow line of merchandise and knowledgeable sales help. Also drawing consumers are the off-price stores that buy in quantity and offer the consumers discounted prices.

"Consumers are getting smarter," Blackwell explains. "They can choose to go to one type of store for a particular situation."

Indeed, Northpark is a perfect example of specialization. There are 130stores in the 149,000 square meters of the shopping mall.

Included are the usual jewelry stores, bookstores and toy stores.

But there is also a jewelry store that sells nothing but pearls, a bookstore specializing in fine art and architecture books and a toy store devoted entirely to stuffed animals. But perhaps the clearest mirror on the American public is found in the store filled with gadgets. Consumers wander among tables that display such ingenious articles as a retractable dog leash and a key chain that

has a hot spot to melt the ice off car-door locks in cold weather.

The store also offers the usual tools such as a wide variety of screwdrivers and such small appliances as a space-age humidifier.

While the inexpensive variety store has been replaced by a video-rental store, Northpark still has its share of large department stores-four to be exact. And yet there are more than 50 small stores devoted to clothing and accessories for men and women. There are three, in fact, that sell only women's accessories-belts, hats, purses, scarves and jewelry. One clothing shop offers only leather goods, another is filled with the latest fad clothing for adolescent girls; three stores sell only children's shoes.

The mall also houses 12restaurants, two candy stores, two cookie stores and two optical shops. Another Dallas mall has a shop for airplane aficionados. It carries items needed by those who pilot their own planes, in addition to toys, art and gift items for those who like airplanes.

While some have only disdain for shopping malls and what they see as an impersonal approach to shopping, others call them the answer to America's time problem. The malls have become entertainment centers, offering busy consumers not only one-stop shopping, but leisure activities as well.

At Northpark there is often an art show, exhibition or display of some kind in the mall proper. During the Christmas season, the decorations include Santa Claus in his sleigh and the eight reindeer, all done up with candy and nuts; last year this was joined by art works that included several almost five-meter mechanical men hammering. Other malls host plays, recitals and orchestral performances.

The shopping mall, which began as an American phenomenon born of suburban living, has, in essence, taken the place of Main Street, U.S.A., drawing those who want to get out to meet friends as much as to do shopping. On Saturdays the malls become the meeting place for teenagers and an all-weather park for mothers with small children. It is not unusual to see elderly men gathered at a Northpark coffee shop. A number of American cities have included malls in their inner city redevelopment projects, thereby combining the old and the new. Such malls are now found in Baltimore, Marylapd; Boston, Massachusetts; Miami, Florida; and Houston, Texas, among other places.

"The mall has become a recreation area," says Blackwell. "It has taken on the entertainment format. There are food plazas, entertainment, crafts, singers. Some are now adding services such as dental and doctors offices. One doctor who has his office in a mall gives his patients a beeper so they can shop until he is ready for them-then they are beeped."

While malls such as Northpark cater mainly to those who want a specific item and are willing to pay full retail prices, the newest shopping malls reflect the growing demand for discounted items.

There are now three malls in the Dallas/Fort Worth area containing only stores that stock discount merchandise. These retailers buy slightly flawed and overstocked merchandise in bulk from the same manufacturers whose labels may be found in the higher price retail stores.

At discount establishments, consumers must deal with the inconvenience of inconsistency. Stocks may be low and merchandising is often nonexistent. For example, all women's blouses are hung by size on one rack that may extend for 30 meters. Finding that half-price designer blouse means going through all the blouses. Then the shopper may find it in size small when she needs a medium. A visitor to the shoe department finds racks of shoes by

pocketbook has burgeoned into a company that issues ten glossy catalogs a year, each carrying 1,000 items. Lillian Vernon specializes in gifts, personal and home accessories, toys, gourmet foods, housewares and stationery items. For example, a recent consumer order included a birdfeeder that attaches to the outside of the window with a suction cup, a babysitting book for recording pertinent information for the babysitter and a miniature copy of a Tiffany glass window.

"About 95 percent of those who buy from us are women," says size. Again the consumers must look at each pair to separate the fine leather from a cheaper imitation. But the bargains are there to David Hochberg, director of public affairs at Lillian Vernon. be had, and the tremendous success of such stores indicates that "Time is a precious commodity. Women have full-time jobs, a consumers are more than willing to put up with less-than- home and family. Hence they have to shop when they can."

Lillian Vernon processed 140,000 orders the week after Thanksglamorous surroundings to find them.

Blackwell attributes this to what he calls "Frontier Con- giving at its Mt. Vernon, New York, facility where 1,200 employsumerism," the new orientation toward value that occurred in the ees work in five buildings, including a communications center, a United States during the 1970s because of inflation and increasing corporate headquarters and two warehouses.

Hochberg says catalog items follow the same kind of specializaenergy costs. "Smart consumers figured out they couldn't increase their salary," he explains, "but they could buy more for less with tion retail stores have seen. "In the 1970s it was gourmet items as Americans took to the kitchen," Hochberg says. "Now it's smarter shopping."

One consumer calls her weekly visit to a local discount store just a children's items and gardening products."

Marketing experts anticipate that catalog sales will account for routine part of her week. "I go every Thursday after work on my way to a standing appointment that is near the store," says this some 20 percent of retail sales by the end of the decade, a public relations executive. "Some weeks I don't find anything. projection that has been duly noted by major corporations, many Other weeks I do. I have found some great clothes bargains, but of which have begun catalog operations or purchased existing usually not something I was looking for. That's the secret of catalogs. American Express is successfully marketing high-tech discount shopping. If you are looking for something in particular, and high-priced items to its mailing list of credit-card holders. you will usually be disappointed-or become frustrated. If you just Other corporate giants that own catalog sales businesses include Quaker Oats, General Mills and R.J. Reynolds. go with the attitude that it is a treasure hunt, you're better off."

Hochberg says the mail-order business is a trust operation, Perhaps the greatest indicator of consumers' willingness to do without the frills is a recent retail phenomenon called warehouse which is why Lillian Vernon and most catalogs offer a nostores. In these establishments, merchandise is often left in its questions-asked money-back guarantee. boxes and hauled directly to the sales floor amid eager customers.

The catalog business is also based on demographics, or knowing These operations, which are known by a number of different exactly who needs extra-large size clothing or likes to fish. names across the country, operate on a few simple principles. They Demographics coupled with the computer will make catalog are open to small business owners and club members only, shopping even more personalized in years to come, Hochberg says. although to qualify for membership is usually a simple matter of. "In the future our customers will get tailor-made miniature working for a large corporation, the government, or as a teacher. catalogs for merchandise that reflects their buying history," he Most warehouse clubs also sell memberships for a nominal fee to notes. "If we have a customer who historically buys only bath individuals. The stores are usually located in out-of-the-way items, they will get a bath-item catalog." places and few advertise, depending instead on word of mouth to Ironically, the newest twist in catalog shopping is retail outlets bring customers in. where slow-selling items and overstocked merchandise are sold at Sam's Wholesale Club, which has three stores in the Dallas area, a discount. Lillian Vernon already has a few such stores, and is opening two new stores. Each store is 9,800 square meters and Hochberg says the number will climb to 50 in the next decade. The has concrete floors, minimal decor and metal warehouse racks. gadget store at Northpark began as a catalog business and now Each offers a relatively modest array of products ranging from has retail operations across the United States. food to small appliances. Sam's sells merchandise at eight percent And what will the future hold for American shoppers? Some above cost, compared with the 30 percent margin common at contend it is only a matter of time before stores will be a thing of discount stores. The company's sales for a recent year at its 23 the past; all shopping would take place on a video-display.screen at home where the consumer need only dial a shopping number and stores around the United States topped $750 million.

But for every consumer in America who is willing to dig for a bar- ask for a particular item and the price. gain or fight traffic to reach the local mall, another consumer is shopA similar system is already in operation in one shoe department ping from his or her own livingroom by way of a mail-order catalog. at Northpark. The customer goes to the store and simply dials up Indeed, considering that there are now more than 7,000 mail- the style and size and then inserts a credit card to pay. The shoes order catalog merchandisers in the United States, consumers are are shipped directly to the buyer's home. shopping for more items than ever before through the mail-to the Others say retail stores will endure. "I don't think video tune of an estimated $50,000 million a year. The assortment of shopping will ever eliminate the mall, where people can feel and mail-order items is amazing-from bird seed and rosebushes to touch things," says Blackwell, "but I do see a gradual increase in mink coats, computers and sailboats. video shopping and the use of computers at the mall itself." 0 Lillian Vernon is one of America's oldest mail-order houses.

What started in 1951 with a small ad for a personalized belt and

While some have only disdain for malls and what they see as an impersonal approach to shopping, others call them the answer to America's time problem.

HaIfa Heart American scientists are developing a partial artificial heart that, unlike a total man-made heart, aids but does not replace the real one.

Barney Clark, who received the first "permanent" Jarvik-7 artificial heart at the Universityof Utah Medical Center in 1982, sufferedseizures and hallucinations during his 112 exceptionally rough days on the pump before he died. William Schroeder, who died at Humana Hospital in Louisville, lived for 620 days with a Jarvik-7 implant, but suffered multiple strokes and other complications, including fevers, speechand memory loss, anemia and seizures. "The poor man is essentially a vegetable," said Dr. Norman Shumway, a Stanford University heart surgeon, several months before Schroeder died. Jack Burcham, a retired railroad engineer, received the last permanent implant at Louisville in April 1985and died only ten days later.

The first five test subjects in this highly publicized medical experiment in the United States lived for an average of nine months, but not particularly well.

What is perhaps most unfortunate about all the ballyhoo surrounding these experiments with a total artificial heart is that it has overshadowed more promising partial devices for supporting the human circulatory system. Although the Jarvik heart, produced by Symbion in Salt Lake City, Utah, has commanded all the attention, thereare blood pumps in the works that are considerably better. About a half-dozen Americancompanies are developing variations of a left ventricular assist device (LVAD or VAD), a partial artificial heart that aids but does not replace the real one.

A simpler device than the total artificial

.

ELECTAONIC CONTROLLER

IMPLANTED 8ATTERIES

The primary power source of a partial artificial heart designed by the Novacor Medical Corporation of Oakland, California, is electromagnetic current running between a plate worn on the belt and another directly opposite it, which is implanted with the pump.

heart, the VAD poses somewhat less risk of clotting. More important, with some VAD designs the patient is more mobile, not tethered to a bulky compressor. At least one VAD does not require tubes or wires passing through the skin; it runs on a battery pack that is implanted with the device, and has a second power system that runs by electromagnetism passing through the skin between a plate worn on the belt and one in the device itself.

The ventricular assist device, which is now being tested on animals, could be ready for human use within two or three years. Cardiovascular researchers in the United States believe that it could benefit far more people than the Jarvik-7.

When the U.S. Congress approved funds for an Artificial Heart Program in 1964, it set an overly optimistic goal of developing

a completely implantable mechanical heart replacement by 1970. From an initial budget of $580,000, the program quickly grew, with contracts and research grants averaging $10 million to $12 million a year for more than a decade. Researchers, however, encountered numerous technical and biological difficulties, some unforeseen.

The pump had to be small enough to fit inside a chest cavity, force 6.5 liters of blood through the human circulatory system each minute and 'function flawlessly for 40 million beats per year. Made of metal alloys and synthetic materials, the heart had to have "biocompatibility," so that its inner surfaces didn't damage blood cells. It could contain no spaces where blood components could collect and clot.

Power systems posed an even greater problem. The heat generated by a nuclear system would have been ideal. But the notion of 100,000 Americans walking around with 20 grams of plutonium 238 in each of their chests, shielded by a metal housing, was unnerving. There was concern about the public safety in the case of, say, an auto accident involving a patient, and even about the possibility of the plutonium being obtained by terrorists for use in weapons. The idea was abandoned in the early 1970s.

This left three possibilities: a pneumatic drive, in which air from a large compressor outside the body would be used as a pump; implanted electrical drives powered by a small external battery pack or a combination of internal and external batteries; and a pump run by thermal energy, which would require electrical recharging every eight to ten hours. The Jarvik-7, as it turned out, adopted the easier system to build: the pneumatic pump.

The problems with the Jarvik-7 were not unforeseen. In 1981, when Clark was just a golf-playing retired dentist and the untried device first became the subject of intensive news-media hype, a San Francisco cardio-

vascular surgeon conceded that young Dr. Robert Jarvik had a pretty sound design. "It's a good heart and it might pump quite well," said the surgeon. "But it's bad medicine."

It was bad medicine, he insisted, because a desperate patient might not fully understand the reality of being tethered to a refrigerator-size power unit for the rest of his life, despite the explicit warnings in a consent form. "Even in a ground-breaking operation," said the surgeon, "there has to be some chance of the patient walking away."

A major problem stemmed from thrombi, components of blood that clustered into solid masses within the Jarvik-7.

Breaking free, the thrombi blocked cerebral arteries, causing strokes. Persistent bleeding and systemic imbalances related to cardiovascular function also plagued the artificial-heart patients.

The U.S. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) has always regarded ventricular assist devices as a necessary first step to development of an efficient artificial heart. The Jarvik -7 was thus an aberration, out of phase with more than 20 years of investigation and development that has been carefully funded by the institute. Jarvik went forward without the VAD building block and used antiquated technology.

Designed functionally to augment the left ventricle-where the effects of heart disease most often appear-an electrically powered VAD has several advantages over a total artificial heart. Blood flowing from the left ventricle into the device is synchronized to the natural pumping of the heart.

Thus, and because the heart is left largely intact, its normal physiological responses to exercise and emotion are retained.

Mechanical failure in a total, pneumatically powered heart is catastrophic; if the pump or compressor fails, the patient is dead. A VAD with external or internal batteries has some redundancy. Moreover, should both fail, residual function of the natural heart provides further backupperhaps enough for the patient to reach a hospital.

Electrical and thermal-powered VAD systems also give the patient mobility. The lightweight battery packs transmit electromagnetic energy through transformer coils, one implanted and the other worn externally. This obviates the need for wires or tubes that have to be inserted through the skin, leaving the patient vulnerable to infections.

While a total artificial heart means a total commitment to the machine, VADs have other therapeutic and temporary uses.

In 1983, for example, between 1,000 and 1,500 patients undergoing open-heart surgery in America could not be weaned from a heart-lung machine, and died. This marvelous device circulates and oxygenates blood, but after a few hours begins to destroy cells, thus damaging body tissues.

When the heart fails to respond after surgery, or is sluggish, or goes into shock, a heart-lung machine cannot long sustain a patient. A VAD, however, can be hooked up for a few hours or many days, allowing the heart to "rest" or recover from the trauma.

When initially used for post-surgical salvage attempts, VADs had a very low success rate, mainly because of. federal government protocols: The device could be employed only after other, prescribed measures were taken. By then the patient was almost dead. Protocols have since been loosened, allowing physicians to intervene

earlier with an assist device. The results have been commensurately better.

Ventricular assist devices have also been used successfully in America as "bridges to transplants." Over the past three and a half years, the Berkeley-based Thoratec Laboratories Corporation's pneumatic VAD has been used in 160 patients, 50 of whom are still living and four others are convalescing; 13 were successful transplant cases.

Furthermore, the VAD can also serve as a right ventricular assist device. A pair of them can do essentially the same job as a total artificial heart, while leaving most of the real heart intact. The fact is that while a total heart may be the ideal, VADs would suffice for the majority of patients needing mechanical circulatory support.

Perhaps the most promising VAD in the United States is the electrically powered Novacor Heart Assist System, built by the Novacor Medical Corporation of Oakland, California. Evaluations of its temporary applications are under way at Stanford, Johns Hopkins and St. Louis universities. The Novacor pump has been successfully used to sustain a patient until a donor heart became available, and it has been used in animals for up to eight months without thrombosis complications. And yet, while these tests have involved external power sources and wires leading through Below left: The pump for the Novacor Heart Assist System. Pioneered by Dr. Peer Portner (below center) and Dr. Philip E. Oyer (below right), the device is perhaps the most promising of partial artificial hearts being designed in the United States. Shown on the facing page is the Jarvik-7-a total man-made heart that has been described as "a good heart" but "bad medicine."

the skin, the Novacor's real promise is in its battery-pack power system.

With a "belt skin transformer," energy from batteries is transmitted across intact skin to the implanted V AD. According to Dr. Peer Portner, the company's founder and president, "The external components can also be removed for short periods, to enable such activities as bathing and swimming, while the internal batteries supply sufficient energy to the system. We believe that this tether-free configuration will provide a much higher quality oflife and lower risk of infection in permanent applications than the first-generation, pneumatically powered devices that require a percutaneous connection to an external air compressor. " In cooperation with Stanford University, Novacor is now conducting animal tests on the battery-pack power system.

"The pumps are fabricated and the power system is ready, and now all we have to do isput the two together and conduct 15 to 20 successful animal studies," reports Dr. Philip E. Oyer, a Stanford professor of cardiovascular surgery. "That will take a year or two, after which, if all goes well, we'll be ready for humans."

Oyer and Portner have moved slowly and methodically on the heart-assist system. "We prefer to be cautious until we are positive the thing is going to work," says Oyer. "It's like our heart and heart-lung transplant programs.

We simply don't want to put LV ADs in 50 people and watch them die."

Each year roughly a million people in the United States die from heart attacks or heart disease-almost half of all deaths.

Direct medical and indirect lost-work costs amount to an estimated $72,000 million a year. There are about 2.5 million people

suffering from congestive heart failure, the main base of candidates for a mechanical circulatory-support system.

According to a 1985 study by the NHLBI, an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Americans could be candidates for a lifesaving mechanical blood pump. Assuming that the devices work well, forecasters figure on an average post-implantation survival rate of 4.5 years. With an estimated cost of implantation and maintenance for each patient running to about $150,000 at 1983 prices, the total cost to society could range from~2,500 million to $5,000 million per year. The cost of a ventricular assist device is about the same as that of a total heart. "This is roughly in the same range as heart transplants," says Dr. Peter Frommer, deputy director of the NHLBI. For perspective, consider that the cost of treating a fire victim with burns covering 60 percent of his or her body usually exceeds $100,000 in the United States, and that the overall cost of inpatient management of an adolescent with a major psychotic disorder has been estimated at $185,000. Society generally deems such rehabilitation a worthy expenditure. Whether four years of life on an artificial heart is worth $150,000 is another matter.

At the moment, the most effective last resort for a patient with a failing heart is a transplant with a real heart. More than 1,500 grafts have been done in the United States, with increasing success, thanks to the introduction of the anti-rejection drug cyclosporine.

Perhaps more important, careful selection of patients and better. matching between donor and recipient tissues have reduced the prospects of rejection. Using stringent standards, Stanford University has had excellent results with its transplantation program. Of the more than 380 patients grafted there in the past 18 years, nearly half are still alive. More than 80 percent lived for at least a year and 40 percent have survived for five years with relative freedom.

The strict health, age, family and compatibility criteria that make the program successful, however, clearly limit the number of candidates. And the supply of donor organs will always be limited. A recent Batelle Institute study suggests that there are fewer than 1,000 suitable donor hearts potentially available in the United States each year, and not all families of brain-dead donors agree to the procedure.

Many patients die while waiting for a heart.

Because of this, the case for developing the

artificial heart is based largely on its potential use as a bridge to sustain a failing heart until a donor is found, which averages more than ten days.

For some patients whose heart disease is far advanced and who cannot get a transplant, a total mechanical heart may one day be feasible. The NHLBI remains committed to developing both technologies.

Since the complications of the Jarvik-7 have been well publicized, however, its proponents may have a hard time finding patients willing to accept it. In fact, there is evidence that patients are increasingly wary of the artificial heart, even when it is considered only as a bridge. At the Arizona Health Sciences Center in Tucson, Dr. Jack Copeland explains that most patients now refuse a temporary artificial heart. "They worry about bleeding, strokes and kidney failure," he says.

Some financial investors are worried, too. Most of the American companies developing VADs and power systems receive money from the NHLBI, but also require venture capital.

"There's no question that the total heart captured the media," says Jim McCamant, editor

of Medical Technology Stock Letter. "In the initial stages it made it easier for everyone, including the VAD developers, to raise money. But the negative reaction to the Jarvik-7 has created a kind of hangover effect."

Thoratec, a thinly capitalized company to begin with, had serious financial difficulties last summer. And Portner concedes that the Jarvik-7 fallout has hurt Novacor, too, though he insists that "it's nothing we can't survive and overcome." Oyer, on the other hand, is concerned about delays and lack of private and government funding.

"Novacor needs much more money than the NHLBI gives," says Oyer. "Right now they are providing about $1.5 million per year, but to really develop this thing to its optim~m potential, about two or three times that amount is needed. Budgets have¡ been cut and the project is stringing along as best it can."

Some sophisticated investors are now convinced that the Jarvik-7 does not repre'sent the future of mechanical blood pumps.

"The VAD has useful applications that the total heart doesn't," argues McCamant, "and it's clear that the partial heart will 0 have a bigger market."

About the Author: Jay Stuller is a San Franciscobased free-lance writer.

WOMEN EXECUTIVES

Substance Plus Style

To be successful in the upper reaches of management in the United States, women executives must prove themselves better than their male counterparts. They must be as good as men in their business skills and yet make sure that they seem neither too masculine nor too feminine. individuals, men and women executives seem to be virtually identical psychologically, intellectually and emotionally. But the similarity ends there. Women in the executive ranks, or even at the middle-management level in most large American corporations, confront two sets of demanding, sometimes contradictory expectations that reflect the dual roles they playas women in business and in society as a whole.

Over the years, many people in the United States have argued that the abilities and attitudes of male managers are very different from those of female managers. Historically, the perceived differences have been used to keep women out of management. Butnow it has become fashionable to say that the differences are beneficial, that women will complement men in the management ranks and bring a healthy balance to business.

The basis for claiming differences between male and female managers-whether used to exclude or encourage women-is suspect at best. Sometimes no data are given to back up such claims, only a few examples and opinions. When data analysis is used to support differences, it is often based on comparing women and men in general, or those from other occupational groups or at lower management levels.

The few studies that have looked at American women and men in comparable managerial roles have discovered more similarities

A

than differences, according to a recent report by CatalY'5t, a nonprofit, New York-based organization that helps corporations to foster the career and leadership development of women.

At the American Center for Creative Leadership-a nonprofit educational institution established in 1970 to study and enhance leadership-we also found very few personality differences between male and female executives. In connection with our study we searched our data bank of test scores taken from thousands of managers and professionals who have participated in American management development programs from 1978 to 1986. The tests measure personality dimensions, intelligence and behavior in problem-solving groups.

The executive women and men scored similarly on most measures. Based on behavioral exercises that were conducted and scored by professional staff during our programs, we found that women are just as able as men to lead, influence and motivate other group members, to analyze problems and to be task-oriented and verbally effective.

Despite these similarities, women are not making the same progress as men in the American executive ranks. Among the Fortune-500companies [an annual listing of the top U.S. corporations by Fortune magazine], only 1.7 percent of the corporate officers are women, according to a 1986 study.

To get a closer look at how women's movement up the corporate ladder compares with men's, we compared female managers from our recent study composed of interviews with 76 women at or near the general management level with male general managers from another study done at the Center for Creative Leadership.

We also interviewed 22 "savvy insiders" at ten of the same companies-16 men and six women who are responsible for identifying and selecting executives for top jobs. Both studies looked at the various factors that contribute to success or derailment among executives.

Our criteria for success included reaching one of the top ten to 20 positions in the corporation and living up to one's full potential in the eyes of the company. Derailment was defined as achieving a very high level in the company, but not going as high as the organization had expected. Derailed women may have plateaued, been demoted or fired, accepted early retirement or had their responsibilities reduced.

The savvy insiders were asked to come up with an example of a woman they knew who had made it and an example of one who had derailed. They described the qualities and characteristics that had helped or hurt these women, and we compiled the most frequently mentioned answers into a list of success factors and fatal flaws. The insiders gave us case histories on 19 women who were considered successful and 16 who had derailed.

The insiders in both studies listed roughly the same number of derailment factors for women and men (four for women on the average, 3.5 for men), but they listed nearly twice as many success factors for women (10.4 on average versus 5.7 for men). This finding may add to the evidence that to progress in today's corporate world, women must outperform men.

The women described to us as successful and as derailed were put through a number of hoops as they progressed up the corporate ladder. They had to show their toughness and independence and at the same time depend on others. It was essential that they contradict the stereotypes that their male bosses and coworkers had about women. They had to be seen as different, "better than women" as a group. But they couldn't go too far and forfeit all traces of femininity because that would make them too alien to their superiors and colleagues. In essence, their mission was to do what was not expected of them, while doing enough of what was expected of them as women to gain acceptance.

The standards held out for women in, or aspiring to, executive jobs often require contradictory types of behavior at the same time. This narrow band of acceptable characteristics and actions reflects the multiple expectations of corporate women and the challenge they face of blending very disparate qualities. It is clear that much behavioral territory is off-limits to executive women.

Only certain characteristics traditionally accepted as "masculine" and some traditionally thought of as "feminine" are permitted through the narrow band.

The unacceptable area comprises the extremes that would make an executive woman too much like traditional nonprofessional women or too much lik,e women trying too hard to be like men.

"Trying to talk and behave like a man can come across as not genuine,'; one insider said about mistakes some women make.

Certain "male" kinds of behavior are not only allowed but required. Some savvy insiders wanted to see toughness demonstrated by a woman on an executive track because they believe, as a rule, that women are not tough enough to handle the job.

Sometimes people require executive women to be more "masculine" than men in certain ways to be accepted. One woman said that the chief executive officer told her, "You're tougher than most of the men around here. Can't you go find some more of you?"

We have identified four contradictory sets of expectations that women must reconcile to succeed in corporate life.

Take risks, but be consistently outstanding.

The senior executives put great value on risk taking, and for good reasons. Risk often is the name of the game at the top. Top managers are responsible for huge sums of money and thousands of jobs and must make countless decisions about whether to invest or divest, compete or retreat, change or grow, all with only a fuzzy feel for the years ahead when the results of those decisions will become apparent. Taking risks early in one's career is often necessary preparation to be considered for top jobs.

A big element of risk taking is changing jobs and taking on new assignments. One savvy insider felt that this was a critical career turning point for highly promotable women: "Taking a job in a different part of the business broadens your experience base and shows risk-taking ability."

Taking risks such as job changes and new assignments early in her career is necessary preparation for a woman to get top jobs.

In 14 of 19 success cases described by savvy insiders, a risky job change was mentioned specifically. Such risky job changes included tough transitions from academia to industry; deliberate attempts tt') broaden one's perspective and knowledge by moving into such areas as finance, employee relations and information services; and the all important move from a staff position to a line position-a move that usually involved going from having responsibility for analysis, service or support to having clear responsibility for profit and loss, implementation and bottom-line decision making. Some involved a technical area with which the manager was unfamiliar.

Perhaps risk taking means more to executives when exhibited by a woman than by a man, since women are often seen as averse to taking risks. In fact, some see women's reluctance to take risks as a barrier to their moving up. Being too "by the book" and cautious were cited by some of the savvy insiders as weaknesses of women.

To achieve a breadth of experience in the business, women must take more risks than men do. The career moves that the successful women we studied had made-from staff to line positions, moving away from headquarters and so on-had elements of risk that probably would not have existed to the same extent for men.

Moving into line positions, for example, involved not only the challenge of new demands but also a more hostile, less tolerant environment. The risk for a woman sometimes involves giving up a promotion in her staff function, where her presence is less threatening, to enter a new part of the business, peyhaps at a lower

level, where she may be as welcome as the plague and the possibility of promotion may be slim.

Women are also expected to be extremely competent, often even more competent than men in various arenas, such as turning around a department, handling the media, running a business, managing subordinates and chairing a task force.

In general, any candidate for a top job has to be good, but these women were more than good. Some senior executives acknowledged that successful women were at least as good as the best men available for the job.

Because of the visibility of the few women in high management ranks, there is little leeway for mistakes, little allowance for weaknesses. The successful women impressed senior executives with their intelligence and business acumen, their no-nonsense, bottom-line orientation, their strategic perspective and their management prowess. Women who do merely an acceptable job, let alone a less-than-average job, may be pulled off the track.

Women get little compensation for the greater risks they take in advancing their careers. Their performance must be outstanding, whatever the degree of difficulty. If career advancement can be likened to an Olympic diving competition, the dives performed by women would have a higher degree of difficulty than the men's, yet thejudges would not follow the customary procedure of factoring the degree of difficulty into their scores.

Be tough, but don't be macho.

Toughness is another characteristic that savvy insiders said they like to see in executive women. They praised the willingness of successful women to make decisions, to call the shots in a fastmoving business and to take a tough stand. The successful women demanded results from their subordinates, fought for a bigger budget for their unit or said what they really thought and did what they needed to do to avoid compromising their personal integrity.

Being cool under pressure was another characteristic of successful women noted by savvy insiders: "She doesn't fall apart when things get tough."

"She has great cool under pressure. In 50 corporate meetings, I've only seen her lose her cool twice. Most people would lose it one time out of every five. She's very controlled."

Being tougher and not prone to collapse in crises makes these women seem different, which is necessary for them to be considered for high-level jobs. Doing what it takes to show a profit, taking the initiative and defending one's resources are admirable, even necessary actions of a high-potential executive. Even such superficial characteristics as being tall-which was said to help give one woman personal dominance and a commanding presence-are sometimes admired because they suggest that these are tough individuals.

While many men fear that women are not tough enough to handle big business, the desire for these women to act "like women" still lingers. Toughness, for example, is sometimes qualified or limited to "tough, but not offensive" or "demure, yet tough." And when ~e look at those who derailed, there is more evidence that being too tough is the kiss of death. One 40-year-old woman with an MBA and an excellent track record was recruited from another company some years ago into a job that was a step toward moving her into general management, at an annual salary of $75,000. Despite her potential, problems developed that made her unacceptable for that critical promotion.

She couldn't adapt to the environment she was in-an "old

boy" type of business with older workers who were suspicious and judgmental. She was apparently too willing to be tough and too good at it. Her macho style and her push for perks made her seem too hard and demanding. Some of her business decisions contributed to this image. For example, she got three assignments in a row that took her away from headquarters to assess business units that were not performing up to par. In each case, her conclusion was that the business was a loser and should be closed down. "She got stereotyped," we were told. "There's 'growth,' 'maintenance' and 'close it.' She was a 'close it' person-take a lot of people out of work and reduce costs. It didn't increase her popularity."

Somewhere in between extremes is a relatively safe zone to which some successful women apparently confine themselves, where they are obviously female and easy to be with but also strong-willed and thick-skinned enough to pass muster. As some insiders told us: "She's quite feminine, but she doesn't use it or let it get in the way."

"Her uniqueness is that she doesn't differ at all from men .... She plays it just like the men do, arid she's very comfortable doing it.

It's not contrived. It's very natural."

Be ambitious, but don't expect equal treatment.

Equal employment opportunity legislation in America put pressure on corporate executives to find and promote a woman, and the women they chose in their companies often turned out to be ones we interviewed. In most cases, that pressure provided these women with the avenue they needed to fulfill their own drive-the chance to take on challenging assignments, to progress higher in their company, even to experience the satisfaction and the trappings of success within the establishment.

Those who were given an opportunity to fill a high-level position were expected to put the job first, family second. Their

Women executives in America often feel that they have to make concessions in such areas as pay and their rate of advancement. strong desire to succeed was a crucial factor that senior executives looked for in designating high-potential women.

"The personal drive and determination to succeed, the willing-. ness to persist and work hard to achieve and a total commitment to career as the top priority in life" were some of the necessary qualities one insider shared with us.

The willingness to be mobile and to devote themselves to their company, despite the cultural obligations to marry, run a household and so on, was applauded and noted as a factor in the success of a number of executive women. But their ambition was not SQ well received when status and benefits were involved; the chance to show their stuff in a nontraditional management role had its price.

According to some we interviewed, being assigned the same responsibilities or the same title as men in the company did not mean that women received equal treatment in other respects. The

salary differential is the most obvious example. Salary surveys done over the past several years consistently show that women are still paid considerably less than men at their level, even in management jobs and despite having a Harvard University MBA. Even when salaries are the same, women are given smaller budgets than men in similar jobs. Inclusion in the bonus system, access to high-status conferences and a host of other benefits may also be skewed toward men.

The women who obtained an executive position often felt that they had to make other concessions, in such areas as pay, perquisites and their rate of advancement. As newly appointed members of the executive club, they were still treated as if they had lower status. The fact that some women derailed at least partly because they made an issue of inequality or simply asked for more payor perquisites corroborates the perception that women were tolerated in the club as junior members with fewer privileges than men had. "Wanting too much" was a flaw attributed to half of the derailed women in our study.

Take responsibility, but follow others' advice.

Accountability for business performance was emphasized repeatedly by savvy insiders as a necessary factor in executive success. Making difficult decisions, being practical, concentrating on mee~ing bottom-line goals and even accepting the duties of a

Some female executives find it important that people should be trusted, but only certain people. supervisory role were all mentioned as aspects of taking responsibility.

Another responsibility mentioned is managing one's own career. It is up to the individual herself to keep her career moving, to get wide experience and exposure to the right people, to get into mainstream positions and to get credit for her accomplishments.

But as with other business behavior, there are two sides to the coin. Senior executives expect women to decide what they want and go for it. On the other hand, if their decisions and wants don't match what the executives want for them, problems often result.

Senior executives sometimes seem to expect women to accept whatever advice and opportunities they offer, to do as they are told regarding career moves. For example, proposing an alternative to a promotion offered or trying to negotiate the terms instead of automatically accepting them was considered an affront by some senior executives.

Others that we spoke to regarded taking advice and criticism as a strong, positive factor in the struggle of women to adapt to the workplace: "She had a tendency to get visibly upset if something was happening that she didn't like and also to be very defensive. I spoke to her about the first problem, and she changed. One of her great assets is the ability to listen and make changes."

Responding to this particular feedback was probably a good decision by this woman. Not all of the advice that female executives encounter is that clear, however. Several female execu-

tives said that it is important to trust people but only certain people. Some also said they came to understand that others' motives are not the same as your own; when others offer help, it mayor may not be to your advantage to accept it or even to believe they are trying to be helpful.

Although the assistance that women received from senior executives in getting new opportunities was vital to their career, these women also realized that they had to choose what was best for themselves and not always depend on others to know what that was. They often had to rock the boat-to turn down high-level staff positions for lower-level line positions, to make an issue of opportunities for career advancement or tuition reimbursement to attend an executive program-to get what they needed instead of what was offered to them.

One interesting finding from our interviews with savvy insiders was that only the men mentioned the willingness to listen to feedback as a success factor for women. Perhaps senior men feel a greater need than senior women to counsel up-and-coming female executives. Or perhaps men see the willingness of women to make changes based on their advice as an indication of women's accepting junior status in the executive club, which may make them easier to be around. Whatever the case, women are left with the tough decisions about what advice to solicit, from whom and what to do about the advice they obtain. The problems that women confront are not for the faint-hearted.

They represent battles to be waged throughout a career, battles that get a great deal of corporate attention.

Men who choose to pursue the executive ranks are also tested and succeed or fail for many of the same reasons women do. And there are groups of men who experience some of the same biases and pressures as women. Hurdles that keep minority managers out of top jobs in the United States, according to the Wall Street Journal and other sources, are not unlike those that women facehaving to work harder and longer than white men to get the same things, being sidetracked into staff jobs and being isolated.

Relatives of company leaders also may be isolated, the target of other workers' hostility and suspected of insufficient abilities.

Despite these similarities, the hurdles for women in management seem to be bigger and more numerous. Men typically do not have responsibility for home and family care, so they have some relief from the time, worry and conflicting expectations that are part of such pressure.

Women in management experience the special hoopla that they do because executive women and men have been perceived as more different from each other than they really are. Mounting evidence indicates that, when careers are matched, women are remarkably similar to men in their characteristics, abilities and motives. Yet stereotypical perceptions have led to unrealistic expectations for executive women, and these expectations are part of the environment in which the wemen must work and live. This environment is qualitatively different from the environment executive men operate in, and this difference may be the crucial-and the only meaningful-one between male and female executives.

0 About the Authors: Ann M. Morrison is director of the Centerfor Creative Leadership in San Diego. Randall P. White is head of strategic management in the Center's training division. Ellen Van Velsor is a sociologist in the Center's special programs division. This article is adaptedfrom their book,

Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Can Women Reach the Top of America's Largest Corporations?

I

ADaughler~s F lh a er

wasapplying for a passport for my l8-month-old daughter when I froze at the marital-status question. Give

tho kid a chanco, I thought, sho's still in

diapers. But the question haunted me for days. I recognized the feeling, which first appeared soon after Annie was born. But it wasn't until that day at the passport office that I began to focus on just how radically my outlook has changed simply because my child is a female.

I grew up in a house of five sons-six men, counting my father. My mother was the only woman around. I had no idea what little girls did, no real sense of the toys they played with, the emotions they expressed.

Still, my wife and I spent nearly nine months sincerely telling those who askedalmost everyone did-that all we wanted was a healthy baby, its sex didn't matter.

Many men expected me to admit that I really wanted a boy. But I honestly didn't care. I suspect that uncertainty about my own parenting skills had me secretly hoping for a girl. That way, my wife could deal with the delicate issues sure to come.

I thought a generation of feminists had me firmly convinced that sex must not dictate a person's role, or toys. But Barbie dolls, dresses and lace are now, all of a sudden, a part of my life. Next will come curlers and training bras. And they seem so right, far better than M-16 rifles and camouflage uniforms. Perhaps, deep down, I was never fully swayed by the movement.

Annie already digs into my wife's jewelry box the way I played in my father's tool chest. Yes, this little girl has me confused.

During dinner the other day, I realized I didn't know how to coax her to eat. "Eat this and you'll grow up to be big and strong"-a standard in my boyhood home-just doesn't seem appropriate for a female child.

The difficult years are sure to be adolescence. I don't know how I'll fare, because everything I know about teenage girls I learned as an aspiring boyfriend. Now I will be the father whom I dreaded to meet in my dates' living rooms. Will I be cold and suspicious or warm and friendly? More importantly, will I embarrass my daughter and her dates? Or myself?

This is so foreign to me. So long as my brothers and I looked "presentable," as my

On becoming the father of a girl, the author is surprised at how radically his outlook on life has changed simply because his child is female.

father put it, he took little interest in our wardrobes. But how will I rule on my daughter's first bikini, I wonder. One recent sunny Sunday afternoon, as my wife and I were sitting at an outdoor cafe, two teenage girls walked by. One was dressed in a skimpy pink miniskirt with a half-cut top and the other in jeans and a T-shirt. They looked great, chic and sexy as they strolled along swinging their purses, popping their gum and giggling. Two anxious boys followed close behind them. "How old do you think they are?" I asked my wife. "Twelve or 13," she replied. I realized that the "daughter's father" had suddenly eclipsed the veteran voyeur in me. Obviously, my clothing-screening days are closer than I had imagined.

I will never forget the cynical words of an experienced "daughter's father" when I asked him what it's like to raise a girl.

"When you have a son," my friend said, chomping on his cigar, "you only have to worry about one guy. If you have a daughter, you have to worry about every guy in town."

Having a daughter has made me reexamine my own attitudes toward women's issues. As I hear about the tribulations of single women, childless couples and infertility, I often wonder whom Annie will marry, or if she will marry at all. Will she have children? Will she follow in her mother's footsteps, successfully-brilliantly-juggling a career, a marriage and motherhood? Or will she opt for the role her mother now often considers, staying at home to be with, nurture and teach her children? I tell myself I don't care whether Annie has a career or decides to be a

housewife. But it does matter to others.

Others have decided there are just some things that Annie will never be allowed to be. She will never be a National Football League quarterback. She will have to settle for cheerleader. She can't be a priest, either, though that doesn't really bother me. And, despite the breakthroughs of today's women, the odds weigh heavily against her winning the President's chair in the White House or one of those on the bench of the United States Supreme Court.

What really matters is what those roadblocks represent. The fact is, she will receive-and may sometimes need-official protection from society, from governments and, once I step aside, from men: strangers or friends, her husband, sons or lovers.

Annie was born into the so-called weaker sex, and it doesn't matter whether that's the result of society's prejudices or the reality of the architecture of the female.

All my concerns came out the night we spent at the local hospital emergency room.

Annie had fallen at a restaurant. She was jumping up and down on her booster chair when the chair toppled. She followed it to the floor, hitting her eyebrow on the corner of the table.

The trauma was long gone by the time we got someone to look at the small gash above her right eye. As we waited for attention, my wife and I inspected the wound, never really fearing serious complications. We were more concerned that Annie might be scarred for life.

I was relieved that the attending physician was a woman who quickly admitted she shared our concern. There we were, the three of us-two professional, liberated women and I-agreeing that a scar would matter a Jot more because the patient was a girl. After a few minutes, Annie was stitched up and we were on our way home.

That was several weeks ago. The wound is now healed, the stitches gone, and Annie has a new bruise on her head, the result of another fall. But there remains a little red mark above her right eye. And everyday I wonder whether it will go away. Or whether I'll hire a plastic surgeon and have it fixed.

0 About the Author: Richard Sandza is a national security correspondent for Newsweek magazine.

Home Delivery When my mother started having babies 30 years ago, obstetrics in America was in a kind of dark ages. The doctor was God then, and women were little more than containers from whom babies were extracted at the end of a nine-month holding period. My mother, like many of her generation, gave birth under general anesthesia and all of us were kept separated from her for hours afterward.

Things began to change in the late 1960s and early 1970s as several major social forces-feminism, holistic health, the prepared childbirth movements-gathered strength across the nation. As women began to be responsible for their own health and well-being, a return to natural childbirth and breast-feeding was almost inevitable.

Growing up in those halcyon days was a privilege. By the time I started thinking about having babies (I married an Indian in 1979at the age of 21), I was able to take for granted that my husband would be with me in the delivery room, that I would deliv:er naturally and have my baby immediately, that I would breas!-feed on demand and be out of the hospital quickly.

The author, an American, recounts her two experiences of giving birth to a baby-one in a hospital in America and the other at home in India.

She is seen here with her husband Ravi Chopra, their home-born d~ughter Cathleen Kavita and their first child Anand.

By the time I actually got pregnant (four years later), however, I had joined the increasing numbers of American women who believed that even these givens were not enough. In spite of all good intentions, hospital staff tend to treat a normal labor and delivery as a crisis just waiting to happen. With this perspective, unnecessary and often dangerous interventions are commonplace-so much so that some large American hospitals boast an incredible 50 percent cesarean rate.

With this in mind, a small but growing number of couples in the United States are choosing to have their babies at home,

assisted by trained midwives and, usually, with backup arrangements at a local hospital should an emergency arise.

It is not, however, simply an antihospital sentiment motivating such people. On the contrary, it is much more a positive choice for the home and all that it can offer. It is only in the home that a woman is entirely free to choose her own style of labor and the position for delivery. But perhaps more important is the knowledge that at home the baby will be welcomed in the way the parents see fit. It is, no doubt, too much to ask that hospitals (for whom birth is just something that happens n number of times each day) respond to each newborn as the unique creation he or she is, but the fact is that to the parents the baby is both singular and miraculous.

In recent years, much has been written about what birth must be like for the baby.

Perhaps the most influential work has been done by Dr. Frederick Leboyer, a French obstetrician whose experience with traditional midwives here in India transformed his practice and his life. According to him, the newborn baby is extraordinarily sensi-

the strange ways of Americans, agreed to tiveand must be handled with the utmost our request. And, Dr. Shobha Misra, a care. The "Leboyer method" is now well friend and a specialist in community mediknown all over the West and involves muted lights and silence at the time of cine, returned from England at about the same time and promised to assist as well. delivery, a warm water bath for the infant My due date was December 25, but since and then light, gentle massage by the Anand had been two weeks late, we didn't mother. Many parents find this "formula" expect a Christmas baby. Nevertheless, we too rigid and adapt it to fit their own had everything organized by that day: supsituations, but its essential truth is wellplies (antiseptic lotion, sterile cloths, a muappreciated: the baby is a living, feeling cous extractor for the baby, an electric person from the moment of birth-perhaps never more so as then. Many parents who heater for the birth room, flashlights, a want to be certain that this truth is rebasin to catch the placenta) were laid out in readiness, the room was thoroughly spected feel that their best option is to have cleaned and all the friends who were to babies at home. participate were on alert.

Home birth is not a decision for everyone, nor one that can be taken lightly.

Actually, one of the nicest things about a Parents who do choose it soon find that a home birth is the extent to which friends great deal of preparation is required of and family can take part. We were moved by all the help we received in those days. them. Things that the hospital would norOne of our dearest friends, Jenny, an 18mally provide become one's own responsibility. When my husband, Ravi, and I year-old girl from America, spent the entire decided to have our first baby at home (we summer working so she could earn enough were living in Boston at the time), we money to come to India and take care of Anand while I was in labor and then run worked with a midwife whose attitude was the house while I rested after the delivery. that she was simply a resource person for Our upstairs neighbor made sure his an experience that was essentially in our control. We made arrangements to attend scooter was full of petrol every evening so prepared childbirth classes, organized he could run out at a minute's notice should anything need to be bought from backup provisions with an ambulance serthe market. The woman next door told us vice and a local hospital in case of an we could use her phone at any time of the emergency and, several weeks before my day or night. Another couple offered to due date, collected all the necessary supcome with their car while I was in labor so plies for the birth. that in the event of an emergency they I ended up, however, giving birth in the hospital. After ten hours of labor at home, could drive me to the hospital. They also volunteered to buy vegetables and milk for my baby's heartbeat dropped alarmingly low and the midwives advised transfer. us, and take care of any guests. For the last two weeks of my pregnancy, not a day went Anand was born normally and in perfect health 20 minutes after our arrival. The by without at least four or five people dropping in to enquire if there was anyexperience illustrated for us how well the thing we needed. home birth system can work: emergencies I finally went into labor on the evening of can be recognized and dealt with, if not in the home, then by transfer to the hospital.

January 4. I had mild contractions for several hours, but so regularly that we When I became pregnant for the second began to let ourselves believe this might time, we had returned to India and were really be it. The excitement mounted as we living in aDDA flat in New Delhi. We were made last-minute preparations in the birthquite anxious to try again for a home birth, ing room and in the kitchen (Ravi made up but a bit less hopeful about finding a doctor a big jug of nimbupani for me to drink or midwife willing to attend on us. Alduring labor and I baked a birthday cake though in fact most women in India do still deliver at home, very few trained atten- . for the new baby). By 10 p.m. we decided to call Dr. Shobha Misra. Ravi went to pick dants believe this to be a good situation. her up while I got Anand ready for bed.

The first obstetrician I spoke to was When Ravi returned with Dr. Misra, we aghast at the very idea of a home birth, and had a cup of tea and were in bed by 11:30. the second, while not opposed in principle, Ravi went to sleep immediately, but I said she just wasn't set up for it. But on my found it impossible. The contractions inthird try, I was successful. Dr. Mangala creased in intensity, and I woke him up at Telang, who had done her training in New 1:30 to help me with the breathing exerYork and Boston and was accustomed to

cises. As soon as he got up, everything became easier and I soon realized how completely dependent I was on him: ifhe as much as took his eyes off me, I panicked.

Although the contractions themselves were quite difficult, this labor felt much easier than at the time of Anand's birth.

With him, the contractions were every two minutes for the entire labor period. This time, I often had as much as ten minutes to recover from one contraction before tackling the next one. Because of this, however, we felt things could not possibly be progressing much and I decided to try walking in an effort to speed them up.

I paced up and down the living room, chatting every now and then with my son and with Jenny, admiring the Christmas tree each time I passed it and then coming to a complete stop to hold on to Ravi whenever a contraction came. By 9 a.m. I was quite tired and both of us were a bit discouraged. It all seemed so easy v,r; felt that I must still be in early labor al:,! ,hdt this could go on for hours stilL I decided I had to rest for a whil and we went into the bedroom. The moment I lay down I had the most amaZIng contraction-it seemed to burn right through me and last forever. As soon as it was over, I felt the baby's head move down and I knew, though I couldn't believe it, that I would soon be pushing.

Dr. Misra checked me, said I was almost fully dilated, and began to make final arrangements for the birth. Dr. Telang arrived soon after and at about 10 a.m. I began pushing. This was the only really unpleasant part of my entire labor (I pushed to the tune of "Never Again. Never Again."), but also the most exciting. I was positioned in such a way that I could see my baby's head, and with each push I could see a little more.

Finally, at 10:42, I made that last great effort and there she was-Cathleen Kavita, all blue and gray, and then magically, as we w.atched, turning rosy and pink. A daughter, a miracle. We laughed and cried and I reached down to pick her up even before the umbilical cord was cut. She gave one little squeak and then stopped as I held her.

Within an hour I had bathed and changed and was back in bed nursing her, my son and my husband beside us, our friends around the room, all of us eating birthday cake and gazing at Kavita quite overwhelmed with delight.

D About the Autbor: Jo McGowan is a New Delhibased free-lance

writer.

A death brought a nightmare to life for me, the kind that is difficult to flee. Most of us have dreamed of running from some awful dread, on feet that seem encased in leaden shoes.

I was watching a pathologist perform an autopsy on a man who had drowned at Newburgh, New York. The lungs, when exposed, were blotchy with stiff dark spots. "Ah," I observed, "a smoker."

"Not necessarily," said soft-spoken Dr. Torrence Payne, as he continued unhurried incisions. "Those are deposits of carbon.

Virtually everyone has lungs like that after their mid-40s if they've lived in or near an urban area." Another dying, far distant, drove the nightmare home. Germans call it Waldsterben, or forest dying, in which conifers weep needles and beeches grow bald with premature aging. In January I stood on a snow-covered slope east of Cologne and looked at Norway spruces with skeletal outlines.

"Normally they shed old needles after seven years, but look at this one," said forester Dieter Deumling, pointing to an anemic specimen as we crunched across deep snow to a low, barren branch.

According to West German scientists, the trees are being stressed by air pollution. Perhaps by sulfurous clouds from powergenerating smokestacks. By the breath of automobile exhausts and metallic compounds drifting from a smelter. By all of these and more, coming sometimes from hundreds of kilometers away and, like the carbon in human lungs, having a cumulative effect.

Scientists debate the role of pollution in killing trees-how it works in conjunction with onslaughts of insects, disease, or climate changes. Most agree, however, that airborne pollutants playa significant role.

In other areas dirty air is held even more culpable. Man-made monuments that have endured for thousands of years are now being rapidly eaten away. In the American West spectacular vistas are fading behind an aerosol haze. Ozone resulting from automobile emissions annually reduces crop yields significantly, sometimes by as much as 20 percent of the soybean harvest.

What is not known about air pollution may be even more disturbing. We are in the midst of a chemical revolution in which some 65,000 commercial compounds enter our environment each

N02 As CO

NO

Hg Cd

Ni

/ SiF 2 . O~Hf 4 HOHO 01 6 2

fA

H S HO

j

/U3 i

HONO

PAN

HN03

H2S04

OR

Spirited protests from citizens of Douglas, Arizona (left center), led to the closure of the 85-year-old Phelps Dodge copper smelter (far left), which polluted the air with thick clouds of sulfur dioxide. But what worries citizens of Casmalia, California (left), is what they don't know. They suspect that a nearby toxic dump has flooded the town with hazardous fumes that are causing headaches, nausea and scratchy eyes.

year.Some are proven carcinogens--eancer-causing substanceshave no definitive proof that it is harmful," an official told me, "we andmany more are suspected of being so. Yet only eight chemicals also don't have proof that it is not." are listed as hazardous and are regulated at their source by the Dumping of liquid wastes was stopped, but the solids continU.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). ued. Casmalia residents believed the county supervisors were In a quiet valley near California's coast I watched a protest rally reluctant to give up revenue-nearly $3 million annually-reunfold in a school yard that has been emptied several times by ceived in fees from the dump. I called the director of state health nauseating fumes. Three kilometers north of the little town of services, Dr. Kenneth Kizer, who said, "Nobody wants toxic Casmalia,population about 200, a toxic waste dump lies hidden wastes nearby, but we have to base our decision on the informaby rolling foothills. For several years cast-off cyanide, oil-field tion we gather." acidsand industrial solvents were hauled there and left in open - Kizer's department finally decided that the dump posed no lagoons to evaporate. Local residents began complaining of imminent danger to citizens and would remain open, although more noxious smells and respiratory problems. Soon all unusual ail- closely monitored. "Clearly there have been problems," Kizer said, ments loomed large in the community's consciousness-nose"but we need more information before closing the dump."

Where our air is concerned, in Casmalia as in the rest of the bleeds,chronic diarrhea, a young teacher's death by leukemia. world, we livein an age of uncertainty. As damage from our aerial "On November 25, 1985, I had a metallic taste in my mouth and soup concerns us more and more, an alarmed public clamors for a queasy stomach," said Ken McCalip, principal of the twoteacherCasmalia Elementary School. "The other teacher told me answers and action, Both are slow in coming. shewas too sick to teach. We dismissed for the day."

The county health office urged closing the dump. "Though we Rarely does a modern city suffer from just afew air pollutants. Most,

Hg

Cd

like this 'symbolic metropolis, generate a complex brew. Some chemicals (black labels) are emitted directly from identifiable sources. Others (red labels) are formed indirectly through photochemical reactions in the air. A glossary of major pollutants is given below: As (arsenic):

from

manufacturing;

coal

and

long-term

oil

furnaces,

exposure

glass

vapor;

and skin cancer.

C6H6

ment,

(benzene):

from

longwterm exposure Cd

(cadmium):

refineries, smelters, long-term

and lungs, weakens

el2 (chlorine):

motor

exposure

waste,

Hel;

forms

hydroxyl

Mn (manganese):

damages

long-term

industries;

and

ions;

from

exposure

steel plants.

NO (nitric oxide): from motor

F - (fluoride

ion): from mottle

He

body

smelters,

steel plants;

from

gasoline

oxides in sunlight

HCHO

(fonnaldehyde): irritates

HCI (hydrogen

from motor

ers; irritates

from fertilizer

irritates

skin, eyes, mucous

Hg (mercury):

plants,

(nitric

behavioral acid):

in sunlight irritates

(hydroxyl

radical):

component

of acid

rain; causes

(nitrous

acid): formed

N02;

a

oxides asthma.

in sunlight

from

oxides; reacts with other

respiratory

irritates

and water

high blood

in sunlight irritates

from eyes,

vehicles, smelters; causes brain pressure,

tetrafluoride):

impairs from

growth.

chemical

plants;

lungs.

(sulfur

smelters;

formed

hydrocarbons;

asthma.

SiF4 (silicon S02

from N02

from NO;

lowers resistance

from nitrogen

formed

nitrate): and

Pb Oead): from motot

smelters;

damage, from

in sunlight

eye:;, aggravates

and nitrogen

oxides

aggravates

diseases.

HONO

dioxide): formed

ozone;' causes bronchitis,

and hydrocarbons;

nitrogen

smelt-

problems, formed

vehicles, coal and oil

gases to form acid droplets.

membranes.

from coal and oil furnaces,

high

to N02.

oxidizes

PAN (peroxyacetyl fluoride):

causes tremors, HN03 major

readily

hydrocarbons

eyes. lungs.

HF (hydrogen

coal and oil furnaces;

03 (ozone): formed OH

vehicles, chemi-

from incinerators;

plants;

to influenza.

to

eyes, nose.

chloride):

power

to Parkinson's

may cause lung cancer.

N02 (nitrogen produces

unburned

with nitrogen

high

teeth.

form smog. cal plants;

Ni (nickel): from smelters,

furnaces;

children's

(hydrocarbons): combine

starves

heart.

concentrations vapors;

steel plants;

respiratory

disease.

and oil furnaces,

smelters,

from sulfur

causes

may contribute

exposure

damages

eyes.

in sunlight

irritates mucous membranes.

CO (carbon monoxide): from motor vehicles, coal of oxygen;

sewage treat-

irritates

ailments.

bones.

from chemical

(sulfuric acid): formed

dioxide

burning

ailments.

sulfide): from refineries.

pulp mills; causes nausea,

H2S04

vehicles;

may cause leukemia. from

coal and oil furnaces; kidneys

causes respiratory

H2S (hydrogen

may cause lung

dioxide):

obstructs

from

breathing,

coal

and

irritates

oil furnaces, eyes.

Yet the air pollution picture is not totally bleak. Continuing research offers some hope of improvement. In late 1986 two scientists reported a chemical process capable of eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust gases and coal-fired boilers.

The hot gases, passed over a nontoxic chemical called cyanuric acid, break down into harmless nitrogen and water. If later research supports the findings, a giant step could be taken toward eliminating a major contributor to acid rain and man-made ozone.

Perhaps the most controversial environmental issue of the decade is acid rain, but that too is clouded in mystery. "We are in the infancy of understanding the full effects on an atmosphere acidified by burning fossil fuels," Dr. Chris Bernabo, an airquality expert, told me.

We live on a forgiving planet, with mechanisms to deal with natural pollutants. Decay, sea spray and volcanic eruptions annually release more sulfur than all the power plants, and other industries in the world. Lightning bolts create nitrogen oxides just as automobiles and industrial furnaces do, and trees emit hydrocarbons called terpenes. Their release triggers a bluish haze that gave the Appalachian Blue Ridge (a chain of forested ridges and peaks running from Pennsylvania to Georgia) its name.

For millions of years the ingredients of such substances have been cycling through the ecosystem, constantly changing form.

They pass through plant and animal tissues, sink into the sea, return to the Earth, and are vaulted aloft in some geologic event to begin the cycle again. An atom of oxygen completes the cycle approximately once every 2,000 years. A portion of the next breath you take could have last been breathed by Jesus.

Can Earth assimilate the additional 70 million tons of sulfur that we release each year? What happens to plants that absorb the additional nitrogen oxides (NO,) we create with our miniature lightning bolts inside car cylinders? Can the atmosphere take on the extra load of carbon dioxide (C02), methane, man-made ozone and chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants that scientists say could raise global temperatures by the greenhouse effect?

Such chemical increases can be accommodated somehow, over time. Earth has plenty of that, but do we?The current overloading has the potential to alter life on this planet. Physically, our bodies may already be showing the stress.

Take lead, for example. Most of us do, from paint, plumbing and principally automobile exhausts, despite reductions in the lead content in gasoline. Peruvian skeletons 2,700 years old were found to contain a thousandth of the lead levels that we consider typical.

True, lead levels in the United States have declined significantly in the past decade. But excess lead in the human body can increase blood pressure. An EPA investigator calculates that "if you lowered everybody's blood lead levels by a third, there would be 60,000 to 70,000 fewer heart attacks over a decade."

Humanity releases many other elements to the air-mercury, chromium, vanadium, selenium, arsenic. As with lead (and radiation from such incidents as the Chernobyl disaster) man's concentrated effluents pose more danger than those from nature.

Our mistakes are costly. Americans spend more than $10,000 million a year on medical problems caused by outdoor pollutants.

Researchers now suggest that gas and wood-burning stoves exude harmful compounds inside buildings. These indoor pollutants, along with cigarette smoke, asbestos, toxics released from building materials and radon gas trapped by insulation, may exact an

annual health bill of $100,000 million for the United States alone.

Aside from monetary losses, air pollution eats at beloved cultural treasures. In Athens I sat on a stone and contemplated what has been called the most beautiful building in the world. Acid deposition has caused more erosion on the marble Parthenon in the past 24 years than had occurred in 24 centuries. The Roman Colosseum, Westminster Abbey and the Taj Mahal are suffering similar damage. Is combustion our contribution to the arts?

The sources of damage are not easily removed. Legislation lags because fumes come from industries badly needed for national economies, from automobiles prized for private transportation and from high-sulfur heating oils. Besieged by budget-conscious citizens and profit-conscious industries, politicians fiddle with regulations while their Romes burn.

The problem goes far beyond buildings and cities. Our entire troposphere is a blue balloon from which there is little escape.

Some pollutants degrade, but others may drift for years.

For a portrait of our atmosphere, U.S. scientists sample the air at four "clean" locations in a federal program called Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change.

What sweeter air than atop one of Hawaii's volcanoes, 4,170meter Mauna Loa? Meteorologist and director of the Mauna Loa Observatory Elmer Robinson drove me up its bare shoulders through lava fields sometimes jagged as cinders, sometimes smooth as swirled chocolate. In bright sunlight we looked down at clouds raining on the town of Hilo, far below.

On Mauna Loa's dry, primordial landscape nothing sprouts but technological wizardry. The air is tasted with tongue-twisting nephelometers, transmissometers and spectrometers to better understand the aerial porridge that now surrounds us. The heavens are probed with laser light to see what particles are drifting. Dust from China reaches here, and a mystery cloud once appeared whose source was never identified.

For a view more mesmerizing than any fantasy, I mounted a ladder to a telescope aimed at the morning sky. A large, black obscuring disk loomed in the eyepiece to protect my retina, but at its edges flickered the light of hidden energy-the burning sun.

Here, seemingly within arm's reach, was the engine that drives this planet, hurling gases thousands of kilometers into space. Is that life-giving heat now perilously altered on Earth?

"One of the longest continuous records of CO2 content ofthe air is kept here," said Robinson. "We find an increase of 27 percent since the mid-19th century. CO2 holds heat close to the Earth, so the greenhouse effect is not a wild idea, it's pretty basic physics."

The greenhouse effect, with potential for altering climate, melting the polar ice caps and raising ocean levels, has been called one of the most serious long-range environment issues. Suddenly, it is short-range. "The most significant thing we've seen in the past few years has been the increase in other greenhouse gasesmethane and the chlorofluorocarbons," said Robinson. "With the addition of these gases we may begin to see the effects around the turn of the century," said climatologist J. Murray Mitchell, Jr., of McLean, Virginia, who analyzes data sent from Mauna Loa. All gases thickening the greenhouse are believed due to human activities. Combustion gives off CO2, Methane, escalating by two percent a year, is attributed to gases from livestock manure, additional rice fields and digestion of termites proliferating on dead wood left by worldwide clearing of forests.

The chlorofluorocarbons are a two-edged sword. Used as refrigerants and, in some places, still used as spray-can propel-

"What is not known about air pollution may be even more disturbing. We are in the midst of a chemical revolution in which some 65,000 compounds enter our environment each year. Some are proven carcinogens and many more are suspected of being so." lants,they add to the greenhouse as they drift upward. When they reachthe stratosphere, they are believed to react destructively with thegauze of ozone that protects us from excessive ultraviolet rays.

A sharp rise in ultraviolet rays would increase melanomas and othermalignant skin cancers and reduce crops. Melanomas have doubled worldwide in recent years, but scientists are unable to connectthat fact directly to ozone depletion. It may be simply that peopleare spending more time outdoors.

A warmer, wetter Earth, or one more seared by the sun? We are notjust polluting, as bad as that may be, we are tampering with basic weather-making components of our atmosphere without knowingthe outcome.

There is mounting evidence that our whole planet is involved.

TheSouth Pole seems fairly clean because 90 percent of Earth's population lives in the Northern Hemisphere. Yet in late 1985 scientistsmonitoring the stratosphere detected a major hole in the protective ozone screen over Antarctica. A result of natural activity,or man's? So far science has more questions than answers.

TheNorth Pole, on the other hand, at times resembles a turn-ofthe-centurycoal town. For in winter, when the Arctic is tilted into constant night and the sun cannot generate cleansing winds and precipitation, the largest single mass of pollution sits atop the globelike a dirty cap.

Wearing bulbous boots and mittens as thick as down comforters, I rode with two technicians to the Barrow Observatory in Alaska. Atop stark huts where we looked at solar-radiation instruments,the wind reached down the tunnel of my parka hood to stab my cheeks.

It wasearly November, and at 8 a.m. a full moon still shone like a brightcoin, and the aurora bQrealis looped a ghostly scarf across thesky.Bylate November the sun would not rise at all. When it reappearedin late January, it would shine on a haze of sulfates and soot that would remain until spring storms flushed them out.

Eight nations touch the Arctic-the United States, the Soviet Union,Canada, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark (Greenland).Who soils it? Air masses are mixtures of gases and particlesunique to their places of origin. The Arctic pollutants showeda "signature" unknown to Western scientists.

Dr. Kenneth Rahn of the University of Rhode Island found they included arsenic, selenium, antimony and indium, in a combination that traced most of the pollution to a mineral-rich smelting area in the Soviet Union's Ural Mountains. Other investigators found dry-cleaning Freons and degreasing solvents used commonly by the Russians but rarely by Western nations.

This method of tracing pollution to its source sprang from the abilityto examine smaller and smaller samplings-now as little as one part per trillion parts of air.

Traeing pollutants is becoming a political necessity because air is no respecter of boundaries. Many countries are blaming their neighbors for polluting their air space. From the accused the answerhas become a familiar refrain: "You can't prove that my emissionsare killing your.. .." With fingerprinting and tracking of particleswith lasers, the disclaimers become less convincing. But thedyingcontinues, and we have made the ammunition for these

killing fields all too available, said meteorologist Volker Mohnen, who gathers cloud data from atop Whiteface Mountain in upstate New York. "Water droplets in clouds become little chemical converters," he explained. "In a normal ecologically balanced system, ammonia from decaying matter is present in the air along with natural oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. Ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate are therefore created, falling to the ground to become natural fertilizer.

"That's the regular cycle-living things on the ground die, decay and release ammonia that nurtures more living things. What we are now doing is injecting additional sulfur, nitrogen and hydrocarbons into the atmosphere, altering the cycle."

If the mechanics of acid rain formation are becoming better understood, the effects ;ire less clear. Something is killing trees, but scientists are finding that the deeper they look, the more complex the picture. There are multiple theories about forest damage.

Dr. Bernhard Ulrich of the University of Gottingen in West Germany first sounded an alarm when his tests of German soils in the early 1970s showed high acid inputs from the atmosphere. The result, he predicted, would be forest damage as acids leached nutrients from leaves and soils and as trees pulled aluminum and heavy metal ions into their systems. Both aluminum and heavy metals are present but immobile in many soils, but acid solutions mobilize them.

The role of prophet might have seemed due the energetic, almost spritelike biologist had not a blizzard of other theories emerged.

Damage to ponderosa pines by ozone had been demonstrated near the Los Angeles area in the 1960s, and the same pollutant has been embraced by many as a major cause in Germany.

Others felt that air pollutants merely weakened trees so they could be killed by drought and pathogens. Excess nitrogen from emissions of nitrogen oxides also gained popularity, on the theory that trees rich in nitrogen were not hardening for protection from winter.

Problems in finding the culprit stem from our own basic ignorance of the environment. Time and time again I was told by scientists on both sides of the Atlantic that the search for causes of forest dieback has shown how little we know about how trees grO\y. "There is no generally accepted step-by-step process demonstrating that a pollutant affects trees," said Dr. Arthur J{)hnson, soil scientist at the University of Pennsylvania. "We just don't know enough about the exact mechanisms of tree growth to do that. The only pollutant on which there is a consensus as to its injuring trees at a distance is ozone, in the case of California's ponderosa pines and in white pines on the East coast."

Searching historical records covering more than a century, the University of Pennsylvania team has found consistent red spruce dieback following either an extremely warm summer or a cold winter, with a combination of the two being especially deadly.

Perhaps, Johnson said, trees weakened by climate variations are then finished off by air pollution.

"That's why you see so little action on controls right now, because it's such a complex picture," said Volker Mohnen.

"Should we reduce the emissions by ten percent, 20 percent, or 50 percent to correct problems not fully understood? This would constitute a major interference with human activities."

And human pocketbooks.

Reducing the emissions of sulfur dioxides by half in the United States, using current technology, could require refitting large power plants with flue-gas scrubbers. The cost has been estimated

at $2,000 million to $7,000 million a year, for a total of $50,000 million over a decade. Who would pay for it?

Would it be power plants like those of the Ohio Valley, source of much of America's sulfur dioxides? Or should the entire country pay through an electrical usage tax, which would mean the polluter, polluted and the pristine share equally in the cost?

Perhaps Midwest plants should switch to low-sulfur coal mined in the West. But that would idle 20,000 or more miners in Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky and West Virginia.

And what if that multimil1ion-dollar solution is outdated the moment it is completed? "Technology is already available to burn fuel more cleanly and efficiently, and within 15 or 20 years many existing plants will be ready for retirement," admitted Mohnen.

'Can the environment wait 20 years for better technology?

"Not at current emission levels," he replied, "but perhaps with conservation. A 20 percent reduction in fossil¡ fuel use is possible, through conservation measures for automobiles and electric power users."

In the United States, acidification- has long been seen as a problem of the eastern states, but the West may also be vulnerable.

Many eastern soils are underlain with limestone and contain calcium carbonate that can neutralize acids. Western alpine soils are commonly on top of granite, which provides little neutralizing alkalinity. So far no significant changes in western acidity have been detected, but increased exposure to power plants, smelters and motor vehicles could change that picture rapidly.

German trees have shown how rapicj that change can be. The

now familiar signs of German forest dieback were noticed in the 1970s in the Black Forest. By 1986 more than half the nation's trees were afflicted. "German forests as we know them may never exist again in our lifetime," said forest historian Dieter Deumling.

Elsewh'ere, witnesses in several Eastern European countries, heavy users of high-sulfur coal, report whole forests turned to stump-studded meadows. Tree losses on Swiss Alpine slopes have been blamed for a rash of avalanches, some of them fatal.

The possibility of fatalities by air pollution spurred Japan to action. Two decades ago economic and industrial expansion had spawned a dangerous success. From cities around Tokyo Bay came nightmarish images of citizens wearing masks, breathing from oxygen vending machines.

"Around 1970 children were collapsing on school playgrounds from the effects of photochemical smog, and there were i1Umerous victims of a respiratory disease known as Y okkaichi asthma," I was told by Kazuo Matsushita, deputy director of the planning division in Japan's environmental agency.

"The public was clamoring for cleaner air," said Matsushita.

The government offered tax breaks to companies that met cleanair standards early. And the industrial community was reminded of the benefits of a healthy population.

Japan's problems are far from over. I glanced out the window and noted that buildings were disappearing behind smog. Nitrogen oxide emissions from Tokyo traffic are still high.

Reduction of industrial emissions has been more dramatic. In Kawasaki, the industrial hub, sulfur dioxide has been reduced 96

An unwelcome g~est, Denver's "brown cloud" of smoke and smog returnsto the city each winter as heavy, cold air holds pollutants close to the ground. The cloud's color is created by sunlight reflected off particles of wood smoke, diesel exhaust and factory emissions. Denver suffers the nation's highest concentration of carbon monoxide in winter.

percent by installing scrubbers and switching fuels.

Less than a decade ago Mexico City was sliding toward prosperity on an oil-lubricated national income. But long before the 1985 earthquake devastated hundreds of its buildings, the collapse of world oil markets had left its economy in a shambles.

The hard-pressed government could not afford to clean up air extravagantly dirtied. Raw sewage dries and is wafted aloft to mix with heavy concentrations of fossil fuel emissions. Even so, air over Mexico City takes a backseat to what may be the most polluted corner on Earth-Brazil's "valley of death."

An hour's drive south of Sao Paulo the land drops away suddenly to a coastal plain more than 600 meters below. Between the plateau and the sea, less than 25 kilometers away, industrial plants belch thousands of tons of pollutants a day, some of them extremely toxic. Sharing the valley with the industries are about 100,000 people in the municipality called Cubatao.

Normally our respiratory systems defend against solid particles like dust with filters of mucus and hair, but smaller specks from combustion and manufacturing invade bronchial tubes. Inflamed, the tubes narrow, restricting breathing. Within an hour of my arrival a dull ache W1ggedin my chest.

In the downtown core population of some 40,000, nearly 13,000 cases of respiratory disease were reported in one recent year. Other health statistics about Cubatao are more frightening. The air holds high levels of benzene, a known carcinogen. One in ten workers in a Cubatao factory unit showed low white-blood-cell counts, perhaps a precursor of leukemia. Infant mortality is ten percent higher here than in Sao Paulo state as a whole.

Surprisingly, I could find few who would complain about the pollution, including those who live in its heart. Said a young woman with an infant dabbling in mud at her feet and another perched on her hip, "Yes, the children are often ill and sometimes can barely breathe. We want to live in another place, but we cannot afford to."

Dr. Oswaldo Campos, a university professor of public health, said the dirty air in Cubatao is a case of economic priorities, not deliberate callousness. "Some say it is the price of progress, but is it?" he commented. "Look who pays the price-the poor."

A lesser price for all is hinted in recent Sao Paulo state statistics on Cubatao's air: In a two-year period, particulates down by 80 percent and varying reductions in other pollutants. The remedial program is showing results, but there is far to go.

The agonies of a developing nation? Cubatao has its counterpart in Ironbound, New Jersey. Flanked by Newark's commercial district and surrounded by train tracks that inspired its name, Ironbound appears as a faded, faintly depressing industrial enclave, barely rating a glance from the New Jersey Turnpike. But I found a hardworking, close-knit community that is angry and Unleaded gasoline in cars pays off in three ways: It keeps leadfrom poisoning the air, reduces maintenance and allows a catalytic converter (far left) to do its job. Installed on cars sold in t{:le United States since 1975, converters eliminate 90 percent of carbon . monoxide and hydrocarbons. Telltale pink on treated paper (left) reveals lead in car exhaust.

Air pollution is modern man's wolf at the door. "We don't really know what many of the substances in the air do to people. It may take 50 years to know that. Can we wait that long?"

confused about the air it must breathe.

In or near Ironbound are dozens of plants whose emissions join fumes from the turnpike and busy Newark International Airport, in sight of New York City. On a clear calm day the region gives off a brownish urban plume that marks the mouth of the Hudson River like a biblical pestilence. And it is equally perplexing.

Chemicals released in an industrial area number in the thousands, and science is still identifying them.

"We can detect substances we never even knew existed in the air five years ago," said Dr. Ron Harkov of New Jersey's department of environmental protection. "Some have cancer-causing properties and other health hazards, but at what levels, we don't know."

New Jersey's cancer death rates were the highest in America a few decades ago, and its industrial complex became known as "cancer alley." A bad rap, officials say, noting that national cancer rates have since overtaken New Jersey's, and the fact that industry is blamed for a minority of cancers. New Jersey now has pollution laws as tough as any in the country.

Laws, however, must be tighter than pipe fittings to stop all the leaks. "Think of a single refinery and all the valves, pipes and flanges in it," said researcher Harkov. "Nothing is sealed perfectly, and when a company is making 75 different substances, there's no way they can tell you every second of the day what is leaking out of their pipes."

Spills and leaks in the chemical age have spawned a new breed of patrolmen, those of hazardous materials, or "hazmat" units.

Prowling industrial areas, they snoop and sniff for suspicious gas fugitives. Armed with detection instruments, they precede fire fighters into curtains of smoke to warn of dangerous fumes.

New Jersey requires a hazmat unit in each county. I joined one in hard-pressed Middlesex, where potentially serious chemical accidents occurred ten times in eight weeks in 1985. A tank of the pesticide malathion exploded, for example, and some 200 people received treatment at hospitals for vomiting and breathlessness.

Rich Kozub, 31, grew up in Middlesex County before taking a degree in environmental science. As we patrolled his old neighborhood in an unmarked car, the radio crackled with reports of chemical peril: A railroad tank car holding chemicals had slipped its rails and was leaning dangerously. Fumes lingered from a paint-factory explosion and fire that had killed two men.

As we neared a metal smelter in Port Reading, a dark cloud from the plant billowed over a horizon of row houses. "Smoke plume!" barked Kozub and accelerated down a side street for a look. It was gone by the time we gained a close view, but complaints were pouring in. Diane Pitz, young, blond, clad in a running suit, answered her doorbell and acknowledged phoning in a report. "I opened the window to let in some fresh air and noticed the smell right away," she said. "It happens almost every day."

(Since then the plant has shut down, precluding a court fight to close it.)

So what does one do, flee to some remote isle? Even flying might be hazardous to your health. A report by the National Academy of

Sciences to the U.S. Congress in mid-1986 included 19 recommendations on improving the air quality for airline passengers confit,ledin close quarters for hours. "A noteworthy suggestion was that smoking be banned on all commercial flights," said James A. Frazier, a member of the study group. "We also suggested that ventilation systems on planes be used optimally at all times."

Ventilation systems are driven by air bled from the engines, and sometimes part of the system has been shut down to save fuel. On newer planes as much as half the air is filtered and re-circulated instead of being bled from the engine, an engineer with Boeing explained to me. Clean air at last? Not exactly. Bacilli from a sick passenger, he admitted, could pass through the filter and re-enter the passenger cabin.

Are we deeper in jeopardy with every breath we take, every automotive move we make?

In America, says the EPA, air quality has improved since 1975 in the commonly known and regulated criteria pollutantsparticles, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone and lead. And yet, in the introduction to its National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, the agency points out that nearly 80 million people live in counties where ozone levels exceed air-quality standards, 61 million breathe too much carbon monoxide and 32.6 million share air space with too many particles.

Progress in criteria pollutants can be measured in numbers. In newer, more mysterious toxics it is best measured in attitudes.

"Fifteen years ago chemists were dealing with London's sulfurous smog in one camp, photochemical smog in another, and the toxic chemicals people didn't talk with the other two camps," said James N. Pitts, Jr. His recent book Atmospheric Chemistry, coauthored with Barbara Finlayson-Pitts, is a major work of reference. "It is clear that we must look at trace species such as nitrate and hydroxyl radicals present in concentrations thousands of times .Iower than S02 and NO,. They are now known to be linked with acid rain, photochemical smog and the reactions of toxic chemicals in air."

"It's like the medical profession," meteorologist Elmer Robinson told me on Mauna Loa. "It solved infections like smallpox and scarlet fever and now it tackles long-term effects like cancer. In the case of pollution, we have dealt with acute local problems, and now we are addressing the longer-term atmospheric problems."

Throughout history humans have lived with perils over which there seemed little control-stronger creatures, hostile elements, mysterious diseases. One by one such threats have been tamed and replaced by one of our own making.

Air pollution is modern man's wolf at the door, said Dr. Irving J. Selikoff, called by some the father of pollution health effects. I met him in a Mount Sinai Hospital office in New York City. With patriarchal calm he folded his hands and carefully said: "If you look at the studies and the experiments with guinea pigs and mice, it looks like we should all get off the face ofthe Earth. But we don't really know what many of the substances in the air do to people. It may take 50 years to know that. Can we wait that long?"

As Roger Revelle, of the University of California said, "Mankind is in the process of conducting a major, unintentional experiment, that of feeding back into the atmosphere in a short space of geological time the fossil fuels that have slowly accumulated over the past 500 million years ...."

Now that the chemical era has joined the age of combustion, that experiment has expanded. Almost breathlessly we await the outcome. We are our own guinea pigs.

0

Mahabbarata plays in New York Peter Brook's nine-hour epic, The Mahabharata, opened to enthusiastic audiences in New York in August 1987 and had an international cast from 19 countries, including India's Mallika Sarabhai.

Family Pbysicians Contrary to what was thought earlier, family physicians are not a dying breed in the United States.

Today there are 57,000 of themtrained to handle 90 percent of an average family's medical needs.

Their personal touch and the individual care they can give is satisfying both for the patient and the doctor himself.

The U.S. Congressional Committee System Most foreigners find the U.S. congressional committee system too complicated to comprehend. People in parliamentary countries are invariably horrified by a system in which no single focus of power can be held responsible for policy decisions. This article discusses the system and its peculiarities in detail and explains how a large democracy can function even when the "President is not 'responsible' to the Congress in the sense that parliaments understand that word:"

The Flight of the DragonOy The dragonfly, with its transparent wings, is a hovering, swooping insect that can shoot straight up, make right angle turns and even fly backwards. Most children the world over are familiar with its graceful antics in the air. Now, aerospace scientists are looking seriously into its flying techniques to understand better how airframe designers could benefit by studying this natural ace flyer's equipment and make safer, quieter and more economical aircraft.

When notifyrng SPAN about a change in your address, please attach the address label from a recentSPAN envelope in addition to filling out the form pelow. Since four to six weeks are needed to process a change of address, please let us know about any change promptly.

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How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view.

Below: A Chinese-American family looks at some of the Indian objects at the Asian Museum of Art in San Francisco, California.

Right: With the rise in the number of working women in the United States, more fathers are sharing the joys as well as the toils of nurturing their children.

Life As Leisure