Additive manufacturing design potential for sustainable architecture

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING DESIGN POTENTIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE APPLICATION OF MODULAR 3D PRINTED CLADDING SYSTEM FOR HOUSING ENERGETIC PERFORMANCE Sofia Victoria Peviani

Sofia Victoria Peviani

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING DESIGN POTENTIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE APPLICATION OF MODULAR 3D PRINTED CLADDING SYSTEM FOR HOUSING ENERGETIC PERFORMANCE

Politecnico di Milano Scuola di Architettura Urbanistica Ingegneria delle Costruzioni - MI Master in Architecture Supervisor: Prof. Massimiliano Nastri Co-supervisor: PhD Candidate Giulia Grassi Academic year: 2018/2019

ABSTRACT

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CHAPTER 01 // ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTURE

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1.1 General Additive Manufacturing Printing Process 1.2 Birth and development of Rapid Prototype technologies 1.3 The advantages of 3D printing in manufacturing production 1.4 Fused Deposition Modelling - FDM 1.4.1 Machines typologies and features

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CHAPTER 02 // 3D PRINTING APPLICATION IN ARCHITECTURE

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2.1 Opportunities and andvantages 2.2. 3D printing application in constructive field 2.3. Cases studies of 3D printing in architectural facade 2.3.1 Cathegorization methodology 2.3.1.1 Winsun 3D House - Yingchuang Building Technique 2.3.1.2 3D Print Canal House - DUS Architects 2.3.1.3 3D Housing 05 - CLS Architetti 2.3.1.4 New Story + Icon - Icon Architecten 2.3.1.5 TUM 3D printed facade - TUM Mortiz Mungenast 2.3.1.6 3D printed facade system - TU Delft 2.4 On 3D printed housing development

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CHAPTER 03 // DESIGN PROTOTYPE

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3.1 Design and Fabrication premises 3.1.1 Design assumptions 3.1.2 Architectural Application:Building Envelope 3.1.3 Architectural Fabrication Scale: The Component 3.1.4 Fabrication Context 3.2. Design Development 3.2.1 Goals 3.2.2 Materials 3.2.3 Stratigraphy research: Leaf Morphology 3.2.4 Design Stratigraphy 3.2.5 Wall Internal Structure: Morphology Research 3.2.6 Wall External Layer: Faรงade

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CHAPTER 04 // APPLICATION: SOLAR DECATHLON 2019

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4.1 Context Competition Framework 4.1.1 Introduction 4.1.2 Regulations and Aims 4.1.3 Dimensional Restrains and technical requirements 4.2 Project Concept 4.2.1 Concept Generating Principles 4.2.2 Concept: Seed 4.2.3 Flexibility in Growth 4.2.4 Modular system for assemblable solutions 4.3 Project Description 4.3.1 Spatial Features 4.3.2 Bioclimatic behaviour 4.4 Faรงade system insertion

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4.5 Conclusions and possible future applications

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References List of Figures

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ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to investigate 3D printing possibilities of integration in construction process and its contribution in house bioclimatic functioning and energetic housing behaviour. In the first part of this research, 3D printing is studied in the state of art and in its architectural applications, arguing criticalities and strengths to foresee its potentialities for the future of construction, considering it as an emerging technique with several and veryfied benefits in production process in terms of time, cost and quality. In order to test the application and advantages of 3D printing in architectural sustainability strategies and positive energetic incomes, a faรงade printed component is studied and designed in order to actively participate in passive energetic house behaviour.

The second part develops the design of a 3D printed facade prototype and its application in a house unit, in the context of Solar Decathlon 2019 competition. Solar Decathlon is an international competition for universities, which promotes the development of innovative and energetic efficient dwellings, with solar energy as unique resource. Its aim is to promote new architectural and technological solutions towards energy sustainability and enhance awareness upon sustainability and resources use. Participating projects are experimental prototypes, not entirely complete for the construction realm but still embedding concrete potentialities of innovation and progress. The solution proposed in this thesis is an experimental project which is not meant as completely solved and tested model, but wants to propose innovative solutions for issues concerning concrete housing realm and construction and an attempt of 3D printing application in building process.

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CHAPTER 01 //

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ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTURE Additive manufacturing is having a huge impact in production in different fields thanks to its capability of creating objects in a wide set of materials very quickly and constantly more affordable. Even if it consists in many techniques and applications, additive manufacturing (AM) can be defined as a system by which solid model data can be translated in a physical prototype from a computer based model, through a gradual addition of material by superposition of layers.

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CHAPTER 01 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTURE 1.1. GENERAL ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PRINTING PROCESS In order to have the data needed to reproduce an object, the first step for additive manufacturing is a CAD Model (Computer Aided Design), a digital model of an object containing dimensional and static data of the geometry. It can be generated by a CAD programs or by reverse engineering, via 3D scanner. After this step, the model has to be transformed into a STL file. This file will then be opened in a slicer program, which will translate in G-code the geometric data received.

G-code is numerical control (NC) programming language used by computer-aided manufacturing to give instructions to automated machines tools, as CNC machines and 3D printers.

At this stage, the 3D printer will receive this data and print the object, following the given inputs of position and others infomation concerning geometry and materials features.

1.2. BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF RAPID PROTOTYPE TECHNOLOGIES The first who dare to guess into the future of manufacturing and production, imagining an utopic machine able to reproduce as fast, accurately and organized as a massproducing process, was the sci-fi writer Arthur C. Clarke, in 1964. Even without knowing the specific technology able to reach such production, he was predicting a future in which any kind of object could be easily replicated, allowing anyone to have any kind of object at very low cost and short time.

“Looking as far into the technological future as I dare, I’d like to describe the invention to end all inventions. I call it the Replicator and it’s simply a duplicating machine but it’s a duplicating machine that can make an exact copy of anything. [...]

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The first 3D printer ever created, made by Chuck Hull in 1983

Can we imagine a world in which objects can be made as easily as today we can make books? Well don’t ask me exactly how the replicator would work. If I knew I’d patent it at once.”

Arthur C. Clarke, 1964, BBC Horizon Episode “The Knowledge Explosion”, BBC Archives.

It was necessary to wait until 1980s to find research and studies on real functioning 3D printing machines, introduced at the time as Rapid Prototyping (RP) techonologies.

Japanese1 and French2 researchers developed in depth the practical issues concerning the machine until early 1983, but the first operative process for 3D printing was patented in 1984 in California, by Charles W. Hull. Through this system, a three-dimensional object was produced by dividing it in cross-sectional patterns and materialized with chemicals agents and physical intervention. He was studying the impact of UV lasers on plastic materials for its application in veneer 1 Dr. Hideo Kodama, NMIRI, Nagoya, 1980.

2 Alain Le Mehaute, Olivier de Witte and Jean Claude André

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furniture techniques, when he first had the intuition to use the same process to produce objects. Initially the system in fact worked by shining light on a photopolymer in liquid form which solidify when hit by light becoming stif and resistant.

Using a pool of liquid photopolymer that hardened in contact with laser, he imagined to create entire objects by repeating this operation several times in subsequent layers one on top of the other, until the object was complete. After several research and tests he finally patented the system under the name of Stereolithography (SLA). The first successfully 3D printed object was a small black eye wash cup, chosen for its basic shape, created in March 1983. The technology improved until reaching first printed products in 1988, having a major impact on car manufacturing, aerospace field and medical equipment producers. In order to commercialise his invention, Chuck Hull co-founded 3D Systems company, still active and profitable, and soon started to develop the first SLA machine and SLS machine, by 1992. In approximately the same years also Fused Deposition Modeling machine patent was done, by S. Scott Brown. Through this procedure, objects are fabricated by directly extruding the material through a nozzle. In the 1990s the tehcnology spread over manufacturing industry and started to be more popular between outsider experts who supported open-source knowledge and services about 3D printing. In 2000s many patents expired, opening the doors to any researcher to improve or commercialized new solutions.

In this contest, MakerBot made an appearance, providing to the market the first 3D printing DIY kits and enabling anyone to print and build their own machine. For now on 3D printing became worldwide spread, in a consistent and capillar way, enhancing its creative applications and future possibilities.

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The first 3D printed object, a black eye wash cup, created in March 1983 by SLA technique

1.3. THE ADVANTAGES OF 3D PRINTING IN MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION In order to understand which could be the real impact of Additive manufacturing in building techonology and architecture, it is first interesting to examine the positive aspects it brought in smaller scale, in particular manufacturing industry, In fact 3d printing was born in the 1980s addressing the industrial research environment, as a solution for rapid prototyping (RP) process, by which fabricate models and prototype parts in a cost-effective process and with quick lead times. When compared to traditional fabrication techniques, 3D printing proposes a better performance in many aspects, from the productive to the design and creative point of view.

Speed is one of the main advantages of 3D printing. Complex and precise designs can be printed in few hours while it would take several days to do the same with traditional processes (comparative example). Complexity is in fact reduced by simplifying machine analysis process from 3D objects to 2D layers, facing one layer at a time until the object is finished.

This process allows to strongly simplify the workflow, as any object of high complexity can be printed in one single operation. AM is in fact a single step manufacture, which makes it a distinguishing technology for most of fabraicated objects. Usually one element, as a steel joint profile for instance, would take several operations to get to the final form; it will be necessary to cut the steel, prepare it for welding, build jig, weld the different components to reach the final form and strength resistance. In order to have a polished surface finishing, the welds will be ground, holes will be drilled for screws to the wall support and then final product will be obtained with its coating with sandblasting treatment and paint. In the case of

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an additive manufacturing process, on the contrary, all forms, holes or protrusion as the finishing surface will be previously determined during the CAD model design and slicer program parameters setup.

AM benefits from high precision in the final product, thanks on one hand to the complete and univocal data settings given by the digital model and on the other to a machine able to translate this precision in a physical model with small range of error. These issues work together to considerably reduce production costs. To be more precise expenses for 3D printing can be divided in machinery costs, material costs and labor costs. To consider at this level the difference in expenses with traditional manufacture process, it is necessary to focus on specific machines, materials, objects printed and scale, since it could vary considerably from case to case.

For what concerns machines energetic consumption, 3D printers can be considered high energy demanding (precise data), for both the electronic functioning and the heating temperature of print head. However, tipycally machine operations are the lowest factor on overall production costs in the process, since part of it is balanced by the turnaround and higher efficiency coming from the benefits of printing complex shapes in one step operation.

Bringing new perspectives to the industrial and productive process, Additive manufacturing also influenced the logistic and creative actions linked to production. For instance in design creativity freedom. As 3D printing can produce complex objects through its process, it overcomed some restrains of traditional production and unfolded new possibilities to form creation. From the productive and performative point of view, this perspective could have a great impact in solving intricate and complex shaped objects, producing structures and components more accurate and cogent.

For its flexibility and versatility towards form shaping, 3D

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printing allows customization in a wider level. For economic and logistic reasons, traditional producing process has always omologated objects into repeatible standards to mantain low costs. Since 3D printing can afford complexity in cheap expenses, every item produced can be easily customizable according any preference, since variations can be easily managed by only changing the digital CAD model. In fact in terms of time, the production of several different items would be faster and cheaper than any other technology. It means unique elements can be produced even mantaining gains and profits. A consideration about 3D printing is the ease of access to this technology. From 2010, patents of the main technologies and apparatus at the basis of 3D printing are expiring, so the process will be freely available for all to use, opening doors to the market, investments and competition.

Some of them, expired between 2013-2015, were several early vat photopolymerization (DLP=digital light processing) and powder led fusion (SLS) A great push was given by the expiration of original patent of FDM process by Stratasys firm.

The cost of machine after expiration became ten times lower than before3, and open-source actors took most advantage of spread technology to investigate and innovate.

In this way 3D printer industry offered several options and alternatives of sizes and performances, reducing costs to popular budgets. Considering low costs and even the possibility to build autonomously a 3D printer, as many firms sell separated componentes, additive manufacturing spread worldwide in a pervasive way.

The use and management of raw materials is also interesting.

3D printing in fact uses only the needed amount of material to create an object, without substracting from an original block as many manufacturing techniques do. This allows to avoid high 3 Many 3D printing patents are expiring soon, John Hornick , Dan Roland, 2013

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1.4 FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING - FDM Fused Deposition Modelling is a process by which fused material is extruded on a platform through a heated nozzle, moved above the support following predetermined directions on x,y,z axis. In this way the final shape is created by pushing the melt material layer over layer. The shape of the object is created by defining the outline of the enclosed area which will be filled in with a specific pattern later on. This method was developed by S. Scott Crump in 1989 and was commercialized in 1990 by his own company Stratasys. By then many upgrades have been made.

1.4.1 Machines typologies and features Concerning the machines three main options are on the market: Cartesian machines, Delta and Polar 3D printers.

Cartesian machines use cartesian system f coordinates to move the elements in the three dimensions x,y and z to determine the right position of the print head. With this type of printer the nozzle usually moves in x and y directions and the platform in z axis. This is the easiest way to reach point b from point a, as each engine has only one plan to work on.

Nevertheless speed of printing is compromised, since the print head is heavy to be moved. For this reason another typology has been developed. The Delta system has a print head moving in the three dimensions, monitored by three arms disposed in parallel supports and powered by motors located in the basis. In this way the heaviest part is mantained static on the bottom of the machine, so the moving parts are lightweigth and faster in movement. That results in better accuracy and faster printing. The Delta system uses inverse kinematics to move the print head, it means the final movement is calculated by three measures, one for each carriage. This calculation is made 100 times per second, but computer

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processing is still manageable and fast. For manufacturing process, the most commonly used material is plastic filament, located in this case outside the machine in a filament spool, pulled out an extruder motor and then down a tube to the extruder, which melts the filament and pushes out the nozzle.

Polar 3D printer instead doesn’t use cartesian coordinates to determine movement. It consists in a nozzle and a moving rounded platform. In this case the rounded platform turns and moves while the nozzle goes up and down, which means only two motors are needed, instead of three, as it occurs with cartesian and delta machines. It is the machine presenting as few components as possible, for ease of use and realibility.

Fewer the parts, fewer the possible fails. Another positive aspect about Polar 3D printer is its considerable build volume relative to its total size, far more convenient than other machines. Finally, greater freedom in size and dimensions was required to expand 3D printing to a new level. To do so were used robot arms, already commonly used in assembling components in industrial production lines, were incorporated in additive manufacturing. Though accuracy is not as high as other systems, robotic arms provide free forms and dimensions of printing objects since it has no constrains in space and the print head has several movable joints allowing any movement in the three dimensions. Even if it still in development stage, it has great potentiality in building construction, and has already been used for that purpose.

Printable materials used by robotic arms are generally clay and concrete, but it may vary. The first 3D printed house was built in 2014 by Win Sun, in China, with a machine using layerby-layer FDM system in a larger scale with cement, sand and fibers. Several improvements have been done in the last years, providing more accurate and faster robots. A house structure

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volumes of waste materials. Besides, many 3D printers can use materials that can be recycled and re-used several times, as well as biodegradable materials. In a logic of sustainability, 3D printing can be considered in several cases a good option.

Wall partition prototype printed with Fused Deposition Modeling, with Delta WASP 2040 printer, in Actlab Printing Laboratory 18

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CHAPTER 02 //

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3D PRINTING APPLICATION IN ARCHITECTURE Additive manufacturing was applied in the architecture field in many scales and for many purposes. The advantages it brought to manufacturing production in industrialized contexts made it suitable to be used also in some of the components or phases of construction of buildings. Even if it is not spread in the realm of building technology, the attempts to introduce 3d printing brought successfull results, as for complex joints printing and for specific re-usable formwork for concrete or other materials. Addressing the scale of the component and faรงade systems it is interesting to study what has been done in this context.

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CHAPTER 02 // 3D PRINTING APPLICATION IN ARCHITECTURE 2.1. OPPORTUNITIES AND ADVANTAGES As additive manufacturing has a huge impact in industrial and productive process changing radically how creation of objects could be possible, there were some attempts to apply the same techniques to the building and architectural process.

Anyway even if it could bring many improvements in some phases of design, production and construction and even if 3D printing is now having a huge diffusion in many other fields, it is still not really taken in consideration, and major traditional technologies are prefered to build and construct. This is due both from an overall skepticism on one hand and real technology limitations on the other.

2.2. 3D PRINTING APPLICATION IN CONSTRUCTIVE FIELD The state of art of 3D printing applied to architecture can be considered quite recent. It first applications regards small scale constructive elements, more suitable with dimensions and materials availability in existing machines and techniques in 3D printing market. That is how in late 2000s started the research in design of optimized constructive components as joints, nodes where capabilities of strengh and resistance were improved with easily printable elements. They could be compared, in dimensions and function, to automative and aeronautical components, whose mechanical and structural features were already studied and proved. In this case, comple structures could have a great benefit, as the application of 3D printing allowed to build extremely precised joint elements and easily make unique and different pieces.

As machines may allow, also constructive components of intermediate scale have been printed and tested for constructive purposes. In this case a specific study on 22

Arup Steel Joint London, 2014

Customized Ceramic bricks Brian Peters Amsterdam, 2012

materials were needed: commonly building materials as clay were studied and managed to meet 3d printing machines requirements and provide stability and design quality in non conventional forms. The printing of components integrates dryassembly logic of construction with components specifically designed and built to allow tesselation and compositional joints, without having to change confirmed assebly techniques.

For what concerns components construction, 3D printing is largely used to print formwork to very precised and complex products. In this case what is usually meant as a disposable element of the process, could be re-used several times and recycled, reducing waste and allowing more daring shapes.

The possibility to print elements without dimensional limitations and in a wide gamma of materials, thanks to robotic arms as printing machines, enhance the ambition to build monolithic structures, imagining entire rooms or houses printed in one-step production phase. Many attempts towards this method are being made, even if this procedure is subjected to many critics due to speed of production, cost and integration of complexity of the integrated parts.

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CASES STUDIES OF 3D PRINTING IN ARCHITECTURAL FACADES CATHEGORIZATION METHODOLOGY In order to map the state of art of 3D printed architecture nowadays, the case studies are limited to those examples in which a whole building has been printed, with the specific intention of being easily adaptable or ready for real habitation.

Different materials and technologies and different degrees of complexity and implementations needed are considered.

In particular this thesis is focused on the study of 3D printed wall partitions for external enclosure and in the facade systems it provides. For this reason, cases study were chosen among those applications of 3D printing in which a monolithic, or composed structure provides a clear separation from interior and exterior, dealing with energy and physical barrier and filter. The aim is to have a panorama of main techniques, forms and materials used in most recent years and in future projects to deal with the facade systems, both in terms of construction process and final performative features.

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HOUSES

TECHNIQUES

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WINSUN 3D HOUSE Yingchuang Building Technique (Shanghai) Co. Ltd - Winsun Suzhou (China) 2013

Typology Experimental house system N° Inhabitants Interiors division 3 rooms Kitchen space, bedroom, bathroom Size Customizable. Several prototypes available Structural system Fused deposition modelling

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Cladding system Masonry - Ink of cement, sand, fiber and specific additive, part taken from waste materials Energy supply system Not expected HVAC system Not expected Construction time needed For a two-storey 1,100 sqm mansion: 1 day for printing 2 days fos assembly on bar structures erected in advance (3 workmen required)

Starting off as a building materials supplier, Winsun aims to revolutionize this approach using 3D printing technology. Having developed the first continuous 3D printer for construction, the company printed the first batch of 10 houses in 2013 – making global headlines.

Using a special ink made of cement, sand and fibre, together with a proprietary additive, the printer adds layer by layer to print walls and other components in its factory in Suzhou (China). The walls are then assembled on site. Winsun is also behind the first 3D printed office building opened in Dubai in May 2016.

The company has developed several prototypes that clients can visit outside

its main factory including a six-storey apartment building, an affordable house, a wave-shaped house or an ancient-style traditional Chinese house.

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3D PRINT CANAL HOUSE Dus Architects - Tentech - Heijmans Amsterdam 2013-on going

Typology Experimental house system Future function: International research center for 3D printing architecture Interiors division 5 rooms Size 2.4m x 4m maximum components size 15 m whole building (5 storeys) Structural system FDM with Kamer Maker XL 3D Printer Cladding system Bio-based polymer “Macromelt”, industrial glue developed by partner Henkel composed of 80% vegetable oil Energy supply system HVAC system Construction time needed 4 hours to finish one building block (out of hundreds needed)

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Each room is different and consists of complex and tailor-made architecture and unique design features. The structure is scripted and this creates its proper strength but also generates ornament, and allows for new types of smart features, such as angled shading scripted to the exact solar angle. Each printed room consists of several parts, which are joined together as large Lego-like blocks. Both the outside façade as the interior are printed at once, in one element. Within the 3D printed walls are spares for connecting construction, cables, pipes, communication technique, wiring etc. When finished, rooms are joint one to the other by a click assembly system. The construction is based on a structural extruded printed grid that can take several shapes. Folds in the

structure generate strength, so the level of ornaments enhances the construction.

Each printed element consists of numerous diagonal hollow collumns. When the elements are mounted together the hollow collumns create large structural crosses that support the entire structure. The gap between the faรงades consists of diagonal hollow shafts, some of which are filled with a special lightweight foaming eco-concrete, also developed in partnership with Henkel. The faรงade design is a web of cross-shapes to minimise concrete use while maximising the strength, weight and stability of the canal house building.

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3D HOUSING 05 CLS Architetti - Arup - Cybe - Italcementi Milan - Salone del Mobile 2018

Typology Experimental house system N° Inhabitants 2 Interiors division 4 rooms Living, kitchen, bedroom, bathroom Size 100 sqm Structural system 35 concrete elements printed on-site Cladding system 3D printed concrete elements same as structure Energy supply system HVAC system Construction time needed 48 hours of effective work

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The house, printed on site in Piazza Cesare Beccaria in Milan is a research project on the possibilities offered by 3d printing in the field of sustainable architecture, responding to the increasingly urgent revolution in the world of housing.

During construction, the house has a low environmental impact. It is molded with a special mixture of cementitious powders, aggregate, and binders, and in the future, it can be demolished, pulverized and reconstructed with the same material.

The aggregate can come from local soil, to avoid transport and to blend into the hues of the context. The house can be easily expanded, raised, doubled, even moved to a new location, with zero impact thanks to the technology used in an innovative way. The system changes the relationship between the inhabitant and the artifact. The house is printed quickly, producing 100 square meters in one week. The project differs from many other 3D processes in its use of a robotic manipulator, mounted on a movable base for increased flexibility compared with fixed 3D printers. CyBe Construction has developed the first mobile 3D Concrete printer which is able to move on caterpillar tracks.

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NEW STORY + ICON ICON Architecten New Story Austin,Texas 2018 Typology Complete functioning and permanent house. Prototype. In sperimental phase of mass production.

N° Inhabitants Monofamiliar Interiors division 2/3 rooms Size Built prototype: 32,5 sqm Final expected house: 55-75 sqm Structural system FDM with concrete and Vulcan 3D printer Cladding system As structure Energy supply system Electric system grid HVAC system Construction time needed Less than 24 hours Cost Prototype 10,000$ printed portion only Expected to achieve 4,000 $ 38

The home serves as proof-of-concept and was created in partnership with the nonprofit, New Story. New Story’s goal is to print a community of homes in El Salvador in the coming 18 months with each home being around 600-800 square feet (5575 sqm), printed in less than 24 hours and costing $4,000 per home. With the new 3d printer they are working on (Vulcan II) the houses could be built in 24h at half speed, at full speed it can be built in 12 h.

This particular design has limitations, for instance, utilities like electric and plumbing, still have to be installed outside the walls.

A prototype has been made, and they are starting a sperimental phase in El Salvador in this months,to be replicated elsewhere.

The team is working on cheap materials and simplified process in order to achieve the price of 4000$ for each unit.

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TUM 3D PRINTED FACADE Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich, October 2018 Dipl.-Ing. Moritz Mungenast Research Leader

Typology Prototype Function Facade system Materials Plastic (unspecified) Size 1.6 x 2.8m facade element Technology FDM Delta Tower 900 Single Extruder and Leapfrog Creatr HS XL Dual Extruder Cost The sample element, 60 centimeters wide and one meter high, is made of transparent plastic and makes a very intricate impression.

Diffuse light passes through its surface. It’s almost hard to believe that this material can protect a building from wind and weather: This is one of the first functionally integrated facade elements from a 3D printer. Moritz Mungenast, research fellow at the Associate Professorship of Architectural Design and Building Envelope at TUM, initiated the project and implemented it together with his team.

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“And not only is the facade element very stable, it’s also translucent and multifunctional,” says Mungenast. For example, cells inside the element provide stability while at the same time creating air-filled cavities for optimum insulation. Waves in the material create shadows. Thin embedded tubes let air circulate from one side of the element to the other, ensuring the best possible ventilation.

And the micro-structured surface provides for perfect acoustics. All these functions are scalable and can be adapted to accommodate individual requirements at no extra cost.

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3D PRINTED FACADE SYSTEM TU Delft Delft Faculty of Architecture and Built Environment, June 2017 Maria Valentini Sarakinioti, Michela Turrin, Thaleia Konstantinou, Martin Tenpierik, Ulrich Knaack Typology Prototype Function Facade system Materials PETG Size 750mm x 500 mm x 360 mm Technology FDM Machine Cost -

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The present paper gives an over-view of the development process that took into consideration different aspects that the façade module needs to address and the challenges for the printing process, such as material use, printing time and scale.

Those con-siderations and the thermal performance requirements drove the design iterations and tests and determined decisions related to the geometry and the printing technology selection. The interaction of these aspects resulted in the design and manufacturing of a prototype, which proves the potential of functions integration in such a façade, but also highlights the limitations and the need for further developments.

The latest prototypes consist of 2 items. One

working prototype (size: 660 mm(height) × 200mm(width) × 100 mm(thickness)) in which the water circulation is being tested. One prototype for demonstration (size:750 mm(height) × 500 mm (width) × 360 mm(thickness)). At the same time, simulations were run to understand the thermal effects of the system on indoor spaces in different climates. With focus on the 3D printing process, the paper will present and discuss the results of each phase; as well as the design iteration that led to the current prototypes. Moreover, the paper will critically reflect on the challenges encountered during the research and will discuss the current limits of the work.

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2.4. ON 3D PRINTED HOUSING DEVELOPMENT The most recent projects using 3D printing for facades elements show how the technology is developing. Is possible to notice how the main technique used is FDM, mainly with robotic arms, as it can be considered the most effective machine to assure a fast and precise construction of large scale objects. No limitations on dimensions can lead to printed houses in a matter of hours or few days. As precision in printing requires more production time, printing models for houses are reduced in their design to the outline and internal supports for structural strength. Even if most of them are printed with robotic arms, many cases are built by different components, meant to be eventually assembled and disassembled. In that case joints are thought to be basic malefemale dry connection, or even lateral support to one another.

Monolithic structures are also been built as prototypes, with no interruption between parts and more fluid workflow.

Material more generally used by now for this kind of building is concrete, often treated in order to be fast hardening. A particular attention is given to biodegradable materials, derived from corn or mud, used as extruded material as bio-plastics or organic clay. In terms of time this kind of construction has taken few days to be printed in its definitive form. In the most recent ones no further finishing layer was needed, as it was embedded in the pattern of printing.

Is possible to notice that up to now the printing elements are limited to the structure of the walls, excluding envelope functional and finishing layers, which will have to be added in next build stages.

This means the unique capacity of 3D printing of easily shaping any form, is not fully used for the purpose of building a complete working facade system, which could be ready for use with no further intervention after printing is over.

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CASES STUDIES

SPEED MATERIAL PRODUCT FUNCTIONING 2013 Winsun, Suzhou (China) 10 houses in 24 hours Concrete Ink mixture Delivered empty house No technical premises given

2013 On going DUS Architects, Amsterdam 4 hours for one component Bioplastic granulate ink Delivered empty house No technical premises given

2018 CLS Architetti, Milano 48 hours Lighten Concrete w. furniture / Prototype Technical premises added

2018 ICON + NEW STORY, Austin, Texas ~48 hours Concrete Complete house Technical premises added

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CHAPTER 03 //

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DESIGN PROTOTYPE After the analysis of 3D printing in production and architecture, this part of the thesis shows the study and research on a 3D printed prototype, designed to explore the possibilities of real integration of a 3D printed component in an existing structure. The component wants to address real current issues of assembly and constructive process which could be improved with the application of this technology. It is also analysed how it could give a positive contribution to the requirements of a functioning house.

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3.1 DESIGN AND FABRICATION PREMISES 3.1.1 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS The aim of this design proposal is to apply a solution of large scale 3D printed component able to work as a multifunctional active facade system, covering functions related to heat transmission for internal comfort,as well as basic waterproofing and humidity control, including also more complex systems as electrical or water systems. Using 3D printing, this wall is intended to be produced in a single-step operation, including all its functions with no need of further interventions, like coating or technical systems installation.

The aim is to use 3D printing advantages in order to improve wall functioning. As facades systems are becoming more and more sophisticated and complex systems, it is requiring more technical and engineering skills, becoming a real machine. The 3D printing technology would allow to mantain a high degree of complexity in functioning systems within simpler producing process and constructive application. This facade component will respond to lightweigth, assemblable parameters, in order to be easily transportable and manageable in the construction site, with an assembly-disassembly construtive process.

The upgrade related with this solution compared to existent options and techniques is that this component will provide the performance of high-tech facades within simplicity and ease of construction of prefab dry-assembly systems.

The design proposal will take in consideration the most recent achievements and advancements about additive manufacturing and its application in architecture and construction. The facade design concept will take inspiration from leaf surface structures morphology. In particular on the formal distribution and relationship between surface and venations ryhtm and geoemtries. This has been taken as main reference since wall system and leafs are similar if considered as working distributive structures actively linked with exterior.

A leaf work with good resources distribution through an 54

organized network of veins and a filtered contact with external conditions through adaptive surfaces. The facade component is suposed to employ a similar approach towards the external and internal conditions, working in an adaptive way following termic changes and comfort requirements.

3.1.2 ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATION: BUILDING ENVELOPE In order to put in practice the use and the performances of 3D printing in architecture, its application was focused on an external wall system, a non-structural component addressing performative energetic issues. The building facade in fact is considered as one of the main elements of the building, as it filters main energetic transmissions with external environment and has also to provide protection against external agents. At the same time it gives the opportunity to test the capabilities of a performative element capable of using external inputs in the best way to guarantee internal comfort.

Nowadays, technology on facades arrived at a point where great performances on thermal insulation, electronical devices, performative transparent openings can provide a system which can perfectly control internal environment comfort. It still represents a very complex system to manage, in the design phase and in the construction phase. In fact high levels of engineering is required as well as skilled labor and specific technologies to build the systems on site. The intention of the application of 3D printing is to provide a building skin enveloping the building which could embrace the complexity of nowadays most advanced facade systems by using low tech solutions and lower time demanding construction, reducing production costs and also construction time and resources. The performance is considered to stilll remain very 55

high, assuring the best thermal insulation, acoustic insulation, natural light management and main issues concerning internal hygrothermal comfort.

3.1.3 ARCHITECTURAL FABRICATION SCALE: THE COMPONENT After the decision of using a 3D printing element addressing facade main functions and requirements, it was necessary to focus on the specific technology to be used to assure both on site construction ease and good envelope features. In order to do so it was considered how 3D printing could best solve nowadays issues concerning the building process. It is confirmed that additive manufacturing nowadays gives it best results when dealing with small scale complex systems.

Nowadays FDM printers can reach extreme precision with high speed of production. It dind’t have wide application in architecture because of the scale it can reach which is quite small for buildings and construction. Robotic arms on the contrary can build entire buildings by using bigger nozzles and optimized designs for the scale, which couldn’t reach a high level of precision. With these assumptions, the aim of a 3D printing facade protype is to propose a solution which could combine the precision of small scale 3D printing and high speed of production of big scale robotic arms printing.

To do so it was considered also how 3D printing can be assimilated in the building process in the best way, to get the best profit both from the specific technology involved and the context it is going to be implemented. Because of its main industrial vocation, additive manufacturing production process could be considered in the building procedure as a prefabricated process, when a component can be created in a industrial context before being assembly on site.

With this assumptions, it was considered to exclude on56

site printing with robotic arms and focus on a prefabricated element, which could be transported on site and then assembled there. Furthermore, components prefabrication can assure a better impact on a life cycle assesment, including a recycle and reuse logic in the main use and production pahses. The panels in fact could be designed in order to propose different scenarios of use, giving performative qualities in several contexts. This logic could also be an added value to client needs. In fact a component can open the possibily to a set of specific yet versatile solutions, which could be freely composed in different ways by the client or manufacturer.

RAW MATERIALS

WORKABLE MATERIAL PRODUCTION

RECYCLE / RE-USE

MAINTENANCE

LCA PROCESS

COMPONENT PRODUCTION

TRANSPORTATION BUILDING SITE

IN USE BENEFITS

ASSEMBLY

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3.1.4 FABRICATION CONTEXT The intention to print a prototype which could be implemented as an architectonical element for faรงades, lead to many existing contexts of work, construction and research. During the development of this research and for the purposes of the thesis, it was enriching and useful to take part at some of related activites and realities dealing nowadays with topics related to 3D printing and dry-assemble construction.

PRINTING PROTOTYPE WITH DELTA WASP 2040 Once the design of the wall was defined, it was interesting to deepen the printing process by producing a prototype model.

Through the support of Actlab Laboratory of ABC Department of Politecnico di Milano, it was possible to prepare the file with the specific informations required to translate the design in the proper code for machinery, and to print a scaled section of the faรงade component. Learning how to prepare a file for printing and following every step of the process was extremely useful to understand how to apply it in a large scale as the architectonical one.

On this page Delta WASP 2040 3D printer On next page a delta machine working on the three-dimensional prototype 58

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SEED ITALY TEAM PARTICIPATION Politecnico di Milano runs as participant competitor to Solar Decahtlon 2019 with Team Seed Ital, a group of students from engineering and architectural field, lead by professors, tutors and professionals towards the completion of the italian house unit proposal which will compete in the Solar Village in Szentendre, Hungary.

Participating in the design process of the team was really important to address specific strategies for sustainability and energy efficiency in the architectonical project. It was extremely useful to get in touch with effective construction issues, as the housing unit has to be designed in function of its capacity to be efficiently built by a small group of students.

It gave a strong focus on practical and constructive side of architecture and building technology.

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SEED ITALY SUMMER SCHOOL WORKSHOP During June 2018, a summer school was organized to deal with basic constructive technologies related to wood and steel construction. During those days, the aim was to build articulated constructive partitions and joints recurring in an assembly process. It was possible to use specific equipment for woodworking as grinder and electric circular saw and wooden panels and beams to work on. For the steel structure we were provided with folded steel sheets, bended to create building profiles, which were disposed and aranged to be assembled with bolts and rivets using drill, hammers and screwdrivers.

This workshop demonstrated how construction deals with specific strategies and timetables in order to effectively build even a simple structure joint. Issues as material waste and management, time of work and organization of labor were main topics tested for an on site construction context.

Figure in previous page Workshop of assembly and construction at Mivar, Abbiategrasso (Milan).

Students working on wood and steel structures Figure in this page Students and tutors working on joint solutions for leightweight steel structures

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3.2 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 3.2.1 GOALS The solution proposed wants to give a practical strategy towards the production of affordable and performative 3D printing facade components, addressing the main issues concerning its entire life cycle, from raw materials to its recycle and reuse options. Starting from the raw materials, it has been made an analysis of sustainable and recyclable options already in use in additive manufacturing production, in order to chose the most effective in a long-term duration use but still easy to be recycle for other purposes. For the production phase, the features of the CAD digital model and the regulation of the machine working set are crucial. In this case, the component was considered from the point of view of its practical fabrication, considering timing, production material, machine settings and capabilities. In order to be effective, the component has to address issues of transportation and ease in assembly-disassembly procedures, consequently it has to be designed to assure lightweight and calibrated size in order to be transported easily by trucks or rail freight. For the construction phase, the components have to assure a clear and rapid way of assembly techniques, in order to be easily managed and assembled by non-specialised manpower and with common and affordable building machinery.

Considering electrical and plumbing systems, the component has to provide an embedded system and designated space for cables and plumbing installation and setup, in order to simplify the process and avoid any further work on the facade. The benefits during use will involve a lower energetic load on artifical conditioning, considering the passive inputs on thermal comfort. The facade will besides produce energy through its embedded photovoltaic system. Manteinance can be easily done through accesible spots of check and fix electrical systems. Re-use could be done by disassembling the components for other purpose or recycling its bio- materials.

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RAW MATERIALS WORKABLE MATERIAL PRODUCTION COMPONENT PRODUCTION

TRANSPORTATION BUILDING SITE

ASSEMBLY

IN USE BENEFITS

MANTEINANCE

RECYCLE / RE-USE

Available bio-materials for 3D printing analysis Availability on recycled materials Evaluation on material quantity needed

CAD digital model optimization for printing Printer machine settings calibration

Lightweight with proper internal pattern Proper components dimensions for road transport

Lighweight for common small scale cranes and machinery Dry-assembly process Embedded supports for joints to structure Electrical and plumbing system set-up Passive system with thermal and acoustic optimized performance Embedded Photovoltaic system Low manteinance cost through resistant materials Easy access to electrical systems for fixing and replacement

Disassembly process for re-use of the component Recycle of bio-material of the component

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3.2.2. MATERIALS The availability of printable materials nowadays is wide enough to include many of the most commonly used raw products in building construction. Concrete and clay have already been used for printing small scale objects, but recent experimental cases are prototyping whole house systems, with a deep analysis and optimization of these common raw materials in order to be adapted to printing and to empower their features of structural strength and thermal insulation1.

Nevertheless, even if concrete and clay have very good possibilities to be used in the future for sustainable architectural and constructive purposes, they have been excluded for the construction of the component, as they are both very heavy materials and they wouldn’t satisfy the lightweight requirements of the element prototyped.

Other materials which have been used with good results for 3D printing stiff and large objects are plastics and resins. Furniture but also small structures have been build through 3D printing in many ways and even a project of a house is going on, using bio-plastic material to print the different components of a 4-storey building2. The material is pallet recycled plastic, available in different colours, easy to be printed and completely recyclable. This confirms the capacity of use thermopolymers for house printing purposes. Another example, with more specific indications, is represented by recent research of TUDelft scholars about an integrated 3D- printed façade3. In their research paper they used PETG and PLA for tests on facade components for thermal active performance. Practical tests of thermal capabilities of the prototypes gave positive data, showing how specific patterns could assure good thermal insulation.

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1 3D Printed House, CLS Architetti with Arup, Milan, 2018 and Gaia House, WASP, Massa Lombarda (RA), 2018 2 3D printed Canal House, DUS Architects, Amsterdam, On going project 3 Developing and integrated 3D-printed façade with complex geometries for active temperature control, Maria Valentini Sarakinioti, Michela Turrin, Thaleia Konstantinou, Martin Tempierik, Ulrich Knaak, 2017

Considering the last achievements on PETG performative features and since it can be considered a leightweight and recyclable material, it has been chosen to develop the prototype of the facade system component.

PETG is polyethylene terephthalate glycol, a thermopolymer derived from the copolymerisation of the more common polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and ethylene glycol.

PETG transparent filament on the market. It is seld in reels of 1 kg or more

It is a very resistant material, able to produce strong and durable printings. It’s density is 1.27g/cm3, it can assure good chemical resistance, is easily thermoformable, which makes it a perfect material for 3D printing. It has a very high impact resistance while being vulnerable to scratching. It is watertight and capable of reducing sound transmissions while also being sterile and recyclable. It is currently use for sign making industry and for medical and food purposes. It is fire resistant4, with an ISO test flammability rating H-B, which is relatevely low5.

Its maximum service temperature is about 78°C, so it is recommended not to expose it continuously to temperatures above 65/70˚C. It will be applied then in environments and climates where external temperatures won’t reach such values.

4 Data from PETG Technical Information from Filoalfa 5 Information from Eagle Plastics Limited, supplier of thermoplastic plastic sheet materials- eagleplastics.co.uk

65

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Gaia House, printed in Massa Lombarda (RA) in October 2018.

It is one of the main examples of additive manufacturing in architectonical scale with natural materials. The design and production phase were coordinated by WASP company with the 3D crane Wasp machine. The material is a mixture produced by RiseHouse, with clay, limo and sand with rise straw and and cohesive lime. It is esteemed that one hectar of paddy field could give enough material for 100sqm of printed surface.

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3.2.3 STRATIGRAPHY RESEARCH: LEAF MORPHOLOGY Leafs cellular structure is an articulated system with specific interconnected cells dealing with different functions in a cohesive connected web. It is taken as reference since it can be considered a compact system dealing with several different functions, working as a filter between inside and outside, effectively transfering energy in both directions according to the need. The main structure of a cross section of a leaf is made by an external epidermids, protecting the inside from water through a waxy cuticle which seals up the leaf making it completely watertight, and from external dangerous agents by its strict cells connection distribution. After the skin, there are located palisade mesophyll, where photosyntesis occurs.

Below that there is the spongy mesophyll, with planty of voids to let gasses and reactants to move through. This system is then linked with the overall distribution of the entire plant through channels, called vascular bundles which transport water and phloem with sugars. On the lower side, another layer of epidermis with cuticle protects the leaf. In this layer the stomata are located, as doors opening and closing for humidity control and gas exchange through guard cells.

Taking in consideration this biological structure, the facade component is intended to assume the versatility and dynamic functioning of reactive actions, in order to give a different answer to housing performative needs, both in terms of internal comfort and external protection.

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A vegetal chloroplast image from microscope

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3.2.4. DESIGN STRATIGRAPHY The component is meant to satisfy the requirements of thermal insulation, acoustic insulation, watertight protection as well as a support for electrial system set-up. Besides the intention is to propose an element which could be printed all in one, by performing a one-step production phase, with no further intervention needed but assembly on site.

In order to do so and design the component in a way it could provide a valid solution to all thermal and energetic needs, it was conceptually divided in layers which interact with each other to provide the best performances. 3D printing is used in a way to maximize its unique advantages of production, with complex geometries in high speed of production at the service of a facade system, The core of the wall is the main thermal insulating and stiff part, while an external and internal layer are closing the whole component. This system integrated in its parts provides the main performances for energetic and thermal savings, with a passive action on the energetic behaviour of the whole building.

Each layer addresses different issues concerning the internal minimal comfort requirements. The external part is providing shading in a diffused distribution along the facade, with ondular thin layers extruded from the vertical border. These layers become also a support for photovoltaic systems, located in those specific areas most hit by solar radiation.

The internal part deals with thermal insulation, as it provides a geometric pattern that contains dispersions withvery low transmittance value. The most internal part of the component is provided to fix and integrate the system to the existing steel structure, to mantain a continuity with the flat surfaces of interiors.

70

60

1

0

10

0

21 0

16 Exploded axonometry of the three conceptual layers of the faรงade component

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3.2.5. WALL INTERNAL STRUCTURE MORPHOLOGY RESEARCH The component internal structure is shaped in order to guarantee structural stability, thermal insulation and acoustic insulation. The geometric pattern inside should purchase leighweight and best space density, in order to reduce material use and printing time, still mantaining good thermal resistance.

The first phase to achieve a performative internal pattern towards these goals was to foucs on closed cellular structures.

In fact by filling perimetral borders and leaving air void in their interior, they could guarantee both structural stiffness with minimum material, as well as good thermal conditions for they closed air bubbles. One of the most promising geometrical structures for threedimensional optimal disposition is Weaire Phelan polyhedral configuration, which presents the most effective way to divide space in cells of equal size with minumum contact surface area, discovered in 1993 as a better solution as Kelvin’s structure, with 0.3 percent less surface area. For qualities of minimal surface with maximal structural strength, this geometric structure has been used in the last decade in architecture for experimental lightweight structures, to research daring forms with minimal material consuming or for innovative design solutions1. Another geometric structure with interesting features for architectural application in Voronoi Diagrams, or Dirichlet Tesselation, for which space is divided in regions linked to specific points, in a way that each region includes all the closest area of pertinence, before encounter another point. This represents an effective solution for structural constructions, as loads are equally distributed in the outline of the cells. It is linked with Delaunay triangulation, by which a random set of points is linked in triangels whose circumference doesn’t include any other point. It can be useful for structures since it maximize the angle of each triangle, for any given group of points.

Besides these most recognized structures for geometric space division and distribution, there is still no evidence

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1 Watercube, Beijing National Acquatic Center, PTW Architects + CSCEC + CCDI and ARUP , 2008.

Voronoi Diagram for a random set of points

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about a geometric structure applied to thermal optimal performance. Nevertheless, the most recent research2 showed how elongated cells structures can assure most of these requirements, by prototypes and checking tests.

The pattern chosen for the inner structure of the component is composed of elongated cells of maximum width of 15 mm, as it has ben proved on theoretical models this dimension prevents convention inside the cells. The whole structure has a thickness of 200 mm, with a tested λ = 0.094 W/ (m K). Considering the transmittance value of Xlam as reference (λ= 0,13 W/mK), this conductivity λ value can be considered satisfying, also for the regulations in force. This value could also be reduced, by adding specific wooden or aerogel fibers in the blend of the additive FDM process.

The mass is 0.286 kg for a prototype of 200x200x100 mm, being the most leightweight among the verified solutions.

In order to increase speed during printing, surfaces could be smoothed, since printing showed to be faster when it doesn’t face sharp edges.

Diagram on next page above Diagram on results on the study of TUDelft researchers on geometric patterns for thermal insulation.

Source and credits in last page.

Diagram 3D model of the chosen pattern to develop a wall façade component

MATERIAL PETG NOZZLE SIZE 0.4 mm WALL THICKNESS 0.8 mm INFILL 0% MASS KG 0.286 kg for 200x200x100 mm size block SPEED FOR TRAVEL MOVES OF NOZZLE 28 mm/s LAYER HEIGHT 0.1 mm RATIO OF SOLID TO GAS 0.08 Vs/Vg RESULTS OF THERMAL PROPERTIES/ PRINTING TIME λ THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 0.094 W/m K TIME 35 h

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2 Developing an integrated 3D-printed façade with complex geometries for active temperature control - Maria Valentini Sarakinioti, Michela Turrin, Thaleia Konstantinou, Martin Tenpierik, Ulrich Knaack, TU Delft Faculty, March 2018

Materials Today Communications 15 (2018) 275–279

M.V. Sarakinioti et al.

Table 1 Data of the polyhedra and the elongated cells.

Physical properties/printing settings

Results of thermal properties/printing time

Dimensions mm (height, lenght, thickness)

Material

Nozzle size mm

Wall thick. mm

Infill

Mass kg

Speed for travel moves of nozzle mm/s

Layer height mm

Ratio of solid to gas(Vs/ Vg)

λ thermal conductivity W/ (m K)

Time h

1

150 × 150 × 36

PLA

0.4

1.6,3.2

10%

0.320

21

0.1

–

–

69

2

180 × 180 × 100

PETG clr.

0.4

1.2

0%

0.533

28

0.1

0.2

0.101

40

3

200 × 200 × 100

PETG tr.

0.4

0.8

0%

0.286

28

0.1

0.08

0.094

35

4

180 × 180 × 100

PETG tr.

0.4

1.2

0%

0.417

28

0.1

0.23

0.104

24

5

200 × 200 × 100

PETG tr.

0.4

1.2

0%

0.693

28

0.1

0.23

0.109

30

Νr

Cell length

thermocouples) were measured. The sensors were connected to data acquisition modules of Eltek (Gen II system). Each measurement lasted 7 h to ensure a steady-state measurement condition. The samples had a size of 18 × 18 × 10 cm3 or 20 × 20 × 10 cm3.

3. Design configurations: the heat storage The heat storage is a water-based liquid that is placed in the façade when and where needed each time of the year. It is either stored in one

channels start from 5 mm and gradually becomes 15 mm diameter.

Sample 9 is a fragment of the external layer of the final design; the external surface has two walls with total thickness of 2.4 mm and channels of maximum 40 mm diameter and minimum 20 mm diameter.

Sample 10 is the final working prototype which was tested for water tightness. Samples 6 to 10 are illustrated in Table 2.

3.1. External layer surface properties

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3.2.6. WALL EXTERNAL LAYER: FAÇADE The external layer of the component is the one directly facing external conditions. For this reason it has to perform resistance against weather conditions and guarantee a proper filter between inside and outside. The external layer is meant to be an active filter, not only with a logic of obstruction and block but with the capability of work as a functioning element which can exchange in a measured and calibrated way energy and mass. From this perspective rainwater, solar radiation, day/night temperature variation, natural heating and cooling and natural ventilation, become elements to get advantage of to garantee internal comfort conditions. The main aim is to maximize the passive functioning of this wall towards inner comfort, in order to reduce energy consumption of the whole house while mantaining good dwelling conditions. The wall in this layer has to be then prepared to absorb as much as possible from external gainings and to properly transfer them in the interior. To do so a south-facing partition of this envelope is specificaly analysed and designed, in order to study how this component could improve the reception of direct solar radiation. For this reason it has been studied and designed in order to provide good shading, optimal winter solar radiation and system of rainwater collection and reuse. (and water as heat storage). Starting from the sound insulation layer, the external part of the wall follows with a waved irregular surface. This deformation from flat common surface is performed to provide gradual sunshading to the facade, in order to give shade in the hottest months but still direct sunlight during winter time. It has been developed in protruding stripes with same step division but different dimension and width. The wider surface lines are located in specific stripes inclined towards the optimal angulation towards winter solar radiation. Studying best angle for receiving perpendicularly sunlight radiation, the surface starts from approximately 90° of a common vertical wall, and gradually turns and deformate until reaching 23°, for which also winter radiation can be received with its best 76

0 0. 0 1

1 04. 61

0 6. 4

0 5. 9 0 8. 3 0 4. 2 0 5. 7 1

gainings. In this areas an integrated photovoltaic system will be applied in order to gain solar energy also in winter, when energy demand is high and common roofing photovoltaic panels couldn’t achieve solar radiation with the best angle inclination. In this way direct solar radiation could be catched in the best conditions also during winter months.

Photovoltaic panels will be then located also in other areas of the facade, in order to mantain an overall coverage and gain energy from indirect light.

0 0. 1 1

0 5. 91

Qualitative three-dimensional view of the 3D printed façade applied on a building 77

Bidimensional prospect of the faรงade element Algorithm modeled with Grasshopper generating the faรงade shape 78

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CHAPTER 04 //

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APPLICATION: SOLAR DECATHLON 2019 Solar Decathlon is an international competition for universities, which promotes the development of innovative and energetic efficient dwellings, with solar energy as unique resource. Its aim is to promote new architectural and technological solutions towards energy sustainability and enhance awareness upon sustainability and resources use. Participating projects are experimental prototypes, not entirely complete for the construction realm but still they have concrete potentialities to diverse uses. For its innovative purpose and energetic sustainable vocation, it was chosen to be a possible application for a performative 3D printed faรงade system.

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4.1 CONTEXT COMPETITION FRAMEWORK 4.1.1. INTRODUCTION Solar Decathlon is an international competition in which universities from all over the world are asked to design and build an energetically autonomous house, relying on solar energy only, able to respond to comfort and energetic requirements of a monofamiliar house. Students have to provide proper strategies towards savings in energy consumption and effective solutions of technologies in order to maximize energy efficiency. After the design, the house unit is build in the Solar Village, a specific dedicated location chosen for each edition among european cities. The house will be disaplyed for visitable for students, jury and for the public, in order to give an opportunity of knowledge diffusion and sharing. During the construction and the visitable period, houses will be judged following the contests. Public events will be organized as well as dinners among participants, in order to verify house functioning and share experience.

The contest was created by U.S Deaprtment of Energy and had his first edition in Europe in 2007, in Spain. It is organized in ten contest, each one concerning a specific aspect of the building issues, from the most technical to the most architectonical and compositional.

4.1.2. REGULATIONS AND AIMS The aim of the Solar Decathlon is to promote awareness among students and comminity on energy consumption and sustainability issues concerning house functioning. Spread knowledge on energy use, energy efficiency, renewable energy and broadcast available devices and habits for reducing energy consumption. The houses have to be attractive,comfortable and affordable in order to demonstrate that high performance houses are cost-effective and inviting.

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SDE 2019 has a particular focus on solutions able to become a value-added renovation of an existing building. It should then bring a tangible benefit on energy consumption of specific local challenges, suggesting to address traditional rectangular ground floor building or lightweight intervention on rooftops.

The competition result is evaluated as a sum of the outcome of ten different contests. The contests are: Architecture Engineering & Construction Energy Efficiency Communication & Social Awareness Neighbourhood Integration & Impact Innovation & Viability House Functioning Comfort Conditions Energy Balance General competition criteria give specific jury for each contests and evaluates the quality and degree reached in each one by drawings, narratives, tests results, audiovisual presentations and direct visit to the built house. One year before the construction, each group has to respect deliverables, in which material on the state of the project development is shown and described.

4.1.3 DIMENSIONAL RESTRAINS AND TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS Specific defined areas are assigned toeach group in order to locate the house and the machinery during construction. The house has then to respect precise dimensional restrains when designing the house. The solar envelope has to be included inside a truncated pyramid, with a basis measuring 20mx20m and centred top section measures 10mx10m, with a 7-meter height. Next to this area, dedicated for hosting the house, an operations area is given for assembly and disassembly phases.

Maximum architectural footprint and measurable area

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ARCHITECTURAL FOOTPRINT < 150.0 sqm Including: Patios, unroofed spaces Excluding: Ground floor terraces Site components <1 m height MEASURABLE AREA 45 sqm < x < 70 sqm for one story houses 45 sqm < x < 100sqm for multistory houses Including: covered and constructed area Excluding: walls, columns, stairs shaft, under 1.8m high spaces, closets or technical elements from floor to ceiling

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are also defined. The footprint includes the area withing the building perimeter, including the house and the site components, and outdoor systems simulating urban context.

In this definition patios included in the interiors and unroofed spaces adjacent to the house are counted in the architectural footprint. Also observed footprint displayed during jury tours and public hours, as movable projecting elements, has to be considered in the footprint area. Ground floor terraces and site components below 1 m height are excluded from its calculation.

The measurable area is the covered and covered area exlcuding walls, columns, stairs shaft, under 1.80 m high spaces and closets and storage and technical elements covering the whole height from floor to ceiling. It has to be limited between 45 sqm and 70 sqm, for a one-storey building, and between 45 sqm and 100 sqm for multi-story houses. The houses should be designed for the four seasons, providing efficient solutions for all the climatic conditions of the environment. Technical requirements concern energy sources and management during the time of use of the building, as well as water reuse and distribution, which

10.00 m

7.00 m

20.00 m 20.00 m

would not be taken into consideration in this research.

Energy sources possible has to be provided only from solar source, without any further implementation of electric power from the grid. It is possible to connect and acquire electric power from the local grid, only in case it will be returned in another moment of day or nigth, bringing the balance equal to zero, and mantaining then the house not dependant from external energy sources. For what concerns photovoltaics systems, every applied device has to be commercially available and substantial modification of the crystal structure is not allowed. 5 kWp is the maximum photovoltaic installation size connected to the house. Functioning appliances are required, in particular it is mandatory to provide cooking hob, oven, refrigerator, kitchen sink with hot water and dishwasher.

Concerning other functions, besides kitchen activies, other appliances needed are clothes washing machine and clothes drying machine. Besides, the resource of available energy should cover further home electronics and automatation, as operating computers, televisions and DVD player, whose functioning will be checked as well.

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4.2 PROJECT CONCEPT 4.2.1 CONCEPT GENERATING PRINCIPLES

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Solar Decathlon represents a great opportunity to investigate possile solutions towards energy efficiency and environmental sustainability, it is the field where high performance and innovation meet practical realm, integrating renewable technologies in affordable and efficient houses. In order to provide a winning project, the competition consider and judges the building as a whole, addressing technological issues as well as urban and architectonical value. For this reason, the first step to identify a concept for the project was to underline the main issues concerning Solar Decathlon, and the main topics it addresses which justify and empowers specific chosen solutions and strategies. None of the involved topics can be solved in a comprehensive manner without considering the different annexed subjects, nevertheless it is possible to address specific targets, considered as consistent and crutial to be solved and have positive effects on the whole system.

The intention in any case is to find those concepts which could direct in an effective way, many aspects of the project.

Starting form the main technological considerations about construction in Solar Decathlon competition, Assembly prefab systems are one of the main focus, as flexibility and versatility give a great design opportunities, both for designers,clients and market. Always in the technological contest, it could be interesting to research a more efficient house functioning related to componentes and assembly, trying to integrate the two installations in the construction process. An important issue concerning construction is related to circularity and sustainability of materials and technical solutions applied. It could be then a good supply to submit options in this direction.

The project wants also to research on innovation, working with most recent discoveries on technological field which bring good possibilities of positive impact on architectural contest.

Solar Decathlon competition main topics and subjects of influence

Density

Home Automation Context adaptation

Contemporary issues

Furniture

Different uses/users

Interiors Sustainability SOLAR DECATHLON

Idroponic agriculture

Economic affordability

Flexibility

Technological innovation Energy consumption LCA Analysis analysis (Sefaira - Termolog) Biodegradable materials

Assembly Prefab 3D printed houses

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4.2.2 CONCEPT: SEED For the 2019 edition, Solar Decathlon assignments forsee a specific focus on solutions able to produce a renovation and improvement in existing built contexts. The housing unit has to work in direct dialog with its surroundings in order to activate positive processes in energy efficiency and sustainability. Starting from this assumption, a convincing idea leading the concept of the project gives a clear and iconic image and suggest a possible development. The idea which gave an interesting input to be further investigated is the seed.

A seed as minimum element which embeds all necessary resources to grow in any prolific contest. When deposited, the seed could take root in the context, taking the most of the surroundings and start growing. External conditions give the seed the boundaries and paths it could follow to grow, in a natural and almost casual way. The seed grows in dimension and complexity becoming an articulated organism.

Cohabitation with existing elements introduce a reciprocal adaptation process by which both actors could be enriched to their own growing and developing process. Finally, an element that could act like a seed, could become a positive intervention in a specific context and can radically improve and change the environment in encounters.

Diogene is a minimalist living unit, working as a self-sufficient system for one-person occupancy.

It is divided in a service area with cooking and bathroom appliances and an area for rest with a pull-out sofa / bed.

Diogene, RPBW, Vitra, 2011-2013

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4.2.3 FLEXIBILITY IN GROWTH In the attempt to translate the seed concept in a practical strategy to face the project, it was applied to a developing and growing housing unit, which could change and vary according to the context it occupies. As a seed represents an autonomous dense core, the process of design started by thinking about the minimal and essential elements which can make a dwelling unit habitable. The answer concerned electrical and plumbing systems, which make possible internal temperature conditioning and machinery energetic resources, assuring internal thermal comfort, as well as fucntioning appliances for cooking and self-hygiene. Basing on these considerations, the first dwelling element, representing the seed, is a minimal modular unit, equiped with cooking devices and essential bathroom appliances. It can host one person maximum and it could be considered as a minimal shelter for extreme or isolated environments as well as for vacation, relax and reflection. A second option, would be a step further in complexity, beyond the seed unit. This case could have a lateral room, attached to the technical core, usable as a living room, in which different living scenes can occur. This minimal studio house still mantains a radical example of dwelling, and can be applied in itinerant and temporary habitation scenarios.

A further development would offset the previous dimensions giving a more comfortable open-space, with more divisable and recognizable areas of use. The technical core remains the main engine of the system, providing the services to the entire house. The last design solution can be considered a monofamiliar house, with specific spaces for living area, kitchen, bathroom, bedroom and studio. This last option is chosen as a dwelling unit to be studied as eligible house for more detailed development. It reaches 67 sqm of measurable area, it provides all the appliances needed while still concentrating all technical devices in the core. In this configuration, the house is build around the seed, which becomes the main distributive centrum for circulation and house areas. It divides living area from bedroom area with two large communicating paths, adaptable for subsidiary uses as studio office or in-door greenhouse.

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The different growing options, attached and dependant from the main seed core, are developed through a modular division of vertical and horizontal elements. The intention is to provide a set of prafabricated components, with same or similar dimensions, easy to be transported and assembled on site through dry-assembly. This system can provide the possibility to design the component in different configurations, with openings, different material finishing, with included furniture, always inside the given perimetral and geometric sizes. In this way clients could afford a personal-driven approach to their project, chosing between the most effective combinations for their purposes while mantaining low-costs of production, combining design freedom with market purposes.

The structure of the house consists of a grid of transoms and mullions of folded steel sheets, assemblable on site with bolts.

The structure has been chosen because of its lightweight, its modularity and combinable possibilities as well as for the possibility it offers to quick and precise assembly. It can be disasseambled and pieces could be easily re-used, as each element is a basic modular resistant element. It was chosen also because its punctual structural system can provide support for traditional closing systems as for experimental ones. The facade component designed and fabricated with 3D printing processes is meant to work directly both for internal and external surfaces of the house and be strongly hooked to the structure to assure static stability. The best solution therefore was to use this skeleton contruction to guarantee a possible permeability for the faรงade system and stiff support for added envelope components. The technical core of the house is entirely built in a prefab context, where structure, electrical and plumbing systems could be managed and assembled together. Any technical device concerning electricity and photovoltaic connection devices are arranged as well as thermal conditioning systems. Water management plumbing are also set inside the core and the whole thecnical room is transported on site already assembled to be pluggedin in the house.

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Transportation has a major impact on the whole process, so is important the house components could be suitable for road or railway transport, with or without containers. Therefore the sizes of each element are managed to fit in a low-loader truck.

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4.3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION The configuration of the house meant to participate to Solar Decathlon competition starts from the intention to give a flexible and open space, able to host common daily activities as well as different lateral functions. In section and prospect the house keeps a simple and modest configuration, as a pure volume addressing its contexts. Linearity is the main feature that characterized it, with minimal and clean formal balance.

4.3.1 SPATIAL FEATURES The house space is divided in two main areas by the seed core: the living area and the bedroom area. These two main functional areas are considered as open spaces in which different functions can be integrated. The entrance is located on the north side of the house, accessing directly to the living area. The circulation is meant to be round, visiting each space in a consequent way after coming back on the opposite side to the entrance area again. The plan is developed around the seed, the technical core which is the real engine of the house, As it represents the real heart of the house, it assumes the same importance in space, becoming the central element disposing circulation and spaces. The spaces can be easily separated in more private and snug spaces through moving panels dividing the main areas of use. The disposition of furniture is meant to give a sense of freedom of space while 92

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still delimiting areas of use and follow the main longitudinal disposition of the whole house. Linearity in fact is the main formal element by which space is developed. In this way most of storage is located in the north side wall, creating a wall of facilities changing in height and composition according to the area it is addressing. On the south side instead the wall is more permeable, providing most part of openings and filtered areas, where light is treated in different ways alogn the whole facade with speficic shading panels of the 3D printed envelope.

4.3.2 BIOCLIMATIC BEHAVIOUR The house faces north and south with its two main longitudinal sides. The strategies towards bioclimatic passive solutions are studied according day and night and winter and summer situations. For summer, thermal storage panels during the day will absorb excessive heating in the interiors environment, controling temperature. During night this heat will be released and expeled from the opened window in the ceiling. During winter, the heat is mantained inside with the same thermal storage panels, and released in the coldest hours, during the night. In this way the temperature is mantained the most comfortable and costant as possible, avoiding peaks of low and high temperature in the most critical months.

Solar radiation was considered to give the best incomes for the appropriate season. For summer radiation, which has 73° degrees inclinated ray of sunlight, the windows are located in a way that it barely affects facades and windows, with the lowest impact on internal comfort. This radiation instead is mostly addressing the rooftop, which is provided with inclinated photovoltaic panels to capture solar energy.

During winter, solar radiation is hosted inside the house through the openings, able to catch natural direct lighting, receiving the around 23° degrees radiations of that period. Light can go inside the house giving consistent thermal incomes to the heating solutions. During night the heat accumulated during day through natural lighting, appliances and heating systems are then spread throughout the whole space.

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4.4 FACADE SYSTEM INSERTION In order to position the 3D printed faรงade component, it was considered how it could work best to provide real benefits for inner thermal comfort and functioning, supporting energy savings with its passive energy efficiency intervention. It was considered that south side of the building was the most interesting to approach the external incomes, as it benefits of direct solar radiation. It could address specific shading systems and proposing an integrated photovoltaic system to integrate the supply of electricity of the house.

After deciding to apply the system in the southern side of the house, the following considerations would takle issues of insertion in the traditional skeleton structure of the house and the specific technologies to guarantee structural stability and efficiency of the wall system. The component is in fact a nonloadbearing wall element, meant to be jointed and integrated in a structural supportive system. In this case as a transoms and mullions system of folded steel sheet has been chosen, it was necessary to develop a specific shape and dimension to match both elements. The facade system unit covers 3 m of length and it is considered as whole element. The wall component is meant to be located in the house when the steel structure grid, the floor and rooftop are completed. It is fixable from outside. At this point the wall is lifted with a crane and positioned over the horizontal floor basis beams. After that it would be slowly pulled against the vertical mullions, stopping with stop bead againts it. The component has a connection part which matches with a serial sequence of mullions (400 mm or 600 mm) and it will fit in the structure without voids.

After its correct position is found, fixing possible imprecisions in the laying, the wall will be fixed to the steel structure through bolts or rivets.

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4.5 CONCLUSIONS AND POSSIBLE FUTURE APPLICATIONS The addition of a 3D printed component in a functiong house system could bring positive results, addressing comfort issues and energy savings. It specific ability to combine high precision free form production and large scale, can provide precise solutions to specific situations, in a one-step production element. In this case, the wall dialogs in a more carefull way with the energy demands and comfort needs of the house, allowing to improve the general management of electrical energy. The component used as final product in a completed house, has nevertheless a positive impact in the other steps of the life cycle of the building. The wall component could be re-used several times and in different contests, as it can be jointed with standard fixings. Recyclable materials composing the element can minimize the impact for disposal. During production it makes construction and production more direct and easy, producing the finished objects in maximum two steps with minimal machinery requirements and labour force.

Future developments could include an optimization of the weight of the component, working in research of pattern geometries and working with infill percentage of the machine.

The component could be studied to embed other functions linked with house functioning, as water management for suistainable practices or thermal purposes. For instance, a heat storage could be done with a curtain of water inside specific containers in the wall, or rainwater could be collected naturally with a specific geometric manipulation, to direct directly to idroponic systems or re-use water tank. The wall could be also studied to have a more direct and dynamic influence in interiors. Shapes can excede vertical flat walls to include pieces of furniture but also internal finishing could be displayed to better acoustic quality.

In conclusion, 3D printing represents an interesting field of research and application for architecture and construction process, with positive improvements in existing established processes and, above all, providing an interesting tool to build attractive, efficient and sustainable dwellings.

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References Shane Hickey (2014) Chuck Hull : the father of 3D printing who shaped technology The Guardian Brittany Henneberry (2018) The First 3D Printed Object ThomasNet.com Joseph Flynt (2017) A Detailed History of 3D Printing 3dinsider.com S. Scott Brown (1992) Apparatus and methods for creating three-dimensional objects United States Patent, Minneapolis, Minnesota Charles W. Hull (1984) Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography United States Patent, Arcadia, California Carl R. Deckard (1986) Method and apparatus for producing parts by selective sintering United States Patent, Austin, Texas Enrico Dini (2006) Method and device for building automatically conglomerate structures International Patent, Pisa Adam Runions, Martin Fuhrer, Brendan Lane, Pavol Federl, Anne−Gaëlle Rolland−Lagan, and Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz (2005) Modeling and visualization of leaf venation patterns. ACM Transactions on Graphics 24(3), pp. 702−711.

Ben Redwood, Brian Garret, Tony Fadell, Filemon Schöffer (2018) The 3D Printing Handbook: Technologies, Design and Applications Tony Fadell, 3D Hubs, Amsterdam Luca Breseghello (2014) A performative approach to 3D printed architecture Bachelor Thesis, Milan

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NeeDLab - Raaghav Chenthur Naagendran, Sameera Chukkapalli, Iason Giraud, Abdullah Ibrahim, Lidia Ratoi, Lili Tayefi, Tanuj Thomas (2017) Terraperforma Research Paper, Spain

Ruari Glynn & Bob Sheil (2011) Fabricate: Making Digital Architecture UCL Press, Autodesk, London Fabio Gramazio, Matthias Kohler, Silke Langerberg (2014) Fabricate: Negotiating Desgin & Making UCL Press, London Achim Menges, Bob Sheil, Ruairi Glynn, Marilena Skavara (2017) Fabricate: Rethinking design and Construction UCL Press, London Wholer Associates (2018) 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry Annual Worldwide Progress Report, River Oak Drive, Colorado Sculpteo (2018) The State of 3D printing 2018 Annual Report, Villejuif, France Adam M. Blakeway (2014) Experiments with 3D printing technologies in masonry construction Bachelor on Science of Architecture Thesis, MIT, Boston Maria Valentini Sarakinioti, Michela Turrin, Thalei Konstantinou, Martin Tempierik,Ulrich Knaak (2018) Developing and integrated 3D-printed façade with complex geometries for active temperature control Research Paper, TUDelft, Elsevier, Delft Maria Valentini Sarakinioti (2016) Additive Manufacturing and cellular structures for the production of a façade component , Sustainable Design Graduation Studio Thesis, Delft Wieslaw Rokicki, Ewelina Gawell (2016) Voronoi Diagrams - rod structure research models in architectural and structural optimization Research Paper, MAZOVIA Regional Studies Analyses and Studies, Mazovia, Poland Roma Tre Università degli Studi (2014) Project Manual Rhome for Dencity Solar Decathlon Europe 2014, Rome Alessandro Rogora (2003) Architettura e bioclimatica - La rappresentazione dell’energia nel progetto Sistemi Editoriali, Gruppo Editoriale Esselibri Simone, Napoli 99

Alessandro Rogorsa, Paolo Carli (2017) Un progetto per il Solar Decathlon Europe Editore Legislazione Tecnica, Roma Massimiliano Nastri (2016) La costruzione dell’architettura Strumenti e procedure operative per l’elaborazione tecnica del progetto Franco Angeli Editore, Milano Fabio Cappello, Stefano Maiolatesi, Lorenzo Montesi (2010) Impianti fotovoltaici e conto energia : la progettazione degli impianti fotovoltaici e relativa analisi economica alla luce dell’attuale sistema incentivante Editore EPC Libri, Roma Alejandro Zaera-Polo, Stephan Truby, Rem Koolhaas, Amo, Harvard Graduate School of Design, Irma Boom (2013) Façade, from Elements of Architecture, Edizioni Marsilio, Padova Arturo Tedeschi (2014) AAD_Algorithms-Aided Design - Parametric strategies using Grasshopper Le Penseur Publisher, Potenza

Table of Figures Figure 1 Perspective view of façade project developed in the thesis Cover - Page 0 Figure 2 Extended perspective view of façade project developed in the thesis Page 7 Figure 3 The first 3D printer ever created, made by Chuck Hull in 1983. 3D systems La nostra storia .3dsystems.com Page 9 Figure 4 The first 3D printed object, a black eye wash cup, created in March 1983 by SLA technique. The first 3D printed object. ThomasNet.com Page 10 Figure 5 Wall partition prototype printed with Fused Deposition Modeling, with Delta WASP 2040 printer, in Actlab Printing Laboratory Picture made by the author Page 17 Figure 6 Arup Steel Joint, London, 2014 David De Jong Page 18 100

Figure 7 Winsun 3D printed houses. The finished building provides a stiff concrete structure made by printed modular components Impression 3D : dix maisons construites en 24 heures à Shanghaï .France24.com Page 24 Figure 8 Winsun 3D printed houses. The single printed components are assembled side by side to compose the whole structure Rapid Construction, China Style: 10 Houses in 24 Hours Archinect.com Page 25 Figure 9 DUS Architects Section of the 3D print canal house Print Canal House houseofdus.com Page 27 Figure 10 A printed component of the 3D print canal house Print Canal House houseofdus.com Page 28 Figure 11 KamerMaker printer machine while printing a component in bio-plastics Print Canal House houseofdus.com Page 29 Figure 12 Plan of 3DHousing05 house by CLS Architetti clsarchitetti.com/ portoflio/3dhousing05-com Page 31 Figure 13 On site operations during the printing process of the house clsarchitetti.com Page 31 Figure 14 View on the completed house exhibited during Salone del Mobile 2018 clsarchitetti.com Page 32 Figure 15 Detail of outdoor finishinf clsarchitetti.com Page 33 Figure 16 View of Icon 3D printed house finished iconbuild.com Page 35 Figure 17 Rendered view of futurable production of houses in emergency contexts iconbuild.com Page 36 Figure 18 Detail of the printing process iconbuild.com Page 37 Figure 19 Moritz Mungenast showing the panel for façade systems detail. de Page 39 Figure 20 Rendered view of the façade application of Fluid Morphology component detail.de Page 40

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Figure 21 A detail of the printed component of Fluid Morphology detail. de Page 41

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Figure 22 Maria Valentini Sarakinioti showing the façade component prototype, TUDelft haustec.dec Page 41 Figure 23 Printed examples of thermal perfromative patterns, TUDelft Spong3D:an adaptive 3D printed façade system materialdistrict.com Page 43 Figure 24 Printed wall component layering render, TUDelft 4tu.nl Page 44 Figure 25 Printed wall component prototype TUDelft facadeworld.com Page 45 Figure 26 Winsun 3D printed houses. The finished building provides a stiff concrete structure made by printed modular components Impression 3D : dix maisons construites en 24 heures à Shanghaï .France24.com Page 47 Figure 27 DUS architectus small cabin 3D printed houseofdus.com Page 47 Figure 28 View on the completed house exhibited during Salone del Mobile 2018 clsarchitetti.com Page 47 Figure 29 View of Icon 3D printed house finished iconbuild.com Page 47 Figure 30 Scheme of Life Cycle Assessment steps made by the author Page 53 Figure 31 Delta WASP 2040 Printer 3dwasp.com Page 54 Figure 32 Component Façade Prototype in printing process Picture by the author Page 55 Figure 33 Workshop of assembly and construction at Mivar, Abbiategrasso (Milan). Students working on wood and steel structures Picture by the author Page 56 Figure 34 Students and tutors working on joint solutions for leightweight steel structures Picture by the author Page 57 Figure 35 Strategies and interventions of the project for each LCA step

process Scheme by the author Page 59 Figure 36 PETG transparent filament on the market. It is seld in reels of 1 kg or more Filoalfa example of their products filoalfa3d.com Page 61 Figure 37 Printing process of Gaia House in WASP Village 3dwasp.com Page 62 Figure 38 Gaia House, printed in Massa Lombarda (RA) in October 2018.

It is one of the main examples of additive manufacturing in architectonical scale with natural materials. The design and production phase were coordinated by WASP company with the 3D crane Wasp machine. The material is a mixture produced by RiseHouse, with clay, limo and sand with rise straw and and cohesive lime. It is esteemed that one hectar of paddy field could give enough material for 100sqm of printed surface. 3dwasp.com Page 63 Figure 39 Detail of the clay pattern finishing of the façade 3dwasp.com Page 63 Figure 40 Chloroplast scanning electron microscope sicascienceclass.wordpress.com/page/2/ Page 65 Figure 41 Concept stratigraphy of façade component Drawing by the author Page 67 Figure 42 Voronoi Diagram for a random set of points Page 69 Figure 43 Extrapolation from Developing an integrated 3D-printed façade with complex geometries for active temperature control - Maria Valentini Sarakinioti, Michela Turrin, Thaleia Konstantinou, Martin Tenpierik, Ulrich Knaack, TU Delft Faculty, March 2018 Results of performative patterns for thermal features Page 71 Figure 44 3D model of the chosen pattern to develop a wall façade component Drawing by the author Page 71 Figure 45 Qualitative three-dimensional view of the 3D printed façade applied on a building Drawing by the author Page 73 Figure 46 Bidimensional prospect of the façade element Drawing by the author Page 74-75

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Figure 47 Algorithm modeled with Grasshopper generating the faรงade shape Modeled by the author Page 74-75 Figure 48 Schemes on Maxime dimensions for house unit for Solar Decathlon Competition Drawing by the author Page 80-81 Figure 49 Solar Decathlon main topics and subjects of influence Drawing by the author Page 83 Figure 50 Diogene is a minimalist living unit, working as a self-sufficient system for one-person occupancy. It is divided in a service area with cooking and bathroom appliances and an area for rest with a pull-out sofa / bed.

Diogene, RPBW, Vitra, 2011-2013 Page 84 Figure 51 Conceptual and practical demosntrationd of seed growth concept Drawings made by the author Page 86 Figure 52 Abacus of modular components for floors and walls Drawings made by the author Page 87 Figure 53 Dimensions and load capability of a low-loader truck. Every component of the project has been designed and sized to be easily transportable, and they all fit in this vehicle.

Drawings made by the author intermodale24-rail.net/logistica/dimensioni%20veicoli%20stradali.html confetra.it Page 88 Figure 54 Bioclimatic behaviour during summer and winter, with day and night simulations Drawings made by the author Page 90

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