Overcoming anxiety in second language learning

SUNATA 46

Kate Montgomery French Coordinator and Head of Year 12

Overcoming anxiety

in second language learning

When learning a second language (L2), the goal is to be able to communicate successfully with others by attaining a reasonable level of language proficiency (Moskovsky et al. 2016). For most learners, the broad range of cognitive skills which need to be mastered for L2 proficiency means that communication in an L2 is much more difficult and less successful than in their first language (Horwitz 2017). While some secondary students accept these limitations, others find their inability to reflect their true personalities and to express complex ideas in an L2 to be distressing (Horwitz 2017). For these learners, the process of acquiring an L2 can be a psychologically challenging experience as it impacts on their self-concept and leads them to fear that their limited communication skills will prevent them from presenting themselves in an authentic manner and result in unfavourable judgement from others (Horwitz 2017). These are just some of the complex factors which can lead to Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA), the study of which has preoccupied Second Language Acquisition researchers for several decades (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope 1986; Aida 1994; Gregersen 2003). FLCA can be defined as 'the worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when learning or using a second language' (MacIntyre 1999, p. 27). Recently, however, the influence of Positive Psychology (Fredrickson 2013) has engendered a shift in second language acquisition research to focus less on the negative emotion of anxiety and more on the importance of students experiencing the positive emotion of enjoyment in language classrooms through fun, creative and challenging lessons conducted in a supportive and friendly environment (Dewaele, J-M et al. 2018). One reason that researchers have found FLCA so significant is due to the adverse effects of FLCA on L2 learners. Dewaele and MacIntyre describe FLCA as ‘insidious’ (2014 p. 238), as it can negatively impact an L2 student’s ability to progress in their studies and undermine the best teaching techniques and resources. Its effects can be academic, such as lower grades and ineffective overstudying; cognitive, such as anticipating failure and inability to retrieve previously known vocabulary; and also social, such as a lack of communication and lower communicative confidence (MacIntyre 2017).

Variables that impact on Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety

There are many variables which can contribute to FLCA, including learner, teacher and environmental factors (Jin & Dewaele 2018).

Learner variables

Studies indicate that while variables that relate to the teacher and the classroom environment can contribute to FLCA, the main factors associated with this form of anxiety are connected to the learners themselves, such as personality traits (Saito et al. 2018). There is insufficient space in this article to discuss these learner variables in depth; however, one such personality trait which has been examined with regard to FLCA is perfectionism (Dewaele 2017). The psychological construct of perfectionism has been described by researchers as having both positive and negative components (Dewaele 2017). The positive, or adaptive, aspects of perfectionism can lead to success for these learners based on the high standards they set themselves (Grzegorek et al. 2004). However, these same high standards can prove crippling to perfectionists if they perceive that they are unable to attain them, resulting in much self-criticism and feelings of failure (Grzegorek et al. 2004).

Teacher and environmental variables

In addition to learner variables, teacher and environmental factors can also impact on the severity of FLCA experienced by students (Saito et al. 2018). There are some specific teacher variables which can impact directly on FLCA, for example, methods of error correction (Horwitz 2013). However, there is also an overlap between teacher and environmental factors, as teachers are instrumental in the creation of the classroom ambience. Consequently, teachers can positively or negatively impact peer relations, which in turn have been shown to affect FLCA in some students (Shao, Pekrun & Nicholson 2019). Studies suggest that the process of teachers providing oral corrective feedback to L2 learners is an essential component of second language acquisition that assists students to improve their level of language competence (Lyster, Saito & Sato 2013). Nevertheless, the way in which teachers correct these errors can impact on FLCA (Teimouri 2017). When students have their mistakes corrected frequently, harshly and in front of their peers,

it can be not only distracting to the expression of their ideas but can also lead to heightened FLCA and, in some cases, to feelings of shame (Teimouri 2017). While research indicates that teachers are not the main cause of FLCA (Dewaele et al. 2018), they can lessen the impact of error correction on students’ anxiety by selecting which errors require correction, rather than giving feedback on all mistakes, and undertaking this correction in a gentle and sensitive manner (Horwitz 2013). It has long been acknowledged that the creation of a supportive and positive classroom environment is critical to good teaching and productive learning in all subject areas (Hattie & Clarke 2018). A key aspect of teachers’ roles is to ensure a non-threatening environment where students feel comfortable taking risks (Arnold 2011). This is especially true in L2 classrooms, where students need to communicate and interact more than in many other disciplines (Shao, Pekrun & Nicholson 2019), and even more so in high school L2 classrooms, where fear of losing face in front of one’s peers can contribute to FLCA (Dewaele & Dewaele 2017). A component of effective teaching is assisting to create an atmosphere of solidarity between classmates and encouraging collaboration between peers (Dewaele et al. 2018). Studies show that the creation of positive and supportive peer relations within an L2 classroom is beneficial in reducing the effects of FLCA (Khajavy, MacIntyre & Barabadi 2018). Therefore, while much FLCA stems from the learners themselves, the manner in which the teacher interacts with the class and the establishment of a supportive and cohesive environment can impact positively on FLCA.

Positive Psychology: the shift to focus on foreign language enjoyment

After decades of research on FLCA, the recent influence of Positive Psychology (Fredrickson 2013) has resulted in a shift of focus from the negative emotion of anxiety to the positive emotion of enjoyment. This article adopts a definition of Positive Psychology as 'the empirical study of how people thrive and flourish' (MacIntyre & Mercer 2014, p. 154). In defining what might constitute foreign language enjoyment, researchers identified that students enjoyed tasks that involved student creativity, choice and expression of ideas (Dewaele &

SUNATA 47

SUNATA 48

MacIntyre 2014). In addition, enjoyment involved frequent use of the target language by the teacher and students using the target language for up to 60 per cent of class time (Dewaele et al. 2018). Providing an appropriate level of challenge and clear learning intentions in lessons that lacked predictability helped to increase students’ enjoyment (Saito et al. 2018), while a positive attitude to the language and the teacher, together with a sense of performing well in comparison with class peers, was equally beneficial to classroom enjoyment (Dewaele et al. 2018). If teachers can follow the lead of Positive Psychology and focus on helping learners to 'thrive and flourish' (MacIntyre & Mercer 2014, p. 154) in their classes, this seems more practical and beneficial for students than trying to help them overcome FLCA, which stems largely from learner-internal characteristics and is little affected by the actions of teachers (Saito et al. 2018).

Fredrickson’s ‘broaden and build’ theory of positive emotions

A psychological theory from the subfield of Positive Psychology is Fredrickson’s broaden and build theory of positive emotions (1998). This theory proposes that positive emotions broaden an individual’s thinking and their ability to take in information, resulting in play, exploration and new learning, while also promoting resilience and helping to forge connections with others (Fredrickson 2013). Conversely, the theory suggests that negative emotions, such as anxiety, lead to disengagement, as individuals withdraw from potentially threatening situations and narrow their focus to concentrate on self-protection (Fredrickson 2013). Fredrickson (2013) argues that regularly experiencing positive emotions, such as enjoyment, helps people to develop their selfacceptance and their ability to deal with challenging situations. Recently, researchers have begun to consider the implications of the broaden and build theory for L2 classrooms, where a focus on positive emotions may promote learning through an increased noticing of language input, in addition to the building of greater resilience to recover from embarrassing linguistic or cultural faux-pas (Boudreau, MacIntyre & Dewaele 2018). While FLCA impedes students from forging social bonds with classmates (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope 1986), a focus on the positive emotion of enjoyment may encourage students to interact and connect more with their peers (Fredrickson 2013). This may assist with the language education goal of effective communication in the classroom and building peer relations and may in turn lessen the fear of negative evaluation from classmates (Horwitz 2017).

Recommendations

Horwitz rightly states that 'language teachers are not mental health professionals' (2017, p. 38) and that with no 'magic treatment' for FLCA (2017, p. 42), our best option to assist learners with FLCA is to listen to them and offer a supportive and positive environment. It is interesting to note that despite the decades that FLCA has been the topic of research and the different aspects of the phenomenon which have been examined, the pedagogical implications have remained largely unchanged. That is, that teachers should provide students with opportunities to collaborate with their peers, create an ambience of respect and trust in which students feel supported to take risks, offer encouragement and positive feedback, and correct errors gently (Teimouri 2017; Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope 1986). While the move to concentrate on making language learning enjoyable, rather than focusing on FLCA, is only recent, it is not surprising that it aligns with the aforementioned advice regarding classroom environments, as this is the foundation of good pedagogy for all students, not only those suffering from anxiety (Hattie & Clarke 2018). The recommendation that foreign language enjoyment can be achieved by challenging students and providing unpredictable lessons with clear learning intentions and opportunities for creativity (Saito et al. 2018) similarly meets with the expectations of good teaching (Hattie & Clarke 2018). Regular use of group and pair work tasks can assist to create a more collaborative and therefore less competitive environment in which students feel unthreatened by the learning process (Rubio-Alcalá 2017). Furthermore, it is recommended that teachers explicitly discuss FLCA with their students and provide opportunities for the sharing of strategies that peers have found helpful, as this will help students to feel less alone and to learn from the experiences of others (Horwitz 2017). It is equally important that teachers assist students to develop realistic expectations and to realise that communicating proficiently in an L2 does not mean producing error-free language (Oxford 2017). Language teachers are encouraged to assist anxious learners, especially those with perfectionist tendencies, to set achievable learning goals and strategies to help students attain these (Oxford 2017). Positive Psychology suggests that this will help learners to develop ‘agency’ and a sense that they have control over their own learning and need to take responsibility for their studies (Oxford 2017, p. 185). Ensuring student familiarity with assessment criteria and instruments prior to examinations can also assist to alleviate FLCA and give students a greater sense of control (Rubio-Alcalá 2017). This can be achieved using mock examinations and providing rubrics prior to testing (Rubio-Alcalá 2017). Rubio-Alcalá (2017) advocates that educators take an indirect approach to dealing with FLCA by incorporating aspects of personal development into language courses. There is provision for such personal development within the Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority’s (QCAA) General Senior Syllabus for Languages (2019). This document embeds what it terms '21st century skills' (p. 8) within the syllabus objectives – skills it deems are essential to the workforce of the 21st century. These include personal and

social skills such as developing 'resilience, mindfulness and self-awareness' (p. 8), all of which could help to combat feelings of FLCA. Additionally, these 21st century skills include other characteristics deemed helpful above in dealing with FLCA, such as 'collaboration and teamwork' (p. 8). Thus, it can be concluded that provision already exists for helping to deal with anxiety in language classrooms at the level of curriculum policy development, and language teachers are already utilising many of the above techniques in their classrooms.

Providing a low-anxiety and motivating classroom environment, while also developing a notion of everyone learning together without judgment of errors, may be the best strategy for language teachers and hopefully this will assist L2 learners to feel comfortable, less anxious and more engaged.

Reference List

Aida, Y 1994, ‘Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope’s construct of Foreign Language Anxiety: The case of students of Japanese’, Modern Language Journal, vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 155-168. Arnold, J 2011, ‘Attention to affect in language learning’. Anglistik. International Journal of English Studies, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 11-22. Boudreau, C, Macintyre, P & Dewaele, J-M 2018, ‘Enjoyment and anxiety in second language communication: An idiodynamic approach’, Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 149-170 Dewaele, J-M, Witney, J, Saito, K & Dewaele, L 2018, ‘Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: The effect of teacher and learner variables’, Language Teaching Research, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 676-697. Dewaele, J-M 2017, ‘Are perfectionists more anxious foreign language learners and users?’, in C Gkonou, M Daubney & J-M Dewaele (eds), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications, Multilingual Matters, Bristol. Dewaele, J-M & Dewaele, L 2017, ‘The dynamic interactions in foreign language classroom anxiety and foreign language enjoyment of pupils aged 12 to 18. A pseudolongitudinal investigation’. Journal of the European Second Language Association, vol.1, no.1, pp. 12-22. Dewaele, J-M & Macintyre, PD 2014, ‘The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom’, Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 237-274. Fredrickson, B 2013, ‘Updated thinking on positivity ratios’, The American Psychologist, vol. 68, no. 9, pp. 814–822. Fredrickson, BL 1998, ‘What good are positive emotions?’ Review of General Psychology, vol. 2, pp. 300-319. Gregersen, T 2003, ‘To Err Is Human: A Reminder to Teachers of Language Anxious Students’, Foreign Language Annals, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 25-32. Grzegorek, J, Slaney, R, Franze, S & Rice, K 2004, ‘Self-Criticism, Dependency, SelfEsteem, and Grade Point Average Satisfaction Among Clusters of Perfectionists and Nonperfectionists’, Journal of Counseling Psychology, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 192–200. Hattie, J & Clarke, S 2018, Visible learning: Feedback, Routledge, London. Horwitz, E 2017, ‘On the misreading of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) and the need to balance anxiety research and the experiences of anxious learners’, in C Gkonou, M Daubney & J-M Dewaele (eds), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications, Multilingual Matters, Bristol. Horwitz, E 2013, Becoming a language teacher: a practical guide to second language learning and teaching (2nd edn), Pearson Education, Boston. Horwitz, E, Horwitz, M & Cope, J 1986, ‘Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety’, Modern Language Journal, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 125-132. Jin, Y & Dewaele, J 2018, ‘The effect of positive orientation and perceived social support on foreign language classroom anxiety’, System, vol. 74, pp. 149-157. Khajavy, G, MacIntyre, P & Barabadi, E 2018, ‘Role of the emotions and classroom environment in willingness to communicate’, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 605–624. Lyster, R, Saito, K & Sato, M 2013, ‘Oral corrective feedback in second language classrooms’, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 1-40. MacIntyre, PD, 2017, ‘An overview of language anxiety research and trends in its development’, in C Gkonou, M Daubney & J-M Dewaele (eds), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications, Multilingual Matters, Bristol. Macintyre, PD & Mercer, S 2014, ‘Introducing positive psychology to SLA’, Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 153-172. MacIntyre, PD 1999, ‘Language anxiety; A review of the research for language teachers’, in DJ Young (ed.), Affect in foreign language and second language teaching: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere, McGraw-Hill, Boston. Moskovsky, C, Assulaimani, T, Racheva, S & Harkins, J 2016, ‘The L2 Motivational Self System and L2 achievement: A study of Saudi EFL learners’, Modern Language Journal, vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 641-654. Oxford, R 2017, ‘Anxious language learners can change their minds: Ideas and strategies from traditional psychology and Positive Psychology’, in C Gkonou, M Daubney, & J-M Dewaele (eds), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications, Multilingual Matters, Bristol. Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2019, General Senior Syllabus for Languages, viewed online 15 May 2021, www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/portal/ syllabus/?organisation=4993074c-2698-4f36bc76-e61797495701#!/app/4993074c-26984f36-bc76-e61797495701/syllabus/ Rubio-Alcalá, F 2017, ‘The links between self-esteem and language anxiety and implications for the classroom’, in C. Gkonou, M Daubney & J-M. Dewaele (eds), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications, Multilingual Matters, Bristol. Saito, K, Dewaele, J, Abe, M & In’ Nami, Y 2018, ‘Motivation, emotion, learning experience, and second language comprehensibility development in classroom settings: A cross sectional and longitudinal study’, Language Learning, vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 709-743. Shao, K, Pekrun, R & Nicholson, L 2019, ‘Emotions in classroom language learning: What can we learn from achievement emotion research?’ System, vol 86, 102121. Teimouri, Y 2017, ‘L2 Selves, emotions and motivated behaviours’, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 681-709.

SUNATA 49