Science, Overlooked - STEM-Zine Issue 6

ISSUE 6

STEM

NOV 2020

ZINE SCIENCE,

OVERLOOKED

AMPLE WARNINGS OF ZOONOTIC SPILLOVER GO UNACKNOWLEDGED: THE CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC p. 3

THE INTERTWINING OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND CIVIL RIGHTS p. 7

NEUROLOGICAL DISEASES YOUR BRAIN DOESN'T KNOW EXIST p. 14

OUR FIRST EVER STEMZINE STUDENT SPOTLIGHT Take a look at our interview with Aalyana Green

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, & MATHEMATICS

Ample Warnings of Zoonotic Spillover Go Unacknowledged: The Coronavirus Pandemic

03

by Sophie LaBelle

The Intertwining of Climate Change and Civil Rights

07

by Holly Vaux

Dr. Chien Shiung Wu : The Law of Conservation of Parity

11

by Arshiya C.

Brain Fart: Neurological Diseases Your Brain Doesn’t Know Exist

14

by Pranathi Miryala

Pregnancy Overlooked

18

by Melany Grullon

Student Spotlight: An Interview with Aalayna Green

22

Vaccine Hesitancy - What are the Consequences?

24

by Sabah Imran

Animals Are Smarter Than We Think

28

by Julia H.

Nettie M. Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination

33

by Michelle Chan

Elijah McCoy and His Lubricating Device

by Mubasshir Mugibur Raghman

STUDENTS OF TODAY

36

LEADERS OF TOMORROW

AMPLE ARNINGS OF OONO IC SPILLO ER GO NACKNO LEDGED the coron v rus p nde

Wr tten by Soph e LaBelle

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c

Ed ted by Holly Vaux

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Des gned by Jacquel ne Guo

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e a f he ld ha e e ienced i , h gh me a g ea e deg ee han he : spillover, an e en ma ked b a a h gen gaining he abili j m f m animal h man . S ill e ca e he ead f n ic di ea e, di ea e ha igina e in animal and ca e illne in h man . The li f n ic di ea e i l ng, and c m i ing f m e han 60% f di c e ed infec i di ea e . E e n ic di ea e c ea e a la h and i le effec in mind and media n ma e he e he e icen e f eme gence diagn i ha en be. S me hi ical e am le incl de he b b nic lag e, hich igina ed nea Sicil in 1347, HIV f m Calif nia in 1981, Hend a f m A alia (1994), a ian fl f m H ng K ng (1997), and Mad C f m B i ain (1996). The m ecen and ained in he ca e f HIV/AIDS n ic e idemic ch a Eb la (fi eme gence in 1976, ec nd eme gence in 2014), SARS (2003) and MERS (2012) had he m en ial a n he ld ab SARS-C V-2, he n ic a h gen ha ha ca ed he c en andemic d e i al imila i ie .

Since SARS-C V-2, he i ha ca e C id-19, landed n Ame ican il, ell- ega ded cience i e Da id Q ammen h ne ha been inging ff he h k i h e e a king,

HO DOES I FEEL O BE PRESCIEN HE OMINO A I PON HICH A E OF HE O LD I ECHOE IN HI EPL I D RA HER BE RONG In hi c m elling and a l - i led S ill e : Animal Infec i n and he Ne H man Pandemic, Q ammen a n again he Ne Big One, an ine i able n ic i ha ha he en ial infec and de h man n a la ge cale. Q ammen i n he nl ne ha e d a n a en i n he dange f n e , cien i ha e been d ing and bli hing n hi in e ecie hen men n f decade . Scien i e ea ch he igin f n ic di ea e like AIDS, SARS, and MERS, n nl f he g ea e g d f cience a me emblance f j ice f he decea ed, b al e en a lea manage he Ne Big One. The de el men f he HIV/AIDS e idemic i h c n ide a i n a i i ne f he m end ing and deadl n ic a h gen f ime. The igin f h man imm n deficienc i e1g M, m e c mm nl kn n a he ain f HIV ha ca e AIDS, i a ill e e en be een a h n e and hi chim an ee e in cen al Af ica. D ing hi n ic an mi i n f i al ma e f m chim h man, imian imm n deficienc i (SIV) ada ed bec me HIV. M lec la cl ck e ima e in in hi nf na e e en me ime be een he ea 1900 and 1930. Thi ain f HIV a eled d n he C ng Ri e h man h man ia e al an mi i n; nce i eached B a a ille, he na he c nfl ence f i e a he C ng ba in, he di ea e began eading a an e nen ial a e. The ac ice f i i n and ad en f medical he a e ic in l ing needle k cke ed he b dil -fl id b ne HIV in he c n in ed andemic i i da , anning all c n inen , fa infec ing me 69 milli n e le and killing 35 milli n.

The e a e m e i -ca ed e idemic ha ha e an all imila , e ce in ead f a chim an ee, e likel ha e a fligh mammal blame: he ba . Ne f an a ical ne m nia called e e e ac e e ia nd me c na i (SARS-C V-1) hi gl bal media in 2003 hen he b eak m ed f m A ia E e and hen N h Ame ica i i im an n e ha hi i j g a ed Ame ica.

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Li ing in A i na a he ime, I emembe he b eak being in he ne b I ne e became c nce ned f m n afe . The 29 c nfi med SARS ca e in he US e e i la ed ickl and n ne f he e ic im died, e en h gh he fficial m ali ae f he di ea e a ela i el high a 9.6%. W ld ide, 8,096 e le c n ac ed SARS i h 774 f hem cc mbing he di ea e. The b eak a c n ained b J l 2003.

T ca ch he c l i e n ible f SARS, me e i le hing a nece a . Shi Zhengli, China e iden i -h n e , f ll ed lead all he a Shi Ca e in Y nnan P ince find he g il a . O iginall a e ea ch eam in H ng K ng e ed ha SARS eme ged f m a m ng e-like c ea e called a ci e a a e ma ke in G angd ng P ince.

H e e , me e e kne f m e i e e ience ha me ime he e e i an in e media e ec be een he iginal e e i fa i and h man , a a he ca e i h Hend a and Ni ah i e in he 90 ; h e in e media ec being h e and ig , e ec i el . The iginal h i ac all likel a ba in b h ca e . The e e e ace am n f he SARS i in ba a he ame e ma ke he e he infec ed ci e e e and hi a en gh e idence di ec me i l gi a d ba a he iginal e e i . Ab a ea la e Shi Zhengli lab i la ed c na i an ib die f m a h e h e ba i h 97% imila i he SARS ain f nd in he ci e a G angd ng e ma ke . In addi i n di c e ing he likel h f SARS, Zhengli lab c llec ed h nd ed f ba -b ne i ma e ial effec i el c ea ing a al able c na i c m endi m. Af e m e e ea ch, he lab bli hed hei finding , hich incl ded c ncl i n ha me f he e di c e ed c na i e a e cl e ela i e f SARS i h he abili infec h man l ng cell in a e i di h and ca e SARS-like di ea e in mice. Addi i nall , Zhengli ha bli hed m l i le e ie n c na i e in man ell- ega ded j nal . She and he c a h ha e c n in l a ned again he i k f f e ba -b ne i b eak .

The le e -kn n c na i b eak i Middle Ea e i a nd me c na i (MERS-C V). Wi h a agge ing m ali a e f 36%, MERS, like SARS and SARS-C V-2, elici a damaging inflamma e n e in h man l ng . The di ea e eme ged in 2012 and ince hen ema kabl li le ha been nc e ed ab he c ndi i n. Beca e f eligi e ic i n n a ie in MERS-endemic egi n , m em da a n h man i e e el lacking. We d , h e e , kn f m e l gical die ha he iginal h f hi c na i i likel a ba f m b-Saha an Af ica.

We al kn ha he in e media e ec be een ba and h man, he c l i f eeding h man infec i n , i he d meda camel. S die ha e f nd ha MERS ha been ci c la ing in camel f he A abian Penin la f e 30 ea . The di ea e emain c n ained m l in he Kingd m f Sa di A abia, i h ne ec ded b eak in S h K ea. While m ch le ide ead han he SARS e idemic, he MERS b eak ill had he en ial nd he ala m n c na i e and n ic ill e bef e he en i e gl be became eng lfed in c en a e f ha I like call c nami e .

SARS and MERS a gh h mani f ndamen al being:

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5

The back n he c en andemic i an he e e in he ame ng: l ca i n f eme gence H anan e -ma ke ; ible in e media ec ang lin; iginal h ba . While n ne f he e fac ha e been en i h 100% ce ain , all ign in hi c mbina i n f a iable being e n ible f he ide ead h man infec i n f C id-19 ba ed n he e idence ha 27 f 41 f he indi id al fi infec ed had e i l i i ed ked a H anan e -ma ke , and Mala an ang lin ca a c na i h e amin acid ma ch h e f SARS-C V-2. Wi h ha aid, i i ible ha h man c ld ha e ca gh SARS-C V-2 di ec l f m ba i hn in e media ; gen mic igna e f nd in h e h e ba a e 96% iden ical SARSC V-2 gene ic ma e ial.

We all kn ha ha ened ne . In fac , me eading hi ma ha e been di ec l im ac ed b hi i . Thi andemic c ld ha e been e en ed, li e c ld ha e been a ed 1,007,960 (and c n ing) li e be e ac . The c n ie ha e e hi ha d b SARS e f med ell in c n aining SARS-C V-2 ela i e na i n ha ha e n had a i al b eak in ecen mem , namel he Uni ed S a e . Amid he cha f he de el ing andemic, Zhengli a acc ed f elea ing SARS-C V-2 f m he lab a he W han In i e f Vi l g . Af e me e eme anic ab being he le e n ible e n f ca ing a i -ind ced gl bal mel d n, Zhengli name ha been clea ed.

N ne f he c na i am le in he lab ma ch an f he e ence making hei a a nd he ld ia h man m. The ildlife ade and e -ma ke ha e been kn n ce f n ic ill e f man ea . In fac , he CDC banned he im a i n f ci e in 2004 af e he SARS b eak, h gh i ha been e ed ha ci e c ld ill be cha ed a G angd ng e -ma ke n il China ann nced a e manen ban n ildlife c n m i n and ade n Feb a 24, 2020.

Re ea ching n ic b eak f he a i e en ial f e en i n g ing f a d.

Zhengli nde c e he im ance f iden if ing i al h be e nde and he h ea facing h mani . Ba -b ne c na i e ill ca e m e b eak , Shi a i h ce ain , [ ]e m find hem bef e he find . Addi i nall , ackn ledging h h man a e making hem el e m e lne able di ea e i ke andemic e en i n. We a e inc ea ingl di ega ding and de ing habi a f he e animal ha ca he bigge h ea ecie , e en iall di l dging i e f m hei h and elc ming hem in h man m c al memb ane . Def e a i n, age and an a i n f animal and animal d c a nd he ld, c led i h he inc ea ed m emen f h man a nd he gl be, make andemic f ne di ea e a ma hema ical nea ce ain . Q ammen eflec n S ill e a le [a] blic heal h a ning han ec l gical affi ma i n: he e c e f ce h ld he ld Da inian h ( he da ke f hi h , ell kn n and e i en l f g en) ha h mani i a kind f animal i h a ha ed fa e n he lane ."

PEOPLE AND GO ILLA HO E AND D IKE AND PIG MONKE CHIMP AND BA AND I E E RE ALL IN THIS TOGETHER

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The il e lining in all hi ma be ha SARS-C V-2 i n he Ne Big One b ha had en gh f a a ning effec e i ed f he highe f h mani in e in he c n l and e en i n f infec i di ea e and heed ell-inf med a ning , f li e li e all de end n i .

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BIBLIOGRAPH

H man Pandemic. W.W. N n and C , Ne Y k.

Q ammen, Da id. (2020, Ma 3). The Big One. DQ Bl g. h :// .da id ammen.c m/d -bl g.

CDC. (2003, Decembe 12). Re i ed U.S. S eillance Ca e Defini i n f Se e Ac e Re i a S nd me (SARS) and U da e n SARS ca e ---Uni ed S a e and W ld ide. h :// .cdc.g /mm / e ie /mm h ml/mm5249a2.h m.

G ld ein, S e hen A. 2017. O igin and a h gene i f Middle Ea e i a nd me-a cia ed c na i : ecen ad ance . 6: 1628.

Pe in, Jac e . 2013. The O igin f AIDS: f m a ien e g nd e . J E idemi l C mm ni Heal h 67(6): 473-475.

Q ammen, Da id. 2012. S ill e : Animal Infec i n and he Ne

Qi , Jane. 2020. H China ba man h n ed d n i e f m SARS he ne c na i . Scien ific Ame ican. h :// . cien ificame ican.c m/a icle/h -china -ba man-h n ed-d n- i e -f m- a - - he-ne c na i 1/#.

Xia e al. 2020. I la i n and cha ac e i a i n f 2019-nC V-like c na i f m Ma alin ang lin . Bi R ic . d i: h ://d i. g/10.1101/2020.02.17.951335. ( e in , n ee e ie ed).

oll

es gned b

u

ree

rung

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2020 ha bee a ea f ecede ed di a e a d i e ce agai c i ie f c a d he e i e . Thi ea ha h he da ge f ig i g he ice f B ack, I dig e a d e e f c (BIPOC), a d a he dc be a d ,i i c i ie f c h a e a a g ea e i k ha hei hi e c e a . S fa , a i a e 936,000 e e ha e died COVID-19, a a de ic hich e e a a ge i k ife f BIPOC ha hi e e e (P b ic Hea h E g a d, 2020; Sc , 2020). F he e, i dfi e , h ica e , ai i , a d he e i e a ha a d e e e f a i k BIPOC ha hei hi e c e a a e (B a d e a ., 2007; Beech, 2020). The i e ai fe e a de ic , e i e a di a e , a a d g ba a e i e i e a aci , a f f e ic aci e e a ed b icie a d ac i e ha e he ai f ife f ed i a BIPOC a ea . 2020 ha e ed a a ake- ca e e a a e f he i j ice i he d, b ha ac a a de a ed ca ac i f e, i he e e da ea i f aci i e ce f c i ie f c .

I 2014, F i , Michiga bega i i gi e ide . I a a e a e e , he ca g e e i ched a e ie f he De i Ri e F i Ri e , a i e hich had bee high ed b he i d ia ac i i f he c a Ge e a M (R e , 2016). O f ha , F i i f a c e a c b i gd e he g hi f fi ca c i e i hi he ci a ge d e dei d ia i a i e i gi f j b , high e a d hi e f igh (P id , 2016). The c bi a i f he e fac ea ha i e e e eaki g ead i he a ead ed a e a d eh d effec i e ea he a e e e i e e ed (S i h, 2016).

Fi e ide d i ki g a e e e c a i a ed i h ead a e e 10,000 i e he fede a i i (ACLU, 2016). Th a d f chi d e e ee ed ead i he a e , h d ed f eg a cie e e i b a da ea 12 dea h ha e bee acc edi ed he a i a d i ki g a e (Ha a-A i ha e a .,

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2016; G a & S k , 2019). T hi da , e ide i Fi d a ha e acce c ea d i ki g a e a d f ea , A e ica g e i g b die e ed hei ice (P id , 2016; Shah, 2020). Wha ha e ed d i g he Fi a e c i i i a i ee a e f e i e a aci . Wi h a ed i a B ack a i (U.S. Ce B ea , 2019), he deci i g e i g b die a d c a ie ade a e a he a e hide he e e i f he i e, e ed i a i e a d a i g ha B ack e e (P id , 2016; G a &S k , 2019).

F i , Michiga i i ei i e i e a aci . A e he d BIPOC a e a a g ea e i k f bei g e ed a ha hei hi e c e a , ih e ha ha f f he 9 i i e e i i g ea ha a d a e i e bei g e e f c (B a d e a ., 2007). C i ie f c a e

di i a e i ac ed b a a d ha a d a e g ba , f he U i ed S a e e i g ba e a e Me ic (R e ha , 2011; Pa & Wa ick, 2016), E e, A a ia a d he U i ed S a e di i g e- a e i A ia c ie (BAN & SVTC, 2002; Pe ki e a ., 2014; Bakhi i e a ., 2018), I degi A e ica a d bei g ed a c ea a e i e (H k & S i h, 2004; Vicke & H e , 2016).

Race i a g ea e de e i i g fac i ega d e e ha f e i e a c di i , ega d e f ci ec ic a (B a d e a ., 2007). I he U i ed S a e , idd e-c a B ack A e ica aki g a a e age a a i c e f $50,000 $60,000 a e e ed a g ea e e e f i ha -i c e hi e e e h ake a a e age a a i c e f $10,000 (Ma gida, 2017). The di a i i e e ha f a e ia ee a e he di he ef e acc edi ed he ed ca i , cc a i i c e f a i di id a , b a he b hei ace.

C i a e cha ge a e a g ea e i k c i ie f c h gh e i e a di a e , habi a a d g ba a i g. A he i e f i i g hi a ic e, 3.2 i i ac e f f e ha e bee b ed b he i dfi e c e agi g i Ca if ia (K i h ak a & Ka a , 2020). 2020 ha ee a e i i i dfi e g ba , h e e , he e a e e e ha c i a e cie i a d I dige c i ie ha e edic ed d ha e , h gh he ha e bee ed i a ig ed b g e i g b die (We e i g & B a , 2006; L a e a ., 2016; G e a ., 2020). I A a ia a d A e ica, I dige e e e f ed c a b i g ha aided i c ea i g d a a e ia a e a g h a d ed ce he ike ih d f c ab e i dfi e (S e he e a ., 2007).

H e e , he ac i e f c a b i g a ba ed i b h c ie (R e , 2020; S e , 2020). The c bi a i f he f e i e a a age e b I dige c i ie a d c i a e cha ge ha a ge c ib ed he i c ea e i i dfi e d ide (G e a ., 2020). The c e i dfi e a e a

a f e i de f he b a i ha e f aci a d ig a ce f BIPOC ice ca ca e, a da e i e a di a e a e bec i g ef e e a d c i a ec i e cha ge B ack, I dige a d e e fc c i e be he e ab e ai .

i dee i g ai ed i icie a d e a e he d. Raci i iface ed a d e e e a igh f e e e, e e a ec f aci be c f ed i c di g c i a e cha ge. A e e , a f he e i e a j ice e i ace fai di ec add e he f he be , i g i ead f b e a ic ca -a d- ade icie , e ca i g BIPOC c i ie hich he ef e c ib e ge ifica i , fai i g i c de BIPOC i di c i a ge he (Sea e & P if , 2020; W a d, 2020). I de di a e e f i j ice, ed ca e e f a d he b i e i g he e ec i e ci i igh a d he e i e f e ab e c i ie .

E e da ca ake a diffe e ce h gh aki g c ci deci i h e hica , ed ce ca b f i a d eek ai ab e a e a i e i hi ea . E e ha c ac ca g e e e e e ai e ab ci i igh a d e i e a cha ge e e a ci i e a e ec ed. Raci be c f ed head a d if e d figh ake a cha ge, he he i j ice i e .

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A e ica Ci i Libe ie U i f Michiga . (2016) He e T F i [Vide ]. A ai ab e i e: h :// . be.c / a ch? = 7ULFSaM A [Acce ed 10/09/2020].Bakhi i, B., G a e , S., Ceba , D., F , M. A. & Za ed, J. (2018) Ha he e i f e- a e e ed a Pa d a b ? A e ie f edic ab e i e a d cha e ge . E i e a I e a i a , 110, 173-192. Beech, P. (2020) Wha i e i e a aci ?

W d Ec ic F . 31 J . A ai ab e i e: h :// . ef . g/age da/2020/07/ ha -i -e i e a - aci i -c ide ic/#: : e =I %20ca %20 ea %20ci i e %20d i ki g,deca i g%20b i di g %20 i h%20a be %20 b e .& e =I %20 he%20 UK%20 ea hi e%2C%20a,a g%20 ai %20i %20 he%20US. [Acce ed 10/09/2020]B a d, R. D., M hai, P., Saha, R. & W igh , B. (2007) T ic Wa e a d Race a T e : Wh ace i a e af e a f he e ea . E i e a La , 38(2), 371-411.G , M., S ai , D. L., Aba g , J. T., Sa hadi, A., K de , C. A., Wi ia , A. P. & Diffe ba gh, N. S. (2020) C i a e cha ge i i c ea i g he ike ih d f e e e a i d ife c di i ac Ca if ia. E i e a Re ea ch Le e , 15(9), 1-14.G a , D. S. & S k , D. J. G. (2019) The i ac f he F i ae c i i fe i i . De g a h , 56, 2005-2031. Ha a-A i ha, M., LaCha ce, J., Sad e , R. C. & Sch e , A. C. (2016) E e a ed b d ead e e i chi d e a cia ed i h he F i d i ki g a e c i i : A a ia a a i f i k a d b ic hea h e e. A e ica J a f P b ic Hea h, 106(2), 283-290.H k , G. & S i h, C. L. (2004) The ead i f de c i : Na i a ac ifice a ea a d Na i e A e ica .

A e ica S ci gica Re ie , 69(4), 558-575.K i h ak a , P. & Ka a , S. (2020) The fi e ea e e . Agai . L A ge e Ti e , 15 h Se e be . A ai ab e i e: h :// . a i e .c / jec /ca if ia-fi e -da age-c i a e-cha ge-a a i / [Acce ed 15/09/2020].L a , O. M., Sa i , M. Age , A. A., A ca, B., A ca e a, F. J., M ei , A. T., Fi e , M. A., Gi dice, L. D., Sc cci a , E. & S a , D. (2016) A e i g c i a e cha ge i ac i dfi e e e i Medi e a ea a ea . Ri k A a i , 37(10), 1898-1916.Ma gida, G. A. (2017) Race a d C i a e Cha ge. I Pe e a , K. E., F , G. P. & C de , M. R. (ed ) C i a e Cha ge Li e ac a d Ed ca i S cia J ice, E e g , Ec ic a d he Pa i Ag ee e V e 2. Wa hi g , DC: A e ica Che ica S cie , 41-47.Pa , J. & Wa ick, J. (2016) A da ge e : A e ica ca -ba e a e i aki g Me ica c i ie ick. The Wa hi g P , 26 h Feb a . A ai ab e i e: h :// . a hi g .c / f/ a i a /2016/02/26/a-da ge -e -a e ica -ca -ba e - a e-i - aki g- e ica -c i ie ick/ [Acce ed 14/09/2020].Pe ki , D. N., D i e, M-N. B., N e e, T. & S , P. D. (2014) E-Wa e: A G ba Ha a d. A a f G ba Hea h, 80(4), 286-295.P b ic Hea h E g a d (2020) Be d he da a: U de a di g he i ac f COVID-19 BAME g . A ai ab e i e: h ://a e . b i hi g. e ice.g . k/g e e / ad / e / ad /a ach e _da a/fi e/892376/COVID_ akeh de _e gage e _ he i _be d_ he_da a. df [Acce ed 10/09/2020] P id , L. (2016) F i , E i e a Raci a d Racia Ca i a i . Ca i a i Na e S cia i , 27(3), 1-16.R e , E. D. (2020) The aci e a f Na i e A e ica i Ca if ia i f e i i gf i dfi e di c i ,e e a . Ca adi , 16 h Se e be . A ai ab e i e: h :// .ca adi . g/a ic e /2020/09/16/ he- aci - e a - f- a i e-a e ica -i ca if ia-i - f e - i i g-f - i dfi e-di c i -e e - a / [Acce ed 16/09/2020].R e ha , E. (2011) Lead f d U.S. ba e ie e Me ic ai e i k . The Ne Y k Ti e , 8 h Dece be . A ai ab e i e: h :// . i e .c /2011/12/09/ cie ce/ea h/ ec c edba e - ead- e ica -i -da ge .h [Acce ed 12/09/2020].R e , D. (2016) F i , Michiga : A ce fe i e a i j ice.

A e ica J a f P b ic Hea h, 106(2), 200-201. Sc , D. (2020) C id-19 de a a i g b ack a d La i A e ica , i e cha . V , 17 h A i . A ai ab e i e: h :// . .c /2020/4/17/21225610/ -c a i -dea h- a e -b ack - a i - hi e [Acce ed 12/09/2020]Sea e , L. & P if , D. (2020) Wha i e i e a aci f ? P ace-ba ed ha a d e a i a de e e .E i e a S ci g , 1-12.Shah, K. (2020) The a de ic ha e ed A e ica c ea a e c i i . V , 17 h A i . A ai ab e i e: h :// . .c /ide i ie /2020/4/17/21223565/c a i -c ea - a e -c i i -a e ica [Acce ed 14/09/2020].S i h, L. (2016) Af e b i g he hi e F i a e , EPA g ee ee ha bee i e . U i . Michiga Radi , 21 Ja a . A ai ab e i e: h :// . ichiga adi . g/ /af e -b i g- hi e-f i - a e -e a- g e-e ee-ha -bee - i e - i [Acce ed 10/09/2020].S e , L. (2020) T a age i dfi e, Ca if ia k ha ibe ha e k a a g. Na i a P b ic Radi , 24 h A g .

A ai ab e i e: h :// . . g/2020/08/24/899422710/ - a age- i dfi e-ca if ia- k - - ha - ibe -ha e-k -a -a g [Acce ed 16/09/2020]S e he , S. L., Ma i , R. E. & C i , N. E. (2007) P ehi ic fi e a ea a d e i i f Ca if ia f e , d a d , h b a d a d g a a d . F e Ec g a d Ma age e , 251(3), 205-216. The Ba e Ac i Ne k (BAN) & Si ic Va e T ic C a i i (SVTC) (2002) E i g ha : The high- ech a hi g f A ia. A ai ab e i e: h :// c. g/ c e / ad / ech a h. df [Acce ed 14/09/2020].U i ed S a e Ce B ea (2019) Q ick fac : F i ci , Michiga . A ai ab e i e: h :// .ce .g / ickfac /fac / ab e/f i ci ichiga /RHI225219#RHI225219 [Acce ed 16/09/2020].Vicke , J. & H e , L. M. (2016) Na i e A e ica : Whe e i e i e a j ice e ea ch? S cie & Na e Re ce , 29(1), 36-52.We e i g, A. L. & B a , B. P. (2008) C i a e cha ge a d i dfi e i Ca if ia. C i a e Cha ge, 87(S1), 231-249.W a d, J. (2020) Wh he a ge c i a e e e i fi a e b aci g he figh agai e i e a aci . Ti e, 9 h J . A ai ab e i e: h :// i e.c /5864704/e i e a - aci -c i a echa ge/ [Acce ed 10/09/2020].Za i, L. (2018) S i figh i g : Af ica , i e f a US a e hi e , e e i . The G a dia , 26 h Ja a . A ai ab e i e: h :// . heg a dia .c / - e /2018/ja /26/af ica - i e- f- a - - a e- hi -a i a - e - e -fac i [Acce ed 12/09/2020].

10

吴 健 The La

of Conservation of Parit

Dr. Chien-Shiung Wu

11

D . Chien-Shi ng W

, a pivotal figure in the histor of ph sics, altered ph sical theor and changed the wa we view the structure of the universe.

She was born in 1912 in Jiangsu province, a small fishing town north of Shanghai, China. Against popular beliefs at that time, her parents valued girls getting an education and she graduated top of her class at National Central Universit in Nanking with a degree in ph sics. In 1936, she took a ship from China to San Francisco to continue her studies at the Universit of California Berkele , where she got her Ph.D., focusing on nuclear ph sics. Unfortunatel , not long after her graduation the events of Pearl Harbor unraveled and the world around her quickl became full of se ism and anti-Asian racism. After getting married she moved to the east coast where she started teaching ph sics at Smith's college in Northampton, Massachusetts and became the first female instructor at Princeton Universit . Shortl after, in 1944, she took a job at Columbia Universit and joined the Manhattan Project.

The Manhattan project was a code name for the American effort to develop a functional atomic bomb to use during World War 2, which Dr. ChienShiung Wu witnessed being used in Japan. Her research mostl consisted of improving Geiger counters, a device used to measure radiation, to detect uranium in large quantities. She also found a wa to enrich uranium ore that produced large quantities of uranium that provided as fuel for the bomb .

Mademoiselle magazine's "Young Women of the Year," (AP Photo/John Lent)

Although Dr. Wu has gotten man honors and awards in her lifetime, such as being the first woman to earn the Research corporation award and being the seventh woman to be elected to the National Academ of Sciences, she was not acknowledged for her biggest contribution in the world of ph sics: disproving the law of parit during beta deca . The law of parit is used to refer to the s mmetr in a wave of fundamental particles and beta deca is a t pe of radioactive deca in which a beta particle is emitted from the nucleus of the atom. was an e pert on beta deca , to create a series of e periments to test out their theor .

For her e periment, Dr.Wu put cobalt-60, a radioactive isotope of cobalt, into an electromagnetic field with a temperature of absolute ero so that the temperature would not affect the wa the cobalt atom reacted. If the law of parit applied to beta deca , the atoms of cobalt-60 should have flown off in all directions.

However, Wu observed that the particles flew in mostl one direction: the opposite direction to the spin of the nucleus. Through these results she concluded that the law of conservation of parit does not e ist for beta deca and radicall changed the wa ph sicists viewed the world.

Acc. 90-105 - Science Service, Records, 1920s-1970s, Smithsonian Institution Archives

12

In 1957, Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang, the ph sicists who h pothesi ed the theor of beta deca and the law of parit , were awarded with a Nobel Pri e.

Although it was Dr.Wu who carried out all of the e periments to test the theor , she did not get an sort of acknowledgement for her work.

Unfortunatel , this was the case for man women in STEM at the time. On man occasions, all of their work would be disregarded and the superior male figure would get all of the credit even for womens work. Dr. Wu worked hard to remove gender inequalit in STEM fields, confronting people to challenge their unconscious bias on gender. In 1964, at a s mposium at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technolog ), she posed a question to her audience : [do] the tin atoms and nuclei, or the mathematical s mbols, or the DNA molecules have an preference for either masculine or feminine treatment? . Almost 60 ears later, we still see inequalities in how females are treated in a working space compared to males. To this da Dr.Wu s question still remains relevant and until we all agree with a unified solution to gender inequalit and implement it, the conditions of women in working fields will not improve.

Bibli g a h Dr. Chien-Shiung Wu, The First Lady of Physics (U.S. National Park Service). (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://www.nps.gov/people/dr-chien-shiung-wu-the-first-lady-of-physics.htm Scutts, J. (2016, June 14). Chien-Shiung Wu: Forgotten Woman of the Manhattan Project. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://time.com/4366137/chien-shiung-wu-history/ Worthen, M. (2020, September 03). Chien-Shiung Wu. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://www.biography.com/scientist/chien-shiung-wu Chien-Shiung Wu. (1912, May 31). Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu Law of Conservation of Parity. (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://www.nuclear-power.net/laws-of-conservation/law-ofconservation-of-parity/ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2018, January 18). Parity. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/science/parity-particle-physics Lai, D., & Shapiro, S. (n.d.). Cold Equation of State in a Strong Magnetic Field: Effects of Inverse beta -Decay. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991ApJ...383..745L/abstract

NEUROLOGICAL DISEASES OUR BRAIN DOESN T KNO E IST

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Even though these are just two examples, there is a plethora of rare neurological diseases that haunt people around the world. Learning about, as well as talking and promoting awareness of these diseases, can bring in more funds and attention to these diseases, hopefully leading to a cure and the liberation of people who suffer from the disease's restraints. Our brain is one of the most astonishing organs; it carries deep secrets and is a whole other world to explore. It’s time to pay attention to our brain and pay special attention to a science overlooked; neurological diseases.

Adams, H. R. & Mink, J. W. (2013) Neurobehavioural Features and Natural History of Juvenile Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis (Batten Disease). Journal of Child Neurology, 28(9), 1128-1136. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3976549/ [Accessed 17/09/2020] American Brain Tumor Association (2020) Brain Tumor Education. Available online: https://www.abta.org/aboutbrain-tumors/brain-tumoreducation/#:~:text=Brain%20Tumor%20Statistics&text=Over%20700%2C000%20Americans%20are%20living,primar y%20brain%20and%20CNS%20tumors [Accessed 17/09/2020] GBS 2016 Brain and Other CNS Cancer Collaborators (2019) Global, regional and national burden of brain and other CNS cancer, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neural, 18, 376393. Available online: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(18)30468-X/fulltext [Accessed 27/09/2020] National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2016) Rare Disease Research at NINDS. Available online: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/News-Events/Directors-Messages/All-Directors-Messages/Rare-Disease-ResearchNINDS#:~:text=Examples%20of%20rare%20neurological%20conditions,muscular%20dystrophy%2C%20and%20Hu ntington's%20disease [Accessed 17/09/2020] National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2019) Batten Disease Information Page: what research is being done? Available online:https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Batten-Disease-InformationPage [Accessed 17/09/2020]

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Victoria Gill, “Primate Tool-Use: Chimpanzees Make Drinking Sticks.” BBC, 2017.

Frans de Waal, Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (Granta, 2016), 8.

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11 Philip M. Ferguson, “Clever Hans.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019.

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32

NETTIE M. STEVENS

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Nettie Maria Stevens (1861-1912) was a female geneticist who discovered that an organism’s sex is determined by its inherited chromosomes.

However, Stevens was overshadowed by her mentor, E.B. Wilson, who was accredited with this discovery. Her discovery, now known as the XY sex determination system, was revolutionary because it was the first instance that highlighted the connection between differences in chromosomes and a physical characteristic like sex. Stevens conducted research in multiple areas of biology but her most prominent work was performed in the determination of the chromosomal basis of sex.

Nettie M. Stevens conducted research at the Naples Zoological Station in Italy.

Prior to Stevens’s work, there were several theories on what dictated sex determination in animals. Aristotle had speculated that a child's sex was determined by the temperature of the father during intercourse. He hypothesized that a male’s heat could overcome a female’s coldness and this would result in male offspring. Although Aristotle's theory can be applied to reptiles, it does not translate to other organisms (1). Procope Couteau, a

French anatomist, believed that sex organs of the parents predisposed the sex of the offspring (2). He went as far as to suggest surgically removing the testes or ovary connected with the undesired sex. Another proposed theory by Professor Shenk of Vienna stated that determination of sex was influenced by environmental factors such as maternal nutrition and diet (2). It was thought that poor nutrition resulted in male offspring while improved nutrition resulted in female offspring. These speculations by early biologists were based on conclusions drawn from correlations — which often do not indicate causation — but are now replaced by more genetic and empirical theories based on better science.

Stevens was born on July 7, 1861 in Cavendish, Vermont and shortly after moved to Westford, Massachusetts. After completing her teaching studies at Westfield State University, Stevens worked as a teacher and librarian; however, one of her professors influenced her to pursue her passion for biology. In 1896, she started her undergraduate education at Stanford University and three years later, she graduated with her bachelor’s degree in physiology. During her time at Stanford, she worked at the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory where she studied histology and cytology. This work influenced her to pursue a master’s degree at Stanford and she graduated in 1900 with her thesis Studies on Ciliate Infusoria, which described two new species of protozoa and changes in the chromosomes during cell division. A year later, she moved to Bryn Mawr College and worked

34

NETTIE M. STEVENS

towards her doctorate degree in cytology. During her graduate education, she was awarded with the President’s European Fellowship, and spent several years conducting research at the Naples Zoological Station in Italy and the University of Würzburg in Germany. Her graduate work started to lay the foundations for her postdoctoral work that would elucidate the role of chromosomal heredity (3).

In her postdoctoral assistantship at Carnegie Institution of Washington, Stevens conducted experiments on germ cells to examine the mechanism of sex determination and chromosomal heredity. In 1905, she observed that mealworms produced chromosomes of two different sizes in their sperm. In a detailed cytological experiment, she found that all eggs of mealworms had ten chromosomes of the same size, while in the sperm of mealworms, there were nine chromosomes of the same size and one smaller chromosome (refer to figure 186 and 187 of Stevens’ illustrations). She found that an egg fertilized by sperm containing the smaller chromosome resulted in a male while an egg fertilized by sperm containing the larger chromosome resulted in a female (5,6). After her initial discovery, she confirmed this sex determination system in several other organisms including flies, aphids, and beetles. From her studies, she concluded that chromosome segregation happens in sperm formation and chromosomes can be different between sexes. Ultimately, this difference in chromosomes is what determines either male or female offspring. The bulk of her sex determination studies were published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington and titled as “Studies in Spermatogenesis.”

In addition, her work also challenged the accepted idea that the presence of the X chromosome determines sex when in fact the presence or absence of the Y chromosome dictates the sex of the offspring.

Stevens was offered a professorship at Bryn Mawr College but she died of breast cancer before she could start. Nevertheless, Stevens left a lasting impression in the field of biology. Her work refuted previous

theories on sex determination and chromosomal hereditary and provided insight into subsequent studies that illustrated sexual differentiation processes in development. For example, scientists were later able to identify SRY, the region of the Y chromosome that is necessary for male sex determination (7). Scientists can also now identify and understand X and Y linked disorders. Although Stevens was not initially accredited with this monumental discovery, she made significant contributions to the field of biology with her research and her 38 publications. Her contributions to science and her legacy should be acknowledged and celebrated.

Stevens’ illustrations showing the stages of spermatogenesis in mealworms, Tenebrio molitor. (6)

AND THE DISCOVERY OF SEX DETERMINATION References:: 1. Hake, L. & O'Connor, C. (2008) Genetic mechanisms of sex determination. Nature Education 1(1):25 2. Mittwoch, U. “Erroneous theories of sex determination.” Journal of medical genetics vol. 22,3 (1985): 164-70. doi:10.1136/jmg.22.3.164" 3. Nettie Stevens." Famous Scientists. famousscientists.org. 23 Jun. 2016. Web. 9/17/2020 4. Bachtrog, Doris et al. “Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?.” PLoS biology vol. 12,7 e1001899. 1 Jul. 2014, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899 5. Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey, and Clifford J. Choquette. “Nettie Maria Stevens (1861-1912): Her Life and Contributions to Cytogenetics.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 125, no. 4, 1981, pp. 292–311. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/986332. Accessed 21 Sept. 2020.

6. Stevens, Nettie Maria. Studies in Spermatogenesis with Especial Reference to the "Accessory Chromosome." Washington D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington (1905) 7. Arnold, Arthur P. “A general theory of sexual differentiation.” Journal of neuroscience research vol. 95,1-2 (2017): 291-300. doi:10.1002/jnr.23884

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STEMZINE

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Born to a family that fled to Canada due to slavery, Elijah McCoy was born in Ontario, Canada in 1843. From a young age he was very eager to learn about mechanical devices and equipment.

At the age of 15, McCoy travelled to Edinburgh, Scotland to pursue his dream of becoming an engineer. During his time in Edinburgh, McCoy gained experience through an apprenticeship within the University of Edinburgh, setting him on course down a road towards success.

After receiving his certification in mechanical engineering, McCoy started to browse for jobs in America, but due to the racial segregation of America, Elijah McCoy was unable to find work.

McCoy was rejected from every job he applied for despite his education, due to the fact that he was Black. Slavery had ended a few years prior to McCoy returning to America, but racial discrimination continued to be prominent during this time. The abolishment of slavery cause the formation of clans like the KKK who actively attack and destroy black communities causing terror everywhere they went.

Yet despite all the discrimination Elijah McCoy faced, McCoy continued to search for work, eventually leading to him finding a job with the Michigan Central Railroad server as an oiler.

McCoy’s job consisted of shoveling coal and lubricating engine parts using handheld oil cans, which led to the idea for an automatic lubrication device - a device which applied oil to the cylinders of a steam engine when needed. One of the major flaws with oiling the engine by hand was that the train had to come to a complete halt to execute the procedure. The lubrication procedure could take from 40 to 90 minutes and had to be done every 160 kilometers, costing the railway a lot of money and time. McCoy started designing and developing prototypes whilst continuing to work as an oiler, working on hundreds of prototypes and designs. n 1872, McCoy patented his automatic lubricator.

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The lubricator used a mechanical drip system to ensure even distribution of oil to all the engine parts, massively reducing the need to stop the train repeatedly and removing the potential dangers associated with oiling by hand.

Elijah McCoy’s device outshone industry competitors and the success of McCoy’s device spurred on more engineering work.

Throughout Elijah McCoy’s life he continued to invent, patenting around 60 mechanical devices from his automatic lubrication device to the garden water sprinkler. McCoy teaches us a key lesson that is to never be fully satisfied with your product until it is perfect in every shape or form. McCoy’s hard work took years to be acknowledged due to the continued racial discrimination within America, but in 1920 McCoy was eventually able to create his own company to produce his own inventions, including the automatic lubricator.

McCoy was a voice that science overlooked for many years, but his hard work and innovation fought through the discrimination he faced. To this day, McCoy is credited as being an incredible and influential inventor with a reputation for creating products that outshone competitors.

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mages: Block, Niko. "Elijah McCoy". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 01 March 2019, Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ elijah-mccoy. Accessed 06 November 2020.

Brodie, J. (2020, May 03). Lubricator Cup patented.

Retrieved November 06, 2020, from https://aaregistry.org/story/lubricator-cup-patented/ Michigan Central Railroad. (2020, August 09).

Retrieved November 06, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_Central_Railr oad

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