n VICE ADMIRAL A.K. CHAWLA (RETD)
TIndia’s Second SSBN Commissioned
The commissioning of the second Arihant-class SSBN, INS Arighaat, marks a significant milestone in India’s development of a secondstrike nuclear capability and strengthens its nuclear deterrence
HE COMMISSIONING OF THE second SSBN of the Arihant-class, INS Arighaat at Visakhapatnam on August 29, 2024, by India’s Defence Minister, Rajnath Singh, marks another significant milestone in the development of India’s second-strike capability and the strengthening of our nuclear deterrence. The construction of Arighaat, reportedly commenced in 2009, and it was launched in November 2017. An upgraded variant of the Arihant-class submarine, it is the second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine made by India at the Ship Building Centre in Visakhapatnam.
As per open-source information, the submarine is powered by an 83 MW pressurised water reactor with a single shaft driving a seven-blade propeller, enabling it to achieve a maximum speed of 15 knots on surface and 24 knots when submerged. The submarine has four launch tubes in its hump, like Arihant, believed to carry up to 12 K-15 Sagarika missiles (each with a reported range of 750 km), or four K-4 missiles (with a likely range of over 3,500 km). The submarine is also armed with six torpedo tubes, which similar to other submarines, can carry a mix of torpedoes, missiles and mines.
As per the Ministry of Defence (MoD), the technological advancements undertak-
en indigenously on Arighaat make it significantly more advanced than its predecessor Arihant and this process will advance further after the commissioning of subsequent SSBNs. A comparative table with SSBNs of other countries reveals that India’s SSBNs are the smallest and most lightly armed, which is not surprising, considering that its expertise in building and arming such submarines is slowly reaching maturity.
While announcing the successful completion of the first deterrence patrol by India’s first SSBN, INS Arihant, on November 5, 2018, Prime Minister Narendra Modi had stated that, “… a credible nuclear deterrence is the need of the hour. The success of INS Arihant gives a fitting response to those
Second Arihant-Class submarine ‘INS Arighaat’ commissioned into Indian Navy by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh at Visakhapatnam, in Andhra Pradesh on August 29, 2024
who indulge in nuclear blackmail.” Speaking at the commissioning ceremony of Arighaat, India’s Defence Minister stated that it would further strengthen India’s three-tier retaliatory nuclear deterrent capability.
India’s ‘No First Use’ (NFU) nuclear weapons strike posture implies that India would not be the first to use nuclear weapons in war, and that its weapons would be only used to retaliate against a nuclear strike by an adversary. The NFU posture, adopted by stronger powers, depends on the credibility and survivability of its second-strike capability. The second-strike capability is, in turn, strengthened immensely by the presence of an underwater nuclear weapons strike capability, which is the most survivable of the nuclear weapon triad (land, air and seabased) because of its relative immunity from detection and targeting by an adversary. The undersea deterrent is also more plausible as on board a SSBN, SLBMs are already mated with nuclear weapons and only require an authorisation to be launched. In turn, a credible second-strike capability also plays a big role in deterring a first strike (and hence a nuclear conflict). It also strengthens the nonproliferation regime and promotes strategic stability while allowing scope for operations by conventional forces.
The credibility of a second-strike capability, however, is based on the roundthe-clock availability of a fully-armed SSBN on deterrence patrol. There are two broad models for posturing SSBN-based strategic deterrence - an open ocean patrol model also called the ‘continuous at-sea’ model and the ‘bastion’ model. The ‘continuous at-sea’ model is ideal for maintaining credible strategic deterrence. This requires at least one submarine armed with nuclear weapons always deployed underwater. For this to be possible, a bare minimum force of three SSBNs is essential, to cater for one submarine on long-term maintenance and a second available on station to replace the submarine on completion of its deterrence patrol, or to replace it in case the submarine on deterrence patrol develops a
The second-strike capability’s credibility depends on the continuous availability of fully-armed SSBNs on deterrence patrol, requiring a minimum of three SSBNs for effective deployment
India’s Naval strength received a significant boost with the commissioning of INS Arighaat, the second Arihant-class SSBN, at Visakhapatnam on August 29, 2024, by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh. This milestone reinforces India’s second-strike capability and nuclear deterrence. A detailed report by Vice Admiral A.K. Chawla (Retd) is included in this issue
An upgraded version of the Arihant-class, it is India’s second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine. It can carry up to 12 K-15 Sagarika missiles (with a 750 km range) or four K-4 missiles (with a range exceeding 3,500 km). Additionally, it is fitted with six torpedo tubes
capable of deploying torpedoes, missiles, or mines.
India’s SSBN programme is a testament to Atmanirbharta (self-reliance), with most of its technologies and equipment— such as nuclear propulsion, underwater sensors, and acoustic stealth—being developed domestically. The programme’s success is due to collaboration between the DRDO, Indian Navy, Department of Atomic Energy, and contributions from public and private sectors. This achievement is expected to positively impact India’s conventional submarine and aircraft carrier programmes in the future.
Big ticket development and modernisation programmes are
capital intensive and need to be provided for by the Government to ensure continuity. The recent defence budget for FY2024-25 maintains the macro trends of attempts to enhance capital expenditure with emphasis on indigenisation and reduce revenue expenditure. However, Indian Navy requires a range of ships, submarines, aircraft and weapons etc, some which are at advanced stage of approval. If approved during the CFY, these schemes would require additional funding. Vice Admiral A.K. Chawla (Retd) gives a detailed analysis of this year’s defence budget and allocations. Indian Naval continues on its path to modernisation and is
technical snag. This model of deterrence, followed by the UK, France and China envisions a force-level at least three to four SSBNs, with one being on patrol at any time. Superpower navies have much larger number of SSBNs on deterrence patrol to cater for the possible damage or destruction to a SSBN by enemy action, in case they
are detected. The US Navy had 41 SSBNs in the 1960s, which were reduced to 14 SSBNs in 1994 because of the greater number of SLBMs with Multiple Independently-targetable Re-entry Vehicle warheads (MIRV) carried by each submarine. This is going to be further down-sized to 12 as the existing Ohio-class SSBNs are progressively replaced
Comparison Table – SSBNs
2. Ohio (US) 19,000 170.7 x 12.8 2 x 25,000 steam turbines (26 MW), powered by 1 x S8G PWR
x RSM-56 Bulava (each with 10 MIRVs), 8,300 to 9,300 km
24 x UGM-133A Trident II (14 MIRVs each), 12,000 km
3. Vanguard (UK) 15,980 149.9 x 12.8 2 x 27,500 SHP (20.5 MW), GEC turbines powered by 1 x Rolls-Royce PWR2 16 x Trident II, 12,000 km
4. Triomphant (France) 14,335 138 x 12.5 Type K15 PWR (30.5 MW) powering a turbo-electric system (40,927 SHP) 16 x M51, (6/10 MIRVs each), 8,000 – 10,000 km
5. Jin (China) 9,000 137 x 11.8 1 x PWR, other details not available 12 x Ju Lang-2 (3-8 MIRV each), 8,000 to 9,000 km
6. Arighaat (India) 6,000 111.6 x 11 1 x CLWR-B1 PWR (83 MW), powering 1 x steam turbine
Source: Open Source
12 x B-05/ K-15, 750/ 3,500 km
swiftly enhancing its defensive capabilities by developing antiship ballistic missile systems for naval protection and autonomous underwater vehicles for sub-surface reconnaissance.
SP’s News Network has put together a report in this issue of SP’s Naval Forces
Wish you all discerning readers happy reading!
Jai Hind!
JAYANT BARANWAL Publisher & Editor-in-Chief
with the Columbia-class SSBNs. The Russian Navy has 16 SSBNs, of which eight are the new Borei-class and eight older boats.
The other option is the ‘bastion’ model employed by the USSR during the latter half of the Cold War and by both Russia and China today. This envisions SSBNs operating in home waters, protected by a layered defence, from which they can launch their SLBMs when required. This model was adopted by the Soviet Union because of the superior anti-submarine detection capabilities with the West, which could endanger their SSBNs (which were noisier than US submarines) in open waters. Hence, while bastions may be easier to identify, targeting SSBNs within them is very difficult because of the extensive defensive layers around them.
For India to maintain ‘continuous-atsea’ presence with two SSBNs is not going to be easy. It would, thus, be evident that India will require a force-level of at least three-four SSBNs, which is reportedly on the anvil. India’s SSBN programme is also reported to be moving towards larger SSBNs, the increased size being required to carry longer-range and greater number of SLBMs, which are essential to ensure second-strike capability against China. The DRDO has already successfully tested MIRV warheads on the Agni-V under Mission Divyastra, whose success was hailed by Prime Minister Modi on March 11, 2024. SLBMs of ranges up to 6,000 km, essential to reach the Chinese heartland from the Indian Ocean, are also reported to be under development. The recent induction of the sealed-canister-launched, solid-fuelled, road-mobile Agni-V ICBM (of range over 5,000 km), which allows India to cover the entire Chinese mainland, is indicative of the progress towards a longer range SLBM. All said, India’s SSBN programme is its most shining example of Atmanirbharta, as most technologies and equipment associated with these weapon systems, such as nuclear propulsion, underwater sensors and acoustic stealth, are not shared by any country. The programme’s success is a fusion of the expertise and experience of the DRDO, Indian Navy and the Department of Atomic Energy and has significant contribution from both private and public sector units in India. A major reason for the success of the programme is the sustained funding and series construction of SSBNs, which ensures that lessons learnt from earlier designs are incorporated in subsequent boats. It also ensures that the human resources associated with the design, construction and operation of these submarines is retained, to the overall benefit of the programme – a lesson worth emulating for India’s conventional submarine and aircraft carrier building programmes. SP
Indian Navy’s First Nuclear Submarine INS Arihant
PHOTOGRAPH: DPR Defence
Defence Budget 2024-25 — An Analysis
The defence budget for Financial Year 2024-25 maintains key trends of the past decade, including attempts to enhance capital expenditure, indigenisation efforts, and strengthening border infrastructure, though challenges remain in modernising the Armed Forces due to a modest overall budget increase
n VICE ADMIRAL A.K. CHAWLA (RETD)
INDIA’S INTERIM BUDGET FOR Financial Year (FY) 2024-25 was tabled by the Finance Minister on February 1, 2024. Consequent to the election of the new government, the final budget for the current financial year (CFY) was tabled in the Parliament on July 23, 2024. The final budget is not very dissimilar to the interim budget in terms of overall budgetary figures, though there are a few differences. The total defence budget (including defence pensions) for FY 202425 is `6,21,940.85 crore (approximately $75 billion) as against `6,21,540.85 crore in the interim budget. The amount allocated to defence is 4.79 per cent higher than the Budget Estimates (BE) for FY 2023-24, but marginally lower by 0.37 per cent than last year’s Revised Estimates (RE). Defence continues to receive the highest allocation amongst all ministries in the Government of India, comprising 12.9 per cent of government expenditure and amounting to 1.89 per cent of GDP. However, if Defence Pensions are excluded, the actual percentage of GDP spent on Defence reduces to around 1.4 per cent.
Defence allocation is accounted for under four demands for grants:
z Demand No 19 – Ministry of Defence (Civil);
z Demand No 20 – Defence Services (Revenue);
z Demand No 21 – Capital outlay on Defence Services; and
z Demand No 22 – Defence Pensions.
The share of Capital expenditure in the budget is 27.66 per cent; Revenue expenditure on sustenance and operational readiness comprises 14.82 per cent; Pay and Allowances comprises 30.66 per cent; Defence Pensions 22.70 per cent; and Civil Organisations under the MoD 4.17 per cent. It is evident that the defence budget is weighed heavily in favour of Revenue expenditure, with over 50 per cent of the allocation going towards pay and allowances. A new measure introduced in the budget is the consolidation of procurements by the three Services under common heads such as aircraft, aero engines, heavy and medium vehicles, etc. to foster jointness and flexibility in budget management.
Capital Outlay. Modernisation of military forces is primarily driven by the capital outlay within each year’s budget. The budgetary allocation towards capital expenditure for
The total defence budget for FY 2024-25 is `6,21,940.85 crore (approximately $75 billion), marking a 4.79 per cent increase over the previous year’s Budget Estimates (BE)
Union Budget 2024-2025
this year is $20.60 billion (`1,72,000 crore) and is 9.40 per cent more than RE for 202324 and 5.78 per cent higher than the BE for 2023-24 – a modest increase if the year-onyear inflation is factored. 75 per cent of the modernisation outlay (`1,05,518.43 crore) is reserved for procurement through domestic industries in the current financial year.
A closer examination of capital expenditure shows an increase of 42 per cent and 15 per cent for aircraft and aero-engines and heavy and medium vehicles over 2023-24
(BE) respectively. The 42 per cent increase in aircraft and aero-engine allocation suggests upcoming acquisitions of platforms like MQ-9B UAS, GE-404/414 engines, Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), C295 transport aircraft and additional Su-30s, besides modernisation of the Su-30 fleet, engine upgrade for MiG-29s, and funding of the LCA MK–I IOC/FOC configuration. The allocation for Naval Fleet is `23,800 crore for 2024-25 (BE), a decrease of 1.7 per cent over 202324 (BE). Major Capital acquisitions planned
for the Indian Navy (IN) include deck-based fighter aircraft, submarines, next-generation survey vessels, missile vessels, tankers, etc. No major capital acquisitions for the Indian Army have been mentioned in the press note, which indicates that these might be relatively smaller procurements. MoD’s firm trust in public enterprises is demonstrated by its commitment to invest `4,748 crore, which is a 7 per cent increase over 2023-24 (BE).
Revenue Outlay. The budgetary allocation towards Revenue expenditure for this year is $33.86 billion (`2,82,773 crore), an increase of 4.68 per cent over the 202324 (BE). Of this, `92,088 crores have been earmarked for sustenance and operational readiness, which is 48 per cent higher than the allocation for FY 2022-23, and is a welcome step. Allocation of revenue expenditure for stores, works, repairs and refits for this year is `69,571.4 crore for 2024-25 (BE), which is a decline of 0.5 per cent over 2023-24(BE) and a substantial decline of over 2023-24(RE). The allocation towards works has decreased for all the three services, though this could be due to excessive existing sanctions on which work is still in progress. There is a substantial increase of 30 per cent in allocation towards Border Roads Organisation (BRO) amounting to `6,500 crore, to maintain momentum on building-up our border infrastructure.
Defence Pensions and ECHS. The budgetary allowance for defence pensions has gone up to `1.41 lakh crore, an increase of only 2.17 per cent over the previous year’s
Ahead of the Competition:
The BEST AIP System and the Future of Hybridisation in Conventional Oceanic Submarines
The BEST (Bio Ethanol Stealth Technology) AIP developed by Navantia creates the appropriate power to charge the batteries and allow the submarine to patrol while maintaining maximum discretion
Underwater Stealth
The importance of conventional submarines is recognised. So much so, that even the countries that are not in possession of conventional submarines, such as the main western European powers, in the end, rely on their allies to supplement as escorts for their nuclear counterparts some submarine operations that do not require prolonged deployments, but do need maximum discretion.
Among them, intelligence operations to shore facilities, docks, staging bases, or task force manoeuvres at periscope depth stand out. Its reduced patrol speed is, therefore, necessary, and just breaking the water foil, for intelligence in the electromagnetic spectrum, becomes a relevant source of indiscretion for that type of platform.
The required level of stealth is achieved by a platform capable of operating for weeks, in open confrontations, using heavy torpedoes as well as supersonic anti-ship missiles. These prolonged confrontations are more efficient compared to the first strike of a surface task force facing adversary coasts, openly compromised both its air vector by the new anti-aircraft warfare demonstrated in the Ukrainian war, and its own carrier platform which, today, cannot face an attack due to the saturation of the new supersonic and hypersonic manoeuvrable vectors, disabling its flight deck.
Beyond the intelligence operations, the submerged period after a battery charge in a conventional submarine, and its capacity to operate without being detected directly depends on its battery’s capacity as well as the power of its Diesel-alternator-rectifiers (DAR).
Historically, conventional submarines have used lead-acid technology for its batteries. Their control, widely known, requires a series of auxiliary systems and a safe and effective Hydrogen management. The lower regime has a higher battery capacity, approximately 50 per cent more than a higher regime, which is directly related to the submarine’s speed in different scenarios. Besides, it must be noted that the charging intensity cannot be kept at a high value during the entire charge. When the set voltage is reached, Hydrogen comes off the batteries, which requires the reduction of the charging intensity, wasting the DAR’s power during the periods in which the submarine is vulnerable to detection, during snorkel. However, one of the advantages of this kind of battery is that the
capacity is maintained, so reaching a deep discharge at high speed does not mean that the battery has that same state of discharge at low speed, in fact it is greater.
Anaerobic Systems as a Solution to Improve Stealth
The designers’ goal is to come up with solutions that enable us to increase the time that the submarines remain undetected.
The research on anaerobic power generators based on Hydrogen Peroxide has been documented since the Second World War.
From that point of time, different concepts to achieve more efficient and safe solutions have been assessed, with designs that we call First Generation, and that initially chose to use thermal machines such as closed-cycle diesel engine systems, Stirling Engines, a piston system with external combustion; or systems based on steam turbine powered by external combustion.
The Stirling Engine was quite successful, being installed in 20 submarines, plus 25 submersibles that China is estimated to have. The turbine-based system, however, was not as fortunate -probably due to its questionable results-, being installed only in four Pakistan navy submarines.
The application of Fuel Cell technology with metal Hydride storage in the 90’s represented a qualitative leap in the development of anaerobic systems, to the point that it is still successfully marketed today, having been installed in more than 50 submarines of around 2,000 tonnes of submerged displacement. This technology, which we call Second Generation, avoids the rotating elements as the basis of energy generation existing in the previous generation, as well
as the need to exhaust flue gases offboard. However, its storage capacity estimates an endurance of a few days, and the integration of its bulky and heavy Hydride cylinders implies a restriction of the submarine’s design, making them unviable for oceanic SSKs. For this reason, on submarines with more than 3,000 tonnes of submerged displacement, the advantages of this system are dramatically narrowed compared to a solution based on the integration of additional battery chambers using Lithium-ion technology. This is the approach recently adopted by the Japanese navy in the latest Sōryū -class submarines delivered.
The S-80 submarine is a submarine with 3000 tonnes of submerged displacement, with a volume that fulfils a demanding payload of weapons and sensors, a high endurance and a high standard of habitability. This capacity would not be viable with an AIP system with Hydrogen stored in metal Hydride cylinders, the high number of cylinders that would be required to achieve the same endurance as the Navantia BEST AIP would compromise the weightdisplacement balance, having to drastically increase the volume of the pressure hull.
The BEST AIP Differentiating Factor for Oceanic Submarines
The ambitions of the new oceanic submarine construction programmes demand a new qualitative leap in technology to acquire platforms with a higher order of submerged operating range, which exponentially decreases the probability of being detected. This implies that the range and endurance requirements in low-speed diving will now be measured in weeks instead
of days, demanding the challenge of bringing higher power density on-board without compromising the design or other platform capabilities to be solved. The solution to this problem is effectively obtained through Third Generation AIP systems, state-of-the-art AIP systems such as BEST (Bio Ethanol Stealth Technology) developed by Navantia for the S-80 class submarines. The Navantia BEST AIP generates Hydrogen on demand from a liquid fuel (Bioethanol) which is stored in conventional structural tanks at ambient temperature and pressure. This results in a more efficient, safer and maintenance cost effective design solution than Hydrogen stored in metal Hydrides cylinders. The BEST AIP generates the correct power to charge the batteries and enables the submarine to patrol while maintaining maximum stealth. From a safety point of view, the hazards arising from the operation with flammable substances are, in many cases, equivalent to those of the battery-based systems as well as the metal Hydride storage by sharing the management of Hydrogen and pure Oxygen onboard. From the operation point of view, as in the First-Generation systems, the need of exhausting the flue gases offboard comes in, thus the signature of such a submarine operating in AIP mode is not distinguishable from a conventional submarine in pure electric navigation. Navantia’s BEST system sorts out these issues using conventional systems to make sure that the potential hazards derived from their operation are detected and suppressed and carrying it out with a level of stealth by exhausting a seawater jet with a crystalline dissolution of the combustion gases distinguishable in
n NAVANTIA S.A.
Navantia’ S-80 Class Submarine
PHOTOGRAPH: Navantia
waters without maritime traffic. Additionally, the use of bioethanol instead of a fossil fuel erases the potential risk of detection by chemical traces using sniffers.
Effectivity Analysis Against an Anti-Submarine War (ASW)
To evaluate the submarine’s indiscretion diving in periscope depth, and to evaluate its operability with Navantia’s BEST anaerobic plant, an analysis has been carried out against an actual anti-submarine capability, two multipurpose frigates with two theoretical helicopters, and an ASW patrol capacity held at “troubled” waters with four guards every 24h. In order to optimize the use of a oceanic conventional submarine, it must reach adversary waters with capacity, which involves a submarine of a displacement of 3,000 tonnes. For the purpose of this analysis, the orders of magnitude of the thread with the maximum ‘detection’ distances were listed according to their nature: SSK broadband acoustic signature, SSK narrowband acoustic signature, and Radar signature.
Leaving the mathematical details of the statistical model out, quantitative results for 3,000 simulated cases are shown with a Montecarlo diagram, in a scenario with only one edge in which the search area is not greater than 1,00,000 km2 (a coastal strip of 1,000 km with a width of 100 km), and dives set out at 300 hours where the SSK would not snorkel but would do intelligence with two masts hoisted.
During this exercise, we have obtained results that call for attention. Finally, there is a 50 per cent chance that we were detected by the opponent. A hypothetical scenario was carried out, an ideal search with exact search lane overlaps, but taking advantage of previous experiences, a realistic disturbance equivalent to over sweeps can be assessed, and introduced into the search during the 300 hours over 78 per cent of the aforementioned patrol area. This approach, accumulating inefficiency in the ASW, assumes an assessment of stealth ability growing by up to 70 per cent, but it is still unsatisfactory for the tactical costs assumed. The other 30 per cent chance of being detected is related to the continuous presence of the SAR disturbance of the wake to maintain 300 hours of intelligence without interruption. It must be pointed out that interrupting it, leads the stealth to values relevant to the operation. Thus, it has been evaluated that a secure communication campaign combined with the automated intelligence gathering can occur in “4/4” cycles, 4 useful minutes (ignoring manoeuvring) every 4 hours dedicated, partially, to a sprint speed in a lead acid battery (twice as much in a lithium battery, where the advantage calculated here would increase). The same calculation now indicates that the probability of complete absence of alarm in the adversary rises to over 90 per cent . A value that operationally indicates the importance of this type of platform. Note that by repeating this type of calculation for an SSN, in the most common Western standard, the same model generates a likelihood for the same condition slightly less than 50 per cent, essentially because the same time and area are set. Since, if the patrol area increases, and therefore, the underwater endurance provided by a nuclear power plant disappears, the difference between “capability of being really stealthy” and the noise radiated in broadband of the SSN becomes 6 to 12 dB times higher in minimum sustained speeds.
A New Horizon, Lithium-ion Batteries
A lithium-ion-based battery system is currently being developed for submarines. It entails a significant improvement over lead-acid batteries, being able to charge at a very high intensity, and coming with a significant reduction of auxiliary systems.
From an operational point of view, the Lithium battery system enables snorkelling at greater power with the consequent improvement of the IR. Longer snorkelling times taking advantage of the total power of the auxiliaries, which means more time in immersion as the battery is more charged, and a significant improvement in relation to the time that the submarine can be at high speed.
However, developing Lithium battery systems for submarines applications comes with technical challenges, particularly in the safety domain.
Hybridisation, the Future
Finally, the hybridisation of Third-Generation AIP technology with Lithium-ion battery technology will enable the advantages of a fast recharge time with the Diesel Generator system, and a greater endurance at maximum speed, where the sprint operation is tactically very relevant. This approach will enhance the capabilities of the new generation submarines, resulting in better performances and tactical superiority.
The combination of an AIP system and the Lithium batteries (LIB) system significantly increase the submerged period of a submarine thanks to:
z Third Generation AIP System performance
z High-speed charges during snorkelling
z Capability of keeping the submarine at high-speed for a greater number of hours.
The advantages of replacing the AIP system for more LIB modules have been assessed. At the first instance, it is noted that this configuration entails less design complexity by not having to fit and maintain a chemical plant inside a submarine, but it comes with less endurance than a submarine with an AIP system fitted.
In addition, an AIP system with lead acid batteries produces an improvement in the submerged period at low demand reaching 500 per cent, even the combination of AIP and lithium batteries would improve this value, the use of only lithium batteries would mean an improvement that would reach almost 300 per cent compared to conventional lead acid batteries. As mentioned above, depending on the type of missions the submarine caries out, this improvement in discharges may be sufficient, significantly simplifying the complexity of the vessel.
Conclusions
Finally, the following conclusions can be drawn based on what has been previously stated:
z Conventional submarines can achieve maximum discretion with reduced patrol speeds, excelling in intelligence operations at periscope depth in relation to nuclear submarines.
z A submarine capable of maintaining a maximum discretion operation over weeks anticipates a new advantage for the SSKs: Denying the adversary control
of waters with a surface task force. Lead acid batteries is a well known technology, but by itself the use of diesel-electric configuration have an effect on the submerged periods, and consequently, the indiscretion rate.
z First or Second Generation Anaerobic systems have been presented as a solution to increase the submerged endurance of medium-sized submarines; however, its storage capacity limits the endurance by the order of a few days, and the integration of the bulky and heavy metal Hydride cylinders of Second-Generation systems makes the design non-viable for the oceanic conventional submarines market.
z The Third-Generation AIP systems such as Navantia’s BEST represents the most suitable design solution for oceanic SSKs.
z With a secure communication campaign combined with the intelligence gathering in an automated way in 4/4 cycles in a submarine such as the S-80 with a state-of-the-art AIP system, the likelihood of complete absence of alarm in the adversary rises to over 90 per cent , a value that operationally indicates the advantage of this type of platform (SSK type) over a nuclear submarine (SSN type), which would be less than 50 per cent.
z The Lithium-ion batteries technology comes with relevant advantages over the lead-acid batteries, such as sprint speed and load utilization; however, there are safety aspects that cannot be overlooked during the design phase, and may represent a technical challenge. However, it seems clear that the hybridization of Third-Generation AIP technology with lithium-ion battery technology will enable the advantages of a fast-recharging time with the diesel generators systems, and a greater endurance at maximum speed, where the sprint operation is tactically very relevant. SP
(Top and Above) Illustration of AIP BEST on board the S-80 Submarine
PHOTOGRAPHS: Navantia
Defence Budget 2024-25...continued from page 3
allocation, which if inflation is considered, indicates negative growth under this head. A welcome step has been the unprecedented increase of 28 per cent to the Ex-Servicemen Welfare Scheme (ECHS), which will ensure the clearing of pending bills, and the decision to equate ECHS rates with CGHS rates, which will ensure better health care for over 32 lakh retired defence personnel.
Coast Guard. The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) has continued to get a healthy increase in budgetary support with `7,651.80 crore, the outlay for 2024-25 being 6.31 per cent higher than the previous year’s allocation. The Capital to Revenue ratio of the ICG remains very healthy, with `3,500 crore from the total allocation of `7,651.80 crore being for Capital expenditure and the rest being allocated for Revenue expenditure.
Amendments to Customs Act. A major step has been amendments to the Customs Act with effect from July 24, 2024, under which the rate of Basic Customs Duty (BCD) has been reduced to zero on the following items:
z Components and consumables for use in the manufacture of specified vessels.
z Technical documentation and spare parts for construction of warships.
z To boost the processing and refining of critical minerals such as lithium, copper and cobalt, which are critical for space and defence sectors, and help secure their availability for domestic manufacturing, it has been proposed to fully exempt customs duties on 25 critical minerals and reduce BCD on two of them.
z To promote domestic MRO, duration for export in case of aircraft and vessels imported for maintenance, repair and overhauling has been increased from six months to one year, which shall be further extendable by one year. Currently, articles of foreign origin can be imported into India for repairs subject to their re-exportation within six months extendable to one year.
z Further, the period for duty-free re-import of goods (other than those under export promotion schemes), which had been exported out from India, for repairs under warranty has been increased from three years to five years, which shall be further extendable by two years.
z Nil BCD on import of components and consumables for manufacturing of specified vessels and on technical documentation and spare parts, which is a welcome move to promote domestic manufacturing of warships. Allocation to Indigenisation. The continuing commitment to Atmanirbhar Bharat is demonstrated by the fact that assistance for prototype development under ‘Make’ Procedure has increased by 46 per cent over 2023-24 (BE). This could be towards projects such as High-Altitude Pseudo Satellite, Long Range Land Attack Cruise Missile, Hypersonic Glide Vehicle, Directed Energy Weapons (300 KW and more), Light Weight Tank, Communication System, among others. The budgetary allocation for iDEX under the ‘Acing Development of Innovative Technologies (ADITI)’ scheme has been enhanced from `115 crore to `518 crore to promote innovation. The iDEX (ADITI) scheme with 17 challenges has seen an overwhelming response from the Indian Industry. Through this scheme, MoD is engaging with startups/ MSMEs and innovators to develop defence technology solutions for the Indian Armed Forces. A grant of up to 50 per cent of the product development budget with a maximum limit of `25 crore will be awarded to successful innovators under this scheme. DRDO Outlay. The budgetary allocation to the DRDO has remained almost static at `23,855 crore, of which `13,208 crore has been allocated for capital expenditure,
Union Budget 2024-2025
Union Budget 2024-2025
Union Budget 2024-2025
Source:
which is an increase of 2.8 per cent over 2023-24(BE). `60 crore has been allocated for the Technology Development Fund (TDF), which is specially designed for new startups, MSMEs and academia to work with the DRDO.
Funding for ‘Deep Tech’. The PIB note of February 1, 2024 had indicated that a corpus of ` one lakh crore – a huge sum by any account – has been earmarked for ‘Deep Tech’ to provide long term loans to tech savvy youth and companies and tax advantage to start-ups to give impetus to innovation in the defence sector. While a welcome step to encourage indigenous defence technologies, it is not clear whether this corpus would go from the defence budget. The nature of this corpus also implies that funds would be disbursed on ‘as required’ basis. Unless created separately, considering the pace of innovations, it is quite likely that a major part of this corpus could lapse at the end of the current financial year (CFY). However, this allocation is not mentioned in the PIB note of July 23, 2024, announcing the highlights of the final defence budget.
Macro Trends in Defence Budget. The defence budget for the CFY maintains the macro trends of defence budgets over the past decade (2014-24). These include at-
tempts to enhance capital expenditure and reduce revenue expenditure; emphasis on indigenisation (Atmanirbharta); provision of additional Revenue funds for making good critical capability shortfalls; strengthening of border infrastructure, especially roads on our northern border; and greater funding for indigenisation. There has been an average annual increase of about 8 per cent in the defence budget in the period 2014-24, though the increase in real terms has eroded considerably due to an average inflation of about 5 per cent (and a peak of 8 per cent) during the same period. Significantly, there has been a steady drop in the percentage of national spending on defence from about 20 per cent in 201415 to 12.9 per cent in 2024-25, which is an indicator of the Indian economy’s growing strength. The percentage of GDP spent on defence expenditure during the period has been consistently under 2 per cent, with an average annual expenditure of about 1.8 per cent of GDP, though if Defence Pensions are deducted, the outlay reduces to 1.3 per cent of GDP.
The areas of emphasis pursued by the government over the past decade have generally delivered good results. Indigenisation and technology development has received a much-needed impetus, critical capability shortfalls have been significantly reduced and border infrastructure has been enhanced. However, the expected reduction in Revenue expenditure on pensions, pay and allowances, and the expected increase in Capital expenditure have not entirely been realised, in major part because the overall growth in India’s defence budget over the past decade has been modest. This has ensured that the modernisation of the Armed Forces has remained confined to a few select areas, with several critical capability voids yet to be addressed.
Outlay for the Indian Navy (IN)
The IN got the smallest share of the defence budget (18.9 per cent) between the three Services as per the RE for FY 2023-24 and this trend continues for FY 2024-25. The 36th report (2023-24) by the Parliament’s Standing Committee on Defence (SCOD) on the Demands for Grants for FY 2023-24 had stated that in FY 2022-23, the Capital to Revenue ratio of the IN was a healthy 68:32. The report also stated that Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) had been accorded to 35 schemes worth `1,20,797.31 crore.
In BE 2023-24, the Capital allocation of the IN was the second highest after the IAF, with `52,804.75 crore being allocated. In FY 2024-25, 37 per cent of the overall Capital expenditure outlay for the three Services has been allocated to the IN. An outlay of `23,800 crore has been mentioned under the Capital head for ‘Naval Fleet’ and `6,380 crore for ‘Dockyard Projects’. It is understood that today the Indian Navy has 66 ships on its order book, including the Fleet Support Ships, Cadet Training Ships, Next Generation OPVs, Next Generation Corvettes, additional Scorpene class submarines, etc. Major AoNs are also being reportedly being processed for two SSNs, the second indigenous aircraft carrier (IAC-2) and Landing Platform Docks. The government recognises the multiplier effect of 1.82 in the ship-building sector, stating that `1.5 lakh crore in naval shipbuilding projects would accrue a monetary circulation of `2.73 lakh crore. The fact that the multiplier effect of shipbuilding in terms of domestic investment, job growth and technology development has not only been recognised, but also quantified, is a positive indicator in the eventual realisation of key ship-building projects.
Apart from the IAC-2 and the SSN, the IN requires to obtain approval for a range of ships, submarines, aircraft and weapons. Some of the platforms required include the P-75(I) submarines, additional frigates/ destroyers, minesweeping/ mine-hunting platforms, additional long range and medium range maritime patrol aircraft, Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA), etc, which are at advanced stage of approval through the defence procurement process. If approved during the CFY, these schemes would require additional funding, which currently may not be available. As far as Revenue allocation is concerned, the IN received 11.6 per cent of the Defence Revenue budget, which has shown a modest increase of 1.3 per cent from the previous year. This is in line with Revenue allocations (non-salary) to the IN over the past decade and would appear to be sufficient for meeting the IN’s requirements. As such, additional funds have historically been made available when required for operational commitments.
Conclusion
In the oral evidence provided by the naval representative to the 36th SCOD, the maritime threat perception to India vis-à-vis China’s growing maritime power was clearly brought out. The naval representative also stated that meeting this challenge required sustained funding, as shipbuilding programmes have long gestation periods of 10-15 years. This need was echoed in the SCOD report, noting that expenditure on New Schemes as compared to Committed Liabilities had reduced, indicating that the IN’s modernisation drive was slowing. As is evident from the figures allocated to defence expenditure during the final budget, the increase in defence spending has been modest. Therefore, the fact remains that overall defence expenditure needs to go up if the current imbalance between Revenue and Capital expenditure is to be redressed and modernisation of the Armed Forces is to progress in accordance with the requirements of national defence.
Navy’s New ASBM and AUV
The Indian Navy is swiftly enhancing its defensive capabilities by developing anti-ship ballistic missile systems and autonomous underwater vehicles
n LT GENERAL P.C. KATOCH (RETD)
THE CONTINUED WAR MONGERING by the US-led NATO and China’s aggressive stance has resulted in rapid advances in weapon systems. The US is constantly violating Russian redlines in Ukraine, with Russia dangling Zircon missiles atop US aircraft carriers in response. Ballistic missiles are playing a major role in the war zones of today. Traditionally used for land-based targets, these missiles have been repurposed as anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs) in recent years to effectively breach enemy air defences and damage warships using kinetic energy.
Recognising their potential to counter advanced naval capabilities, China was the first to develop ASBMs. China has developed many types of ASBMs, like the shortrange CM-401, medium-range DF-21D, and YJ-21; with varying ranges and payload capacities, tailored to target different types of naval vessels. The DF-21D has been termed “carrier killer” due to its ability to strike aircraft carriers at long distances. The United States is also developing the anti-ship version of its short-range Precision Strike Missile (PrSM). ASBMs’ speed, accuracy, and destructive potential make them a significant threat to navies worldwide, necessitating robust countermeasures.
The Indian Navy has been working on defence against the ballistic missile threat. In 2023, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in conjunction with the Indian Navy successfully tested the Naval Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) System that is capable of intercepting nuclear missiles in space and within the Earth’s atmosphere, offering a robust sea-based defence. This demonstrated India’s capability to protect its naval assets from long-range missile threats, enhancing the overall security of India’s maritime operations.
According to news reports of August 20, 2024, the DRDO is presently developing a new long-range surface-to-air missile for the Indian Navy, which will have a range exceeding 250 km. This weapon system will also be capable of intercepting ASBMs travelling at speeds up to Mach 7; thus providing a formidable shield for warships against a wide range of aerial threats.
The above missile is likely the naval version of a missile from the Long Range Surface-to-Air Missile (LRSAM) system being developed under Project ‘Kusha’, which involves development of three long-range air defence missiles with ranges of 150 km, 250300 km, and 400 km, drawing parallels to the Russian S-400 system. The development of this naval variant is especially crucial given the increasing threat posed by ASBMs.
The naval BMD system is specifically designed to counter nuclear-tipped mis-
DRDO is developing a new long-range surface-to-air missile for the Indian Navy, capable of intercepting ASBMs traveling at speeds up to Mach 7, offering a formidable shield for warships
SpokespersonNavy / X
siles and ASBMs, but the naval long-range surface-to-air missile will have dual capability similar to the American SM-6. The SM-6 is a ship-borne missile that can defeat a range of targets from supersonic anti-ship cruise missiles to threats from surface ships; its seeker and terminal guidance electronics derived from technology developed in the Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile Programme.
The new missile being developed by the DRDO for the Indian Navy is capable of intercepting aircraft at long distances and intercepting ballistic missiles in their terminal phases. This will act as a lower-tier defence against ballistic missiles, providing a comprehensive multi-layered defence system. The DRDO is simultaneously working on a ballistic missile defence shield to protect India from long-range nuclear-
tipped missiles The LRSAM system will significantly enhance India’s defences against tactical and short-range ballistic missiles, particularly during their terminal phase.
Concurrently, media reports of August 20, 2024 have stated that ‘Rekise Marine Private Limited’ has won the Indian Navy’s iDEX Aditi 1.0 Challenge with its Jalkapi AUV. This will give a significant contract to Rekise Marine Private Limited for developing and providing these AUVs to the Indian Navy in conjunction with the Indian Navy’s Directorate of Naval Design (DND – SDG).
The Jalkapi AUV is designed to undertake extended underwater survey missions. This Jalkapi AUV is about 10 metres in length and two metres in diameter. It is equipped with a multiple sensor suite, including EOIR cameras, multi-beam echo sounders and sonar system. With advanced navigation and obstacle avoidance system to ensure safe and efficient operations, The Jalkapi AUV can operate for up to 45 days without resupply. The AUV is designed to operate at a depth of 300 metres and has an onboard diesel generator, which recharges its batteries at sea.
Acquisition of the Jalkapi AUVs will be a boost to the Indian Navy’s underwater capabilities. This development also indicates India’s growing potential in indigenous development of underwater technology and its potential to contribute to India’s maritime dominance.
According to news reports of August 13, 2024, China has claimed that its hypersonic weapons technology is about to undergo a groundbreaking upgrade, driven by a new project focused on enhancing hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs). At Mach 15, China’s Hypersonic gliders can ‘PowerJump’ across the globe, dramatically boosting their range. This would be a cause of concern even to the US. SP
APPOINTMENTS
Vice Admiral Vineet Mccarty, assumes Charge as Controller
Personnel Services
Vice Admiral Vineet McCarty assumed charge as the Controller Personnel Services (CPS) on September 3, 2024. The Flag Officer was commissioned into the Indian Navy on July 1, 1989 and is a graduate of Defence Services Staff College, Wellington and National Defence College, New Delhi. Prior to this, he was Commandant of Indian Naval Academy.
Vice Admiral C.R. Praveen Nair, takes over as the Commandant, Indian Naval Academy
Vice Admiral C.R. Praveen Nair took over as Commandant, Indian Naval Academy on August 29, 2024. The Flag Officer was commissioned into the Indian Navy (IN) on July 1, 1991. Prior being appointed as the Commandant of the Indian Naval Academy, the Flag Officer was commanding the Western Fleet of the Indian Navy.
Vice Admiral Rajesh Dhankhar takes over as Director General Project Seabird
Vice Admiral Rajesh Dhankhar assumed duties of the Director General Project Seabird, on August 28, 2024. During his tenure as Fleet Commander, over the past ten months, the Eastern Fleet maintained high level of combat readiness and operational tempo undertaking multiple Mission Based and operational deployments, and numerous bilateral and multilateral engagements.
Surgeon Vice Admiral Anupam Kapur assumes charge as Director General Hospital Services (Armed Forces)
Surgeon Vice Admiral Anupam Kapur assumed the charge of Director General Hospital Services (Armed Forces) at the office of the Director General Armed Forces Medical Services. Prior to taking over as the DGHS (Armed Forces), the Flag Officer served as the Command Medical Officer of the Western Naval Command.
Rear Admiral Nelson D’Souza takes over as Commandant, Military Institute of Technology, Pune
Rear Admiral Nelson D’Souza has taken over as Commandant of Military Institute of Technology (MILIT). As the new Commandant of one of India’s premier tri-services technical training institutes, he will push the ongoing efforts at Jointness & Integration in training among tri-services and enhancing collaboration with the industry and academia.
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DRDO & Indian Navy conduct successful trial of BMD Interceptor from Naval Platform
PHOTOGRAPH:
