Fuelled Magazine Issue 1 by Steven Bruno

FUELLED AN INDEPENDENT VEHICLE DESIGN MAGAZINE

FUELLED

ISSUE 01 | SPRING 2016

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FUTURE OF MOBILITY A LOOK BACK INTO THE FUTURE

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Written & Edited by Steven Bruno BSc Transport Product Design SUN 129064378 Published 24.01.2015 ASTON UNIVERSITY

Abstract This dissertation aims to expand the designer’s knowledge towards vehicle design. A brief look back into the origins of the automobile and how it has developed through each decade. Looking at what is currently available today, and future concepts that currently exist, showcasing new technologies and pushing towards fully autonomous vehicles. Why the end to the combustion engine era is approaching, along with its replacement as the fuel/propulsion of choice (e.g. Battery electric or Hydrogen Fuel-Cell). Understanding how transportation, particularly in urban environments, will need to integrate and communicate with complex, sophisticated future cities. Climate-change dangers and eﬀects are also discussed as to how it will impact the automotive industry. Containing 2 projects sharing similarities in content, the research and information discussed will help the author’s ability to design and develop a futuristic and distinctive design language. This design language will be more conceptual in project 1 and will be displaying a prediction of what Hydrogen Fuel-Cell urban vehicles may look like in 15-20 years. Whereas for project 2, the design language will be more restrained and subtle, governed by the constraints of the Shell Eco Marathon Competition. Form and emotional design is key and requires a psychological understanding of contour lines and surfaces to achieve a ﬁnal design that is both functional and desirable.

Brief Introduction Transportation and mobility is one of the largest industries in the world. Following the projection of the graph, this looks likely to continue to increase, with Asia becoming a huge market. In the last few years alone Asia has reached “21million cars, that makes it the largest car market in the world” – Dr Ian Robertson [1]. However this wasteful approach will need to change in the future, as oil reserves will inevitably cease and gasoline vehicles become obsolete.

“In 2012, for the first time in history, over 60 million cars passenger cars were produced in a single year” (or 165,000 new cars produced every day)” [2]

[2]

Advancements are always ongoing such as engine tolerances, reliability, cylinder-on-demand and turbo charging in an eďŹ&#x20AC;ort to improve economy. Further innovations such as the introduction of hybrid technology and the lack of convenience and infrastructure in fully electric vehicles, also helps to keep the combustion engine alive. However the combustion engine will inescapably see its last day as the propulsion of choice for road vehicles. Electric cars seem to be the short-term solution, yet there are promising and smarter long-term solutions in Hydrogen Fuel-cell technologies. By exploring the cars past success, understanding why people ďŹ nd particular forms more aesthetically pleasing, learning about the fuel-cell industry and its possibilities, and studying future technologies, markets and cities, the author aims to design a vehicle suited for the future which looks dynamic and attractive, whilst featuring strong credentials for the future.

Contents Page Abstract........................................................................................................... Introduction..................................................................................................... Content page................................................................................................... Chapter 1 - Introduction Introduction Project 1 - Design-study......................................................... Project 2 - Shell Eco Marathon.............................................. Chapter 2 - Literature Review........................................................................... The Past.............................................................................................. The Present......................................................................................... The Future.......................................................................................... Technology.......................................................................................... Fuels & Hydrogen.................................................................. Chassis................................................................................... Communications................................................................... Future Cities.......................................................................... Autonomous.......................................................................... Google...................................................................... VW Group................................................................. Manufacturing....................................................................... Smart factories...................................................................... Philosophy/Political Petroleum & Diesel Issues in Society..................................... Alternative Energy Sources....................................... Tesla – all electric...................................................... Legislation Restrictions.......................................................... Problems for Autonomous Vehicles......................... Consumer trends................................................................... Why People Buy/Like/Desire Speciﬁc Cars............... Mini Cooper................................................. VW Golf....................................................... Ford Fiesta................................................... Fiat 500....................................................... Rules of Car Design................................................... The Shoulder............................................... Plan Shape.................................................. The Wedge.................................................. Packaging Shapes........................................ Emotion & Design Language.................................... Best Practice........................................................................................ Case Studies Toyota Mirai.............................................................. Gordon Murray T25.................................................. BMW i3 & i8............................................................. Tesla Model S & Model X.......................................... 2015 Shell Eco Car..................................................... Chapter 3 - Methodology Methodology CDIO – Conceive, Design, Implement, Operate..................... Double Diamond Model......................................................... Project 1 – Hydrogen Design Prediction.............................................. Gateways................................................................................ CDR – Conceptual Design Review............................. PDR – Physical Design Review................................... Pre-IDR – Pre-Implementation Design Review......... Post-IDR – Post-Implementation Design Review...... Project 2 – Shell Eco Urban Concept................................................... Team Design Reviews............................................................ The Competition.................................................................... Chapter 4 - Findings Results & Conclusions......................................................................... Chapter 5 – Looking Forward Future Direction.................................................................................. Project Plan............................................................................ Citations............................................................................................................ Appendices.......................................................................................................

3 4-5 7 8 9 10-11 12-17 18-21 22-25 26-27 28-30 31 32-33 34-37 38-39 40-41 42-43 44-47 48-51 52 53 54-55 56-57 58-59 60-61 62-63 64-65 66-67 68-69 70-71 72-76 77 77 77 78-79 80-83 84-85 86-87 88-89 90-91 92-93 94-95 96 97 98-99 98-99 98-99 98-99 98-99 98-99 98-99 98-99 98-99 100-101 102 102 104-109 110

Chapter 1 Project Introductions 1.1 The design study project focuses on the design language of automobiles and how they have evolved throughout history. The project goals are to establish what will be needed in a vehicle of the future and allow the designer to express their personal design language, for what a Hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle will look like in 15-20 years. This will be inďŹ&#x201A;uenced by social and economic trends and future cities, whilst exploring proportions and line analysis to understand what makes a vehicle desirable and successful.

1.2 The Shell Eco urban concept is the second half of the major project. The university team consists of engineers and designers and allows the author to demonstrate a wider breadth of skills and expand their knowledge base, through teamwork, designing to constraints, building the vehicle and operating it at the competition. The vehicle parameters set by the client (Aston University) are, it must be a sustainable design, made primarily of plywood and powered by a hydrogen fuel cell.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

COME AND JOIN US IN

THE PAST THROUGH THE EACH AUTOMOBILES DECADE JOUNRNEY

1920’S - 2000’S

The Past

20’s

2.0.1 Original automobiles used the steam engine as their source of power, which were slow, difficult to control and uncomfortable for their occupants, sitting so close to the steamy hot boiler. The very first automobile is credited to an 18th Century French inventor, Nicholas-Joseph Cugnot. Originally intended to be a 3-wheeled artillery wagon with a top speed of 2mph. The 1880’s carmaker, Carl Benz is regarded as the ‘Father’ of the automobile. He was the first to use a combustion engine in his vehicle, which he pursued and eventually sold to the public. 2.0.2 The most widely regarded and famous however is Detroit automaker Henry Ford. By the early 1900’s there was a large number of automobile makers. Henry Ford succeeded in bringing them to the general public by introducing his assembly line method. This required interchangeable parts and sub assemblies, which began separately and converge on to the main chassis line. In his biography Henry Ford said "Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so long as it is black” [3], this was due to the cheaper cost of black paint and it’s durability, which also reduced and simplified the manufacturing process. Production of the Model T stopped in 1927. Bob Casey – Transportation Curator - “The automobile is the most influential invention of the early half of the 20th century” [4].

30’s 2.0.3 Early vehicles are more closely related to a horse and carriage without the horse. This transitional period eventually killed off the horse and cart. As the industry’s mechanical, technological advancements and popularity grew, the customer’s requirements for an automobile also developed. Some of the first trends to influence the industry were the transition from early 3-wheel configurations to a more stable 4 wheel conventional layout. A major shift for the automobile was the dominance of gasoline over other fuels and methods of propulsion such as steam and electric motors, which transpired in the late 19th Century. Another profound development was the increase in closed shell bodywork, “in 1919 90% of vehicles in use were open bodied, in 1929 90% we closed”. [5] 2.0.4 Due to the technology and manufacturing available, most bodywork was handcrafted from sheet steel. Engines relied on gravity and heat exchanges to allow radiators to work correctly and maintain their operating temperatures (normally around 200°>250°). This meant that the radiator needed to be mounted higher than the engine block in order for coolant/water to run down and around the cylinders to absorb the heat. 2.0.5 If the engine rose above it’s normal operating temperature, the thermostat acts a regulator engineered to recoil above 180° allowing the coolant to pass through, back up into the top of the radiator, where heat exchange occurs, and the steam returns to cool liquid. This is why cars of this era had long tall bonnets dominated by a large radiator grill at the front of the car. “By the end of the 1930’s most of the mechanical technologies used in todays automobiles had been invented” [6]. 2.0.6 Aerodynamics also became a priority as much advancement was made in this era, as each manufacturer wanted their vehicle to look futuristic and increase sales. An example of a trend at this time was to place the engine at the rear of the car. This would allow (the mostly air cooled engines of the time) to breath and dissipate its heat out of the rear of the car more effectively. Ferdinand Porsche famously used this configuration in his design of the VW Beetle in 1934 (a very similar shape to the earlier Tatra V570, a popular shape of the period).

40’s 50’s

2.0.7 As the automobile became more aﬀordable and a popular method of transportation, due to mechanical advancements and improved luxury the following were introduced such as heaters, separate rear passenger and luggage compartments and more powerful engines. Large gracefully crafted wheel arches would ﬂow around most vehicles of this era. This is the era where many valuable classic cars of today were made. 2.0.8 In the author’s opinion the 50’s & 60’s created some of the most beautiful cars in history such as the, Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato, DB5, Jaguar E-Type, 1967 Ford Mustang and AC Cobra. Smaller cheaper cars were created out of nessesity after WW2, which revolutionised transportation and became a ‘car for the people’ such as the iconic original Fiat 500, launched in 1957 and soon after the Mini Cooper in 1959.

60’s 70’s 2.0.9 The standardisation of pressurised systems in the engine bay meant that the conﬁguration was no longer limited to a long nose and big grill. This meant that engines and bonnets could be mounted lower and introduced the 3-box design used by most manufacturers up until the late 90’s early 00’s. Cars grew in all sizes, Europe trending more towards small, light cheap cars such as the iconic Mk 1 Mini, and iconic British carmakers such as Aston Martin Triumph, Jaguar, MG, TVR and Lotus became dominate sports car makers of the period. Whereas the USA manufactures such as Cadillac, Chrysler, Ford and Chevrolet focused on the ‘American Dream’ and made large heavy long saloons, with V8’s and white wall tyres, made to be motorway cruisers. 2.0.10 “Near the end of the 1960s European automakers began experimenting with mechanical fuel injection for production vehicles. Porsche, Peugeot, Audi, BMW, Aston Martin, Triumph, and Volkswagen were included among the manufacturers who outfitted select models with Bosch Jetronic mechanical fuel injection. This continued until the mid 1970s” [7].

80’s 90’s 2.0.11 It was the era of extreme technological importance as it introduced computer-regulated fuel injection and ABS. Eﬃciency, technology, fast cars and ‘turbo-cool’ became the priority. With small hatchback and saloon shapes becoming a popular sight in Britain such as the VW Golf (which when the GTI was launched in 1976, began the rise of hot-hatchbacks and the fall of the classis British sports car in the UK) followed by other classic hot-hatches like Peugeot’s 205 GTI, the Ford Escort RS, Capri, Audi Quattro. 2.0.12 Pop-up headlights (popular on sports cars) meant cars could have a sharp low pointed front end, which concealed the headlights allowing for further aerodynamic improvements. The 90’s saw an industry wide advancement in metal pressing and moulding capabilities with carbon ﬁbre and other F1 technology being utilised in high-end vehicles. Bodywork could be more sophisticated including sharper lines and contours. Safety also leaped forward thanks to the development of CAD crumple zones, air bags and ABS (Anti-lock Braking System). [8]

00â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

2.0.9 As laws and regulations changed such as increasing pedestrian impact safety ratings, a vehicle bonnets is required to be a speciďŹ c height, calculated in order to avoid and give the best chance of survival if said pedestrian impacted their head onto the bonnet, rather than hitting the top of the engine. One of the biggest changes to the law meant that all cars sold from 2012 onwards need to have ESC (Electronic Stability Control) as standard. Technological advancements with smartphone integration, satellite navigation, media players, parking sensors, parking assist, digital displays, LED technology, adaptive cruise control, the list is endless. [9]

MODERN TIMES THE CLASS

LEADERS The Present 2.1.1 Modern day vehicles such as the BMW ‘i’ division (i3 hatchback, i5 SUV & i8 sports car) display the amount of resources and technology being invested into electric and hybrid vehicles. The BMW i philosophy is aimed at producing a “ground-breaking concept for sustainable mobility” using “inspiring design and a new understanding of premium that is strongly deﬁned by sustainability” [10][11]. The i3 is the all-electric city based vehicle, which presents its design language on proportions that somewhat divide opinions. However, design features such as aerodynamic bodywork, skinny tyres, and relatively low weight for an electric vehicle (1,195kg) and spacious cabin, help to make this one of the highest rated electric cars on sale today - featuring in Auto Express, Best electric cars on sale 2015 [12].

2.1.2 One of the biggest success stories of modern hybrid vehicles has to be the Toyota Prius, which as of July 2015 has accumulated a total of 3,527,100 sales alone [13]. Yet once again, the Prius is not known for being a good-looking vehicle, it stands out, but arguably for the wrong reasons. Its awkward dimensions and too tall rear quarter and roof line make the cars stance seem more about functionality and providing rear passengers with headroom, above style and sophistication. The second generation Prius was more of an improvement with sharper lines and larger alloy-wheels fitted, making the car seem more proportionally balanced while maintaining relatively the same silhouette as its predecessor. However looking at the third generation due in 2016, Toyota seem to have taken a step too far with the models design. The face now carries far too many conflicting feature lines as the front and rear quarters (mirrored) which makes the car appear as if it is melting. Some of the design language has been shared with the new Toyota Mirai, however the Mirai possesses a more aggressive and structured front and works into the side profile smoothly, yet the confliction of many lines is shared at the rear with multiple out of proportion light clusters and contour lines.

2.1.3 Tesla has also produced a small range of fully electric vehicles such as the large saloon Model S and most recently the more family and urban focused Model X (cross-over, hatchback). The Tesla design language focuses on smooth aerodynamic simple lines, with features such as ‘zero profile’ flush door handles and no front grill to help reduce the drag coefficient, which in turn helps maximise battery range.

Although expensive to buy, these cars are considered much more desirable than most other fully electric vehicles as they boast impressive performance ďŹ gures and attractive design-cues (such as the dominating central 17inch touchscreen which controls nearly all the cars functions and settings, a wide muscular stance giving the car a sports car like presence, and the smooth uninterrupted bodywork with swept back sharp lights). [14]

The Future

2.2.1 Future concept vehicles are focusing more on autonomy eﬃciency and technology integration, to showcase what life will be like for future owners, drivers or even just passengers. Examples such as the Mercedes Benz F 015 provide an inspiring and exciting peek at the possibilities for the future of the car industry, such as internal communication with passengers and external communication with pedestrians.

2.2.2 Similar to work being done by JLR and BMW’s new 7 series (G11) which feature ‘gesture control’, where passengers can perform specific hand commands (such as rotating their finger to alter the volume), the car will identify these and act accordingly. This field of study and technology opens up a whole new world of possibilities and interactions with a vehicle, thus transforming it to a media, entertainment hub of socialisation and relaxation, “a digital luxury living space”. [15]

2.2.3 External communications featured on the F 015 include laser projection technology that can give helpful assistance to other motorists, or pedestrians near the vehicle when stationary. For example if someone is trying to cross the road and they are unsure if the vehicle is about to begin moving, the car will sense this and project a large moving zebra-crossing onto the road in that direction to assure them of their safety. Another insightful feature (particularly for the car sharing market) is the ability to summon the vehicle remotely from a dedicated app. It would allow the passenger to tell the cars system where they wish to go before even stepping into the vehicle. [16]

2.2.4 One of the biggest changes to the car industry however will be the transition from petrol and diesel fuels, to a new primary source of propulsion. Currently leading the charge are battery powered electric cars, followed by bio-gas fuelled vehicles and the promising yet slow introduction of Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

Technology 2.3.2 Hydrogen is very expensive to produce in a singular form however once subsidisation and mass production is reﬁned (as more hydrogen vehicles are sold and the demand for it goes up), it will become more aﬀordable. “The hydrogen needed to power FCEVs can be produced directly from a wide range of zero carbon sources such as biomass, nuclear or solar (directly from the heat, not via electricity) as well as from conventional fossil fuels and via Electrolysis. It is expected that the cost of hydrogen will fall by 70% by 2025 due to higher utilisation of hydrogen infrastructure and economies of scale” [17]. To produce Hydrogen, Water or H2O must be separated into its 2 elements H1 (Hydrogen) and O2 (Oxygen). This is most commonly done through a process called Electrolysis.

NEW FUEL

NEW LOOK

2.3.3 Electrolysis: The decomposition of an Ionic substance, which contain charged particles called ions. A reservoir of Water (H20) is electriďŹ ed through a couple of molten material rods (such as lead), each one is connected to a single power supply and submerged into the liquid. When the power source is activated, the positively charged Hydrogen ions are attracted to the negative electrode. The Hydrogen ions then gain electrons, which allow them to loose their positive charge, this form bubbles of Hydrogen gas which naturally rise to the surface. This gas can then be collected and stored within a pressurised tank ready for use.

Fuel Cells Electric Vehicles & Hydrogen 2.3.4 Hydrogen Production will have to increase and be more cost effective in the near future as the transport industry is pushed towards Hydrogen fuel cells. Currently the main methods for ‘producing’ Hydrogen all require substantial energy to capture pure H2 molecules, such as burning fossil fuels to power an Electrolysis process. However interesting research at the Imperial College London are experimenting with a specific type of green Algae called Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii (a single celled chlorophyte that feed off energy from Photosynthesis).

2.3.5 The science: By creating a particular environmental water chamber, the Algae absorb CO2 from the atmosphere + the water and the energy from the sun and create Hydrocarbons along with proteins and carbohydrates of which they are composed of. This can then be extracted and stored ready for use. The idea is to use waste gases such as CO2 from fossil fuels power stations to feed directly back to this Solar Hydrogen system, which in turn will dramatically decrease another problem of greenhouse gas pollution. Even on a cloudy day the Algae can still work with the amount of stray light available. The issues still surrounding this process are how to physically scale up the reactors large enough and keep the ďŹ nancial costs low enough. [18]

Power Control Unit

Battery

Motor & Fuel Cell Boot Converter

Fuel Cell Stack

High-Pressure Hydrogen Tanks

How a fuel cell works 2.3.6 A fuel cell works by simply combining oxygen from the air, with the hydrogen stored inside the vehicle. Hydrogen is pumped into a fuel cell stack where it is mixed with Oxygen from the atmosphere and an electrochemical reaction then charges the on-board lithium ion battery (for extra performance) and the motor then powers the front or rear wheels. The stack is made of a series of closely sandwiched cells more commonly known as a PEM fuel cell. A hydrogen fuel cell is 2-3 times more efficient than a gasoline engine and creates no CO2 or polluting gases. Other positives include instant performance from electric motors, high reliability and greater flexibility in the vehicles design layout. 2.3.7 The science: One single PEM fuel cell is made of 2 flow field plates, 2 electrodes and 2 catalyst, separated by a plastic membrane. Hydrogen from an on-board fuel tank and oxygen from the air are fed through channels into the either side of the flow field plates (hydrogen on one side, air on the other). The catalyst splits the Hydrogen molecule into Protons and Electrons. Protons can pass through the membrane directly to the other side of the cell, however the electrons cannot and therefore are forced to take a separate external circuit, which creates electricity. The Proton and Electron meet on the oxygen side of the cell and thanks to the second catalyst react with each other to create water molecules. By using multiple cells ‘stacked’ together (like a loaf of bread), the electrical power produced increases. [19]

Chassis 2.4.1 Traditionally mass-produced vehicles have evolved from using a space frame, backbone or ladder chassis with a separate body shell module married or fixed on to it. Nowadays a ‘Unibody’ or ‘Monocoque’ design is used to provide all mechanical fixtures, body panel mountings and crash crumple zones, which have been integrated into one whole chassis design layout (such as the MQB platform). “Today, 99% cars produced in this planet are made of steel monocoque chassis, thanks to its low production cost and suitability to robotised production” [20]. This has allowed cars to be built at greater speeds and efficiency whilst being much stronger and safer than other chassis designs. Improvements in material science and further developments in manufacturing such as greater use of Aluminium and Carbon-reinforced-plastics (from BMW group) have improved weight, strength, rigidity and costs of otherwise more expensive exotic materials such as carbon-fibre.

Communications

GPS Location

Network

2.5.1 Digital information and tracking will be a powerful player in tomorrow’s smart cities. The ability to track people will allow for a better understanding of the ﬂow of the population which will help to improve eﬃciencies, such as optimising train timetables, redesigning subway lines (such as in Singapore), to communicating with your vehicle in pinpointing vacant parking spaces in a crowded city.

2.5.2 “Theoretically autonomous cars cannot not have an accident” - Dr Ian Robertson [21]. However during the transitional period with a mixture of fully autonomous cars and manual drivers on the road together, the risk actually increases, as human behaviour is far more unreliable and unpredictable than autonomous behaviour. Instead what is likely to happen is area or zone speciﬁc autonomous infrastructure will be developed, such as city centres only allowing fully autonomous vehicles to be used, or on motorways (possibly lane speciﬁc) your vehicle must have a fully automated ‘pilot’ mode, which can take over in such areas or zones.

Automated

Future Cities

2.6.1 A key element of understanding for both projects is the environment they will need to work within. Future cities are becoming more and more crowded, polluted and claustrophobic. Population growth is risking smaller cities that surround mega cities from overﬂowing and turning into overpopulated mega cities themselves. Cities such as Melbourne in Australia is a good example of some of the developments and resourcefulness being used to enhance the community. 30 years ago it was a “residential black hole” [22] which thanks to a project called ‘Postcode 3000’ is now the buzzing arty hub it is today. The ‘Green Roof Initiative’ aims to cover all roofs in plant life and forestation along with a ‘no individual vehicle policy in the city centre’, to try and reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Food waste is used to collect biogas, which is re-used, to power buses and biogas speciﬁc vehicles. 2.6.2 Rob Adams, director of City Design, believes that the key is to build on the current infrastructure available in all cities, for example buses, trams and bicycles with dedicated cycling lanes, internally and externally around the main city. “It’s not about having massive rebuilding of cities, but transforming our existing cities, taking our current assets and getting more out of them for the future”. [23]

2.6.3 Other smart technologies will be introduced and integrated into a ‘hive/network’ of data transfers and sharing systems, such as bins that alert the waste collection service when it is full. Even public street lighting that dims when no one is around such as BMW’s lamp-post and smart grid, which “saves 70% of electricity, compared to conventional lamp-posts” – Dr Ian Robertson [24]. This nerve system concept will be an essential aspect of how a city vehicle will be designed and used. The system needs to be adaptable and respond more eﬀectively to the supply and demand ﬂuctuations of crowded cities.

2.6.4 Another aspect of future cities is the ability to share data, which is being increasingly used in the transportation industry with car sharing services. Continuing this theme is the trend to try and blur the line between private transportation and public transportation. Does someone who lives within a megacity require his or her own individual vehicle, or could they just use their smartphone to request an autonomous vehicle to collect them? Linking with Future Cities, another consideration is the Foresight report, looking at intelligent infrastructure futures towards 2055. It presents four possible globe scenarios which all vary in outcomes, from hopeful and bright, to restrictive and troubling. Please ﬁnd in the Appendices.

Autonomo 2.7.1 Car sharing is a relatively new and fast growing market, which is being pushed through autonomous vehicles. Autonomous vehicles have been a fantasy in the car industry since the 1930â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, yet the technology never existed to make a vehicle truly automated until now.

Today there are many autonomous features within vehicles which take some responsibility away from the driver, such as sensor technology applications, like lane-departure-warning and city-safe emergency braking (a camera scans the road ahead of the vehicle and if it senses a collision with a pedestrian, obstruction, or vehicle in front is about to occur, it will apply the brakes and perform an emergency stop - normally working below 30-40mph).

us Vehicles

Dr Ian Robertson predicts we are “technologically around 5-7 years away from fully autonomous cars” [25] (known as Level 4 autonomous vehicle). However he continues, “society is not ready to have that responsibility and decision to be taken away and given to a machine” [26]. This reiterates another consideration that vehicles of the future may need to retain a hybrid interface, both fully autonomous driving when required or desired by the passenger, but with the ability for them to take manual control if they so desire.

2.7.2 Technological information also needs to be improved to allow automated vehicles the best chance of eﬃciency and reliability, a quote from Dr Ian Robertson “Mapping is currently about 1m in accuracy. However for autonomous driving it needs to be accurate down to 1cm” [27]. New competition from other industries that have no experience in building vehicles may be better suited for achieving the information required of autonomous software, such as one of the leaders in mapping, the information giant Google.

Google 2.7.3 Googleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s autonomous vehicles have been under development and road testing since 2012. However Googleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s latest original bodied vehicle has already demonstrated some of its capabilities by transporting members of the public who would otherwise be unable to drive a vehicle on the road (such as the blind or disabled). The new prototype vehicle design explores what an autonomous vehicle denotes, with a very plain and clean interior featuring large front and side windows. The prototypeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interior features 2 seats in a conventional arrangement and one single button between them to start the vehicle and no other controls and a dashboard only featuring a long open pocket. [28]

VW Group - Audi Manufacturers in the VW group such as VW themselves and Audi have been developing autonomous technology for the past decade. Audi has recently demonstrated just how advanced their working prototype A7 Sportback test car is. Auto Express was invited to experience the car drive itself around a track and on public roads in 2015. The A7 uses multiple cameras, laser and radar technology to enable it to drive by itself safely.

The system can be activated and deactivated when required, controlled by 2 buttons on either side of the steering wheel. When activated, the steering wheel retracts towards the dash and takes control of the pedals making minor corrections and adjustments to all as it continues down a motorway. Able to see an obstruction or slow moving vehicle in the distance, the A7 will indicate, wait for a safe accessible gap in the next lane, accelerate past the obstruction and slowly indicate and move back into lane when appropriate. So far this system seems to be the most useable and plausible method of autonomous integration into a hybrid-driving vehicle, with Teslaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s similar Model S autonomous software not far behind and improving constantly. [29]

Manufacturing 2.8.1 The automotive industry has adapted and improved upon the basic origins of the mass-production and moving assembly lines (designed and introduced by Henry Ford in 1913). Nowadays a large amount of the manufacturing process has become automated and requires much less work force, such as the JLR Solihull plant in Birmingham. The select number of workers focuses on quality control and interior/exterior feature installations.

Manufacturing Stages 2.8.2 The majority of most modern vehicles use a steel (or increasingly Aluminium, such as JLR) monocoque chassis made from a combination of either bonded or spot welded Steel/Aluminium pressed-body panels to form the main structures and shape of the vehicle. All individual sections of the chassis and body panels have, both a male and female die, which have to be milled, finished, installed and swapped in a large mechanical press for each part. As this is a time consuming process batches of each panel are produced and stored each time, allowing a continuous assembly line of chassis to be built. Each vehicle is designated a specific unique ‘chassis number’, which is assigned to a specific customer who has selected which options they would like on their individual vehicle. The car is robotically moved through all these processes. Once the main body panels (excluding bumpers-sprayed separately) have been bonded or attached, the paint process can begin.

2.8.3 First the conveyer submerges the chassis into a cleaning pool removing any dust and unwanted substances. The bodies are then sprayed robotically in a standard protective base coat on every interior and exterior surface. The bodies are then sprayed in the customer’s chosen colour. Batches of chassis are then fed through a continuously moving drying oven. The doors are then removed onto a separate upholstering and fitting line, which allows the robotic arms and workers easier access to the interior of the main body. As the vehicles move along a constant conveyor belt, both standard parts and individually specified optional parts are attached to their respective vehicles. Heavy items such as dashboard assemblies, seats and front/rear windscreen are moved and lowered-in robotically, whereas lights and small parts are fitted by the designated assembly line work force. 2.8.4 Once the interior is complete, the respective (now fully assembled) doors re-join the main chassis and are reattached, aligned and wired-up. The bodies are then robotically transported onto an overhead conveyor, which synchronises in-line with the assembly line below, carrying the engine, drivetrain and suspension, all fully assembled for that specific vehicle. The sub-assembly is raised and ‘married’ to the vehicle (into the engine bay and suspension mounts of the car and installed). The cars are then moved to the final assembly line where the bumpers, and wheels are attached, aligned and calibrated. A systems installation, followed by an inspection check and vehicle ‘signed off’ are then performed, and finally ready for dispatch to the customer. [30]

2.8.5 This current mainstream method of vehicle manufacture is extremely energy demanding and very capital intensive. In simple terms, the costs of tooling and the facilities needed for this process are very expensive and only make a proďŹ t for high quantity mass-produced cars.

Smart Factories

2.9.1 Gordon Murray Design “have devised and industrialised a new way of making high volume motorcars” [31] called ‘iStream’. One of Gordon Murray’s most recent trademark designs is the T25 & T27 (electric variant) vehicle, which is built through his own system called ‘iStream’ manufacturing. It aims to reduce the energy used and increases efficiency compared to the current stamped sheet Steel/Aluminium process. By reducing the build stages down to just 2 steps (Building the frame, and Final assembly), generating quicker and more cost effective production lines, the iStream system reduces costs and build time whilst being very flexible and adaptable to change in the designs lead by market demands or new models.

2.9.2 iStream in some ways, goes back to an older style of car manufacturing. Cars using a tubular steel ‘space frame’ chassis, with specially formed composite panels between the tubes to enhance stiﬀness and crash performance. “There are a number of advantages, apart from the cost and lower investment. With the iStream process it is easier to make chances to the chassis because you are just working with bent tubes and composite panels, the ﬁnish of which doesn’t need to be great so we don’t need high quality tooling. The innovation in manufacturing high volume composites is going to be in cycle times and dimensional stability” - Dr Ralph Clague power systems manager at Gordon Murray Design. [32]

iStream 2.9.3 “The ultimate recycling is not to recycle” [33] - Gordon Murray’s goal is to make this iStream system as sustainable and innovative as possible, which is why his thought behind this new unconventional (disruptive) method of manufacturing hopes to base the vehicles it produces around a singular chassis platform. It will have a much longer life than a conventional vehicle, when the owner gets bored or wants an update, the body is removed and a new facelift body is installed on to the space frame chassis platform. “It’s Formula 1 technology for the everyday motorist” – Gordon Murray’s iStream Philosophy. [34]

iStream Factory Advantages • It reduces typical capital investment by up to 80% for a rapid return on investment • Being clean and quiet means iStream® assembly sites can be located in urban centres close to their customer base • Pre-painted body panels removes the need for a paint shop and the associated emissions • Low initial outlay reduces the barrier to entry for new players in the automotive sector • Short lead times to remain ahead of competitors

Reducing Factory and Energy Waste • Cradle to grave philosophy ensures low energy and high efficiency approach at every stage • An iStream® production facility is 20% the size of a conventional factory • It uses 60% less energy than a traditional vehicle production plant • For added flexibility, a wide range of materials can be chosen for the external Body Panels to meet demands of cost, weight and quality requirements. For example the T25 and T27 production intent body panels have been designed using 750 up-cycled plastic bottles. • Simplified assembly with easier access reduces assembly times and risks of inline damage [35]

Traditional

iStream

Philosophy/Politics Petroleum & Diesel Issues in Society

2.11.1 One of the main problems faced by the modern world is global warming and the rise in greenhouse gases such as CO2 causing rising global temperatures. With the increased amount of greenhouse gases that ‘we’ as humans have produced, has unbalanced and destabilised this fundamental planetary system. By doing this we have allowed the surface temperature of the planet to rise. A documentary presented by David Attenborough in 2013 showed an average surface temperature had increased by 0.6° since 1900. Another more recent study has shown a global increase of 0.85° since 1880. This supports climatologist’s climate models of at least a 1.4° increase by 2100. This was described as “Somewhere between severe and catastrophic”. Therefore every man women and child, company, business and organisation, need to do as much as they can to reduce their Carbon Footprint. This combined eﬀort could help to stick to the “internationally-agreed target for limiting global warming”. [36] [37] [38]

2.11.2 The biggest pollutant is burning fossil fuels such as gas, coal and oil. Combustion engines are used throughout modern day society, our dependence on them is profound, whether it is automotive, train, shipping, industrial, aircraft or mechanical & electrical generation. Many believe electrical power is the answer, as it does not produce any greenhouse gases when used. However go back to the beginning of how electricity is most commonly produced (coal or gas ﬁre power stations), a pollutant is still being created to generate electricity.

Alternative Energy Sources Tidal

Pros

Ideal for a coastal or sea surrounded country Tidal barriers can be used a bridges and help prevent ﬂooding

Cons

Costly to build and a limited number of suitable estuaries Has a negative impact on wildlife

Wave

Pros

Ideal for a coastal or sea surrounded country

Cons

Construction and equipment is costly Opposed by environmental groups

Geothermal

Pros

Cons

Potentially inﬁnite energy supply

Expensive and only works in area of volcanic activity Dangerous elements need to be disposed of carefully [39]

Tesla 2.13.1 Tesla is an American automobile manufacturing company that design and build fully electric vehicles. It is primarily a technology company focused on creating cars, which offer a completely different driving and living experience. The company have adopted a skateboard chassis platform that houses all the batteries, electric motors, suspension and vehicle electronics. The Model S was the companies first all new electric flagship vehicle. The aerodynamic and eye-catching shape attracted people to the company initially, yet it was the technology, performance and green credentials that persuaded them to stay. As they are fully electric vehicles, they produce no pollutants during their running life. They offer advanced patented battery technology and allow customers free use of their supercharging points (scattered around the USA and growing numbers in Europe).

Catch 22 2.13.2 However the downsides of all fully electric vehicles is what is known as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;range anxietyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. When driving an electric vehicle the driver is constantly aware of how much range they have left before the batteries are discharged. Also having to plan your route. Taking into consideration factors such as distance to be travelled to ensure you can make it back home preferably without having to recharge. Most electric vehicles have terrible charging times, and if unable to charge at a dedicated high voltage charging point, then a standard 3 pin socket will take considerably longer to charge (6 miles of range, per hour of charge - Tesla). [40]

Legislation Restrictions 2.14.1 An example of how legislation can impact the automotive industry can be seen throughout the industries history, which still exists today by means of hindering progress. The Locomotive Acts of 1861, more commonly known as the ‘Red Flag Laws’ required self propelled vehicles to be proceeded by a man on foot waving a red flag and carrying a lantern as a warning to pedestrians. This law meant that vehicle development and progress was strangled because of a city speed limit of no more than 2mph. This was British parliaments answer to this new cumbersome invention to try and constrain it. They were “scared by the prospects of respectable citizens getting squashed, as well as hearing one huffing and puffing in the quiet of the night” [41] as well as frightening horses. This law was not repealed until 1896.

2.14.2 With modern day advancements in electronics, manufacturing and digital capabilities, autonomous vehicles will unquestionably be a factor in the future. With astounding progress from Mercedes, BMW, Audi, Tesla, Google, and the still rumoured oďŹ&#x20AC;erings from tech giant Apple, all focusing towards achieving a fully driverless car means the question isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t, how, or why we will have self driving transportation, but when?

Problems for Autonomous Vehicles 2.15.1 Dr Ian Robertson – member of the main board of BMW AG, presented a lecture on the future of mobility. One of his talking points was towards legislation and the struggles all car manufactuers have to try and overcome them. Currently the law impeeds them from testing and devlopeming them on UK public road. For example in the case of autonomous vehicles, the Highway Code states that one hand must be placed on the wheel at all times when the vehicle is in motion. This causes direct conflictions with the very nature of an autonomous vehicle, designed to relinquish all control from the driver, and in some case such as Google’s prototype, may not even feature a steering wheel and controls. 2.15.2 Another problem faced by manufacturers hoping to sell autonomous vehicles, is the liability and multi-jurisdiction issues. The ethical debate for autonomous vehicles needs to be addressed within society. For example “What happens when the car finds itself in a predicament where there is no way to avoid an accident?” [42] The law and ethical debate will continue to be a very large ‘red light’ for autonomous cars as it relies on waiting for governments and new laws to be decided upon before they are allowed to proceed. “All financial responsibilities could fall on the vehicle manufacturer. With individual product-liability judgements sometimes totalling multiple millions of dollars, that’s enough to put a multibillion strain on the automotive industry –and potentially enough to put some companies out of business altogether”. [43] 2.15.3 Linking back to future cities, tracking and data sharing between your personal devices to your vehicle and the cities systems around you, this could face some lawful grey areas from human rights. If some of these systems need to know where everyone is locally, then your smartphone would be full of location request alerts none stop. If they are to work unobtrusively in the background, internal vehicle systems may have fewer issues legally, through a request form upon purchasing a vehicle or autonomous taxi service.

Consumer trends 2.16.1 According to Auto Express Best Selling Cars 2015, number 1 is the Ford Fiesta with 124,457 vehicles registered in the UK. This trend of popular small cars (super minis, city cars and small hatchbacks) continues throughout the list. The UK is known for its love of small cars and family hatchbacks, a trend likely to continue particularly when looking at city populations in the future. People will most likely continue to downsize in both vehicle size and weight as fuel becomes more expensive and electric cars seem to be struggling to match the range of modern diesel cars at present such as a Peugeot 308 1.6 BlueHDi (120hp) capable of up to 1,062 miles on one tank of fuel. [44]

Why People Buy/Like/Desire Specific Cars 2.17.1 Proportions are one of the most important aspects of a vehicles design, if the proportions are not correct or one line is not coherent and positively inďŹ&#x201A;uencing the light on and around the form, the whole design can look very dis-functional and unattractive. In order to understand why iconic small cars are so popular, a review of each design needs to be completed and compared to distinguish the similarities and psychology behind them.

Mini Cooper Brief History 2.18.1 The original Mark 1 Morris Mini Minor was launched in 1959 until 1961 when it was renamed the Austin Mini since which, it has become an iconic brand in its own right. The most successful and popular model undoubtedly was the more powerful ‘suped-up’ Cooper designed by Sir Alec Issigonis. “It revolutionised the small car and became the best-selling British car in history, with a production run of 5.3 million units. Production ran until 2000”, by which time BMW had brought out the Rover Group in 1994 and began developing an all-new MINI. It introduced an extremely well packaged layout as the engine was mounted transversely which meant it could be moved forwards inline with the front wheels. Providing much more interior space than most other cars of its time. Aimed to be a cheap affordable run-around for families. The idea was to make a car as small as possible, yet a big enough to accommodate 4 adults and luggage. ‘Form follows Function’ which remains the key design principle of the brand today. [45] Design Language 2.18.2 Due to the ‘stance of the wheels’ being placed at the extreme corners of the body, it gave the mini exceptional handling, and the cliché reference ‘drives like a go-kart’ was born. “MINI design is based on a clear formal language that is defined by the play of lines, seams, circles and ellipses.” It unites all ‘human body archetypes’, the engaging cuteness of a child, the striking, muscular shoulders of a man, and the flowing, soft forms of a woman. The iconic face is a hexagonal grill and round headlights recessed into the bonnet making an open friendly appearance. The broad stance and powerful shoulders imply safety and allow the body to grow in mass the further down you go. The balance of proportions and changes in the new MINI occurs with the play in parallel lines creating the ‘floating roof’ and sporty wracked design in the side profile. [46]

VW Golf Brief History 2.19.1 The Volkswagen Golf launched in 1974 was the German’s idea of a small family car. It was the new front-engine replacement for the air-cooled, rear engine, Beetle. In 2007 “the Golf passed the 25 million milestone”, and continues to be one of the most popular cars in the UK with over 73,000 registrations in 2015 – Auto Express. [47] The famous GTI variant was launched in 1975 and is considered to be the car that defined, and started the revolution of the ‘Hot-Hatch’ in the 80’s. It was the first small family car to be fitted with fuel injection. Over it’s long history the Golf incrementally evolved up to the current 7th generation (8th gen is set for 2018). The company has built up a reputation of reliability and the ‘smart mans choice’ of car that has achieved a ‘classless’ status. However after the 2015 VW emissions scandal where “around 11 million diesel cars with EA 189 1.2, 1.6 and 2.0-litre pre-Euro 6 diesel engines have been identified by Volkswagen as containing the ‘defeat device’ software”. The company’s reputation has been significantly damaged and the companies CSR is now in question. Will they recover? [48] [49] Design Language 2.19.2 The design and development of the Golf DNA has been achieved incrementally with key elements that can be seen all the way back to the original mark 1, making each generation of the Golf instantly recognisable. “Over recent years, the Volkswagen designers have crystallized a selection of core elements from the brand’s history, which they term its ‘historic DNA’”. The current Mark 7 Golf corresponds to the DNA by conveying a sharp modern, progressive impression of familiarity, functionality, reliability and honesty, despite the emissions scandal. With the roofline of the mark 1, the more pronounced angled C pillar, which has been kept almost unchanged from the mark 4, the flat bumper and sill lines that have been present throughout, and the gradual yet similar proportions have kept the Golf desirable and elegant. The primary line of the curved and chamfered rear bumper and side profile make the cars stance very wide and assertive. Along with the radius flared wheel arches and generational sharpening of brake line through the doors help to keep the car crisp and modern. [50]

Ford Fiesta Brief History 2.20.1 Launched in 1976, the Fiesta was Ford’s offerings into the affordable small car market. With great success the Fiesta had sold over 1 million by 1980. With the competition and success from the VW Golf and GTI, Ford responded by offering multiple specifications and introduced a similar hot-hatch variant, the XR2. The Fiesta’s popularity in the UK continued to grow with each generation, and became one of the ‘go to’ first cars for new drivers with cheap running costs, relatively low insurance quotes, great visibility and unisex goods. The current mark 7 Fiesta is now coming towards the end of its production run (with the mark 8 planned for 2017) however it was crowned Britain’s best selling car for 2015 by Auto Express with an impressive 133,434 registrations. [51] [52]

Design Language 2.20.2 The Fiesta generations are perfect expressions of each era of car exterior design trends, from the boxy sharp edged mark 1, slowly curving and forming into the (popular in the mid-late 90’s) traditional ‘teardrop’ silhouette shape of the mark 4. The big change in shape and design was the mark 6, which also saw a growth spurt and developed a mini Focus appearance. Ford then began to introduce ‘Kinetic Design’ whereby “the form language is communicated through bold, dynamic lines and full surfaces. When you look at kinetic Design, you can see that it visualises energy in motion.” The mark 7 introduced sharper more sculpted, dynamic feature lines and swept-back headlights, which made the rear shoulders of the car taller and brought the rear rooﬂine down to meet, creating a sportier more planted stance. The stance of the Fiesta was further increased by the follow-up ST variant, which featured ﬂared wheel arches and a more aggressive lower body kit and well-proportioned extended spoiler. [53] [54]

Fiat 500 Brief History 2.21.1 The Italian icon, the Fiat 500 launched in 1957 was a cheap and practical town car. Suited for the cramped narrow twisting Italian streets and sold over 3 million before production stopped in 1975, it defined a small car. It needed to be cheap to make and easy to maintain. It’s designer, Dante Giacosa decided that even though his new car was inexpensive, he didn’t want owners to suffer for it and therefore designed ingenious features for the exterior and interior packaging of the car, such as single sprung front suspension and the canvas sunroof which meant Fiat didn’t need to pay for an entire roof pressing, its simplicity was its genius. Todays modern 500, much like the Mini has also become it’s own brand with many model sizes and variants to attract as much of the market as possible. Incredibly popular among fashionable young females in particular, the car continues the originals success story. [55] Design Language 2.21.2 The chic compact retro styling all echoes back to the 60’s original, the car is very rounded and curvy, with not one sharp line featured. Although the car has grown in size, the proportions are relatively the same and thanks to the large round, more sculpted headlights and taillights, bumper strips and touches of chrome, the car shouts happy and cute. With such a small wheelbase, the height and shape of the roofline makes the car look like a bubble on wheels. The shoulder line dominates and distinguishes the cars vertical proportions, carried over from the original. The clamshell bonnet line continues all the way around the car suggesting a squatted, eager stance. Subtle contour lines have also been used above the grill and between the lights to create a break on the bumper, which suggests a stumpy yet smiling face that helps emphasise the wider triangular stance, front and rear. [56]

Front position lamp & indicator

Rules of Car Design 2.22.1 This section follows on from why people buy/like/desire specific cars by discussing the fundamental principles of automotive design and their effects. Constraints for project 1 will need to consider the laws and regulations allowing a car to drive on the public road. Like all lights must be visible from around the vehicle at different angles, and the ends of bumpers need to be turned inwards, recessed or integrated into the bodywork, all exterior bodywork edges must have a radius of at least 2.5mm [57]. Constraints for project 2 are far more specific to the ‘Urban Concept’ class/category set of rules established by the Shell Eco Marathon. Focusing mainly on the bodywork regulations, examples include the following [58]: General 1. Four wheels with continuous contact with the road. 2. No aerodynamic appendages that move with the wind direction. 3. Any sharp edges must be rounded off to a diameter of at least 5cm 4. Rigid body panels that don’t bend due to wind. 5. No interior objects that can cause harm when in a collision. 6. Shatter proof windscreen material 7. Energy components covered, easily opened for inspection 8. Everything has to be securely mounted (no bungees etc.) 9. Solid floor/frame 10. No open top vehicles 11. Towing hook on the front of the vehicle Dimensions 1. Height 100cm-130cm 2. Width 120cm-130cm (excluding mirrors) 3. Length 220cm-350cm 4. Track width minimum 100cm front 80cm rear (wheel to wheel) 5. Wheel base 120cm minimum 6. Drivers compartment height 88cm width 70cm at shoulder height 7. 10cm ground clearance with driver 8. Max weight 225kg excluding driver 9. Door opening 50cmx80cm min 10. Luggage space 50cmx40cmx20cm (LxHxW) with a floor/sidewalls

Front

Rear reﬂector Rear position lamp & indicator

Stop lamp

Rear fog lamp

Side repeater

Chevrolet 2015 Autonomous Concept Car This vehicle would cost far too much to manufacture as the body panels are extremely complex and the whole glass roof would be extremely diﬃcult to produce. Hollow wheels (appear as if they are ﬂoating) have been a dream featured on future concept cars for decades, yet are far too impractical and expensive to build and maintain.

2.22.2 Once all these ﬁxed design points have been established, the rest is open to artistic expression, however further restrictions can occur when concept design is considered for development and possible production. These include economic and manufacturing costs, all of which ﬂuctuate over time. This is proven by the rather conservative designs that are being produced nowadays such as the new generation 2016 Audi A4, which to the untrained eye could easily be mistaken as the outgoing A4.

Old vs New This is why many car enthusiasts and automotive publications such as Auto Express say, “We’d like to see cars designed by designers, not accountants”. “The message is clear: don’t mess with a successful formula, there’s too much to lose. You can understand the decision, but as fans we’d like to see bolder designs”. [59]

2.22.3 Conversely one of the slowest and consistent impediments to evolve allowing vehicle design to change, is ‘cultural aesthetic tastes’. “Most cars, even across eras, look very much alike as a result of these principles”. On a modern day vehicle, all surfaces follow a curvature, no matter how subtle. “To keep design and manufacturing simple, cars tend to concentrate curvature in one direction. Most of the form is horizontal to the ground”. This is why expensive, exotic sports cars and supercars have more dynamic sophisticated features and details. [60] [61]

Shoulder line 2.23 This is often one of the most distinguishable features in a vehicles design. It helps to structure the main horizontal proportions and leads the eye across the car rather than reading its height. The shoulder can be seen more prominently from the front and rear of the vehicle, and is normally one straight line that follows the lower line of the side windows. Which allows the lower portion of the car to extend outwards and down to the wheel base and track lengths. Depending on the age and class of vehicle, the shoulder line might be very subtle, or can be one of the bold deﬁning features, which can link a lot of the the vehicles design language together.

Plan Shape 2.24 The Plan shape distinguishes the curvature of the vehicle and allows more than one axis to be used through the form, such as wide rear-quarter wheel arches, which can sometimes merge with the shoulder line as it does on most sports cars seen on the Toyota GT86. From above the top section of the car, shows the curvature of the roof and the glass, which projects the shape down onto the rest of the main bodywork. Glass shapes can be incredibly complex as they can normally only be curved in one direction, this is distortion lens eﬀect found on double curvature glass which makes it invalid as a method of outward visibility.

Wedge 2.25 From the side view it is possible to see that the windscreen is not curved from top-to-bottom, however some cars have used very sophisticated ‘A’ pillar contour lines and copying the angle through the front of the car to try and disguise and lead the eye up and over the vehicle more smoothly. This is seen on most Lamborghini’s and sometimes used on smaller, affordable cars like the Fiat 500 and Ford Fiesta. The wedge is also where the shoulder line can be found. It is normally the portion of bodywork between the top of the wheels and the lower line of the windows. The top section of the wedge is normally slightly angled forwards, both for stance and visually influencing the roofline, but also for aerodynamic purposes.

Packaging Shapes 2.26 Positioning and layout of a cars engine, transmission and drivetrain also influences the shape of the vehicle. Normally one of the most restrictive aspects of automotive design, as it relies on how and where all the components are placed, and the aerodynamic shapes available from these configurations is normally very limiting. A traditional combustion engine vehicle normally has 4 main configurations [62]:

Front Engine – Rear-Wheel Drive (RWD)

Mid Engine – Rear-Wheel Drive & Available in All-Wheel Drive (AWD)

Rear Engine – RWD & AWD

Front Engine – Front-Wheel Drive & AWD

Alternatively electric vehicles can be packaged in a much more flexible configuration. The Tesla chassis is designed on a skateboard confguration with the lithium ion batteries positioned beneath the seats creating a flat floor with a low centre of gravity. As there is no need for a transmission tunnel the interior is much more spaceous compared to its combusion engine rivals. Small powerful motors mounted inline with the wheels also means an additional large luggage area is available where an engine bay would traditionally be.

The Golden Section

Emotion & Design Language 2.27.1 The ‘Golden Section’ is a complex mathematical ratio of 1/1.618 (more simply, a shape roughly divided 1/3 by 2/3), which is thought to have a natural beauty that is believed to be hardwired into our minds. “Leonardo da Vinci talked about this many times, that you can measure the proportion of something and people will ﬁnd it attractive naturally” – Marek Reichman. By using this formula, once the wheelbase has been drawn, the designer should instantly know how tall the car should be, and how far the overhangs should extend. By studying and utilising the ‘Golden Section’ and creating a design that follows this primal language imagery, will help the designer to achieve a ﬁnal design that is both beautiful, and desirable. [63]

2.27.2 It is also possible to convey specific emotions through a vehicles overall design. Influenced by the rules previously discussed and the packaging of the car. Features of the bodywork can then be tailored to appeal to a specific market. Stereotypical vehicle-design normally suggests that the ‘human body archetypes’ will help to attract a specific sex or target market as it represents an extension of who they are. For example, males are normally more attracted to muscular wide, low-bodied sporty and aggressive looking car, whereas women can favour a more curvaceous, elegant, cute or understated design. [64]

FIGUHBT

2.27.3 Other circumstances such as lifestyle and family size can aﬀect which style and size of vehicle will be purchased. Along with the human body archetypes, other powerful factors can inﬂuence people’s likes and dislikes towards a vehicle, such as brand and badge appeal (which changes slowly through the reputation and history of the carmaker, and also fashion trends). A good example of this are the brands within the VW Group, VW, Audi, SEAT, and Skoda. Audi is seen as a very desirable, luxurious and expensive brand. Whereas SEAT and Skoda, (both respectable carmakers, sharing many platforms and mechanical parts with Audi and VW), do not boast the same reputation and class. These stimuli have become a huge factor for most buyers, particularly as most modern cars are now far more reliable (if maintained), therefore the deciding vote for most people is the price, quality, drivability and performance and most prominently, aesthetic appeal.

2.27.4 Powerful design-language, brand-association and house-style can be seen in most cars thanks to the design trend that has occurred over the past decade, for carmakers to use a similar ‘family face’ throughout their vehicle range. The purpose of this is for the brand to become instantly recognizable without having to look at the badge. Again Audi is an ideal example of this ‘family face’, with all models sharing the hexagonal bonnet-to-lower-bumper grill and sharp angular concaved shoulder lines, along with aggressive daytime running lights. Almost all manufacturers have developed their own house style, in an eﬀort to associate their brand with speciﬁc design characteristics.

BEST PRACTICE 2.29.1 The following case studies will help the designer to establish a strong design language for both project 1 and 2 by using these examples as a reference, and inspiration.

Toyota Mirai 2.30 Toyotaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ďŹ rst production vehicle to use a Hydrogen Fuel-Cell, the Mirai is a serious step forward for the technology and the automotive industry. However the design language of the car is somewhat more questionable. Although striking and very distinguishable, dominated by huge air-intakes and aggressive slim light clusters at the front, the car seems rather squarely ďŹ nished either end. A lot of design cues have been carried over from the 2016 third generation Prius, to slowly introduce the public/market to this technology by referencing an already existing, familiar car. However in the authors opinion, the proportions and side to rear-arch feature line, makes the car seem very unbalanced and distorted. The designers have clearly tried mirroring the front air-intake shapes into the rear taillights, which although carries the style through the cars design, it makes the rear seem disorganised and undesirable.

Gordon Murray T25 & T27 2.31 The T25 is the first in-house vehicle to be produced using Gordon Murrays fully automated ‘iStream’ production line. The vehicles design aims to be simple and efficient with an extremely narrow track width meaning 2 T25’s can fit side-by-side on a single lane. With a triangular seating configuration, the T25 can carry up to 3 people. Every element of the design has been minimised to a simplistic yet acceptable degree, much like a Smart for two. The bodywork is a very basic shape, which is dominated by the interior pod windows and has a sweptback design language that finishes very abruptly at the rear of the car. The main features include large, bold and front wheel arches and front bumper, which merge into the main pod shape. The sides feature powerful creases emerging from the back of the front wheel arches, up the side of the car to the rear taillights, this gives the car a deceivingly wider appearance and enhancing the overall awkwardly bulky pod shape.

BMW i 2.32 The ‘i’ range from BMW feature an extremely controversial design language with bold aerodynamic features running throughout the vehicles. The style of design features a very prominent coherent family-face/house-style, completely diﬀerent to BMW’s normal range of vehicles (with the exception of the trademark double kidney grille). The design language can be expressed with just a handful of main feature lines. The lower door and sill line makes the vehicles appear more lightweight and sculpted as it twists and curls under the car towards the start of the rear wheel arch. The front and rear share a similar contrast from the body colour of choice, to the gloss main face features. The lights shape also reference one-another and help to frame the 2 remaining feature lines that begin together at the front of the car and split at rooﬂine and step closer together at the rear of the car (references the air travelling around the form).

Tesla Model S & Model X 2.33 The Tesla design language, by comparison to the BMW ‘i’ range, is far more minimalistic and sleek. Both cars use gentle curves and have a well-proportioned front to rear balance. The sportier look of the Model S is achieved thanks to its low ride height and wide muscular rear wheel arches and long crouching front quarters. The Model X utilised the same lines as its sister, yet rides much higher and uses black bodywork for the lower sections of the car to disguise this. It also features Tesla’s new brand look, which has removed the main aperture where a grille would traditionally be on most combustion cars, and instead left the bodywork in one piece which smoothly flows round to the front wheels giving it a more futuristic, interesting look. The flush door handles finished in chrome are also a unique and very appealing detail.

2015 Shell Eco Car 2.34 For project 2 in particular, the 2015 shell car is a good starting point for the basis of the 2016 design, which aims to improve upon the original philosophy of sustainability (utilising primarily plywood), and boasting a futuristic aesthetically pleasing design. The car is based around a 2-pod section design, the most dominant of which is the front pod that includes the front wheels and main body shape. The pod tapers outwards from front-to-rear and just above the front wheel arch the sides are also tapered inwards creating a straight feature line through the entire middle section. The rear pod is much more unsophisticated in the form of an upright cylindrical shape which houses the fuel cell. The front bumper (also featuring the large wheel arches) and separately attached rear wheel arches are made of the same resin, which tries to draw the eye away from the distorted, stretched imbalanced proportions of the car.

2016 Developments EXCLUS

LOOK!

IVE

Chapter 3

Methodology

3.0.1 The methodology for both projects will follow a structure the author is well practiced in (CDIO) and also using the double diamond design model. Influenced by several set gateways the 2 projects will require constant review, evaluation, development and re-evaluation in order to achieve a fit-for-purpose final design. Qualitative and quantitative data will also be frequently used in both the research and understanding of existing automotive designs, and also to evaluate the designer’s concepts and final designs. Quantitative data will be collected throughout project 1 and the beginning of project 2. However qualitative data will be used within more focused reviews and design evaluations after the main numerical data has been done, this will help both projects produce quality designs.

3.1 CDIO – Conceive, Design, Implement, Operate 3.1.1 Using this process both projects will follow a set direction throughout each stage. The ‘conceive’ phase is the most important stage of the process, which means researching and ‘becoming an expert’ in the field topic, in this case of hydrogen fuel cells and proportional design language. 3.1.2 Once the necessary research and knowledge has been learnt and understood, the designer will then have a good understanding of the industry, the design phase can begin. This includes sketching and designing possible ideas and concepts which are influenced by the conceive phase research. If further information is required for specific designs, the designer will extend the first stage to work alongside the design phase. Development and rapid prototyping should be used to create concepts along with more advanced modelling, such as hard-clay modelling, which can then be photographed, documented, digitally edited, helping with ideation and experimentation. 3.1.3 Once a specific design language and direction has been established, the designer will need to begin the implementation of the design. This includes finalisation of the design and creating more advanced models, along with a final scale clay-model, which can be fibre-glassed and finished to a show quality standard. 3.1.4 The ‘operate’ phase of the process requires launching the product and placing it into context. The question needs to be answered as to, whether the project brief (established at the beginning of the project) has been fulfilled. Feedback and reviewing the finished product is essential.

3.2 Double Diamond Model The DDM process works much like a diamonds shape, which expands, and contracts. The diamond process is to begin with a singular subject or industry (to diversify and discover the problem) with all the possible solutions. The user needs to have creative thoughts and new ideas, with the ability to then select ideas and justify which are preferable. The challenge of the ďŹ rst diamond is to deďŹ ne the problem, discover the brief, and which areas could be focused on and tackled. The second diamond is to resolve the brief, creating multiple answers to the problem and then creatively developing and selecting which will work best.

O 97

Gant Chart

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Chapter 4 Conclusion 4.1 Based on the literature review, the designer will be able to create a more functional, desirable vehicle concept that possesses a strong and attractive design language. This will be achieved by the information learned throughout this ‘conceive’ stage of the two projects, such as the design analysis of popular cars and understanding the ‘Golden Section’ of design. By learning the origins of the automobile, and how it has developed into the vehicles we have today, understanding the limits of what can be manufactured, and visions of the cars future possibilities. The designer will have strengthened his knowledge base of the entire industry. Utilising this knowledge and design analysis, along with a better understanding of the main drivers of the project, the designs produced should be more ‘fit-for-purpose’ with a higher standard of decision-making and smart design. 4.2 The car of the future (Hydrogen powered, or not) will evolve into much more than just a vessel for transportation. It will become a powerful digital and social living space, in which the occupant will be able to interact with the world far more than available currently. The driving force of which is, autonomous vehicles. They will completely change the industry, from the way we use and think about mobility (public car sharing), to how our roads and traffic-laws are used and maintained. At the core of the ‘car of the future’ will be an even larger reliance on technology and communications. Society will have to evolve and learn to trust this new, arguably invasive, future. It will make our way of life more seamless, digitally integrated and more connected than ever before. 4.3 Understanding how people perceive, feel and interact with automotive design are all fundimental aspects of this study. In addition considering the entire life-cycle from cradle to grave, and the damaging effects all vehicles have on the plant must be reduced. Battery powered cars may be a ‘quick-fix’ solution to depleting oil reserves however, Hydrogen Fuel-Cell vehicles clearly offer far more ecological and practical qualities. From the information learned about these technologies and alternative power sources, both good and bad, the author possesses a stronger foundation to build his ideas upon.

Chapter 5 Looking forwards 5.0 Future direction 5.1 Project Plan 5.1.1 The next stage of the project is to begin the design phase. To use the case studies as inspiration for the designer’s own car of the future design language. Through exploring the different styles of packaging and receiving feedback from other experts in the field, the designer will follow the ‘double diamond’ method of design to produce a wide range of themes and select the best style for vehicle to proceed forward. Clay-modelling will be used comprehensively to develop and visualise the designs in a physical 3 dimensional form. This will help to achieve attractive proportions and understand what lines suite the style of vehicle and why. CAD models may also be used to help create renderings, design development and presentational materials. The viva in week 21 will also be a crusial gateway to solidify the design and development process, whilst allowing the designer to produce a more detailed plan going into the implementation stage. 5.1.2 Once the design phase has produced 2 strong design languages (displayed on a 50/50 quarter-scale clay model), the designer will take specific elements and features from both which the majority of feedback gathered preferred. Then combine those that work well together to form the final design. Once this has been done, the final design will be completely clay modelled and possibly fibre-glassed producing moulds in which the final model can be formed and finished. Depending on a cost-benefit analysis, LED’s may be used (to represent the vehicles front and rear light clusters) to enhance the finished appearance making the design seem more realistic and conceivable. The end goals are to present both high quality finished projects at the University design show and the New Designers show in London 2016.

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