Gallery 318 images of exhibition
Passages:
Native American Expressions of Place, Migration & Identity The vision of the central plains of America as a native place contributes to the making of an American narrative. Embodied within and moving beyond this narrative are the individual and collective stories of migration and survival, and the legacies of the policies enacted by a newly empowered American nation undergoing rapid expansion. These are the stories that set the stage for the creation of the state of Kansas. The objects, photographs, and stories included here provide glimpses into cultural worlds where designs are symbolic of home, identity, and the natural world; where visions are revealed and the skills and knowledge of animals are conveyed to those who care to learn their language.
Tskararalisin (Eagle Chief) Pawnee, 1905 photograph Denver Public Library, Western History Collection Hutton, X-32593
Pawnee In this studio portrait, the Eagle Chief, Tskararalisin, is shown dressed with all the honors of his position. The bear claw necklace speaks to his power, the otter skin turban signifies his wisdom, the hatchet/pipe and peace medal indicate his skill in trade and diplomacy. The Otter tail “dragger” that drapes over his right shoulder is decorated with symbols of his bravery, courage, and honor. In the beginning of all things, wisdom and knowledge were with the animals, for Tirawa, the One Above, did not speak directly to man. He sent certain animals to tell men that he showed himself through the beasts, and that from them, and from the stars and the sun and the moon should man learn. The Pawnees hold the Bear in reverence. He has wonderful power. A chosen man once saw the Bear. The Bear came to him and revealed to him a dance, and gave him all the Bear Songs. The Bear had been commanded of Tirawa thus to instruct the man, and to tell him that Tirawa had said that certain beasts would give man wisdom and power. But the animal supreme for the Pawnees is the Otter. His is a message of wisdom, for of all beasts the Otter is the wisest. No other people than the Pawnees has deeper knowledge of medicines, roots, and herbs, and of all that lives upon the earth, in the air, and under the ground. — Letakots-Lesa, (1968 [1907]). Introduction to Pawnee songs. N. Curtis (ed.) The Indians’ Book: Songs and Legends of the American Indians (3rd ed.). New York: Dover Publications.
{upper} parfleche late 19th Century rawhide, buckskin, paint Gift of Forrest E. Jones, 2007.1812
{lower} beaded possible bag buckskin, tin, horsehair, beading, dyeing The Father Felix Nolte Collection from the Benedictine College Museum, 2007.1507
Cheyenne A former agricultural group, the Cheyenne adopted a more nomadic hunting lifestyle after the introduction of the horse to the plains region. These historic objects reflect an adaption to the nomadic horse culture, which became the Cheyenne way of life after their migration onto the plains from the Great Lakes region in the 17th century.
Sweet Medicine
The following excerpt from a story told by Mrs. Albert Hoffman, recounts a vision by the Cheyenne Prophet Sweet Medicine that portends the coming of the horse to the Cheyenne.
“And also he will come to you, the horse. Mo’ehno’ha, you will call it… It will have four legs… You’ll ride him very far away. He will take you there, this horse, you will call him that… You will be on the go the way this horse rolls his eyes.” (Leman, 1987). — Leman, W. (Ed.) (1987). Sweet Medicine. In We are going back home: Cheyenne history and stories (6–9). Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics
These two Cheyenne objects are decorated with similar designs. The “possible” bag, named for its many uses, illustrates a continuation of tradition through the use of designs originally painted on hide, as seen in the parfleche. Such designs were then incorporated into quillwork and finally used in beaded designs such as the possible bag. Design traditions endured as mediums of expression changed.
The Louisiana Purchase & Exploration The acquisition of the Louisiana Territory in 1803 brought new groups of Native Americans into negotiation with the expanding United States and presented the possibility that expansion west could solve the problems of the nation. The Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804 –1806 served as a diplomatic and commercial voyage into the newly acquired territory. To communicate their intentions, Lewis and Clark presented Native Americans with trade gifts, the standard currency for developing diplomatic relationships. As trade objects, tomahawks and hatchets were highly coveted by many Native American tribes. While wintering with the Mandan in 1805–06, expedition blacksmiths created hatchets to trade for food. The blades of these tools were often decorated with a “bleeding heart” design. These designs are found on multiple tomahawk styles and used by diverse Native American groups.
Tomahawk / pipe, before 1891 Collected at Fort Yates, North Dakota iron, brass, wood, rope Gift of H. Greissinger, 2007.1090
Ryan Redcorn, featured artist in the Heartland Reverberations exhibition, states that for the Osage, this design does not represent a heart but the leaf of the Redbud tree; the pairing of the tomahawk and pipe represents a paired duality which is reflected throughout the cosmos in the form of earth and sky, chaos and order. The Redbud tree is native to the eastern woodlands of the United States and was historically used as a Native cure for vomiting, fever, cough and congestion. Ryan Redcorn incorporated this symbol as part of his graphic design for the Heartland Reverberations exhibition shown below.
I’n Lon Ska Ceremony Pawhuska, Oklahoma circa 1911 photograph courtesy Gilcrease Museum In an effort to assist their new neighbors after their move to Indian Territory, the Kaw and Ponca both shared their ceremonial traditions with the Osage, who adopted the I’n Lon Ska Ceremony as their own. This new tradition, which still continues today, provided solidarity within the community during a difficult time of transition. Standards for the display of the American flag were not adopted until 1923. However, the fact that a number of the men in this photograph had served as Scouts for the military does raise the question of whether they were flying the flag upside down as a sign of distress.
Osage Osage culture changed dramatically with the move from Kansas to Oklahoma in 1872. Many Osage elders did not survive the transition to a different way of life. Moreover, much cultural knowledge was lost as traditional religious practice declined with the passing of many elders that occurred over the seven years following relocation to Oklahoma. Raymond Red Corn and Sons: Studie, Jon, Alex and Ryan, I’n Lon Ska Ceremony 2009, Pawhuska, Oklahoma, photograph courtesy Raymond Red Corn III, Osage Congress The Osage I’n Lon Ska Ceremony, loosely translated as “playground of the eldest son,” remains an important annual ceremony for the Oklahoma communities of Pawhuska, Hominy, and Grey Horse.
Osage Relocation Story Charlie Whitehorn, born 1890 near Hominy, Oklahoma, recorded in 1967 or 1968
“Our people come to this country, here, some years ago there was nothing but pure bloods at that time. And, eh, the person that they knew at that time that helped them so much was Father Shoemaker. When they transacted business, eh, bought this land here, at that time, he was very instrumental of taking care of our people. And wasn’t for him, they always said that, eh, we probably wouldn’t be better off than what we are now.” To hear this story in the Osage language, call the phone number below to access An Ear for Art, the Spencer’s free cell phone tour. DIAL 785-338-9467 / PRESS 97#
child’s beaded moccasins early 20th century buckskin, silk, ribbon, beading The Father Felix Nolte Collection Gift of the Benedictine College Museum, 2007.3849.a,b It is integral to the Osage system of belief to focus on living, not death. They value the immortal continuity offered through children and family. Made from red and navy-blue wool broad-cloth, these moccasins are simple in construction but lavish in meaning. Red is the most important color to the Osage, symbolizing Earth, Sun, Peace, and Friendship. Scarlet or blue loin cloths are still preferred for traditional ceremonies.
The Indian Removal Act Andrew Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, promoting it as a way to provide for Indian needs by moving them out of the way of national expansion. The Act opened 25 million acres of Indian land in the Southeast, Midwest, and Great Lakes regions for white settlement. The Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole tribes possessed substantial lands in the Southeast and were pressured to cede these lands to the government. While some people moved voluntarily many who did not were forcibly removed. For information on the Indian Removal Act of 1830, use your smart phone QR code scanner or go to the following web link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nfo_LnuDJ1c&feature=related
Ten thousand Native Americans were removed to reservations on land that is now Kansas. These tribes included the Kickapoo of Wisconsin, the Iowa from the Great Lakes region, the Potawatomi and Miami of Indiana, the Delaware from the Northeast, and the Sac and Fox from the Mississippi River Valley. Many of these Native American emigrants found life on the Great Plains difficult. They were confined to reservations in an unfamiliar land with different climate, economies, resources, and neighbors. Their survival meant adapting to new surroundings and attempting to avoid additional relocations.
Quas-sah-yah (Comanche) Quassiah at Parker Monument, circa 1926 photograph Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, Sergeant Swett, X-32223
Comanche Quas-sah-yah (Quassiah) a Comanche leader speaks at the podium with an interpreter by his side during the dedication of the Quanah Parker (1850?–1911) Monument in Post Oak Mission Cemetery near Cache, Oklahoma. In 1875, under constant pressure from the army, Quanah Parker and the Comanche agreed to relocate to a reservation in Indian Territory. The son of Peta Nocona and Cynthia Ann Parker (a child captive raised among the Comanche), Quanah Parker was the last leader of the Quahadi Band of Comanche. After relocation to Oklahoma he became a respected leader in both native and non-native societies and helped to bring peace to the region. The fur turban Quas-sah-yah wears is a symbol of the role he has earned as leader of his community. Comanche women, who are members of the appropriate societies, may also wear fur turbans. Entrance into these societies is determined by the women’s relationship to men who have proven their skill as warriors and diplomatic leaders.
Comanche Culture fur turban circa 1900 otter fur, velvet, silk ribbon, buckskin, metal, feathers, human hair, beading, dyeing William Bridges Thayer Memorial, 2007.4465
Unidentified women (Comanche) Indians, Fort Sill, circa 1930 photograph Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, X-32212 A group of Comanche women stand in front of a tent at Fort Sill in Oklahoma. They hold ceremonial staffs and wear buckskin dresses with fringe, floral shawls around their waists, and fur turbans. Their dress suggests participation in a ceremonial event and signifies their status as members of one of the women’s honor societies.
The Medicine Lodge Treaty The Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 removed the majority of Native Americans that had not been relocated following the 1830 Act and moved them to reservations in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). The United States government and representatives of the Kiowa, Comanche, Kiowa-Apache, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho met along the banks of the Medicine Lodge Creek to discuss the treaty. After listening to what the government was offering in return for land on the plains, Ten Bears (Comanche) stated: “But there are things which you have said to me which I do not like. They are not sweet like sugar, but bitter like gourds. You said that you wanted to put us upon a reservation, to build us houses and make us medicine lodges. I do not want them. I was born upon the prairie, where the wind blew free and there was nothing to break the light of the sun. I was born where there were no enclosures and where everything drew a free breath. I want to die there and not within walls. I know every stream and every wood between the Rio Grande and the Arkansas. I have hunted and lived over that country. I lived like my fathers before me, and like them, I lived happily. Great White Father told me that all the Comanche Land was ours, and that no one should hinder us from living upon it. So, why do you ask us to leave the rivers, and the sun, and the wind, and live in houses?� —Ten Bears (Comanche), Medicine Lodge Indian Council Address to the Indian Commissioner, Nathaniel G. Taylor, October 20, 1867
John Dare Howland, 1843–1914 Council at Medicine Lodge Creek Harpers Weekly illustration, November 16, 1867 Captain John D. Howland served as Captain of the Scouts for the U.S. Cavalry before moving to Paris to study art. Upon his return he served as both a
Kansasmemory.org, Kansas State Historical Society correspondent for Harpers Weekly and as Secretary to the Indian Peace Commission from 1867–1869, facilitating treaty negotiations and providing visual documentation of the proceedings. At the Council of Medicine Lodge Creek the Kiowa, Comanche, Plains Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes signed three successive treaties with the United States government, collectively known as the Treaty of Medicine Lodge.
Kiowa Culture cradleboard, late 19th century wood, buckskin, cloth, metal, beading, incising William Bridges Thayer Memorial, 2007.2310
KIOWA The Kiowa migrated from their early homelands in the region of present-day Montana in the 17th century. They occupied lands in the region of western Kansas until they were moved onto reservation land in Oklahoma following the Treaty of Medicine Lodge. Historically Kiowa women were known for their wellmade buckskin dresses and beautifully beaded objects. This Kiowa cradleboard is designed with boldly contrasting colors and a combination of geometric and curvilinear designs. The leaf pattern is a recognizable Kiowa design that was brought with the Kiowa from their earlier migrations from the North. Although the style of the leaf has changed through time, it remains a symbol of Kiowa identity.
Cáuigú Áide fo:qut “Kiowa Beadwork of Leaves” Collaborative Comments by Warren Queton and Dane Poolaw É:de áide fo:qut ga dáu,
This is the beadwork of leaves,
Áuhyaude cáuiem ga obâui dáu,
It is truly the Kiowa way,
Hegáu thódaumyau Cáuigú á kaulé chan e, Áide fo:qut gâ fáubau gau hóldatái gâ do, Áuhyaude cáuiem ga obâui dáu.
Together Kiowas came from the Cold Country (North), They brought with them the beadwork of leaves and they wore it on their clothing, It is truly the Kiowa way.
Sitting-in-the-Saddle (Kiowa) Braves, circa 1874 photograph Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, W.S. Soule, X-32408 Sitting-in-the-Saddle, the son of respected medicine chief Lone Wolf, was a Kiowa warrior. He was wounded in 1872 while attacking a wagon train near
Settlement: Euro-American Perspectives on Land European migration in the east expanded populations dramatically during the 19th century and the annexation of land in the west changed conceptions of national space to encompass the land beyond Indian Territory and encouraged the Euro-American dream of private land ownership and land improvement. With the California Gold Rush (1848–52) came a push to open the lands in Indian Territory. Boundaries were redrawn time and again as Indian lands were reduced and state boundaries were formed. Native methods of hunting and agriculture had resulted in societies spreading out thinly across the landscape. This style of settlement was viewed as an impediment to the EuroAmerican intent of private land ownership. With the passage of the Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854, the region was prepared for territorial organization, land sales to Euro-Americans, and the development of the Transcontinental Railway (built 1863– 1869), marking the beginning of the end of Indian Territory.
Howard Wells, Texas. In this photograph, Sitting in the Saddle is wearing a fur turban, hair-pipe breastplate, and brass bead bandolier. Fur turbans were ceremonial headdresses worn by men who earned honors in politics or warfare. The bandolier strap was a popular item worn by Native Americans in photographs. It may have purely decorative, or functioned as a multipurpose strap for carrying clothing items.
Jean-Pierre De Smet, author and illustrator, 1801–1873 born Dendermonde, Belgium; died St. Louis, Missouri Peter S. Duval, lithographer, 1804/5–1886 born France; died, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Village of Fool Chief, circa 1841 Originally published in P. J. De Smet, Letters and Sketches: With A Narrative Of A Year’s Residence Among The Indian Tribes Of The Rocky Mountains. Philadelphia: M. Fithian, 1843. Reproduction courtesy of Special Collections, Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas Libraries. In addition to treaties, economic policies, and military measures for removal of Indian tribes, missionaries also played a role by attempting to assimilate native peoples into Euro-American society. Belgian-born missionary and travel writer Jean-Pierre De Smet described his 1841 visit to the Kanza village of Fool Chief (near present-day Menokin, Shawnee County, Kansas) both in written and
visual form. His narrative and a print of his drawings appeared in the first of several widely read and influential publications that served to raise money for missionary work, spark curiosity about the Plains and Rocky Mountains, and encourage European settlement. Located on the north bank of the Kansas River, not far from today’s North Topeka, the village of Kah-he-gah-wa-ti-an-gah, known as Fool Chief, was the largest Kanza village from about 1830 to 1846, when the Kanza were then removed to the vicinity of Council Grove. The Kanza made the first treaty ceding their lands in 1825. Subsequent treaties ceded more territory, and in 1872 an act was passed for the appraisal and sale of Kanza lands as well as their final removal from Kansas to a reservation in Oklahoma Territory. Today, the Kaw Nation of Kanza people is based in Kaw City, Oklahoma.
CONTEMPORARY EXPRESSIONS
Contemporary Native American artists frequently draw from their traditions, but they mix the symbols of their inheritance in unique and experimental ways or choose to diverge from society’s expectations of how they should express themselves, thus defining their contemporary identity on new terms.
Jaune Quick-to-See Smith born 1940, Saint Ignatius, Flathead Reservation, Montana, United States Flathead, Interior Salish, Cree, Salish, Shoshone What is an American?, 2001–2003 lithograph, metal grommets, acrylic paint, chine collé Museum purchase: Gift of Arthur V. Neis, 2009.0127 Jaune Quick-to-See Smith notes “…Art and identity are linked in the process of living. Art is a celebration of life and a reaffirmation of identity...” When unfolded, Smith’s lithograph is designed as the interior of a parfleche, a Native American rawhide bag (see the Cheyenne example on page three). Presenting a headless person in Plains Indian dress, a collaged hand bleeds a rainbow of red, white, and blue from a wound in the palm, an image that recalls Christian stigmata. The figure, sporting historical or ceremonial attire, is surrounded by symbols of American popular culture and the question “What is an American?” The mixing of symbols leads us to question what has been sacrificed in the construction of an American Indian identity that is re-conceptualized in the popular imagination to fit political and economic agendas. The popular image of the Indian in America has been referred to as a “dramatic inheritance” that began with Indian captivity narratives, theatre performances, and Wild West shows, eventually culminating in the larger-than-life Hollywood Indian. Smith’s print points to the legacy of manipulation in imagery of American Indians that has contributed to the persistent stereotypes about Native people.
Prepared by Nancy Mahaney, Curator, Arts & Cultures of the Americas, Africa & Oceania ∞ Braden Conrad-Heibner, Berkley Intern, Arts & Cultures of the Americas, Africa & Oceania for the exhibition “Passages: Persistent Visions of a Native Place” September 15, 2010 – January 15, 2012. Funding for this brochure was made possible by a grant from the Kansas Humanities Council.
cover image: Arapaho Culture roach headdress, early 20th century deer hair, porcupine hair, wool yarn, buckskin, string, weaving, dyeing Gift of Gertrude Green, 2007.0418 This graceful roach headress has been expertly crafted. A roacher spreader made of bone or antler is used inside the roach to attach it to the dancer’s head and to help the headress retain its shape. The origins of the roach are thought to derive from the northeastern tribes, to have spread west to the northern plains tribes and then south, where is was adopted by the southern and eastern plains tribes. The use of red dye to color the animal hair is said to represent the prairie fire, and the black and white the charred land and ash that usher in the renewal of the land after the burning.
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