Sunata 2022 by St Margaret's Anglican Girls School

EDITION TWELVE

2022 SUNATA

Sunata

St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School 11 Petrie Street Ascot QLD 4007 Australia Telephone: +61 7 3862 0777 Facsimile: +61 7 3862 0701 mail@stmargarets.qld.edu.au www.stmargarets.qld.edu.au St Margaret’s School Council Ltd ABN: 69069684019 CRICOS Code: 00511K A School of the Society of the Sacred Advent

EDITION TWELVE

Learning is a lifelong process of keeping abreast of change.

STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

ceTLe Centre for Teaching and Learning Excellence

Sunata Edition 12 Principal: Ros Curtis Editors: Karen Gorrie, Wendy Johnston Graphic Designer: Pam Smiles Photographer: Victoria Nikolova, Sophia Taylor

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EDITION TWELVE

Sunata THE STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

CONTENTS What my Intel Pentium Pro didn’t teach me at university: The changing face of the Australian tertiary experience Kelly Alford | Director – Durack College

The importance of career development education for contemporary learners Annette Box | Assistant Head of Primary – Wellbeing and Operations (PP-6)

Cultivating literate learners in the 21st century Briar Bracey | Primary School Teacher

The importance of trust in teams Ros Curtis | Principal

What community consultation revealed about our school values Ros Curtis | Principal

In support of gender diverse students in Australian schools Ysabella Dawson | Student Wellbeing Coordinator

The evolution of student wellbeing at St Margaret’s Angela Drysdale | Head of Primary

To lead is to serve: An essay examining the biography Pope Francis: Life and Revolution through the lens of servant leadership theory Chris Dunn | Dean of Studies

Looking to the future in Australian boarding Lesa Fowler | Head of Boarding

Developing a leadership identity Kate Frewin | Assistant Head of Primary – Curriculum (PP-6)

Towards environmental sustainability in schools Karen Gorrie | Deputy Principal

Embedding divergent thinking and creativity in mathematics George Higgins | Assistant Head of Faculty – Mathematics

Cultural appropriation and First Nations people Wendy Johnston | Director of Marketing and Communications

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on early childhood development Belinda Knowles | Pre-Prep Early Years Teacher

Applications of effective teaching strategies Caitlin McCluskey | Dean of Academics

Prioritising reading pleasure – Reading Immersion in St Margaret’s English (RISE) Helen Philp | Secondary English Teacher

The benefits of involving students in the business of philanthropy Lara Pickering | Director of Philanthropy and Stakeholder Engagement

'Mulu Maguydan': A collection of stories from our Elders Margot Shave | Secondary English Teacher

The importance of co-curricular involvement for students Nikki Townsend | Dean of Students

Thrive…don’t survive! Nicole Walker | Head of Year 11

Gifted, not guaranteed: Why gifted underachievers must matter more Kate Wiedemann | Secondary English Teacher

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From the bush to the big smoke: The transition to secondary school for our rural boarders Hannah Calcino | Student Wellbeing Coordinator (Boarding)

What my Intel Pentium Pro didn’t teach me at university: The changing face of the Australian tertiary experience As I write the introduction to this article, I am reminded of my days as an Kelly Alford undergraduate tertiary student, poring Director – Durack College over my hand-written lecture notes, leafing through the tagged pages of my textbooks, and skimming through the highlighted sections of my blurred photocopied ‘Readings’. My bedroom floor would be scattered with the open pages of resources as I tapped out my assignments on an early model ‘Intel Pentium Pro’. As archaic as this all sounds, and even though my computer from 1997 would not have the capacity to store a single high-res photo, it got me through my degree just fine, and my university experience was rich and full. And I dare propose that despite the incredible technologies available today, tertiary students are facing a vastly different and arguably poorer university experience. I remember my uni days with fondness, and while I managed to get through the degree and secure a teaching position the semester before I graduated, these are not what I recall as being the most noteworthy experiences of my time at university. I think of my degree and graduate job offer as the by-product of a four-year period spent wide-eyed and bushy-tailed in a new town, making new friends, and having the time of my life. At a recent gathering to celebrate a dear uni friend’s ‘milestone’ birthday, a bunch of us who went to uni together took much delight in reminiscing our uni days. I can assure you, there was not a single mention of an academic topic. We recollected our first meetings with each other at the tutorial sign-up board and how we knew we’d be lifelong friends as we had the same motivation – how could we squash our classes to four days so we could get to the beach on the fifth? We shared secrets of how we avoided paying for on-campus parking so we could pay our rent instead, and we debated the real reasons we joined the plethora of clubs and societies along the way. We laughed until we hurt about the quirky characters we sat alongside in classes and wondered what ever happened to them. We were nostalgic about a time that afforded a slower pace to life and how we took pleasure in the simple act of filling the two-hourlong breaks between classes by lying on the lawn, soaking in the sun as we caught up on readings and tutorial tasks. Being on that lawn meant you would often find yourself dragged into a game of touch footy to even up the numbers or clock a Frisbee to the head if you weren’t careful. These were great icebreakers and opportunities to meet students from other faculties who became flatmates, who became ball partners, who became business partners ... We lost count of the people we knew who met their spouse during their uni days and recalled the classmates with whom we have crossed paths since graduation, both personally and professionally.

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I came away from that party feeling grateful for the experience I was gifted and genuinely sad for the tertiary students of the post-pandemic era. I thought about my postgraduate degree and how it was purely online, and despite the couple of hundred people in my cohort and the variety of lecturers, I have not once seen or heard from any of them since. I wonder if this

is the experience that today’s school leavers are entering. I think how much of a shock to the system it would be, coming from high school with a strong community, surrounded by familiar faces and routines, only to find uni a time to sit at your desk at home and stare awkwardly at a screen for four years. That’s a pretty dire prospect and perhaps an exaggeration, but the point I’m making is that, according to the most recent figures, over 60 per cent of school leavers (under age 20) will enter tertiary study (Universities Australia 2020, p. 3) and therefore are set to spend a significant portion of their formative years as a ‘university student’. What I am most concerned about for this generation of students is their lack of opportunity to really engage with the university experience. I remember my experience as a tertiary student as one where I was known, seen, and heard. I had genuine rapport with my lecturers, and I felt a connection to my campus. I was not on the Student Council, but I knew who was. I didn’t write for the campus newspaper, but I read it each week. I didn’t feel like a cog in a wheel of an export industry supporting the national economy. Rather, I felt like I was a part of an educational and social resource and appreciated for my contribution. Doidge and Doyle’s (2002, p. 7-9) reports suggest that the educational mission of Australian universities was in transition well before COVID-19. Government and some businesses promoted reform in modes of delivery, such as microcredentialling and blended learning (bringing together digital learning and faceto-face teaching). Now, universities are faced with the question of which elements of online learning should be preserved and how to more effectively use technology to promote learning. For some university staff and administrators, who have struggled since the pandemic to balance health and safety with educational and financial concerns, higher education without a campus can be a seductive option. But as they consider the potential for virtual learning to reduce the cost of higher education, they should also be curious about what benefits students derive from being physically present in the same room or on the same campus. If online education continues to be widely employed, that should be because it enhances learning, not because it is less expensive. Clearly, some classes work better online than others, and some lecturers have a special talent for teaching virtually. But the higher satisfaction of students who attend even a single in-person class every week points to a profound difference between how students feel about in-person and online classes. Moreover, even if online teaching ends up being effective, its adoption may still hamper efforts to form a cohesive campus community. In Wright’s (2021, p. 17) survey results, students who had more frequent in-person classes were also more likely to feel that they ‘belonged’ at their university. What evidence do we have of the value of in-person learning: the return on investments in bricks and mortar? Herein lies the problem. There is little to no research on the benefits of in-person learning versus remote learning due to the infancy of the practice. The space is still so young, and again, I would

argue that being physically present together on campus has a unique value that offers much more than the knowledge one gains to attain a qualification. Exactly how much value it has is something that needs further study, and I will read with interest as the results of such studies are released over the coming years. I just hope that in the necessary rush to pivot to an online model of delivery with the onset of the pandemic in 2020, that educators and administrators have not overlooked the need to revisit the pre-pandemic paradigm and take from it the positive attributes of a holistic university education and re-introduce these aspects. One need only acknowledge the Student Experience Survey results recently published by the Quality Indictors for Teaching and Learning (2021). Student satisfaction with university education dropped sharply in the most recent report, reaching its lowest level since the survey began in 2012. Among the broad decline in satisfaction, students said ‘learner engagement’ specifically suffered (p. 23). For the first time since the survey began, a minority of students said they were satisfied with learner engagement, at only 43.2 per cent (p. 25).

It seems likely that even when the threat of COVID-19 has passed, the technology we used to survive during the pandemic will continue to be a major force in higher education. Online learning has enormous potential and, in some form or another, it is here to stay. However, the social and emotional capital that is built as an on-campus student must not be overlooked. Surely there is a way to integrate the economics and flexibility of online learning with the holistic growth and development of our young people, so their technical skills and qualifications can be utilised and transferred into society upon graduation. Otherwise, what’s the point? References Abbott, J, Lim, M, Eres, R, Long, K & Mathews, R 2018, ‘The impact of loneliness on the health and wellbeing of Australians’ InPsych, vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 14-27, viewed 18 May 2022, https://www.psychology. org.au/for-members/publications/inpsych/2018/December-Issue-6/ The-impact-of-loneliness-on-the-health-and-wellbei Australian Psychological Society & Swinburne University 2020, The Australian Loneliness Report, viewed 20 May 2022, https://psychweek. org.au/wp/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Psychology-Week-2018Australian-Loneliness-Report.pdf Doidge, S & Doyle, J 2022, ‘Australian universities in the age of Covid’, Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 668-674, viewed 15 April 2022, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/ 00131857.2020.1804343 Hess, AJ 2020, ‘How coronavirus dramatically changed college for over 14 million students’, CNBC 26 May, viewed 4 May 2022, https://www.cnbc.com Hibbs, J & Rostain, A 2019, The stressed years of their lives, St. Martin’s Press, New York, NY. Quality Indicators for Learning and Teaching 2021, 2020 Student Experience Survey, viewed 20 May 2022, https://www.qilt.edu.au/docs/ default-source/default-document-library/2020-ses-national-report. pdf?sfvrsn=d1 Universities Australia 2020, 2020 Higher Education Facts and Figures, viewed 28 May 2022, https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/wpcontent/uploads/2020/11/200917-HE-Facts-and-Figures-2020.pdf

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According to Universities Australia (2019), with over a million domestic students enrolled in undergraduate courses across Australia, and approximately 60 per cent of them under the age of 25 (p. 4), the persistence of seemingly unnecessary online course delivery raises concerns over the impact that this model of teaching and learning could be having on students’ mental health. While it is easy to establish some valid advantages of completing university studies online, it is not having the option to learn on campus that I believe raises problems. The Australian Loneliness Report (2018) examines the prevalence of loneliness and how it affects the physical and mental health of Australians. It is the most comprehensive study of loneliness completed in Australia. Results show that one in four Australians experience high levels of social interaction anxiety and that younger adults report significantly more social interaction anxiety than older Australians (p. 16). People aged 18 to 25 report ‘their most challenging social situations include meeting people at parties, mixing with people one doesn’t know well, speaking with someone in authority, mixing in a group and talking to attractive persons’ (p. 25). The report summarises that ‘higher levels of loneliness are associated with higher levels of social interaction anxiety, less social interaction, poorer psychological wellbeing and poorer quality of life’ (p. 27). I worry about the social and emotional experience and intelligence that our graduates will be lacking, if they remain

cooped up at home learning online – rarely having a face-toface conversation with their group-work assignment members or fronting up to the course convenor to physically hand in paperwork, etc. How ever will these people manage in a work environment where in-person communication and social interactions can’t be avoided?

The importance of career development education for contemporary learners Annette Box

Assistant Head of Primary – Wellbeing and Operations (PP-6)

Children starting Prep in 2022 will enter a different world and workplace from today – one which is yet to be conceived, with jobs, technology, and challenges still to be created or anticipated (National Career Education Strategy 2019). As such, young people must be equipped with career development services that ensure accessibility, personalised approaches, and the explicit teaching of career management skills in the education system, with support networks in the home and community (CICA 2019). To account for and cope with this dynamism of roles, contextual factors and the increasing diversity in employment and work, it is poignant to note that research observes that the roots of career development form early in a child’s life (Cahill & Furey 2017). The world of work continues to evolve and adapt to the everchanging economic, social, and political climate (CDAA 2019), and with the surge of digital technologies, it is in a greater state of flux than ever before. The workforce has changed dramatically from the industrial revolution to the digital revolution of today (Cahill & Furey 2017), which must remain at the centre of the minds of those facilitating career education to contemporary learners, who are not digital natives themselves. Quality career education programs not only teach students career skills but encourage them to consider how they balance work and their wider life as citizens of a dynamic world (Hooley 2021). On a global level, the world of work demands flexible, creative, multi-faceted problem solvers who can enter the fields of digi-spheres, bio-health, clean environment industries, agri-foods, and advanced robotics (Cahill & Furey 2017). Career education programs have proven social and economic benefits while possessing the potential to address social inclusion, gender balance and access for minority groups (McCowan et al. 2017). Additionally, impactful career education can also have a global influence on increased health and decreased crime rates (Hooley & Dodd 2015) as individuals find greater meaning and purpose in their lives. On a national level, young people must be future-ready with the necessary capabilities, and technological and enterprising career management skills (National Career Education Strategy 2019) to effectively navigate the specific needs and demands in our country’s climate. The world is inextricably linked far more than it has ever been before (McCowan et al. 2017); however, there is a need for career education to cater to the national context and, more significantly, the local context, in which many young people will create and develop their futures and careers.

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As students respond to the ‘emergent realities of the new careers era’ (Carpenter & Inkson 1999, cited in Prideaux et al. 2002, p. 116), the local contexts of community and school are of utmost importance as they are the key sites in

which career education is designed, delivered and, ideally, creates impact. Prideaux, Patton and Creed observed that careers are not developed in a vacuum (2002) and that they must cater to contextual factors such as people, settings, resources, and time for maximum impact. For the best potential student engagement in a career education program, a strong collaboration between schools, employers and local communities is essential, and partnerships between these groups allow for individuals to thrive in the world of contemporary work (National Career Education Strategy 2019). However, several pressures exist which contribute to a complex backdrop against which students are expected to develop as the workers of tomorrow (McCowan et al. 2017). Objections to the implementation of career education programs may also exist at the global and national levels; however, they are most significantly experienced on the local front. While inventiveness with a focus on new attitudes and skills to embrace beyond the 21st century remains desirable in current program designs, the application of outdated theories and measures for skill acquisitions are an initial stumbling block in the more widespread acceptance of career education (Prideaux et al. 2002). Further common obstacles faced include the knowledge of individuals and institutions to provide and facilitate career education effectively, the provision of sufficient training, the monitoring of programs after implementation, the access to useful and current labour market data, and meaningful collaboration with current employers (TeachFirst 2015). Additionally, recent findings show that national career advice is inadequate, with concerns that the programs in place are fragmented, ineffectual, and lacking quality, equity, and substantial policy (Groves et al. 2021). As such, catering a career education program to a context’s specific needs and values with an awareness of existing challenges and objections is the key to successful implementation. Career education should be a whole school responsibility, in which every teacher plays a role (Hooley 2021). St Margaret’s mission is ‘to provide excellence in teaching and learning within a broad, balanced and flexible curriculum complemented by other school activities, preparing confident, compassionate, capable women able to contribute in a global community’. Additionally, the Student Wellbeing Framework for Pre-Prep to Year 12 details six aspects of wellbeing, one of which is ‘vocational wellbeing’, which commits to ‘inspiring students to prepare for a career, in which they will gain personal and enriching satisfaction in their lives’. This lays the foundations for a context open to quality career education to prepare ‘confident, compassionate, capable women’ with the capacity to contribute more broadly.

Career development for children is about their present lives and their dreams for the future (Cahill & Furey 2017). It intends to build on and consolidate what they already know, with a focus on strengthening their toolkit and readiness to take on secondary school and the challenges that await. Career development is often viewed as belonging in the final years of schooling; however, due to its complexity, it is never too early to talk about career development (Cahill & Furey 2017). Careerrelated learning in the formative years of a child’s education is not about making premature decisions about their future but has the potential to create multiple options and possibilities as they develop their future aspirations (Herr et al. 2004 as cited in Cahill & Furey 2017).

CICA 2019, Career Industry Council of Australia, viewed 29 April 2022, https://cica.org.au/

For career development to be successful, it must be underpinned by quality practices, frameworks, and theories (CDAA). The perspective that a career is not necessarily a path or a ladder is useful during earlier years of education in which career learning is not necessarily a structured, pre-planned progression (Cahill & Furey 2017). While adaptability and the need to prepare young people for constant growth and change through a lifelong learning process (Cahill & Furey, 2017) is essential, through tapping into an individual’s interests, a journey that can result in realistic career goals can be ignited.

Hooley, T & Dodd, V 2015, The Economic Benefits of Career Guidance, Careers England, viewed 28 April, https://www. careersengland.org.uk/

References

TeachFirst 2015, Careers education in the classroom: The role of teachers in making young people work ready, viewed 30 April 2022, https://cica.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Careers-in-theclassroomreport.pdf

Cahill, M & Furey, E 2017, The Early Years: Career Development for Young Children, CERIC, Toronto. CDAA 2019, Career Development Association of Australia, viewed 30 April 2022, https://www.cdaa.org.au/

Department of Education, Skills and Employment 2019, Future ready: A student focused national career development strategy, viewed 30 April 2022, https://www.dese.gov.au/future-ready/resources/futureready-student-focused-national-career-education-strategy Groves, O, Austin, K, O’Shea, S & Lamanna, J 2021, ‘One student might get one opportunity and then the next student won’t get anything like that’: Inequities in Australian career education and recommendations for a fairer future, The Australian Educational Researcher, viewed 28 April 2022, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13384021-00468-2 Hooley, T 2021, Career education: every teacher has a role, myfuture Insights series, Education Services Australia, Melbourne.

McCowan, C, McKenzie, M & Shah, M 2017, Introducing career education and development: A guide for personnel in educational institutions in both developed and developing countries, InHouse Publishing, Brisbane. Prideaux, L, Patton, W & Creed, P 2002, 'Development of a theoretically derived school career program: an Australian endeavour', International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 115-130.

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Teaching children to effectively read, write, spell, listen and speak are considered the Briar Bracey principal responsibilities of educators. Primary School Teacher Without well-developed reading skills, children are unable to effectively participate within the classroom learning environment. Students with poor reading skills are at greater risk of school failure, low self-esteem and motivation to literacy, problems with employment and ultimately personal autonomy (Moats 2010). Therefore, early development of literacy skills is intrinsic to equip learners for the 21st century. Moats (2010) argues that the majority of reading problems can be significantly improved through appropriate instruction. For many decades it has been the focus of research findings and debate for what constitutes the correct instruction (Konza 2010). Coined the ‘Big Six’, education theorist Konza (2010) identifies oral language, phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension as key components within the development of reading. These components are interconnected and the building blocks of a successful literacy program. Educators need to explicitly teach these components to maximise the opportunities for all students to become independent readers and ultimately successful learners. Traditional methods of reading instruction are being re-examined as a new body of knowledge emerges from science-based evidence rather than merely observation. As research developments further advance, educators need to make informed decisions and ‘cherry pick’ the most appropriate methods from the science behind teaching reading and writing to best suit their classroom context.

CULTIVATING LITERATE LEARNERS IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Oral language It is widely known that oral language can be considered the underlying layer for growth in literacy (Konza 2014). A strong correlation exists between oral language and overall reading achievement throughout both primary and secondary schooling (Fernald et al. 2006, cited in Konza 2014). Immersion in rich and complex conversations allows growth in vocabulary and comprehension. Young learners require strong vocabularies to comprehend the vast range of words in texts and ultimately build meaning when reading. Interestingly, Konza (2014) discusses how technology in recent decades has influenced the way people interact with one another, resulting in a reduction in vocabulary. With a society where technology is so prevalent, children exposed to an abundance of early rich oral language experiences are best equipped to become literate learners in the foundation years of schooling and beyond.

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Thomson’s (2002) analogy of the ‘virtual schoolbag’ allows us to understand that all students come to school with a diverse set of experiences, knowledges and interests. Unfortunately, not everyone comes with adequate language skills from home in the first years of schooling. Instead, learners will possess varying language abilities dependant on their ethnic culture as well as socio-economic environment. Despite their differing language backgrounds, it is imperative that all

children are immersed in a ‘stimulating language environment at school’ (Konza 2010, p. 2). Educators are therefore tasked with the difficult job of incorporating high quality oral language experiences as well as ensuring personal language remains valued. If children do not have adequate oral language skills before the age of five, the risk for future reading problems grows, as they encounter difficulties with general language abilities including vocabulary knowledge and phonological awareness (Kaiser et al. 2010). Hart and Risley’s (1995, cited in Konza 2014) work illustrates the need for all students to interact with ‘better language users’ for vocabulary growth and language structure. Educators can also build on language experiences

Phonological awareness and phonics Phonological awareness refers to the ability to focus on the sounds of a word, rather than its meaning. The emphasis lies in its intonation and awareness of rhythm and rhyme. It is of paramount importance that children gain this awareness before preschool to equip them with a skill set that breaks down words necessary for the development of reading. The production of rhyme needs to be modelled by initially clapping then rhyming games, so an early recognition leads to understanding English words with their unique patterns of sounds (Konza 2011). Difficulties arise for the child who has not experienced a knowledge of rhyme and rhythmic elements due to being unable to relate these sounds to the alphabet to decode words. Children who have not had this door of learning opened due to hearing impairment or those whose first language is not English will be disadvantaged when it comes to reading.

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through imaginative play that promotes discussion, small group interactions, and storytelling (Mielonen & Patterson 2009). Furthermore, Corbett and Strong (2011) recognise the importance of oral language within the writing process and recognise that the oral learning of stories is an influential tool for assisting students to internalise language. Their program ‘Talk for Writing’ operates through meaningful repetition and oracy of texts to allow children to become accustomed to syntactical patterns and specific vocabulary to assist with independent writing. Enabling all students to hold adequate oral language skills will assist young learners in becoming confident users of literacy in the early years of schooling to equip them for life.

The next building block that early readers need to be taught is the ability to be a code breaker, learning the relationship between sounds and letters (phonics) in an alphabetic writing system. The shift from whether phonics should or should not be taught, has, over the last fifty years, moved to what form and how often it should be taught (Konza 2014). Many researchers argue that the teaching of phonics should operate through prescriptive frameworks that include systematic explicit instruction that concentrates on synthetic phonics. These are taught through isolated sound-letter relationships, where words are made by blending sounds. Students must synthesise these sounds to create words, read the whole word and break it down, and use cueing systems to contextualise the word as well as the comparison of patterns from known words (Ellery 2009). Fifteen to twenty minutes of daily explicit phonics instruction is regarded as optimal, complemented by ample periods of reading and writing to consolidate. The challenge lies in differentiating synthetic phonics instruction for classroom learners, as all students have varying levels of understanding the alphabetic principle (Gunning 2017). Conversely, the analytic phonics approach involves incidental teaching of letter-sound relationships. This approach dismisses synthetic phonics programs, believing that they can cause disengagement due to their prescribed texts being controlled with limited meaning (Rushton, Ewing & Diamond 2018). An analytical approach is focused on learning whole words in context through an exposure to words in meaningful literature, rather than having children blend and segment. Many would agree that literature needs to be authentic and meaningful for readers to engage. However, a substantial amount of research points to a decoding as a strong predictor of reading success (Buckingham 2018). Empirical evidence from scientific methods also supports synthetic instruction effective for monolingual Englishspeaking students and for EAL students (Petscher et al. 2020). Problems arise in students’ overuse of context and picture cues in preference for decoding strategies that analyse blends and vowel patterns in words (Gunning 2017). By teaching phonics through a systematic, synthetic approach, children can ‘unlock’

the alphabet code and can independently read at a faster rate, exploring a variety of authentic and engaging texts in both shared and independent contexts. Vocabulary Students need multiple opportunities to develop a rich vocabulary through listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Research shows that reading vocabulary is pivotal in influencing both the comprehension and fluency of a reader, not only as a young reader but into adulthood (Beck et al. 2013). Consequently, vocabulary instruction needs to be an integral component of the literacy block. If sophisticated vocabulary is not taught, then the expectation of students understanding and applying it, clearly, cannot be met. Rather than occurring incidentally, Ellery (2009) argues that incorporating explicit vocabulary instruction offers students valuable opportunities to manipulate and learn new words. Beck et al. (2013) echo these sentiments, stating that vocabulary knowledge enables students to fully interact and comprehend texts.

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Difficulties can be presented for children who lack vocabulary knowledge, with the vocabulary in books becoming increasingly more complex throughout the years of schooling (Beck et al. 2013). Disengagement with reading and academics may occur if students are not able to effectively engage with texts due to poor word knowledge. Himmele and Himmele (2009) advocate for ‘drenching’ children in words, stressing the importance of a language-rich classroom. Vocabulary instruction needs to provide students with repeated exposure to taught words, with both definitional and contextual information being presented to students. Teachers can engage students with an assortment of activities that foster familiarity of the taught word and also encourage depth of word knowledge (McKeown & Becks 2011). McKeown and Beck’s (2011) methodology illustrates the three tiers of vocabulary instruction, recognising that different words have different value or use. Tier 2 words, which are uncommon in conversation but appear in written language, are most suited for instructional teaching of vocabulary to acquire familiarity and build a functioning verbal repertoire. This can then transfer to a student’s ability to become an effective communicator. Fluency

Surprisingly, fluency has not always been viewed as an intrinsic component of effective reading. In previous times, educators

were more interested in children successfully decoding words, with little focus on automaticity. Unsurprisingly, research now shows that fluency and comprehension exhibit a co-dependent relationship, with roughly 90 per cent of comprehension problems being linked to fluency (Rasinski, Homan & Biggs 2009). Fluency exists when a reader effectively combines accuracy, appropriate phrasing and intonation (Ellery 2009). Children who do not possess an effective reading rate, and read slowly, devote a large portion of their cognitive attention to decoding. For readers with poor fluency, repeated readings prove to be an essential practice for growth. However, Konza (2010) stresses the importance of finding suitable material that engages and motivates all readers. For these experiences to be as valuable as possible, educators need to adopt the role of a coach and model fluent reading, provide support while reading, and evaluate overall progress (Rasinski, Homan & Biggs 2009). Further problems may arise if struggling readers are left to practise their fluency independently, without the assistance of a model reader. Initiatives such as Sustained Silent Reading or Drop Everything and Read may nurture a love of reading and provide enjoyment to many but do little to support the growth of fluency. Instead, the implementation of pedagogies that bring success by instilling confidence in young readers are known to remove fears, encourage enjoyment and increase fluency. A successful strategy such as Readers’ Theatre involves students to ‘practise, refine and perform texts’ (Young & Rasinki 2009, p. 12) for a live audience performance and celebration, proving effective for readers who are both striving and thriving. Comprehension Comprehension involves readers actively engaging with a text at a deeper level and using an acquired set of skills, rather than simply identifying and reading the words on the page (Konza 2010). Readers are asked to respond or transform the presented information in the written text to show understanding. Gough and Tunmer’s (1986, cited in Farrell et al. 2019) Simple View of Reading scientific theory explains that effective reading comprehension can only occur when decoding and language comprehension have been mastered. In addition, Perfetti and Stafura (2014) stress that reading comprehension cannot be achieved without satisfactory levels of word-reading knowledge, highlighting orthographic, linguistic and general knowledge as fundamental sources. Such knowledge then

needs to be processed, ensuring the reader makes meaning, generates inferences, and monitors comprehension. Cognitive processes including working memory may dictate how effectively information is retained and interpreted. Although comprehension can be considered the ‘pinnacle of the Big Six pyramid’ (Konza 2010, p. 6), students need to be taught comprehension strategies from preschool, rather than waiting until intermediate grades. This simultaneous, rather than sequential, method provides a form of feedback within the foundation skills of reading (Duke, Ward & Pearson 2021). Consequently, educators need to implement explicit and strategic comprehension instruction for students to fully develop their reading skills and read independently. The National Reading Panel (2000, cited in Castles, Rastle & Nation 2018) supports the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies, where children are given the opportunity to excite active engagement with reading material and think about their own thought processes during reading. Explicit pedagogies such as reciprocal teaching promote this engagement, as readers take on roles of the clarifier, summariser, predictor and questioner. An educator’s goal is to ensure their students utilise these reading roles as part of their unconscious reading process, ‘becoming active, independent readers who bring meaning to reading’ (Ellery 2009, p. 171). Conclusion There is no denying that teaching reading is complex and challenging, requiring considerable expertise and continual research. Although parents play a part in influencing how well and how soon students’ literacy skills develop, informed classroom practice underpins reading success for learners. All educators need to be abreast of the latest scientific evidence in order to instruct all children through the best methods of reading and writing. Systematic and explicit instruction of each element of the Big Six is essential if educators are to maximise their students’ potential of becoming strategic readers and learners in schooling years and beyond. References Beck, IL, McKeown, MG & Kucan, L 2013, Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed.), Guilford Publications, US. Buckingham, J 2018, ‘Phonics: A contested space, Australian College of Educators and the Centre for Independent Studies Debate, Phonics in context is not enough: Synthetic phonics & learning to read’, Professional Educator, October 2018, Special Edition, viewed 2 April 2022, https://www.austcolled.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/ Prof-Ed-Special-Edition-Oct-2018-1.pdf Castles, A, Rastle, K & Nation, K 2018, ‘Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition from Novice to Expert’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, vol. 19, pp. 5-51.

Duke, NK, Ward, AE & Pearson, DP 2021, ‘The Science of Reading Comprehension Instruction’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 74, no. 6, pp. 663-672.

Farrell, L, Hunter, M, Davidson, M & Osenga, T 2019, The Simple View of Reading, Reading Rockets, viewed 15 April 2022, https://www. readingrockets.org/article/simple-view-reading Gunning, TG 2017, Assessing and correcting reading and writing difficulties, (6th ed.), Pearson Education, US. Himmele, P & Himmele, W 2009, The Language-rich Classroom: A research-based framework for English language learners, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, USA. Kaiser, AP, Roberts, MY & McLeod, RH 2010, ‘Young Children with Language Impairments: Challenges in Transition to Reading’, in SB Neuman & DK Dickinson (eds), Handbook of Early Literacy Research, pp. 153-171, Guilford Publications, US. Konza, D 2010, Understanding the Reading Process, Department of Education and Children’s Services, Government of South Australia, viewed 13 April 2022, https://www.ecu.edu.au/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0009/663696/SA-DECS_-Understanding-the-ReadingProcess.pdf Konza, D 2011, Research into practice: Phonological awareness, Series 1, Paper 1.2, Department of Education and Children’s Services, Government of South Australia, viewed 16 April 2022, http:// www.evokelearning.ca/wp-content/uploads/SA-DECS-PhonAwareness-doc.pdf Konza, D 2014, ‘Teaching reading: Why the “Fab Five” should be the “Big Six’”, Australian Journal of Teaching Education, vol. 39, no. 12, pp. 153-169. McKeown, MG & Becks, IL 2011, ‘Making Vocabulary Interventions Engaging and Effective’, in RE O’Connor & PF Vadasy (eds), Handbook of Reading Interventions, pp. 138-168, Guilford Publications, New York. Mielonen, AM & Patterson, W 2009, ‘Developing Literacy through Play’, Journal of Inquiry & Action in Education, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 15-46. Moats, LC 2010, Speech to Print (2nd ed.), Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co, Baltimore, Maryland. Perfetti, C & Stafura, J 2014, ‘Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension’, Scientific Studies of Reading, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 22-37. Petscher, Y, Cabell, SQ, Catts, HW, Compton, DL, Foorman, BR, Hart, SA, Lonigan, CJ, Phillips, BM, Schatschneider, C, Steacy, LM, Terry, NP & Wagner, RK 2020, ‘How the Science of Reading Informs 21st Century Education’, Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 267-282. Rasinski, T, Homan, S & Biggs, M 2009, ‘Teaching Reading Fluency to Struggling Readers: Method, Materials, and Evidence’, Reading & Writing Quarterly, vol. 25. no. 2-3, pp. 192-204. Rushton, K, Ewing, R & Diamond M 2018, ‘Why real stories matter when learning to read, Australian College of Educators and the Centre for Independent Studies Debate Phonics in context is not enough: Synthetic phonics & learning to read’, Professional Educator, Australian College of Educators, viewed 1 April 2022, https://www.austcolled. com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Prof-Ed-Special-EditionOct-2018-1.pdf Thomson, P 2002, Schooling the Rustbelt Kids: Making the difference in changing times, Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, New South Wales. Young, C & Rasinski, T 2009, ‘Implementing Readers Theatre as an Approach to Classroom Fluency Instruction’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 4-13.

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Corbett P & Strong, J 2011, Talk for writing across the curriculum, Open University Press, Maidenhead, UK.

Ellery, V 2009, Creating Strategic Readers: Techniques for Developing Competency in Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary, and Comprehension (2nd ed.), The International Reading Association, Newark, Delaware.

FROM THE BUSH TO THE BIG SMOKE: Hannah Calcino Student Wellbeing Coordinator (Boarding)

The transition to secondary school for our rural boarders

The transition to secondary school is signposted as one of the most significant events to occur in an adolescent’s life. Couple the change in routine, school format and academic expectations with major physiological and psychological changes and it is easy to see why children perceive the transition from primary school to secondary school as daunting. In a study titled Transition to secondary school: Expectation versus experience, statistics showed that only 50 per cent of Year 7 students* anticipated a positive transition to secondary school. However, post transition, almost 70 per cent of students reported a positive transitional experience (Waters, Lester & Cross 2014). This means that there is a pre-transition perception that the change from primary school to secondary school is going to be more difficult than it actually is and is often clouded with more worry and trepidation than is necessary. Typically, the success of the primary to secondary schooling transition is founded on positive peer relationships, positive perceptions towards schooling and change, and a stable state of mental health (Hall & DiPerna 2017). While the transition to secondary school is described as a normative change – meaning the timing and planning of such an event is predictable and something most children experience – the relocation to attend boarding school is described as nonnormative and is considered a potentially stressful life event (Downs 2001). This means that students entering boarding school at the beginning of their secondary schooling are experiencing two major life events at the same time. The culminating component of my Masters of Education was the development of a research project. Having seen the challenges faced by Year 7 boarders, both in the classroom and boarding house, I wanted to explore the students’ perspective of their transition and identify what boarding schools can do to ensure a holistic transitional experience for rural Year 7 students entering a metropolitan boarding school.

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2021 Year 7 boarders were invited to participate in the data collection based on their status as ‘rural Australians’. Their status was determined using the Remoteness Areas Scale derived from the Australian Bureau of Statistics using Australia’s Accessibility and Remoteness Index (ARIA+). Eight students participated in the data collection—three of these participants identified as First Nations people. None of the participants had attended boarding school during their primary schooling.

The data was collected on Wednesday 10 November 2021. At the data collection point, students were in Week 6 of Term 4, having nearly completed their first full year of boarding school. The research was gathered through a mixed method. A mixedmethod data collection can improve evaluation by allowing the limitations of one type of data to be balanced by the strengths (Greene 2007). This ensured that results accurately reflected the perspectives of the students. In addition, parallel data gathering was used to collect the data, with participants engaging in a focus group discussion before completing a quantitative survey in the same sitting. The data collection posed questions relating to participants likes and dislikes of boarding school, how they have adjusted academically and socially to boarding school, and their thoughts surrounding communal living, homesickness, and school staff. There were several key themes to emerge from the data collection and analysis, four of which are particularly relevant for staff working within a boarding school. Creating community The concept of cultivating a community within the boarding house is pivotal to the transition experience for Year 7 boarders. The idea of community cultivation refers to the factors that impact and help formulate a community and environment where students feel safe and included. The physical environment, changes in one’s community identity, role dynamics, and the impact of staff were all contributing factors to creating the boarding house community. The impact of the physical environment was an interesting theme that emerged during the focus group discussion. The metropolitan location and lack of open space were identified by participants as reasons to dislike boarding school. This is corroborated by Downs (2001), who identified in their research that there is a poignant need for access to open, outdoor spaces for privacy and spatial autonomy for rural Australian youth. Students who disliked the urban landscape found adjusting to their new environment challenging. There were varied responses when participants were asked whether living in a group environment had been a reason for feeling sad during their time at boarding school. Six participants stated that they never or rarely felt like the communal living situation resulted in them feeling sad, while two participants said that it often or sometimes did. Even though students

didn’t strongly relate to having troubles while living in a group environment, perhaps that is due to them not recognising the impact that living communally has on friendships and group dynamics. For example, several participants spoke about how sometimes personal news travelled beyond the select group it may have been shared with (albeit with no ill intent) to girls in other grades in the boarding house and sometimes into the day school. While sharing personal information is typical teenage behaviour, it can be exacerbated when living in a group environment. Therefore, it is important to recognise that communal living may implicitly impact other facets of the transition to boarding school, such as forming friendships and fitting in. Wider research has made it evident that self-concept, selfesteem, and identity can significantly impact academic success, forming friendships, and transitioning to boarding school, as it disrupts the development of place identity and building a sense of belonging (Downs 2001, Waters 2014, Martin et al. 2014). Finding where a child fits within their new community can also be a challenge for boarding students. The data collection acknowledged that many participants missed their home community, which contributed to homesickness. The community of a boarding house was a foreign environment for all participants, meaning that settling in and finding their role within what is essentially a large ‘family unit’ would have been difficult and added to their sense of unease and missing their home community. The dynamics between the younger and older boarders and the associated change in familial role dynamics for some participants would have contributed to their social transition. However, most participants saw the mentor and big sister-like role adopted by the older boarders as a largely positive experience. This is pleasing, as strong inter-personal relationships would have formed between students across year levels. In addition, older students would have offered another avenue of support and empathised with transitioning. Academic stressors The academic struggles and stressors for participants was a normative and expected result, with most students identifying that they found schoolwork more complex than their primary school. This result was expected as research demonstrates that inner-city students make up to two years more progress across the board than regional and rural students (Goss et al. 2015). This divide and increased academic expectations when entering secondary school would have contributed to participants struggling with the workload and assessment of a metropolitan boarding school. Despite the difficulties participants faced academically, it was pleasing that students noted that their study habits had improved thanks to formalised homework time and that they felt equipped with study skills to manage the increased academic load.

The most valuable piece of knowledge that school staff can have when understanding the transition for rural students to boarding school is that these students are trying to juggle two large changes simultaneously. Starting at a new school is daunting, let alone moving into a boarding house that is unfamiliar and typically in a geographic location that is vastly different to what feels like ‘home’. The good news is that children raised in rural environments are typically more resilient than their metropolitan counterparts and, for many, they have known their entire life that they would eventually attend boarding school. Acting with empathy and care, which is what we as St Margaret’s staff do best, and understanding the challenges our boarders face make all the difference in helping our rural students find their place in the hustle and bustle of a metropolitan school. *Data collected while Year 7 was still the final year of primary school. References Downs, J 2001, Coping with Change: Adolescents’ experience of the transition to secondary and boarding school, viewed 20 February 2021, https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28060/1/28060_Downs_2001_ thesis.pdf Goss, Pt, Sonnemann, J, Chisholm, C & Nelson, L 2016, Widening Gaps: What NAPLAN tells us about student progress, Grattan Institute, viewed 15 February 2021, https://grattan.edu.au/wpcontent/ uploads/2016/03/937-Widening-gaps.pdf Greene, J 2007, Mixed Options in Social Inquiry, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Hall, GE & DiPerna, JC 2017, ‘Childhood social skills as predictors of middle school academic adjustment’, Early Adolescence, vol. 37, pp. 825-851. Martin, AJ, Papworth, B, Ginns, P & Liem, GAD 2014, ‘Boarding school, motivation and engagement, and psychological well-being: A large-scale investigation’, American Educational Research Journal, vol. 51, pp. 1007-1049. Waters, SK, Lester, L & Cross, D 2014, ‘Transition to secondary school: Expectation versus experience’, Australian Journal of Education, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 153-166.

Results demonstrated that friendship issues were not a prominent feature within the boarding house and participants reported that while they found it easy to make friends with fellow boarders, making friends with day students was more difficult.

Takeaways for school staff

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Making friends

Students reported that it was much easier to make friends with other boarding students as they felt they had more in common with these girls. One can assume that living in a communal environment would also allow friendships to flourish and stronger bonds to develop. They would have a sense of camaraderie and face similar challenges. Participants found it more difficult to develop friendships with the day girls as they noted that the day girls had already formed strong friendship groups, and they thought they didn’t have much in common with the day girls. However, the most significant factor contributing to the participants’ difficulty in forming a friendship with day girls is perception. Based on the language used to describe the day girls during the focus group discussion, the boarders were intimidated by the already established day girl friendship groups and had perceived that they were different to the day girls. Once the boarders started to develop friendships with the day girls, they recognised that they weren’t that different. In fact, friendships with day girls allowed them to be friends with different people and provided a support system beyond the boarding house when needed.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRUST IN TEAMS Ros Curtis Principal

Schools thrive on the effectiveness of teams. They have structures in place whereby teachers and support staff work collaboratively to achieve the best possible outcomes for their students. Most staff members belong to more than one team; therefore, the ability of an employee to work effectively and productively in a team is a must. It is usually through teams that schools achieve their strategic goals. Using St Margaret’s as an example, to be an outstanding school, each faculty or department needs to be outstanding. The strength of the school is determined by the consistency of each of its parts, that is, its teams. We all know the frustrations associated with poor functioning teams and the effect that has on staff morale. Therefore, in the recruitment process, we ask questions about contributions to the team, as we look for the ideal team player and the person with the right skills and disposition. From there, we expect all our leaders to develop strong teams. However, strong teams cannot exist without trust, and this means building trust must be the number one priority of team leaders. There is a lot of literature about leaders inspiring trust. Leaders also need to be able to trust their team members to get on with the work in a way that builds a culture of trust throughout the organisation. There is a metaphorical exercise can be done to demonstrate the dynamics of your team and encourage conversations about the importance of trust and attention to the needs of other team members.

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Take your team outside, form a circle and arm at least half your team members with balls of different sizes. A few people are given a tennis ball, others a basketball, another a golf ball or cricket ball; others are given a child’s plastic ball of a medium size. The different size balls represent the tasks (all different sizes and importance) that are needed to be completed by the team. And now, we ask them to throw the ball to each other so they can catch it. Inevitably, some ‘drop the ball’; others are not paying enough attention, are a little scared of some of the ‘harder’ balls or have poor catching skills; others don’t really get into the purpose of this game and don’t participate with intent. Others try to catch people off guard, and pretend to throw a ball at someone, but actually toss it in another direction. Those who are more competitive, soon identify the unreliable catchers and, over time, some people are forced to catch a lot of balls and others rarely have a ball come their way. Other people have an unusual throwing style, but team members, with only a slight adjustment, can still manage to catch their balls. This simple physical exercise makes possible an analysis of the dynamics of the team.

Patrick Lencioni (2005) in his book The Five Dysfunctions of a Team explores the fundamental causes of team failure. He outlines five possible causes:

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Dysfunction 1: Absence of Trust. This occurs when people have a fear of being vulnerable with fellow team members.

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Dysfunction 2: Fear of Conflict. A truly cohesive team is one where team members are able to share and listen to different ideas and approaches and are prepared to express opinions and move on from ‘uncomfortable’ moments.

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Dysfunction 3: Lack of Commitment. Cohesive teams can move forward, meeting deadlines by understanding why and how decisions are made.

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Dysfunction 4: Avoidance of Accountability. A most effective team is one where each member is reliable, completing tasks in a timely and aligned way.

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Dysfunction 5: Inattention to Results. Often in teams, the pursuit of individual goals and personal status erodes the focus on collective success.

It is no accident that Lencioni lists the absence of trust as the first of his five dysfunctions. Fundamentally, the ideal team is a coherent one, which is made up of people who are reliable, kind, aligned, and focused on the purpose. This is summarised best by Sarah Keli (2022), who said the following in her article on the role of trust in creating a thriving team culture: A team without trust isn’t really a team: it’s just a group of individuals, working together, often making disappointing progress. They may not share information, they might battle over rights and responsibilities, and they may not cooperate with one another. It doesn’t matter how capable or talented your people are, they may never reach their full potential if trust isn’t present. However, when trust is in place, everyone in the team becomes stronger, because he or she is part of an effective, cohesive group. When people trust one another, the group can achieve truly meaningful goals … Without trust, there’s less innovation, collaboration, creative thinking, and productivity, and people spend their time protecting themselves and their interests – this is time that should be spent helping the group attain its goals. The leader has a very important role here in developing a culture of trust. The goal for an effective leader is that all members of the team feel safe enough to take risks, share vulnerabilities, respect others’ contributions, rely on other team members, feel empowered and energised, and understand that they are accountable. According to Marie-Claire Ross (2022), author of Trusted to Thrive: How Leaders Create Accountable and Connected Teams, trust is the cornerstone of a team that thrives. Ross says: 'It feels great – to both the leader and their direct reports … If you have trust as the foundation for your team environment, you can put your team anywhere and under enormous pressure, and they will thrive.'

So, how can a leader build trust? Any leadership book or article, indeed even a good google search, will provide many suggestions. Experience tells me every one of these strategies is important. Nothing can be left to chance or to sabotage. Although different authors will provide an emphasis on different strategies, all are important, and it is the complex interplay of them all that brings about trust. Leaders can help build this culture of trust in their team if they: •

ensure team members have the right skill and capabilities. If they have the authority, they need to be strong enough to remove those or redeploy those who are not as driven or committed to the work of the team.

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facilitate the work of the team members ensuring that there are few distractions. This means the role of the leader is to ensure appropriate structures, deadlines, and resources.

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have a complete understanding of and commitment to the strategic intent, ensuring goals and expectations are communicated clearly and progress monitored.

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demand fair accountability and provide clarity around expectations.

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combine quality feedback which supports progress and achievement with a willingness to listen to any member of the team and adjust expectations accordingly. Kindness in this process goes a long way for feeling safe and trusted in a team.

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celebrate the achievements of the team and the challenge of the work being completed.

Trust in a team relies on the integration of each of these practices. One is not enough to develop the kind of trust needed for people to thrive. There is nothing like a supportive team and an alignment to a purpose everyone believes in to encourage people to thrive at school. People who are empowered in their teams are energised at work and are proud of their team and their achievements. References Keli, S 2022, The role of trust in creating a thriving team culture, Managers and Leaders, Institute of Managers and Leaders, viewed 18 April 2022, https://managersandleaders.com.au/the-role-of-trustin-creating-a-thriving-team-culture/ Lencioni, P 2016, The Ideal Team Player, Jossey-Bass, Hobokan, New Jersey. Lencioni, P 2005, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Ross, M 2022, Trusted to Thrive: How Leaders Create Accountable and Connected Teams, Trustologie, Melbourne.

constantly communicate the vision, usually through stories which illustrate and inspire.

know people in the team personally and share vulnerabilities. This includes understanding that people bring the ‘whole person’ to work, developing connection, and ensuring that they have a degree of psychological safety in their team.

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Ros Curtis Principal

What community consultation revealed about our school values Most schools espouse certain values. They are meant to be both reflective, practical, and aspirational. Values shape our expectations of members of the school community, and they represent the deepest beliefs and sentiments to which all members of the community can aspire. Given the influential roles of schools on students over a long period of time, values that help students adopt appropriate behaviours are an important part of their education as citizens of good character. At St Margaret’s, our core values are the foundation of the nature of the interactions in the school, and they are educative. Core values help develop social skills, and they are used when lapses occur to remind people what is at the core of the St Margaret’s Way and, therefore, at the core of creating a sense of belonging and security in any community. St Margaret’s has had a long history of using its values to help communicate our school’s story – its mission, standards, and desired outcomes. Promoting these ideals provides the foundation for building the type of school climate we wish to foster. These values reflect the standards and the ways of thinking informed by the Philosophy of the Sisters of the Society of the Sacred Advent. In 2002, 107 years after its foundation and a steadfast commitment to the SSA philosophy, St Margaret’s chose to embark on a reflective exercise about the nature of the St Margaret’s experience. Three very important questions were asked: •

What do we value at St Margaret’s?

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What makes St Margaret’s different from other schools?

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What makes a St Margaret’s girl immediately recognisable whether she left school two years ago or 20 years ago?

From a consultation with key stakeholders, including students, staff, parents, and Old Girls, they were able to identify six key values:

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Spirit

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Faith

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Integrity

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Courage

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Respect

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Passion

A descriptor accompanied each value, and in 2016, there was a slight tweaking of each value’s description, so they read more like an outcome statement for each girl upon graduation. Essentially though, the commentary remained unchanged, and these values continued to be used in classrooms, on assemblies, and promoted in banners around the school. They have served the school well, and this was evident in 2021 when the school undertook a survey and/or consultation with staff, parents, and students to explore if these values still had currency 20 years on. Many other options (which were the result of consultation with staff) were provided to parents and students, and they had to choose those they thought were the most important and relevant for today. The results of this ‘temperature check’ showed a remarkable alignment of key stakeholders with the current school values and provided a ringing endorsement for them in the school context. However, the value Faith, although still ‘scoring highly’ was overtaken by Inclusivity. In today’s world, being overt in our teaching of inclusivity is more important than ever, but for our school, simply replacing Faith with Inclusivity was not an option until it was decided that all our values sit on the bedrock of Faith and perhaps the Faith dimension needed to be reflected more in each value’s descriptor rather than being a stand-alone value. As a side note, it was interesting that the current descriptor of Faith reflected Inclusivity: ‘A St Margaret’s girl welcomes and embraces all in sharing the Christian message, the spirit of love through example, compassion, hope and charity. She demonstrates the faith by service to those members of the wider community who need assistance.’ A comparison of our current values with the proposed changes is listed opposite. These values will continue to shape our school, our staff, our students, and our wider community. They will be continued to be ‘taught and caught’ through explicit teaching, the provision of good example, influential role-modelling, expectation, and publication. Their importance should not be underestimated as they shape the mindsets and ethical behaviours of our future citizens and leaders.

CURRENT VALUES

PROPOSED NEW VALUES

Our Values The school’s six core values of spirit, faith, integrity, courage, respect, and passion are embedded in every endeavour that the students undertake.

Our Values The school’s six core values are born from our Christian faith through our Anglican tradition: spirit, inclusivity, integrity, courage, respect, and passion, and are embedded in every endeavour that the students undertake.

Spirit: A St Margaret’s girl will value and demonstrate an enthusiasm for the school, our heritage, and our environment. The St Margaret’s spirit is in all students and is there for life. It is a thread that connects St Margaret’s girls with each other.

Spirit: A St Margaret’s girl will value and demonstrate an enthusiasm for the school, our faith tradition, and our environment. The St Margaret’s spirit is in all students and is there for life. It is a thread that connects St Margaret’s girls with each other.

Faith: A St Margaret’s girl welcomes and embraces all in sharing the Christian message, the spirit of love through example, compassion, hope and charity. She demonstrates her faith by service to those members of the wider community who need assistance.

Inclusivity: A St Margaret’s girl knows that every single person reflects the image of God and deserves to be treated with dignity. She demonstrates inclusivity by acting with compassion and charity, celebrating the gifts of every individual.

Integrity: A St Margaret’s girl is known for her honesty, trustworthiness, loyalty, courtesy, understanding, reliability, and ethical behaviour.

Integrity: A St Margaret’s girl is known for her ethical behaviour. She is honest and reliable and acts with integrity.

Courage: A St Margaret’s girl has strength of character and confidence in doing what is right. She has the courage to embrace challenge and change.

Courage: A St Margaret’s girl has strength of character and confidence in doing what is right. She is a part of a long line of women of faith who have had the courage to embrace challenge and change.

Respect: A St Margaret’s girl has respect for herself and others. She understands that she is a member of a diverse community and she takes responsibility as a team member to care, support and cooperate with others.

Passion: A St Margaret’s girl expresses gratitude for the gift of life. She has a positive outlook on life that drives the commitment and persistence necessary in learning and achievement.

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IN SUPPORT OF GENDER DIVERSE STUDENTS in Australian schools

Ysabella Dawson Student Wellbeing Coordinator As Australian society has become increasingly accepting of gender diversity, the number of young people openly identifying as transgender and advocating for community and specialist healthcare support, both medical and psychological, has also risen (Riggs et al. 2014). While this appears a positive move towards social justice and equity for all, regardless of gender orientation, young people who identify as transgender and gender diverse remain vulnerable and still face an increased risk of social and academic marginalisation at school. As such, it is both prudent and necessary that school principals and their staff are equipped to deliver data-informed pastoral care to these students. Indeed, this care should stem from well-researched approaches, including wellbeing frameworks, school-wide policies, and teacher education opportunities, that facilitate a safe, respectful, and supportive learning environment for transgender and gender diverse young people.

equity (Riseman 2019). However, it is worth noting that the language and terminology referenced in existing state and territory law is rather narrow, and their definitions problematic, in that they may define people in ways that they do not define themselves. In 1987, Australia’s first legally amended birth certificate was recorded by the Births, Deaths and Marriages Department of New South Wales to reflect a change in sex of an individual (Jones et al. 2015). In the decades since, Australia’s remaining states and territories have enacted legislation to recognise the affirmed sex of an individual after surgery, unless the person is married (Jones et al. 2015). Yet despite the legal protections afforded to transgender people that prohibit discrimination on the basis of their gender identity, there remains a notable lag in social attitudes that acknowledge the lived experiences of gender diverse individuals.

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Language and legislature

Relevant contextual factors within Australian education

Today, Australian law describes the obligation of the school in the way they must respond to the needs of transgender and gender diverse students, with both State and Commonwealth legislation dictating that it is a requirement for schools to ensure that no discrimination occurs on the basis of gender

Since 2014, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA n.d.) has set the expectations for what all young Australians should be taught, with state education departments responsible for the manner in which such content is delivered. Within the curriculum, ‘focus areas’

for the study of Health and Physical Education are described in great depth and detail, with the inclusion of relationships and sexuality (RS) as one of these areas. The language used in this description is explicit, noting that it is ‘crucial’ for schools to ‘acknowledge and affirm diversity in relation to sexuality and gender’. Beyond this mandate, all school communities have a responsibility when implementing the Health and Physical Education curriculum to ensure that teaching is inclusive and relevant to the lived experiences of all students, including students who may be same-sex attracted, gender diverse, or intersex (ACARA n.d.). Yet while explicit noting of such perspectives within the curriculum suggests inclusivity within the education system, the authentic acknowledgement of gender-diverse experiences within the classroom is a far more tenuous conundrum. Australian society’s dominant attitudes and acknowledgement of gender diverse individuals has, in many respects, evolved quite rapidly and not without controversy in the public discourse. Indeed, the Safe Schools program (and the subsequent furore) provides an interesting lens through which to explore the wider cultural attitudes to transgender and gender diverse support in Australian schools. In 2014, the Safe Schools Coalition Australia (SSCA) was launched, a program funded by the federal government that sought to support lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer school students. The purpose of the program was to address the increased rates of suicide, abuse, and self-harm among LGBTIQ students in Australia. Yet, the program was embroiled in controversy. On one end of the spectrum, the SSCA was vehemently defended as an antibullying program for young LGBTIQ people, or those who have issues concerning their gender identity (Parkinson 2017). Conversely, many labelled the initiative ‘social engineering’ (The Australian 2016), and following widespread controversy, the program’s funding was not renewed at the end of 2016. Suffice to say, the notion of school practices teaching to the lived experience of gender diverse individuals has seen heated debate from educational and religious institutions. To this end, while it would be simplistic to suggest that such commentary is indicative of universal hostility towards the meaningful development of transgender and gender diversity support in schools, it rather illustrates the complexity of developing such support amidst heated ideological debate. Psychosocial wellbeing

Stigma and discrimination The role of bullying and peer victimisation as a contributor to poorer student educational and mental health outcomes is well established, not only in the educational literature but also in lay conversation in the community as evidenced in the broader media. Minority groups or populations that do not conform to community norms, and, more specifically, a heteronormative culture, can be expected to be particularly vulnerable (Madireddy & Madireddy 2020). Day et al. (2018) assessed the school experiences of 31,896 North American youth and found that transgender youth were more likely to experience victimisation and bullying at school and perceive the school climate as negative compared to non-transgender youth. Clark et al. (2014) reported that New Zealand high school students who were transgender or not sure about their gender were more likely to feel unsafe at school and experience bullying and have difficulty accessing health services compared to their non-transgender peers. Hatchel and Marx (2018) explored the relationship between school belonging, peer victimisation, and drug use in 4,778 North American youth who identified as transgender. The authors concluded that transgender youth are exposed to substantial peer victimisation and drug use engagement, and importantly, that school belonging mediated the relationship between peer victimisation and drug use. This study therefore supported the importance of a positive school climate to ameliorate the negative effects of peer victimisation. Huebner Thomas and Neilands (2015) also found that antiLGBT victimisation was associated with substance use in 504 ethnically diverse North American LGBT adolescents. Hence, these authors suggest that both a positive school climate and healthy peer groups are needed to help LGBTIQA+ adolescents cope effectively with mistreatment in school. Parental support and pastoral care

Support of the parents of transgender children is crucial, and indeed these parents are themselves vulnerable to isolation and distress. Davy and Cordoba (2020) interviewed 23 parents in the United Kingdom who were supportive of their transgender

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Studies consistently show that gender diverse youth are at risk for poorer mental health. Clark et al. (2014) have explored the relationship between being transgender and a number of selected health outcomes in a nationally representative sample of 8,166 high school students in New Zealand. Students who were transgender or not sure about their gender had more depressive symptoms and suicide attempts compared to their non-transgender peers. In a cross-sectional cohort study, Becerra-Culqui et al. (2018) compared the prevalence of mental health disorders in 588 transfeminine and 745 transmasculine

children and adolescents to a matched cisgender reference group in North America. Attention deficit and depressive disorders were seven-fold higher in the transgender and gender nonconforming group. Suicidal ideation and self-harm injuries were also higher in the gender diverse group. Chodzen et al. (2019) assessed depression and anxiety in 109 transgender and gender non-conforming youth in North America with the aim of identifying factors that predicted vulnerability to mental health problems. Overall, one third of the sample met the criteria for major depressive disorder and almost half met the criteria for generalised anxiety disorder. Risk factors for poorer outcomes included lower gender identity appearance congruence and higher internalised transphobia. This latter finding highlights the importance of the sociocultural environment and the role of stigmatisation as a contributor to mental health outcomes in gender diverse youth.

and gender diverse children. This qualitative research applied a phenomenological approach focusing on the parent experience. In this study, parents described their own journey of learning to understand gender diversity, coming to accept their children as gender diverse, and then supporting their children in the coming out process within the school environment. Parents themselves often became the change agent in the school with schools often being reactive rather than proactive in gender democratisation. Parents described various touch points where difficulties were amplified, and these included transitions such as moving between schools, dealing with gender-based bullying, critical incidents such as attempted suicide by their child, hostility from other parents, and their constant work to protect their child from gender policing. These authors concluded that schools tend to be ad hoc in how they support transgender and gender diverse children and that diversity affirming policies are needed. Also adopting a qualitative approach, Sansfacon et al.(2015) examined the needs of parents in a participatory action group work study with 14 Canadian parents of gender-variant children. A key recommendation was that networking between parents was an empowering approach that might be facilitated outside of traditional care services. These findings emphasise the importance of co-design of support programs for marginalised groups. School health policies

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Demissie et al. (2018) reported that many states in North America had not implemented strategies and practices to support lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer youth. These researchers called for more research and action in the implementation of such policies and practices if this area of student health is to be improved. Graybill and Proctor (2016) analysed North American school support personnel journals across school counselling, nursing, psychology, and social work and found a lack of presence of LGBTQ issues. These authors suggest that there needed to be an intentional focus on the concerns of LGBTQ youth if discrimination in schools is to be ameliorated. Jones (2017) reviewed Australian laws and policies as they relate to transgender and gender diverse students and their access to sexuality education. This author suggested that the rights of these students were represented in Australian National Curricula and concluded that transgender and gender diverse students had been effective in education activism and in building their own resilience while supporting change. Again highlighting the importance of school health policies and practices, Proulx et al. (2019), in a study that included 47,730 high school students, found a wide range of protective effects ensued for youth where LGBTQ-inclusive sex education had been implemented. Benefits included reduced suicidality for all students, less bullying for lesbian and gay youth, and less depressive symptoms for bisexual youth. Given there were benefits for all students, this study suggested that the sociocultural context of a school that includes LGBTQ-inclusive sex education is beneficial for the broader school community.

As previously outlined, movement towards policies and practices to better support gender diverse youth is not without controversy. The production of a guide to support classroom activities around gender diversity in Australia as part of the Safe Schools Coalition Australia led to sustained attacks on the program in what Thompson (2019) called an example of moral panic. For example, Parkinson (2017) argued that the program might actually cause harm by not acknowledging that many children resolve gender dysphoria at puberty. Ullman (2017) also discussed this backlash and the resultant silence that occurs in the school environment around gender diversity. To this end, Ullman surveyed 704 same-sex attracted and genderdiverse Australian teenagers and found that teacher positivity about gender diversity was crucial in connecting these students to the school environment. In an integrated approach, Madireddy and Madireddy (2020) reviewed the literature on strategies to address bullying and victimisation in schools for LGBTQ+ identities. Recommendations centred around how to improve the school environment to be protective of LGBTQ+ students, but beyond this to provide a ‘gateway to mental health’ in the sense of opportunistically fostering resilience and openness to help seeking that might then flow on into later life for these individuals. A series of recommendations were proposed for counsellors and teachers, as well as for principals, that included anti-bullying policies that specifically target victimisation on the basis of sexual orientation or gender diversity; education not only for school staff but also for stakeholder groups in the community; training for staff in inclusivity; an inclusive curricula; collaboration with families of LGBTQ+ students; and a support system for LGBTQ+ staff and students. Across all these recommendations was the crosscutting theme of allyship with the goal to build a community that would be inclusive of diversity and difference. Recommendations for practice

A review of recent literature would suggest that transgender visibility in educational contexts combined with state and commonwealth legislature that prohibits discrimination has resulted in an increased focus on the needs of these individuals. However, while legislation often informs school policy documents, schools must do more than simply acknowledge these young people, and ensure that they are also places that offer safe, respectful, and equitable learning environments tailored to the specific needs of their students. Data-informed approaches, including support programs, teacher education, development interventions for school-based nurses, psychologists, and those involved in pastoral care, as well as school-wide policies that foster the support and inclusion of transgender and gender diverse students, are needed. These are not only an imperative for students who identify in this way, but are a beneficial addition for all members of the school community who have a duty to operate within a respectful and inclusive environment. The social ecological model as presented by the Centres for Disease Control (2020) presents as a framework that can be applied to map out an effective intervention approach for supporting transgender and gender

diverse youth. This model proposes that intervention to improve health and life outcomes needs to operate at four levels: the individual; their relationships; their community; and finally, the society they live in. Operationalising this model in this context means first understanding the diversity of transgender and non-conforming youth and their vulnerabilities and risks. Health and education services need to be student-centred and respond to individual needs, preferably applying co-design principles to ensure the agreed intervention has high acceptability to students and to parents. Second, relationships between peers, school personnel, and families need to be mutually respectful and model acceptance, social justice, and equity. Third, the school community and the climate that is set by school policies and practices and the school leadership will be crucial in broadening out beyond a heteronormative culture to support all students and staff regardless of their gender or sexual orientation. Finally, legislative advancements that protect the rights of minority groups are needed, and this is an area where vigilance is needed to ensure continued progress.

Hatchel, T & Marx, R 2018, ‘Understanding intersectionality and resiliency among transgender adolescents: Exploring pathways among peer victimization, school belonging, and drug use’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 15, no. 6, p.1289.

References

Pullen Sansfaçon, A, Robichaud, MJ & Dumais-Michaud, AA 2015, ‘The experience of parents who support their children’s gender variance’, Journal of LGBT Youth, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 39-63.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority n. d., Australian Curriculum: Health and Physical Education, viewed 21 February 2021, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10curriculum/health-and-physicaleducation/structure/#focusare Becerra-Culqui, TA, Liu, Y, Nash, R, Cromwell, L, Flanders, WD, Getahun, D, Giammattei, SV, Hunkeler, EM, Lash, TL, Millman, A & Quinn, VP 2018, ‘Mental health of transgender and gender nonconforming youth compared with their peers’, Pediatrics, vol. 141, no. 5. Bita, N 2016, ‘Activists push taxpayer-funded gay manual in schools’, The Australian, viewed 03 February 2021, https://www.theaustralian. com.au/nation/education/activistspush-taxpayerfunded-gay-manualin-schools/newsstory/4de614a88e38ab7b16601f07417c6219 Chodzen, G, Hidalgo, MA, Chen, D & Garofalo, R 2019, ‘Minority stress factors associated with depression and anxiety among transgender and gender-nonconforming youth’, Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 467-471.

Huebner, DM, Thomas, BC & Neilands, TB 2015, ‘School victimization and substance use among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescents’, Prevention Science, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 734-743. Jones, T 2015, Policy and gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex students, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. Madireddy, S & Madireddy, S 2020, ‘Strategies for schools to prevent psychosocial stress, stigma, and suicidality risks among LGBTQ+ students’, American Journal of Educational Research, vol. 8, no. 9, pp. 659-667. Parkinson, P 2017, ‘Gender dysphoria and the controversy over the Safe Schools program’, Sexual Health, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 417-422. Proulx, CN, Coulter, RW, Egan, JE, Matthews, DD & Mair, C 2019, ‘Associations of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning– inclusive sex education with mental health outcomes and schoolbased victimization in US high school students’, Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 64, no. 5, pp. 608-614.

Riggs, DW, Ansara, GY & Treharne, GJ 2015, ‘An evidence based model for understanding the mental health experiences of transgender Australians’, Australian Psychologist, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 32-39. Riseman, N 2019, ‘Transgender Inclusion and Australia’s Failed Sexuality Discrimination Bill’, Australian Journal of Politics & History, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 259-277. Thompson, JD 2019, ‘Predatory schools and student non-lives: A discourse analysis of the Safe Schools Coalition Australia controversy’, Sex Education, vol. 19, no.1, pp. 41-53. Ullman, J 2017, ‘Teacher positivity towards gender diversity: Exploring relationships and school outcomes for transgender and gender-diverse students’, Sex Education, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 276-289.

Clark, TC, Lucassen, MF, Bullen, P, Denny, SJ, Fleming, TM, Robinson, EM & Rossen, FV 2014, ‘The health and well-being of transgender high school students: results from the New Zealand adolescent health survey (Youth’12)’, Journal of Adolescent Health, vol 55, no.1, pp. 93-99. Davy, Z &s Cordoba, S 2020, ‘School cultures and trans and genderdiverse children: parents’ perspectives’, Journal of GLBT Family Studies, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 349-367. Day, JK, Perez-Brumer, A & Russell, ST 2018, ‘Safe schools? Transgender youth’s school experiences and perceptions of school climate’, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol 47, no. 8, pp. 1731-1742.

Graybill, EC & Proctor, SL 2016, ‘Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: Limited representation in school support personnel journals’, Journal of School Psychology, vol. 54, pp. 9-16.

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Demissie, Z, Rasberry, CN, Steiner, RJ, Brener, N & McManus, T 2018, ‘Trends in secondary schools’ practices to support lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning students, 2008–2014’, American Journal of Public Health, vol 108, no. 4, pp. 557-564.

Angela Drysdale Head of Primary

THE EVOLUTION OF student wellbeing at St Margaret’s

‘There is no such thing as the best practice, only evolving practice.’

Lee Watanabe Crockett (AHISA conference, April 2022) St Margaret’s approach to student wellbeing has always been one of evolution, because the key issues in the wellbeing sphere are ever-changing. As a school, we review these contemporary issues through the lens of our students’ needs and identify ways in which we can address the issues and support our students. Central to this article is the timeline (Figure 1 over page), which summarises the evolution of student wellbeing at St Margaret’s, built on a framework addressing the following factors: 1. Key Influences – identification of the stimulus that precipitated the change, initiative, or review 2. Expert Involvement – personnel who have made contributions to our wellbeing community 3. Survey – who and what has been surveyed and type of survey 4. Classroom Impact – planning and programs that have been introduced to the classroom 5. Outcomes – significant outcomes of a key influence While all aspects of each factor are relevant, a few are worthy of highlighting because of their long-term significance. This article will review some key aspects from each of these factors. Key influences The timeline commences in 2004 when the primary and secondary schools were each awarded a grant (one of 104 schools in Australia) to help ‘select and implement effective, evidence-based programs to address bullying, violence and abuse’ (Nelson 2004). Guided by the school’s mission and values, St Margaret’s committed to address the first iteration of the National Safe Schools Framework (NSSF). The NSSF remains the central national reference point on student safety and wellbeing and has been described as taking Australia ‘a long way towards realisation that the community has a right to expect schools to be safe places for children’ (Rigby 2008, p. 150).

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The aim of the project was to review behaviour management and bullying policies, develop a preventative approach, and, through evidence-based programs, in-service staff and parents and educate students.

Undertaking this project highlighted that student social and emotional learning is complex because of the many aspects that contribute to a child’s wellbeing. It provided the evidentiary foundation and guidance for the development of a schoolbased social and emotional health and wellbeing program. It was also underpinned by the school’s commitment to function as a haven of safety and a place where children can develop a sense of self-agency. An eight-point plan was developed, based on the research of Rigby (2001). Eight Point Action Plan 1. Educate the school community – presentations 2. Discover what is happening between members of the school community (relevant to bullying) – surveys, collection of incident data 3. Develop an appropriate and supported anti-bullying policy – audit of procedures, introduction of pastoral care committee 4. Explore what staff are doing to reduce bullying and support students – pastoral care committee, pastoral care staff meetings 5. Talk to students about bullying – introduction of pastoral care lessons, respond to playground and classroom incidents and use as teachable moments. 6. Devise procedures – introduction of shared concern approach and follow a flow diagram for dealing with incidents. 7. Empower students – social skills, resilience (introduction of resilience), cooperative learning, house meetings, camp program The project concluded with positive outcomes for staff, who developed a greater understanding of their role in the education of bullying, and mediation and reporting of bullying incidences as they developed a shared ownership of student issues. However, it also highlighted the need for ongoing commitment to support other stakeholders, parents, and students through collaboration and preventative education.

Since this project, staff now know the role they play in preventing and dealing with bullying. Consistency (in dealing with bullying) for continuing and new staff is achieved at the beginning of each new school year with all staff obliged to read the school anti-bullying policy. Students in the school participate in anti-bullying programs, and education is provided for parents and staff through expert involvement.

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FIGURE 1

Development of P-12 Wellbeing Framework YEAR

2004/05

2006

KEY INFLUENCES

SURVEY

EXPERT INVOLVEMENT

• PS/SS each awarded NSSF Grant – $5000 • Student survey – P-12 • SS – AGQTP and ISQ • Survey undertaken Years 1 to 7 – 2004/5 comparison between results • PS – NSSF Best Practice Grant Program (NSSF & Alannah and Madeline Foundation)

• Eric Erceg (Edith Cowan University) – staff/parents (WS)

• Conducted audit using Friendly Schools and Families – audit tool (PS) • Service learning – Oaktree Foundation

• Dr Jo Anne Deak – staff and parents

• Participated in National Pilot of the Cybersafety and Wellbeing Initiatives (2009 – Term 1 2010) • Contributed to Esmart Schools Framework (PS)

• Ken Rigby – 3 staff sessions – inclusion of 6 alternative methods of dealing with cases • Michael Carr Gregg – identified 3 requirements for school – development of safe school policy, provision of professional development, cyberbullying • Key staff attend- Alannah and Madeline Foundation

2007 2008

2009

2010 2011 2012

• Update of anti-bullying to include alternate methods of dealing work courses – 6 types • Adopted Kids Matters program (PS) • Bullying No Way – National Day of Action against Bullying and Violence

• Survey of all relevant stakeholders in primary school using Kids Matter supplied surveys (survey of 4 components)

• Commenced Esmart accreditation (PS) • Susan McLean (online safety) (parents, staff, students)

2013 • Gallup survey – Years 5 and 6 introduced; continues today

2014

2015

• Formation of Habits, Hearts, Mind and Soul Committee to review practices (PS) • Development of St Margaret’s Way (WS) • Awarded Esmart accreditation (PS)

• Brett Lee (online safety) – parents, students, teachers

• Years 7-12 student survey introduced; continues today

2016

• Day for Dolly – review of online safety/antibullying program (WS) • Awarded Esmart accreditation (SS)

• Gallup survey introduced to SS

• Introduction of weekly survey – PULSE (Years 4-12)

2020

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2022

• Introduction of School TV (parents)

• Kirra Pendergast (safe on social) – parents, students and staff

2019

2021

• Michael Carr Gregg – staff presentation • Tricia Munn (online safety) – student presentation

2017 2018

• Brett Lee (online safety) – parents, staff, students • Judith Krause (continues every year)

• Consent Debate • Trauma – informed practices

Key: PS – Primary School; SS – Secondary School; WS – Whole School

• Peggy Orenstein (consent) • Introduction of Safe on Social toolkit (for parents online) • Madonna King (parents) • Judith Locke

CLASSROOM IMPACT

OUTCOME

• Procedures for awareness of bullying • Introduction of Bounce Back as a teaching program (PS) • Introduction Life Skills Program ‘Mind, Body, Soul’ (SS) – overview

• Development of 8-point plan (WS) • Review of Behaviour Management Policy (WS) • Review of Anti-Bullying Policy to include definition of bullying (WS) • Development of Anti-Bullying website – parents, students, teachers (WS) • Presentation of projects – Alannah and Madeline Foundation

• As per 2005 – inclusion of Friendly Schools and Families program • Introduction of The Student Leader – Year 6 preparation program

• Development of Body, Mind and Soul Personal Development diagram and resource folder (PS) • Fact finding tour of Social Responsibility (SS) • Introduction of better buddies’ program (PS)

• Implementation of Body, Mind and Soul Personal Development (PS) • Development of a P-6 scope and sequence of all aspects of the program • Introduction of Oak Tree Foundation (Years 4-12) – Service Learning • Commenced two-year review of PC curriculum program (PS)

• Introduction of personal development (sex ed) – expert presenter (PS)

• Introduced You Can Do It (recommendation of Kids Matters) (PS)

• Development of Safe School Policy (WS)

• Manners Matters, Classroom Rules (PS) • Introduction of the digital license (Year 6)

• Development of St Margaret’s Pastoral Care Strategic Plan (draft) (SS) • Updated pastoral care program to include Habits (learner dispositions) (PS)

• Implemented Daniel Morcombe program into updated pastoral care program (PS)

• Change from pastoral weekly program to pastoral days (SS)

• Introduction of St Margaret’s Way

• Scope and Sequence developed under new headings – Relationships, Personal Safety, Service Learning (PS) • Leadership through Service Learning (Years 4 -6) • Academic Advising (Year 10-12) • Student Wellbeing Framework launched (WS) • Trial of Social Thinking program (PS) • Scope and Sequence developed under headings to match 6 aspects (PS)

• Introduction of 9 Non-negotiables (WS)

• Review current programs to identify where respectful relationships are taught • Updated Student Wellbeing Framework to include flower diagram of the 6 aspects of wellbeing

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• Trial of Good Society – Respect Matters Program

Student Wellbeing Overview SPIRITUAL WELLBEING

Enhances and supports the Christian Values which form the bedrock of our school’s foundation. Students experience this through: chapel, school values, Religious and Values Education, and The St Margaret’s Way.

Experts St Margaret’s is open to engaging experts and adopting relevant programs in responding to student wellbeing. Expert input provides depth of knowledge, evidence-based research and offers another perspective on the topic and over time has included Erin Erceg (ECU, WA), through the Friendly Schools and Families Program, and Dr JoAnn Deak, psychologist and leading expert on brain research, gender differences and how to support relational issues (Ohio University, USA).

PHYSICAL WELLBEING

Fosters self-awareness in both social and virtual interactions and in physical development.

Programs such as the Buddy Program, developed through the Alannah and Madeline Foundation, and the Bounce Back Program, developed by McGrath and Noble (2003), have also had a significant impact on the primary school’s approach to student wellbeing. Renowned expert on bullying Dr Ken Rigby conducted three masterclasses, interviewed staff, and offered advice for addressing bullying. In 2009, when the adverse impact of cyberbullying was becoming more prevalent, Dr Michael Carr-Gregg offered the school advice, procedures, and practices to help counter this insidious issue. Parents have also had the opportunity to experience the benefit of experts on cyberbullying. Every second year, the P&F fund a guest speaker to address parents and help them support their child as they negotiate the online world. Surveys The school sets great store in the value of surveys. As Rigby (2008, p. 155) suggests: ‘Gaining knowledge of what goes on in one’s own school is seen as particularly important by the most pro-active schools.’ All stakeholders are regularly surveyed to acquire reliable data, which provides information across all aspects of the wellbeing program. The first project surveyed all students (P-12), with the questions focusing on feeling safe and friendships. The results were analysed in terms of the students’ perceptions of safety and the psychological climate of the school.

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Kids Matter surveys provided the opportunity to survey parents and staff in the school and asked them to reflect on four areas: a positive school community, Social Emotional Learning (SEL) for students, parenting support and education, and early intervention for students experiencing mental health difficulties.

VOCATIONAL WELLBEING

Inspires students to prepare for a career, in which they will gain personal and enriching satisfaction in their lives.

INTELLECTUAL WELLBEING

Develops the skills associated with being a good scholar through seeing learning as a process. It involves motivated, engaged robust students willing to try new things.

SOCIAL WELLBEING

Enhances a student’s sense of belonging and social inclusion. Students experience this through three areas – Leadership, Service and Relationships.

EMOTIONAL WELLBEING

Fosters positive communication and interaction with others by being attentive to one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours.

FIGURE 2 Since 2014, Years 5 and 6 students have been annually surveyed through the Australian Gallup Student Poll. The resulting data on students’ feelings about hope, engagement, wellbeing and faith is used to compare a cohort from one year to the next, thereby tracking and identifying trends across the four areas and monitoring the psychological environment of the school. In 2018, secondary school students commenced participation in the Gallup Poll, which provided more longitudinal data for students from Year 5 (2016).

While the longitudinal data from this survey has been useful, the school also wanted to access more regular ‘here and now’ data. The EI Pulse survey tool provided this opportunity, and was introduced in 2020, at a time when it was important to monitor the impact of COVID-19 restrictions. Each week, students in Years 4 to 12 answer questions which are drawn from the Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth’s (ARACY) Common Approach™ framework. The Common Approach™ framework was selected based on its evidentiary base and track record of use in Australian schools. The list of ARACY member organisations can be found at https://www. aracy.org.au/join-us/current-members. Data is collected from students and organised within six areas of wellbeing: Valued and Safe, Healthy, Material Basics, Learning, Participating, and Positive Sense of Identity and Culture. The responses are collated weekly in a continuum for analysis and a percentage of positive check-ins are also provided. The data is used to help monitor both the emotional climate of school and the efficacy of its wellbeing programs.

Classroom impact A significant outcome of the initial project was to develop a wellbeing program. The primary and secondary schools each developed an age-appropriate weekly program. In the primary school, the program addressed Body, Heart, Mind and Soul, while the secondary school program addressed Service, Relationships and Futures. Over time, the elements in each program have been modified in response to changing needs. In 2015, the secondary school staff were surveyed about their confidence level for teaching pastoral care, the outcome of which was to change pastoral care weekly lessons to pastoral care days conducted by experts. In 2021, both schools combined the elements of each program to develop a whole school P-12 program (Figure 2). Outcome The two most significant whole school outcomes have been the introduction of the St Margaret’s Way and the development of a bespoke Student Wellbeing Framework. The St Margaret’s Way is endorsed by the whole school community and articulates how to interact in accordance with our espoused values. It provides the language around our school ethos and identifies a formal way to promote our positive school and classroom culture. It guides the way members of the school community behave towards each other. In 2018, a school-based working party identified five wellbeing principles and six aspects of wellbeing practice which were formalised in a Student Wellbeing Framework and launched in 2019. The development of the framework has ensured consistency of principles and practice from Prep to Year 12. The framework emphasises a distributed leadership approach with all staff and students responsible for developing an ethos of care.

These documents are a testament to our school ethos and reflective of the work of Rigby (2008), who identifies a school ethos that endorses and sustains an encouraging classroom climate and effectively promotes and fosters ‘commitment to positive ideals’ may prevent bullying (p. 161). Prevention of bullying was the goal of the initial project and continues to be so for the school today. This goal aligns with the findings from the Education Future Report (2020), where McCrindle Research collected data from the parents of Generation Alpha (children born after mid 2010s) and identified the five top challenges parents believe Generation Alpha children face (Figure 3). Interestingly, both parents of primary and secondary students identified the same three challenges that relate to wellbeing (albeit in a different order of concern). These were online bullying through social networks, navigating own mental wellbeing, and bullying in person. These findings highlight that, as educators, we are responsive to the needs of the members of our school community as each of these challenges are featured in the timeline of our school wellbeing program and our current framework. The responsive and evolutionary nature of our student wellbeing programs has significantly impacted the way we support students socially and emotionally today. References McCrindle, M 2021, Generation Alpha, Hachette, UK. Renton, S & Stobbe, K 2020, The Future of Education 2020, McCrindle Research, Australia. Rigby, K 2003, Stop the bullying: A guide for teachers (revised ed.), ACER, Melbourne. Rigby, K 2008, Children and bullying: How parents and educators can reduce bullying at school, Blackwell/Wiley, Boston.

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FIGURE 3

TO LEAD IS TO SERVE:

An essay examining the biography Pope Francis: Life and Revolution through the lens of servant leadership theory Since ascending to the papacy in 2013, Pope Francis (formerly Jorge Bergoglio) has become an influential spiritual leader who has made a profound impact on the world in which we live. As Pope, and indeed as Archbishop of Buenos Aires, Francis has been credited with inspiring millions of Catholics to refocus on the Church’s teachings of serving the poor and being merciful. Through the lens of servant leadership, this paper will examine the biography Pope Francis: Life and Revolution (Piqué 2014) to critically analyse Francis’s leadership practices and achievements. As servant leadership practices date back to ancient religious teachings (Sendjaya & Sarros 2002), it is not surprising that Pope Francis is a strong example of this style of leader. The first modern interpretation of servant leadership was penned by Robert Greenleaf who recognised that ‘a servant leader is servant first’ (Greenleaf 1970, as cited in Greenleaf 1977, p. 7). This notion is congruent with Francis’s choice to enter an ecclesiastical vocation in 1957 and his dedication since then to serving others in the pursuit of social justice. Moreover, true servant leaders see themselves as first among equals (Parris & Peachey 2013) – a mindset that allows them to overcome attributes of self-interest and power that commonly motivate leaders (Van Dierendonck 2011). Francis’s career has been defined by his motivation to serve others above all. He has consistently described himself as a servant of God who exercises his power through service to his followers, and even as Pope he believes that he ‘…must give humble service, open his arms to guard all of God’s people, especially the poorest, the weakest, the smallest’ (Piqué 2014, p. 186).

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While Francis exhibits strong servant leadership qualities, he also imbues many attributes of transformational leadership (Stone et al. 2004). Francis embarked upon his papacy with transformational objectives such as decentralising the governance structure of the Catholic Church (Piqué 2014), and to achieve these goals, he developed a strong vision using integrity to influence others (Stone et al. 2004). It is, however, Francis’s focus as a leader that indicates he is more aligned with

Chris Dunn Dean of Studies servant leadership. That is, where a transformational leader creates a vision for their organisation and may seek to engage stakeholders to achieve organisational objectives (Stone et al. 2004), servant leaders are primarily focused on serving their followers (Lubin 2001). Francis demonstrates this distinction with his rejection of traditional fiscal goals for the Catholic Church, instead prioritising vulnerable followers of the faith – ‘Oh, how I would like a church that is poor and for the poor!’ (Piqué 2014, p. 174). Another cornerstone of servant leadership is community (Waterman 2011). As Pope, his community is vast and diverse, comprising people from all over the globe who may have differing personal values and beliefs as a consequence of their

cultural backgrounds and geographic locations. Community members are also divided into those who are part of the Church’s congregation and those who are employed by the Church. Significantly, Church employees are more likely to be influenced by the procedures and policies of the institution, which in turn, may guide their beliefs and values (Waterman 2011). Thus, the challenge for a servant leader, and particularly the Pope, is to both serve and meet the needs of all followers, and ultimately, unite these disparate followers in the pursuit of shared goals (Waterman 2011). Francis has demonstrated his ability to build and use community to pursue shared goals such as promoting peace and fighting poverty (Piqué 2014). Utilising some of the key characteristics of servant leadership, such as listening and empathy (Spears 1995), he has entered into dialogue with those from other religions like Islam, recognising that as Pope he is ‘… the builder of bridges, with God and people. I really hope that the dialogue between us will help build bridges between all people, so that every person can see in another not an enemy, not a rival, but a brother and sister to welcome and embrace.’ (Piqué 2014, p. 188). This ability to collaborate compassionately and appreciate the opinions of others has been found to assist servant leaders to resolve conflict (Waterman 2011). Thus, it could be argued that Francis’s actions of embracing dialogue with those both in and outside the faith could be assisting with the promotion of peace and understanding between religions. However, while Francis’s ability to build community externally has been lauded by spectators, he has faced challenges with aligning his new vision for the Church with the more traditional, procedural interpretation of the Pontiff’s role that is preferred by some within the Vatican (Piqué 2014). This is an endemic challenge of building community for servant leaders, as this leadership style and the attributes it uses to influence can be incongruous with hierarchical structures (Waterman 2011). For example, Piqué (2014) outlines the frustration of right-wing members of the Church who lament that Francis is unwilling to pontificate on established and conservative Catholic doctrine. Furthermore, Francis has experienced some resistance from those within the Roman Curia who believe his focus on servitude results in ‘demagogic’ behaviour that diminishes the importance and status of the role of the Pontiff (Piqué 2014, p. 215).

Politically, many Catholics would attest to the fact that Francis’s vision for the Church has seen a shift towards a socialist agenda, with some going so far as labelling him the ‘left-wing pope’ (Piqué 2014, p. 210). His denouncement of the trickle-down economic theory and capitalism in a 2013 interview with La Stampa was in response to the dishonesty that existed within financial institutions of the Vatican (Piqué 2014). Francis’s dissent of structural corruption, even within his own institution, further speaks to his integrity as a leader who remains authentic to his egalitarian vision (Van Dierendonck 2011). While a pure servant leader would often reject the notion of authoritarian approaches to leadership (Hays 2008), Francis, being the leader of an institution with a fixed hierarchical structure, does not have that luxury (Waterman 2011). Van Dierendonck (2011) argues that many servant leaders in centralised organisations, like the Catholic Church, can suffer from this issue of high-power distance, as there is an expectation that they maintain a position of authority. Nevertheless, Francis is a strident opponent of untamed capitalism and the structural inequality it brings (Piqué 2014). As Pontiff, however, this stance has been highly controversial, both politically and historically. Ironically, it was one of Francis’s predecessors, Pope John Paul II, who played a key political role in the downfall of communism across Eastern Europe only 30 years prior (Piqué 2014). With a westernised world that remains adherent to a neoliberalist and individualist political philosophy, a challenge for Pope Francis is how he can be seen to serve all his followers, despite cultural and political differences (Peters 2001).

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Despite some opposition from within the upper echelons of the Roman Curia, one of Pope Francis’s most significant achievements to date has been his ability to alter the direction of the Catholic Church through his vision of a more practicalbased approach to evangelism and faith (Piqué 2014). Servant leaders require a vision for their organisation to help provide their followers with direction and purpose (Waterman 2011). A projected vision may often be brave and progressive, but critically it must stay true to the belief that the leader, and thus their followers, are striving for something beyond organisational objectives – that is, there is a higher purpose to their vision (Sendjaya 2010).

The historical context of Francis’s leadership is significant, as he took over the papacy in 2013 at a time when the Church desperately needed a new projected vision to inspire and encourage its followers (Piqué 2014). Pope Benedict XVI, Francis’s immediate predecessor, was the first Pontiff in almost 600 years to resign from the papacy, in the face of several scandals confronting the Catholic Church (Piqué 2014). Further, many Catholics considered Benedict’s dogmatic approach to the doctrine of the faith to be inconsistent with their beliefs, and thus his influence as a leader was diminishing. Contrastingly, Francis’s vision for the Church was inspired by his long-standing beliefs about service and social justice. With his strong servant leader characteristics of humility and integrity (Sipe & Frick 2009), he successfully communicated this vision and it resonated strongly with the faithful (Piqué 2014). In his first apostolic exhortation, Evangelli Gaudium (The Joy of the Gospel), Francis encouraged Catholics to practise their faith through a commitment to social justice and real-world application of the Gospels rather than being unnecessarily caught up in the rigid interpretation of canonical laws (Piqué 2014). Francis’s vision has provided direction for his followers, while at the same time, empowered them to act and flourish (Stone et al. 2004).

Van Dierendonck’s (2011) conceptual model of servant leadership, which considers the cultural context in which servant leaders operate, is relevant to this discussion. The model explains the concept of humane orientation, which is the degree that societies reward individuals for being kind or caring, and carrying out acts of servitude. It states that cultures with a higher humane orientation are more receptive to the virtues of servant leadership (Van Dierendonck 2011). This concept, it could be argued, is more aligned with collectivist cultures (Peters 2001). It may therefore be more challenging for Francis’s thoughts on capitalism, and indeed consumerism, to be accepted and shared by followers from nations or cultures where individualism is the prevailing ideology. For example, while he is committed to stewarding his followers towards the ideals of social justice and selflessness, he is struggling to impact upon certain followers in the United States who have criticised his anti-capitalist views and accused him of being a Marxist (Piqué 2014). Arguably, the greatest impact on Francis’s credibility as a servant leader, however, has been his response to the historical sexual abuse crisis (Piqué 2014). Pope Francis’s election in 2013 came at a time when societal sentiment towards the culture of the Church, particularly its hierarchical structures, was at an all-time low (Piqué 2014). Moreover, followers’ trust in the organisation was diminished, and so it could be argued that the task of garnering influence was going to be a challenge, even for a servant leader with a strong vision (Rezaei et al. 2012). It is therefore not surprising that Francis has been accused of not acting decisively enough to deliver justice for victims of sexual abuse (Piqué 2014). This is also consistent with analyses of servant leadership, which have identified indecisiveness and passivity as potential disadvantages to this style of leadership (Van Dierendonck 2011).

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Furthermore, theorists assert that a perceived erosion of trust among followers can also be detrimental to a servant leader’s ability to influence (Stone et al. 2004). Perhaps the criticism of his leadership in response to this crisis may have impacted upon Francis’s extraordinary decision to take personal responsibility – ‘I feel I must take responsibility for all the evil that some priests, a sufficient number of them, did to children’ (Piqué 2014, p. 193). Servant leaders are often seen as stewards of their institution and thus take responsibility for its shortcomings (Van Dierendonck 2011). Pope Francis, like all servant leaders, must aim to be an emotional healer that empowers his followers, particularly the ones who feel most marginalised (Parris & Peachey 2013). His words in reference to the sexual abuse crisis seek to provide this for the victims; however, it is likely that without structural and cultural changes to the Church trust in both his leadership and the institution may not be fully restored.

Pope Francis has clearly employed servant leadership practices to build community and shift the vision of the Catholic Church. He has done so through his lifelong commitment to serving others and, in turn, he has inspired others to follow him, as

evidenced by the swathes of support he receives at his weekly Papal Audiences. As Greenleaf (1977) suggests, however, the true litmus test for a successful servant leader is whether their followers improve as people, and, as a result, are more likely to become servants themselves. While Francis has clearly influenced followers through his humility and integrity, to show compassion and mercy for many people around them, he must still seek to advocate for those who remain disempowered by, or distrustful of, the Catholic Church, to fulfil his responsibility as a servant leader. References Bowie, NE 2000, ‘A Kantian Theory of Leadership’, Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, vol. 21, pp. 185-193. Greenleaf, RK 1977, Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness, Paulist Press, New York. Hays, JM 2008, ‘Teacher As Servant - Applications of Greenleaf’s Servant Leadership in Higher Education’, Journal of Global Business Issues, vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 113-134. Lubin, KA 2001, Visionary leader behaviours and their congruency with servant leadership characteristics, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of La Verne, CA. Parris, DL & Peachey, JW 2013, ‘A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 377-393. Peters, MA 2001, Poststructuralism, Marxism, and Neoliberalism: Between Theory and Politics, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc, Lanham. Piqué, E 2014. Pope Francis. Life and Revolution. Buenos Aires: Loyola Press. Rezaei, M, Salehi, S, Shafiei, M & Sabet, S 2012, ‘Servant Leadership and Organizational Trust: The Mediating Effect of the Leader Trust and Organizational Communication’, Emerging Markets Journal, vol. 2, pp. 70-78. Sendjaya, S 2010, ‘Demystifying Servant Leadership’, in D Van Dierendonck & KA Patterson (eds), Servant Leadership, Palgrave Macmillan, London. Sendjaya, S & Sarros, J 2002, ‘Servant Leadership: Its origin, development and application in organisations’, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 57-64. Sipe, JW & Frick, DM 2009, Seven Pillars of Servant Leadership: Practicing the Wisdom of Leading by Serving, Pavlist Press, New York. Spears, LC 1995, Reflections on Leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf’s theory of servant-leadership influenced today’s top management thinkers, John Wiley, New York. Spears, LC 1998, ‘Introduction: Tracing the growing impact of servant-leadership’, in LC Spears (ed.), Insights on Leadership: Service, Stewardship, Spirit and Servant Leadership, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Stone, AG, Russell, R & Patterson, K 2004, ‘Transformational versus servant leadership: a difference in leader focus’, The Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 349-361. Van Dierendonck, D 2011, ‘Servant Leadership: A Review and Synthesis’, Journal of Management, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1228-1261. Waterman, H 2011, ‘Principles of ‘servant leadership’ and how they enhance practice’, Nursing Management, vol. 17, no. 9, pp. 24-26.

LOOKING TO THE FUTURE Lesa Fowler Head of Boarding

in Australian boarding

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban

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Harry climbed the spiral stairs with no thought in his head except for how glad he was to be back. They reached their familiar, circular dormitory with its five four-poster beds and Harry, looking around, felt he was home at last.

In a world that is rapidly changing, how do we prepare the students in our care to meet the future demands required to succeed? What are the essential skills they will need to think differently, to be agile, to have creative zeal, and to be able to pivot and change as the world changes around them? How can we build cultures that promote empathy, knowing that this quality is critical to our society’s wellbeing? Around the globe, these are questions that ebb and flow through classrooms and university lecture halls, shaping contemporary pedagogical approaches that influence both people and policy. Yet, as we continue to ride the wave of the digital era, it has become more evident than ever before that learning can and does happen all around us, all the time. With this in mind, it is useful to examine the way contemporary pedagogy and pastoral care has evolved within boarding schools – spaces that are unique in

their ability to shape the holistic culture of learning, and where academic pursuit meets the equally important tenet of socialemotional skill-building. An Australian context To someone who has never called themselves a ‘boarder’, the phrase ‘boarding school’ may conjure any number of images in the mind: the cold and unforgiving Welton Academy of Robin Williams’ Dead Poets Society, the gothic halls of the Hogwarts Castle, where magic and danger go hand in hand, or perhaps the eerie Appleyard College, fictional boarding house of Peter Weir’s seminal film, Picnic at Hanging Rock. Yet the contemporary boarding model is not one clinging to rigid archaic traditions, nor does it feature fantastical wands and wizards. Rather, today’s Australian boarding school is one representing a modernised sector, with great attention paid to specialised pastoral care programs and focused academic support. For many young people today, boarding offers an opportunity to partake in co-curricular activities and cultural immersion that are simply not available in rural and remote parts of the country (Anderson 1994). Further, current approaches in boarding place family involvement at their centre and prioritise fostering strong interpersonal relationships not only among families but between the students from all cohorts (Wheare 2006). An appreciation for diversity

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Undoubtedly, the cultural diversity that exists within a boarding community is central to its value, not only to the student’s sense of self, but in their capacity as a contributing member of society. At St Margaret’s, there is an understanding that mutual respect, and respect in the midst of difference, sits at the core of our institutional culture. So how does this enhance boarding students’ preparedness for their lives after school? Katherine Phillips (2017) asserts that diversity makes for better learners. More specifically, that those who learn in a diverse environment have a higher propensity for deep concentration and, when surrounded by people from different backgrounds, will become more creative and collaborative in their disposition. She writes: ‘The fact is that if you want to build teams or organisations capable of innovating, you need diversity. Diversity enhances creativity. It encourages the search for novel information and perspectives, leading to better decision making and problem solving.’ Indeed, this is something that we observe regularly among our boarders who spend their school terms living with peers from China, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Solomon Islands, and Papua New Guinea, and regularly make trips to the regional and remote homes of their dormmates. Take, for example, the boarder day girl long weekend, a St Margaret’s tradition that sees boarding students host their day-student peers at their homes and properties across the state. This initiative has led to strong, positive rapport-building for boarding students and day girls alike, who treasure the opportunity to spend time learning about one another while broadening their perspectives in the process.

The boarding culture In a contemporary boarding school, students live in a place where a group’s collective wellbeing is valued alongside that of the individual. In our boarding house, as in any community, certain agreed guidelines are essential, and the viewpoints of others must be considered. In many ways, this social learning is one of the strongest forces among boarding students as they become experts at managing group dynamics and developing a strong capacity for problem solving in their daily lives. Indeed, educational psychologist Linda Stade (2020) observes that boarding students are often well-poised to pursue leadership, with their demonstrated ability to resolve conflict, guide others, enact tolerance, and their honed social skills giving them an advantage in this arena. At St Margaret’s, great emphasis is placed on these skills. This emphasis is formalised through programs such as St Margaret’s PLUS, which provides opportunities for students to acknowledge and formalise such skills, noting their connection to future professional successes. In practice, the St Margaret’s PLUS initiative provides each student with a profile of the learning that they have engaged with outside of the academic curriculum. This platform then draws together these activities to create an overview of the skills they have developed as a result. In this way, St Margaret’s PLUS works to develop a whole picture of students by promoting engagement and well-roundedness in a way that can be used to demonstrate aptitude and suitability for the roles of the future. Staff matter The capacity of staff to foster curiosity, empathy and belonging is central in boarding schools, just as it is in a classroom. With this in mind, targeted professional development and training that upskills boarding staff is paramount to the success of students in their care. This professional skill is not limited to comprehensive knowledge of duty of care and child protection, but also encompasses cultural awareness training, mental health first aid, and specialist student-support programs to ensure every student is able to thrive. It is through this highly attuned staff support that students are able to flourish and to fulfil their potential in the world that awaits. References Anderson, EW 2004, Residential and boarding education and care for young people: A model for good management and practice, Routledge, United Kingdom. Phillips, K 2017, How Diversity Makes Us Smarter, Greater Good Magazine, viewed 23 May 2022, https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/ article/item/how_diversity_makes_us_smarter Stade, L 2020, Boarding School Advantages, Linda Stade Education, viewed 20 May 2022, https://lindastade.com/tag/boarding-schooladvantages/ Wheare, T 2006, ‘Boarding – 40 years on’, Boarding School, vol. 23, pp. 9-11.

DEVELOPING a leadership identity The development of a leader’s leadership identity is both a Kate Frewin complex and challenging process Assistant Head of Primary – that is dependent upon a range of Curriculum (PP-6) factors including time and situation (Marchiondo et al. 2015). Scholarly research on leadership and leadership identity has seen a dramatic increase in recent years, resulting in the development of a range of diverse leadership theories. From early theories that suggest a person is born to lead, to the perspective that a formal leadership position and a set of suitable traits are sufficient to gain leadership credibility (Sun 2016) is the understanding that identity is a relational construct in which identity is co-constructed by both the leader and the follower (DeRue & Ashford 2010). Consequently, leadership identity is affected by broad dynamic influences indicating that identity is in an ongoing state of reflection and refinement and postulating that a contemporary leader must be both flexible and adaptable to changing contexts. Leadership identity is fluid and changes when a new leadership role is assumed and when a leader enters a new context. This theory outlines that a leader must negotiate their leadership credibility through the development of a social construct that they must then act in. Brue and Brue (2009) theorise that identity is heavily influenced by role assumption – expectations that derive from cultural assumptions of a particular role. This theory proposes a leader’s identity develops or changes when a new narrative is assumed and is influenced by the social constructs of that role and the collective endorsement of the broader social group (DeRue & Ashford 2010). Sun (2016) claims that it is during this narrative that a leader must actively and visibly position themselves, take initiative and display their technical competencies in order to be successful in their context. Critics of gender-specific leadership training suggest that it fails to provide real-world leadership forums; others disagree and acknowledge that leadership programs that do not acknowledge a woman for her relational leadership approach

are counterproductive for women. Supporters of genderspecific training state women need opportunities to connect with other women to promote their leadership development, noting that conversations that allow women to develop their self-awareness, communication, interpersonal skills and importantly their ability to reflect openly and honestly are vital to a woman’s developing leadership identity. The traditional and managerial ideal that leadership must emulate certain and fixed sets of traits has been challenged by the notion that leadership is both fluid and ambiguous (Rennison 2018). The simplism of traditional theories of leadership neglect environmental and situational factors that influence leadership. A person’s leadership narrative can be influenced by a range of factors and will continue to evolve over time and as they experience different situations. Ensuring continued reflection and theoretical learning maintain a central role in the development of that narrative will inevitably contribute to a balanced identity and capacity to lead in different situations. Leaders must consider a variety of different perspectives on leadership and learn to competently assess each situation before applying a strategy (Rennison 2018). References Brue, KL & Brue, SA 2018, ‘Leadership Role Identity Construction in Women’s Leadership Development Programs’, Journal of Leadership Education, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 7-27. DeRue, DS & Ashford, SJ 2010, ‘Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 627-647. Marchiondo, LA, Myers, CG & Kopelman, S 2015, ‘The relational nature of leadership identity construction: How and when it influences perceived leadership and decision-making’, The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 892-908. Rennison, BW 2018, ‘Theories of leadership’, Journal of Leadership and Management, vol. 3, no. 13, pp. 185-199. Sun, P 2016, ‘Discourse and Identity: Leader Identity at Work’, in J Storey, J Hartley, JL Denis, P ‘t Hart & D Ulrich (eds), The Routledge Companion to Leadership, Routledge, New York.

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TOWARDS Karen Gorrie Deputy Principal

environmental sustainability in schools

Climate change has been recognised as one of the major challenges of the 21st century. With global temperatures rising, the impact of climate change ranges from such consequences as threatened food production, increased catastrophic weather events, including fires and flooding on our lands, and reduced access to clean air and drinking water. Environmental awareness and the language around climate change within the school setting is not new. In fact, sustainability was identified as one of the key cross-curriculum priorities of the Australian curriculum from when it was implemented into our classrooms. As such, the priority of sustainability is addressed throughout each learning area, rather than comprising a curriculum on its own. Therefore, there are many opportunities to add depth and richness to student learning in this area throughout all classes, with strong but varying presence depending on the relevance to each learning area (ACARA n.d.). But what about schools themselves? We have been teaching about sustainability for many years, but what about the operations of the school? Are all schools in Australia, and indeed across the world, adopting sustainability practices within their day-to-day operations to ensure they are working towards becoming net zero enterprises? While teaching about climate change and environmental solutions within schools is not new, this level of adaptation of operational practices of schools seems to be relatively recent. In 2020, the K12 Climate Action Commission was formed in the United States of America, with ‘22 education, environment, youth, civil rights leaders, and more coming together to recognise the urgency of climate change and the opportunity for the education sector to be a leader in creating a more sustainable society’ (K12 Climate Action Commission 2021). They identified the opportunity for the education sector to take action, advance climate solutions, and prepare today’s students to lead a sustainable future. The result was an action plan, aimed at policymakers at the local, state, and federal levels, with the aim that they work in collaboration with school leaders, educators, students, families, and communities to implement actions that would ensure schools across the US build lasting change and a sustainable future (K12 Climate Action Commission 2021).

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In April 2022, the UK government published a policy paper on sustainability and climate change, acknowledging that the Department of Education has an important role to play in all aspects of sustainability, but that the area where most work is needed is in reducing their environmental footprint and moving towards achieving net zero (UK Department of

Education 2022). Similar to the K12 Climate Action paper in the US, this policy paper detailed some proposed actions and recommendations for schools to adopt sustainable operations. In Australia, there is yet to be a federal initiative or action plan aimed at sustainability for schools. Victoria and Western Australia have made some inroads in this area, with Victoria releasing a draft Climate Change adaptation action plan for community consultation (The State of Victoria Department of Education and Training 2022) and the Western Australia Department of Planning, Lands and Heritage releasing a Response of WA Schools to Climate Change (Government of Western Australia 2021). However, a federal response or action plan for climate change in schools is conspicuous by its absence. Many companies and corporations across the world have developed Environmental Social Governance policies (ESGs) since 2006. Forbes magazine reports that ‘ESG issues were first mentioned in the 2006 United Nation’s Principles for Responsible Investment (PRI) report consisting of the Freshfield Report and “Who Cares Wins.” ESG criteria was, for the first time, required to be incorporated in the financial evaluations of companies’ (Atkins 2020). A commitment for companies to develop ESGs in the corporate sector is increasing as more investors are making their investment decisions around the commitment to ESG criteria that these companies have (Atkins 2020). The education sector is such a huge sector of communities and governments across the world, but not many schools or education departments have adopted an ESG. In 2022, St Margaret’s is developing an ESG. This means that we will be one of the first schools in Australia to adopt an ESG policy, and we have had to look very carefully at our Environmental, Social and Governance areas of the school and develop some targets and actions for the future. In developing a sustainability plan for the school as part of the environmental component of the ESG, we are outlining how our school will help contribute to climate solutions through strategies to promote the following: •

Waste Reduction. This includes reducing paper waste, such as no more paper takeaway cups or straws at M's Café; providing school publications via e-copy and on the school website; ensuring all student/staff/parent communications are in electronic format through the learning management system (POD) and other electronic communication platforms; reducing paper use in classrooms; enhancing the capabilities of the POD and another electronic means; carefully managing food production to minimise waste; procuring supplies (e.g. food) from local sources to reduce

the distance these supplies travel to the school, thereby decreasing the amount of greenhouse gases emitted from transportation; and donating and/or selling materials, such as furniture no longer used, via online marketplaces. •

•

Waste Recycling. This includes recycling bins for bottles and cans placed in key locations around the school; placing paper waste receptacles in all classrooms and key areas of the school; recycling all printer cartridges; investigating food composting options and implementing this system in the boarding house and tuckshop. Renewable energy solutions for our buildings and operations. This includes exploring solar energy solutions, lighting solutions (such as LED and natural lighting), rainwater tanks, and other building solutions. We have an opportunity as we renovate and modernise our buildings to also address climate change. Using 100 per cent renewable energy not only helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but it will also save the school money by reducing energy costs. It has the added benefit of creating learning opportunities for students. Greenspaces. Planting trees can improve air quality, cool areas and prevent harm from heat. Studies have shown that spending more time surrounded by green space may improve mental and physical health. A Harvard University study also found that those schools with more green space and better air quality had lower absentee rates compared to other schools, regardless of social or economic factors.

As a school and an education provider, we have a moral obligation for our students and wider school community to understand about climate change. We need to lead in this area and model ways to combat climate change in our daily operations and practices. References Atkins, B 2020, Demystifying ESG: Its history and current status, viewed 30 May 2022, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ betsyatkins/2020/06/08/demystifying-esgits-history--currentstatus/?sh=704e3b982cdd Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority n.d. Sustainability (Version 8.4), viewed 12 February 2022, https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/cross-curriculumpriorities/sustainability/ K12 Climate Action Commission 2021, K12 Climate Action Plan 2021, The Aspen Institute, viewed 12 February 2022, https://www. k12climateaction.org/blog/climate-action-plan-2021. UK Department of Education 2022, Sustainability and climate change: a strategy for the education and children’s services systems, viewed 30 May 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ sustainability-and-climate-change-strategy/sustainability-and-climatechange-a-strategy-for-the-education-and-childrens-services-systems. The State of Victoria Department of Education and Training 2022, Education and Training Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan 2022-2026, viewed 30 May 2022, https://www.vic.gov.au/sites/default/ files/2022-02/education-and-training-climate-change-adaptationaction-plan-2022-2026_1.pdf

Government of Western Australia 2021, Response of WA Schools to Climate Change, Department of Planning, Lands and Heritage, Office of the Government Architect, retrieved 30 May 2022, https://www.parliament.wa.gov. au/Parliament/commit.nsf/luInquiryPublicSubmissions/ D94FF57A2BE8CBFE4825879D00127305/$file/00012NoCover.pdf

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Education and involvement of the community. This includes promoting professional development programs to provide teachers with instructional tools to improve teaching and learning about climate change, climate solutions and sustainability; educating staff and students on the importance of conserving energy and what they can do to

conserve energy; forming staff and student environmental committees with members contributing to the plans for implementing sustainability measures.

George Higgins Assistant Head of Faculty – Mathematics

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Embedding divergent thinking and creativity in mathematics

To classify subjects as creative and non-creative is a contradiction. Like any other higher-order thinking skill, creativity is central to learning in any discipline (Miller 2015). The late, great Sir Ken Robinson put it best when he said, ‘creativity is as important as literacy, and we should treat it with the same status’ (Robinson 2006). As educators, we must endeavour to craft learning experiences that motivate our students to be imaginative and creative by employing divergent thinking skills, so that the classroom reflects the playground (Miller 2015).

If we consider mathematics, there is a persistent societal norm the subject is dry, dull, and black-and-white, leading many to ‘hate it’ (Li 2019). Ideas about being creative in the subject can seem foreign because of the way maths is spoken about and taught in our schools. It is particularly troubling if we consider the vast difference in opinion a positive relationship with the subject at school can have. Schools seem to dichotomise students into those who think they are bad at maths always thinking so, and those who are good at maths becoming mathematicians, engineers, teachers, or academics. This is because the latter overwhelmingly agree that the subject can be as expressive as any of the fine arts under the right conditions, implying the subject is creative, but few teachers tap into this in their pedagogy (Taylor 2020). Consequently, if we want to stop disenfranchising our students from mathematics and change the ‘image problem’ the subject has, we must reconsider the way it is taught and look for opportunities to embed creative thinking. The problem with convergent thinking

Mathematical creativity and divergent thinking

Creativity looks different in every subject and in mathematics it is typically defined as ‘non-algorithmic decision making’ (Devlin 2019, para. 14). This implies that mathematical creativity is incompatible with convergent thinking strategies, because the latter only works when students apply a learned skill or worked example to arrive at a specific solution, like an algorithm. This is supported by the traits of mathematically creative individuals, typically characterised by ‘their understanding that more than one approach can lead to equivalent results and their ability to solve problems in different ways’ (Leikin & Lev 2007 in Kroesbergen & Schoevers 2017, p. 420). Furthermore, it is these students who embrace creativity that typically score higher on exams, because they can overcome the cognitive hurdles of the most complex and challenging problems (Kroesbergen & Schoevers 2017). It is for this reason competitions such as the Australasian Problem Solving and Mathematics Olympiads (APSMO) design their programs to ‘focus on the students’ ability to solve mathematical problems in a creative manner – as opposed

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Convergent thinking is a broad term that encourages students to use their prior knowledge and learning experiences to ‘hone-in’ on one specific solution to standard questions (Cropley 2006; Nelson-Delaney 2020). It does not require significant creativity but is a successful strategy for school exams and standardised tests when the problems are linear and logical (Cropley 2006). However, a reliance on convergent thinking alone cannot help students when they encounter a cognitive hurdle that requires them to think around the problem in unfamiliar scenarios (Nelson-Danley 2020). In these circumstances, students need to tap into their creative thinking to work the problem; however, if they have never been exposed to such thinking their predicted success is low. This is unfortunately the case in many schools where teachers and students have placed an increased importance on convergent thinking strategies to be successful in mathematics.

As an example, the breadth and pace of the Queensland senior syllabus does not lend itself to depth, and consequently teachers tend to favour pedagogical approaches that promote convergent thinking because that is the path of least resistance. Additionally, the pressures felt by students regarding short term metrics such as ATAR results emphasise the importance of this approach because convergent thinking is seen as the safer path toward success. However, the highest degree of difficulty on senior mathematics exams are called ‘Complex Unfamiliar’ questions that require students to adopt nonconvergent thinking styles. Only those students who have embraced creative thinking in mathematics are successful with them, and those who try and apply convergent strategies fail. If such students have a negative pre-existing attitude towards mathematics, this will only enhance their hatred for the subject, because they equate their failure with an inadequacy (Buckley 2013). This is a specific example, but it highlights the limitations of convergent thinking strategies and the problems educators face if they only endorse this type of linear style of thinking. This is because teaching mathematics for short-term success alone employs a finite mindset in the infinite game of education (Sinek 2020). According to Game Theory, playing an infinite game with a finite mindset will never be successful, and as such, teachers must embrace more opportunities for students to think creatively in mathematics (Sinek 2020).

to simply reaching a solution using a prescribed method’ (APSMO 2022, para. 1). As such, we can conclude that the differentiating factor that separates diligence from excellence in mathematics is the ability of students to think creatively. Consequently, as educators, we need to develop strategies that embed creativity in mathematics by getting students to think more in non-algorithmic ways. The opposite of convergent thinking is divergent thinking, which involves combining diverse types of information in familiar and unfamiliar scenarios to generate many possible solutions to a problem (Gregoire 2016; Madore, Jing & Schacter 2016; Nelson-Danley 2020). It typically emerges during nonlinear learning experiences when teachers cede control over the learning process to their students and empower them to think differently. For this reason, many of its advocates encourage mathematics teachers to embed opportunities for divergent thinking in their classes, because only in these situations does mathematical creativity flourish (Devlin 2019; Nelson-Danley 2020). As such, this supports the argument that mathematics teachers must embed divergent thinking opportunities in their lessons so that students can become more mathematically creative and successful with the subject. Embedding divergent thinking in mathematics 1. Develop subject expertise Good teaching begins with understanding the content, and educators who know their subject well stand a better chance embedding meaningful learning experiences in their lessons than teachers who don’t (Gregoire 2016; Thompson 2021). However, knowing the content alone is not enough as the research in John Hattie’s Visible Learning for Teachers (2011) showed. He found that teachers’ subject-matter knowledge was important but not critical to student achievement, because there are too many other factors that influence the metric (Hattie 2011). However, the research did show that expert subject-teachers can use their advanced knowledge to introduce new and difficult concepts more effectively than those who are not (Hattie 2011). Additionally, subject experts can implement the correct balance of convergent and divergent thinking because they know which topics and concepts are suited to each thinking technique (Gregoire 2016). Simply put, to embed divergent thinking and allow creativity to flourish, mathematics teachers need to know their stuff. 2. Think deeply about simple ideas

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One of the keys to learning is to spark curiosity, even if it is about simple ideas. Enabling students to think deeply about fundamental concepts in mathematics can help develop the cognition to do so with more complex ideas later. Not only that, but by sparking curiosity, students tend to develop an interest in the subject matter and proactively engage in learning more about the subject (Gregoire 2016). A simple example of this is to get students to think about the language of mathematics they use every day and where the notation comes from.

Mathematics is a language like any other and only with a fluent understanding of the syntax will students appreciate it as such. 3. Explore misconceptions and their consequences When a student demonstrates a misconception, such as dividing by zero, never just say ‘no’ (Finkel 2015). Take the time to explore their misconception such that if what they said were true, it would lead to a contradiction. I have found this not only to be beneficial for students but for my own professional development too. It has allowed me to collect common misconceptions about subject matter, which has helped me identify them sooner during subsequent lessons. Additionally, misconceptions don’t have to always be wrong, just out of context. Students should be rewarded with an explanation, because questioning misconceptions is how new mathematics is discovered (Finkel 2015). For example, the angles in a triangle do not always sum to 1800 if we consider non-Euclidean geometry; a square can have three sides if we draw it on a sphere; and 2 + 2 is not always 4 if we consider modular arithmetic. The reason why certain concepts remain undefined in mathematics is because we have not defined them yet, so what better way to get students thinking creatively than exploring how we could possibly define dividing by zero. 4. Use technology, but do not rely on it A lot of mathematics can be abstract, and there are many interactive tools and pieces of software out there. These tools can help students visualise otherwise difficult concepts and ideas and help develop their creative and divergent thinking skills. For example, the ease with which I can graph a function quickly on GeoGebra during learning has been an important development of my pedagogy. However, educators must remember that technology can amplify good teaching, but good technology cannot replace bad teaching (OECD 2015). As such, it is recommended teachers embrace the power of digital technology to enhance student understanding but not rely on it alone as a means to induce divergent thinking. 5. Use structured ‘multiple solution tasks’ Pose a problem and offer what the answer should be, but don’t provide the route. This gives students control over their learning, and they must adopt a divergent thinking mindset to arrive at a solution in their own way. This promotes cognitive fluency, flexibility, originality, and resilience (RycroftSmith 2018). An example I use in class is when dealing with Mathematical Proof, by using the analogy of driving to the airport. There are many routes you can take, and yes, the better you understand the road networks, the quicker you will get there, but any road you take will lead to the airport eventually. A caveat on this recommendation, though, is to ensure students have all the foundational skills beforehand, so they don’t drive around in circles while trying to prove something.

6. Reiterate that learning takes time

References

In this age of immediacy, reassuring students that learning does not happen instantly is crucial. In every other aspect of their lives, gratification is more or less immediate, thus reducing the potency of patience as a favourable virtue. This is reflected in the classroom when we see students give up if they don’t understand something quickly and unfortunately equate this with being inept. As educators, we must emphasise patience with the learning process and allow students time to struggle with ideas and concepts, because perseverance in the face of difficulty is necessary for cognition (Finkel 2015). Mathematicians can spend years, even decades, grappling with a problem, and so teachers need to give students time to think a problem through, so they can be creative and explore multiple solutions. This is particularly important for creativity too, as only by pondering a problem or idea for a while can new ideas flourish.

Australasian Problem-Solving Mathematical Olympiad (APSMO) 2022, About APSMO, APSMO, viewed 31 May 2022, https://apsmo.edu. au/about-us/

7. Play One of my favourite quotes from Einstein about education was ‘play is the highest form of research’. The only reason we have discovered anything in mathematics is because people have had the courage to play with it. It is not just about following rules and established principles, because these too had to be discovered at some point. Mathematics teachers who allow their students to play with mathematics give them the gift of ownership (Finkel 2015). It is this recommendation I see as the most important for embedding divergent thinking, because play is inherently creative and speaks to the deeper meaning of mathematics. If we all agree the purpose of music is deeper than reciting the works of others, or that literature is more than a summation of all the books you have read, then surely we can agree that the purpose of mathematics is more important than completing endless exercises and regurgitating worked examples on an exam. Conclusion A shift from absolute convergent thinking practices in the mathematics classroom is necessary if educators are to combat the image problem the subject has with creativity. Embedding opportunities for divergent thinking allows mathematical creativity to flourish, because it is non-algorithmic and speaks to the deeper meaning of the subject. If we can accomplish this as educators, we would see more students empowered by mathematics and see breakthroughs in the field that help us better understand the nature of the universe.

Buckley, S 2013, ‘Deconstructing Math Anxiety: Helping students to develop a positive attitude towards learning Math,’ ACER Occasional Essays, pp. 1-3. Cropley, A 2006, ‘In Praise of Convergent Thinking’, Creativity Research Journal, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 391-404. Devlin, K 2019, What is mathematical creativity, how do we develop it, and should we try to measure it? Part 2, Mathematical Association of America, viewed 21 March 2022, https://www.mathvalues.org/ masterblog/2019/1/26/what-is-mathematical-creativity-how-do-wedevelop-it-and-should-we-try-to-measure-it-part-2 Finkel, D 2015, 5 ways to share math with kids, online video, Ted, viewed 25 May 2022, https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_finkel_5_ways_ to_share_math_with_kids Gregoire, J 2016, ‘Understanding creativity in mathematics for improving mathematical education’, Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 24-36. Hattie, J 2011, Visible learning for teachers, Routledge, London. Kroesbergen, E & Schoevers, E 2017, ‘Creativity as Predictor of Mathematical Abilities in Fourth Graders in Addition to Number Sense and Working Memory’, Journal of Numerical Cognition, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 417-440. Li, C 2019, Why We Hate Math: Three Reasons, online video, Ted, viewed 24 March 2022, https://www.ted.com/talks/carr_yijin_li_why_ we_hate_math_three_reasons Madore, K, Jing, H & Schacter, D 2016, ‘Divergent creative thinking in young and older adults: Extending the effects of an episodic specificity induction’, Memory & Cognition, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 974-988. Miller, D 2015, ‘Cultivating creativity’, The English Journal, vol. 104, no. 6, pp. 25-30. Nelson-Delaney 2020, How to teach divergent thinking, Teach Hub, viewed 25 May 2022, https://www.teachhub.com/teachingstrategies/2020/07/how-to-teach-divergent-thinking/ OECD 2015, Students, Computers and Learning: Making the Connection, PISA, OECD Publishing. Robinson, K 2006, Do schools kill creativity?, online video, Ted, viewed 31 May 2022, https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_ schools_kill_creativity Rycroft-Smith, L 2018, Building mathematical creativity, Cambridge Mathematics, viewed 21 March 2022, https://www.cambridgemaths. org/blogs/building-mathematical-creativity/ Sinek, S 2020, The infinite game, Portfolio Penguin, London. Taylor, P 2020, ‘Mathematics is about wonder, creativity and fun, so let’s teach it that way’, The Conversation, 18 July, viewed 21 March 2022, https://theconversation.com/mathematics-is-about-wondercreativity-and-fun-so-lets-teach-it-that-way-120133

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Thompson, S 2021, ‘1 in 4 Australian year 8s have teachers unqualified in maths — this hits disadvantaged schools even harder’, The Conversation, viewed 21 March 2022, https://theconversation.com/1in-4-australian-year-8s-have-teachers-unqualified-in-maths-this-hitsdisadvantaged-schools-even-harder-161100

CULTURAL APPROPRIATION

and First Nations people What is cultural appropriation? Wendy Johnston Director of Marketing and Communications

Can non-Indigenous writers incorporate Indigenous issues/themes/characters into their work without appropriating their culture?

Cultural appropriation is the act of taking/using things from a culture not your own without showing you understand or respect this culture (Hamilton n.d.). It can happen when an author from one culture reduces people from another to stereotypes, or a writer from a dominant culture writes from the perspective of a minority background, for example, a white Australian writing from the perspective of a disadvantaged Indigenous person (Proofed 2022), potentially reinforcing power imbalances and inflicting offense and humiliation. This complex issue can paralyse writers. This paper barely scratches the surface in relation to First Nations people, whose history is littered with misrepresentation, but it introduces some key considerations. Examples of real and perceived cultural appropriation abound. As Alex Turner-Cohen (2020) laments, politically correct audiences accuse writers of ‘literary appropriation whenever they represent a minority group, no matter how they do so’, referencing Latino-American author E.E. Charlton-Trujillo, whose critics claimed her novel, When We Was Fierce, appropriated a black teen voice, based on the title alone. Yet, the words of English author Hari Hunzru (2016) echo that of many writers: ‘Trespassing into otherness is a foundation of the novelist’s work ... If writers were barred from creating characters with attributes that we do not “own” (gender, ethnicity, etc), fiction would be impossible.’ Hunzru qualifies his stance: ‘Should the artist go forth boldly, without fear? Of course, but he or she should also tread with humility … Good writers transgress without transgressing, in part because they are humble about what they do not know… They research. They engage in reciprocal relationships.’ If non-Indigenous writers wish to incorporate Indigenous themes into their writing, it is vitally important they go about it the right way. When researching cultural appropriation in regards First Nations people, the words research, relationships, permissions, and protocols feature prominently. Getting it right Many First Nations writers will defend any writer’s freedom to write, while also warning there are areas where a nonIndigenous person should not tread, and others where great caution should be exercised.

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Indigenous writer Anita Heiss acknowledges there is nervousness about getting it right, as there should be, as First Nations people have either long been misrepresented, or left out altogether. She says motive is important. ‘If you are just going to slot in an Indigenous character to “tick the box”, then you really are better off leaving them out altogether’ (SheldonCollins 2014).

Indigenous writer Auntie Julie Jansen in a Queensland Writers Centre (QWC) webinar entitled ‘Writing Indigenous Characters and Themes’ agrees it is a dilemma. While it might appear racist to not incorporate Indigenous characters into a story, it can be seen as tokenism and a new form of exploitation (QWC 2022). Also presenting at the QWC webinar was Indigenous author Yvette Holt, who stressed even Indigenous people writing about areas not of their own country should engage in conversation with that area’s Elders, going through appropriate channels and making a genuine effort to connect with the local people and understand about whom and what they are writing. Both authors cautioned against non-Indigenous writers retelling creation or dreaming stories, and, in particular, inventing a Dreamtime story, which is a temptation more so in children’s literature and verges on insulting for First Nations people. Further, a non-Indigenous person using the term ‘black fella’ appropriates the inner cultural language only Indigenous people should use. Likewise, Angelina Hurley (2017) pleads, ‘stop trying to use and steal colloquial Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language ... I’m not your sis. You’re not my bro.’ Aboriginal children’s author Ambelin Kwaymullina (2015) says first-person narratives should be left for Indigenous authors to occupy, and most commentators also echo this sentiment about writing from an Indigenous perspective. Thomas Keneally says if he wrote his 1972 novel The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith today, he would not write in Blacksmith’s voice but from a white perspective, because ‘the two cultures are so different in their maps of the world that it was reckless to do it’ (Whispering Gums 2014). This statement goes to the heart of cultural appropriation of First Nations people. Their storytelling, connection to the land, belonging to a clan, and ancient culture are so unique and complex that without seeking permissions and understanding protocols great harm can be done. Holt and Jansen visibly struggled to talk about instances of the retelling of massacre stories by non-Indigenous writers, which for many Indigenous people is ‘harrowing ... beyond digestible’. They said when a subsequent play based on a novel that told of Indigenous massacres was performed ‘the people wept’ (QWC 2022). The way forward While First Nations writers defend non-Indigenous writers’ right to include Indigenous people/themes in their stories, there are considerations before taking pen to paper. Blak Business (2022) urges writers to ask: ‘Is this the best way I can show respect to First Nations peoples and culture?’ Kwaymullina (2015) says she understands a non-Indigenous writer hoping to fill the gap in literature where Indigenous people are not speaking, but says ‘are you sure we’re not speaking?’ She asserts Indigenous voices are speaking but are too often not heard, saying it’s the job of everyone to promote Indigenous voices – festival organisers, teachers, librarians, and publishers.

Conversely, Turner-Cohen (2020) contends that mainstream authors correctly representing diverse characters can reach a wide audience and challenge misconceptions. If a reader is less likely to pick up a First Nations-authored book but will consume a non-Indigenous writer’s story which respectfully portrays First Nations people, this could encourage further interest in accessing Indigenous authors’ work – voices we surely need to hear to truly know our nation. The road forward would appear to be a combination of encouraging and promoting Indigenous authors, while nonIndigenous authors commit to writing more inclusively about Australia while following established permissions and protocols and building respectful relationships. Easily accessed resources abound to commence this journey. Resources As a starting point, there are excellent resources available, which encompass writing as well as areas such as art, performance and music; however, all readings surrounding this topic emphasise communication and consultation with, and permissions from, an area's First Nations people. Dr Terri Janke’s 2021 book True Tracks: Respecting Indigenous knowledge and culture has been hailed as the book you need if you want to ‘write, talk about, illustrate or in any other way intersect with First Nations peoples and culture’ (New South Books 2021). Dr Janke’s work can also been seen in other resources including the following: Janke T 2021, More Than Words: Writing, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Culture and Copyright in Australia, Australia Council for the Arts (purchase from the Australian Society of Authors).

Blak Business 2022, Cultural appropriation and cultural appreciation: an introductory guide, viewed 20 April 2022, https://www. blakbusiness.com.au/naidoc-2021-survey Hamilton F n.d., Avoiding Misappropriating Indigenous Cultural Heritage, State Library of Queensland: Design Online, viewed 20 April 2022, http://designonline.org.au/avoiding-misappropriatingindigenous-cultural-heritage/ Hunzru H 2016, Whose life is it anyway? Novelists have their say on cultural appropriation, The Guardian, 1 October, viewed 19 April 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/oct/01/novelistscultural-appropriation-literature-lionel-shriver Hurley A 2017, Indigenous cultural appropriation: what not to do, The Conversation: Arts + Culture, viewed 24 April 2022, https:// theconversation.com/indigenous-cultural-appropriation-what-notto-do-86679 Kwaymullina A 2015, ‘We Need Diverse Books Because’: An Indigenous perspective on diversity in young adult and children’s literature in Australia, The Wheeler Centre, viewed 19 April 2022, https://www. wheelercentre.com/notes/we-need-diverse-books-because-anindigenous-perspective-on-diversity-in-young-adult-and-children-sliterature-in-australia New South Books 2021, True Tracks: Respecting Indigenous knowledge and culture, viewed 6 May 2022, https://www.newsouthbooks.com.au/ books/true-tracks/ Proofed 2022, Writing Tips: What Is Cultural Appropriation?, viewed 25 April 2022, https://getproofed.com.au/writing-tips/writing-tipswhat-is-cultural-appropriation/ Queensland Writers Centre 2022, ‘Writing Indigenous Characters and Themes’, online webinar, 19 April, viewed 19 April 2022. Sheldon-Collins D 2014, Getting it Right: Anita Heiss on Indigenous Characters, The Wheeler Centre, viewed 20 April 2022, https://www. wheelercentre.com/notes/221927959a6b Turner-Cohen A 2020, The cultural appropriation debate in literature, UTS Society of Communications, viewed 15 April 2022, http://www. utsoc.com.au/thecomma/2020/2/28/the-cultural-appropriationdebate-in-literature Whispering Gums 2014, Monday musings on Australian literature: White writers on Indigenous Australians, viewed 24 April 2022, https:// whisperinggums.com/2014/02/17/monday-musings-on-australianliterature-white-writers-on-indigenous-australians/

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Australia Council 2019, Protocols for using First Nations Cultural and Intellectual Property in the Arts (Downloadable resource from https://australiacouncil.gov.au/investment-anddevelopment/protocols-and-resources/protocols-for-usingfirst-nations-cultural-and-intellectual-property-in-the-arts/)

References

Belinda Knowles Pre-Prep Early Years Teacher

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

on early childhood development There is a long-held appreciation of the importance of play-based learning for children in the early years of education. Through play, a child develops essential skills in preparation for brain development and healthy cognitive growth; however, what if a child is not afforded this opportunity? From birth to age five, a child’s brain develops more than at any other time in their life. At birth, the average child’s brain is about a quarter the size of the average adult brain (Berk 2006); however, by age of five, the brain has grown to about 90 per cent of its full adult size (Berk 2006). A child is born already having all their brain cells (neurons) that they will have to develop and use for their entire lifetime. However, it is the connections (synapses) between these cells that are required to be built to enable the child to develop physical movement, cognitive function, social interaction, and emotional regulation (Berk 2006; Ray 2016). It is during these first five years of a child’s life that these crucial connections are made through the child’s natural curiosity and play.

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This early brain development has a lasting impact on a child’s ability to be a successful learner and adult. Science has shown us that for healthy neural development the child must be immersed in three conditions: secure relationships, a safe environment, and positive interactions (Van der Kolk 2014). The combination of these three conditions in the child’s first years of life provides them with the best opportunity for the structural brain development of their limbic system, prefrontal cortex, and brainstem (Van der Kolk 2014).

How brain connections are built: attachment, environment, and interactions Theorists such as Bowlby (Holmes 2003), Ainsworth (1985) Piaget (1999), and Vygotsky (1978) believe that a child’s cognitive growth develops with their brain structures over time as the child employs play and curiosity as their mode of learning. Beginning in infancy, the child is thrust into a world that requires interaction for understanding. For an infant to process their new surroundings, it is essential that they feel safe and protected. Bowlby (Holmes 2003) and Ainsworth (1985) believe this initial stage of cognitive development best occurs in what they term a ‘secure’ attachment. This secure relationship begins with the child’s primary caregiver and is later shared with the child’s teacher. It is characterised by the shared bond between the child and the adult (Ainsworth 1985).

nature and development of human intelligence, specifically with the nature of knowledge itself and how children gradually acquire, construct, and use it (Piaget 1999). Children in the early years employ their five senses through play to explore their environment and gather information to develop an understanding of the world around them (Piaget 1999). Critical to this exploration is the child’s belief that they are safe within their surroundings, which encourages further investigation. Ultimately, Piaget’s theory relies on the child having a safe environment to explore their curiosity in experiences to build their cognitive understanding and schemes.

A secure attachment is built on responsive interactions between the child and their caregiver. In the early years, attachment and brain architecture is shaped using a ‘serve and return’ play response (Holmes 2003). For example, a child babbles or cries, and the adult responds appropriately with eye contact, words, or physical touch. Neurologically, this interaction begins to build connections in the brain that support the child’s development of communication and social skills ready for playful learning interactions throughout childhood.

Vygotsky (1978) focused on a child’s cognitive functions based on their social interactions, believing that children were born with four primary mental functions – attention, sensation, perception, and memory – and it is the child’s social and cultural environment that allows them to use these skills to develop and gain cognitive functioning. Vygotsky continues by stating that the child should be supported by a knowledgeable adult or caregiver that carefully scaffolds the child’s learning. This learning distance is what he termed the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD. Like Piaget’s theory, which relies on a safe environment for exploration, Vygotskian theory is based on the child’s need to have a supportive, knowledgeable, and attentive caregiver for neural development (Vygotsky 1978; Piaget 1993).

Piaget’s (1999) theory of cognitive development continues to build on our understanding of a child’s mental processing. His theory focused on the

However, what happens if there is a disruption during this development and a child does not have the opportunity for positive interactions with their

Fear and Anxiety Affect the Brain Architecture of Learning and Memory

caregivers, a safe environment that ultimately supports the child’s play development, or a protective and secure relationship? COVID-19 as a traumatic event Little research has been conducted to understand the impact the COVID-19 pandemic has had on our youngest learners; only time will uncover the full effect. Regardless, COVID-19 has influenced a child’s ability to engage in secure relationships, safe environments, and social interactions that develop their cognitive functioning in preparation for learning. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused many disruptions to the lives of our children. Like many countries around the globe, Australia introduced unprecedented restrictions on society to limit the spread of the virus, including lockdowns, social distancing, mask wearing, and the closures of schools. Let’s consider how these measures impacted our youngest learners. When we consider COVID-19, the word ‘trauma’ might not be the first thing that comes to mind. But this pandemic has challenged us in ways that we could never have imagined. The definition of trauma is constantly evolving as new information from research comes to light. However, broadly speaking, trauma is caused by a series of events, or a single significant, stressful, or prolonged event that occurs outside the range of usual human experience (Steele & Malchiodi 2012). Using this definition, the COVID-19 pandemic, along with its associated restrictions, fits this description. It has been long endured and stressful and has created a sense of uncertainty in children.

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Work by Van der Kolk (2002) and Immordino-Yang and Damasio (2007) has discovered that when a child experiences a trauma, such as the pandemic, whether consciously or subconsciously, the limbic system (emotions) overrides the child’s prefrontal cortex (reasoning). Consequently, the child’s brain and body respond to the trauma in a physiological manner by

prioritising survival over learning (play). Consequently, due to the restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, children in the early years have suffered a traumatic event that has impacted their development. Impact on brain development Attachment and social interaction For many families, lockdowns and closures of schools have meant an imposed isolation. Dealing with isolation has been particularly stressful for parents. Many were required to quickly learn how to balance personal life, work, and raising children alone without their usual support and resources such as extended family or early care facilities. This situation placed the parents at a higher risk of experiencing distress, impairing their ability to be supportive caregivers, and impacting the bond of a secure attachment (Ainsworth 1985). From a development standpoint, this has impacted the child’s ability to create secure attachments. The child’s primary caregiver is often left balancing both work and family commitments in the home environment, which impacts the adult carer’s mental health. The child then struggles to receive the serve and return process required for attachment, which consequently delays the development of the child’s prefrontal cortex that processes interpersonal signals necessary for social interaction between individuals (Schore 2001). Isolation has also limited the child’s ability to form, connect, and converse with similarly aged peers. This interaction is heavily reliant on play and assists the child in developing their ability to form a communication style and regulate their emotions (Berk 2006). This isolation has meant little to no access to extended family, thus placing additional mental distress and financial pressures on parents.

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Environment

Alongside the impact on attachment is the effect on families to provide a child with a safe environment to explore.

Many parents had a difficult time dealing with the additional pressures and fear of the COVID-19 virus, and for some, this anxiety was inadvertently passed on to their children. Much of this fear may have been initiated from the lack of knowledge and understanding of the impact that contracting the virus may have on our children. As a result, some families began limiting their child’s exploration of their environment by imposing their own restrictions on their children, such as removal from educational settings (Baxter 2021). This limitation placed on the child removed their confidence to explore their environment and construct their understanding of the world through play and investigation. Subsequently, the pandemic impacted the child’s conditions for typical brain development. It prevented the child’s engagement in play to form secure attachments, explore their environment, and interact with their peers. These key indicators for future success have now changed the structural development of the child’s brain, which has consequences for their education, learning, and future success. Conclusion We need to accept that all children who are now at the beginning of their formal years of education have been subjected to a traumatic event. Therefore, the relationships we form with children and the learning space that we provide them have never been more vital. Moving forward, this is a pivotal opportunity for education to explore curriculum decision-making, and teaching and learning practices. We must provide this current generation with the conditions required for healthy neural development to ensure they are given the best opportunity to grow into healthy adults. If we fail in doing this, the full impact may not be understood until 2035 when this generation is moving into adulthood.

References Ainsworth, MDS 1985, ‘Patterns of infant– mother attachment: antecedents and effects on development’, Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med, vol. 61, no. 9, pp. 771-791. Baxter, J 2021, Families in Australia Survey Report no. 3: Childcare in 2020, Australian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne. Berk, L E 2006, Child Development, Pearson International, USA. Holmes, J 1993, John Bowlby and Attachment Theory, Routledge, London. Immordino-Yang, MH & Damasio, A 2007, ‘We Feel, Therefore We Learn: The Relevance of Affective and Social Neuroscience to Education’, Mind, Brain and Education, vol. 1, no.1, pp. 3-10. Piaget, J 1999, Play, dreams and imitation in childhood, Routledge, London. Ray, D 2016, A therapist’s guide to child development: the extraordinarily normal years, Routledge, New York. Schore, AN 2001, ‘Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health’, Infant Mental Health Journal, vol. 22, no. 1-2, pp. 7-66. Steel, W & Malchiodi, CA 2012, TraumaInformed practice with children and adolescents. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York. Van der Kolk, BA 2014, The body keeps score: mind, brain, and body in the transformation of trauma, Penguin Books, London. Van der Kolk, BA 2002, ‘Beyond the talking cure: Somatic experience and subcortical imprints in the treatment of trauma’, in F Shapiro (ed.), EMDR as an integrative psychotherapy approach: Experts of diverse orientations explore the paradigm prism, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Vygotsky, LS 1978, ‘The Role of Play in Development’, in M Cole, V John-Steiner, S Scribner, E Souberman (eds), Mind in Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Applications of

effective teaching strategies

Hattie (2003) argues that teachers account for 30 per cent of the variance in student achievement.

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Caitlin McCluskey Dean of Academics

This effect size is second only to the students themselves and is far greater than the home and school environment and peer influence. Hattie makes the distinction between the experienced and the expert teacher, noting that expert teachers are superior when monitoring the learning of their students, with this usually resulting in greater outcomes for said students (2003). Many of Hattie’s findings have been supported by multiple researchers and studies, including Floden and Meniketti (2005), Kennedy (2008), and Pashler et al. (2007a). Such findings have prompted researchers to investigate some of the ways that teachers in the classroom can implement more effective teaching and learning strategies to track student progress and develop student metacognition. As Agarwal and Roediger (2018) surmise, it is imperative to ‘get knowledge about effective learning strategies (ones shown to work in both lab experiments and classroom studies) into the hands of teachers’ (p. 9).

Retrieval

Spacing

While teachers tend to view tests as assessment tools rather than learning tools, many teachers already use retrieval frequently in lessons through use of questioning. This, however, does not necessarily engage all students in the act of retrieval (Pearsall 2018), and therefore, more structured, formative retrieval opportunities are recommended. The benefit frequent low-stakes testing has is well-researched, so use of ‘pop quizzes’ at the beginning or end of the lesson to recall key information and processes is an easy way to implement retrieval (Glegg 2015). Minear et al. (2018) have found that item difficulty is key to maximum benefits, recommending increasing item difficulty using testing that requires generation of answers rather than recognition of an answer, for example, short response rather than multiple choice. It has also been noted by Pyc et al. (2016) that the benefits of retrieval practice are more pronounced as the delay between encoding and a final test increases, so ensuring that spacing between testing opportunities increases throughout the retention period is important. Avvisati and Borgonovi (2020) found that solving problems in test conditions led to improvement in similar types of questions even without corrective feedback, indicating that students should be provided with opportunities to attempt Complex Unfamiliar questions in preparation for examinations. However, Avvisati and Borgonovi specify that such gains were only found in scenarios where students expended an appropriate amount of effort, indicating that this approach may not be as effective for all students.

Given that literature suggests spaced learning can lead to high levels of failure in retrieval and therefore negate some of the retrieval benefits, it is important to use spacing effectively and intentionally in the classroom (Pashler et al. 2007b). Lyle et al. (2020) also found that while spacing retrieval practice benefited long term content retention (which is the focus of this literature review), it resulted in decreased quiz performance which could potentially cause disengagement with lower achieving students. Most research focuses on the spacing of retrieval, rather than the spacing of curriculum (Lyle et al. 2020), which supports the findings of interleaving research that interleaving (and therefore spacing) is only effective once a sufficient knowledge base is formed. Therefore, spacing in the mathematics classroom is likely to occur through two forms: retrieval practice intertwined with interleaving, and the circular, hierarchical curriculum that requires students to continue to use and build on prior knowledge over an extended period of time. The hierarchical curriculum occurs naturally within the mathematics classroom in Queensland due to the nature of the National Curriculum. However, it would be beneficial to break the strands up across each year to allow for shorter spacing periods rather than chunk each strand and only return to the content once a year, as Wiseheart et al.’s (2008) research indicates that for a full year retention, optimum spacing is 23 days. Teachers have more control over the use of spacing when performing retrieval tasks such as starter questions or ‘pop quizzes’. For optimum effects, teachers should aim for five to seven retrievals between teaching a concept and it being assessed on an examination (Morano 2019).

Feedback

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Research carried out by Barker et al. (2019) indicates that immediate feedback produces greater retention than delayed feedback, a finding supported by Fyfe and Rittle-Johnson (2016). Thereby, it stands to reason that utilising time in the classroom to provide informal feedback can be more beneficial to students than the delayed feedback given on formal assessment tasks. Shute’s (2008) study on formative feedback suggests that there are specific feedback strategies that enhance learning, such as ensuring feedback is simple and focused, task focused rather than learning focused, and clear and specific. Interestingly, the study’s findings also indicated that when feedback included comparison between students, included praise, or involved an overall grade, there were little to no gains in student outcomes (Shute 2008). Fyfe (2016) finds that computer-based feedback, such as Kahoot!, quizziz or similar online programs, provide immediate correct-answer feedback that most benefits students with limited prior knowledge but also provides as much benefit to more advanced students as ‘try-again’ or more detailed feedback. Pearsall (2018) also provides strategies for feedback that promote self-regulated learning, including peer-marking with a scaffold, and ranking sample pieces of work. These types of strategies provide more comprehensive feedback than content recall tools such as Kahoot! and are therefore more appropriate for challenging questions (Butler et al. 2013).

Interleaving Most mathematics textbooks will present content in a blocked fashion (Rohrer et al. 2020), as it is in the Teaching, Learning and Assessment Plans (TLAPs) that have been provided by the QCAA to assist with program implementation. Considering this, it is not surprising that many teachers either do not consider interleaving or find the thought of it confusing or overwhelming. Agarwal and Agostinelli, (2020) argue that interleaving does not need to be as complex and involved as potentially believed. Instead, rather than interleaving entire topics, concepts within a topic can be interleaved for a similar outcome. For example, when teaching trigonometry, the sine, cosine and tangent ratios can all be taught together, along with interleaving finding unknown angles and sides (Agarwal & Agostinelli 2020). This is supported in part by a study conducted by Rau et al. (2013), where the sample consisted of 158 mathematics students ages 9 – 12 and focused on interleaving with the operational and representational knowledge of fractions. The outcomes of the study found that, generally, interleaving task types leads to stronger knowledge in terms of representation, but not operational knowledge. This indicates that while interleaving within a topic can be beneficial, it can be more effective to ‘interleave learning tasks along the

dimension with the greatest variability’ (Rau et al. 2013, pp. 109-110). In this context, that would mean interleaving with fractional operations (compare, add, subtract, etc.) rather than changing the graphical representations with the same operations. Agarwal & Agostinelli (2020) also suggest students can be supported to interleave and space outside of the classroom by setting homework sets that cover a combination of work from current work as well as that covered previously, whether that be a week or a year ago. Mixing the different concepts together (that is, interleaving) when practising also harnesses the benefits of the interleaving effects, which, according to Carpenter (2014), will lead to better retention on a final test when compared to blocking. For many teachers, some of these strategies are already being employed in the classroom, such as ongoing questioning and verbal feedback and informal quizzes using programs such as Kahoot!. For those strategies that are not always employed, for example interleaving and spacing in the mathematics classroom, there are small, impactful ways to easily integrate these into pedagogy and lesson structure. The key takeaways for staff are that a common language and understanding of these strategies across teaching staff, and using the common language and naming the strategies, can be instrumental in getting students on board (Yan et al. 2016). References Agarwal, P & Agostinelli, A 2020, ‘Interleaving in Math: A ResearchBased Strategy to Boost Learning’, American Educator, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 24-28. Avvisati, F & Borgonovi, F 2020, ‘Learning Mathematics Problem Solving through Test Practice: a Randomized Field Experiment on a Global Scale’, Educational Psychology Review, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 791-814 Barker, L & Moore, J & Olmi, J & Rowsey, K 2019, ‘A Comparison of Immediate and Post-Session Feedback with Behavioral Skills Training to Improve Interview Skills in College Students’, Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, vol. 39, pp. 1-19. Butler, A & Godbole, N & Marsh, E 2013, ‘Explanation Feedback Is Better Than Correct Answer Feedback for Promoting Transfer of Learning’, Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 105, no.2, pp. 290-298. Carpenter, SK 2014, ‘Spacing and Interleaving of Study and Practice’, in VA Benassi, CE Overson, & CM Hakala (eds), Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum, Teachpsych.org, viewed 29 May 2022, http://teachpsych. org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php Floden, R & Meniketti, M 2005, ‘Research on the effects of coursework in the arts and sciences and in the foundations of education’, in M Cochran-Smith & K Zeichner (eds), Studying Teacher Education: The report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, NJ, USA.

Hattie, J 2003, ‘Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence?’, viewed 29 May 2022, http://research.acer.edu.au/research_ conference_2003/4/ Kennedy, M 2008, ‘Contributions of Qualitative Research to Research on Teacher Qualifications’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol. 30, pp. 344-367. Lyle, K & Bego, C & Hopkins, R & Hieb, J & Ralston, P 2020, ‘How the Amount and Spacing of Retrieval Practice Affect the Short- and LongTerm Retention of Mathematics Knowledge’, Educational Psychology Review, vol. 32, pp. 277-295. Minear, M & Coane, J & Boland, S & Cooney, L & Albat, M 2018, ‘The benefits of retrieval practice depend on item difficulty and intelligence’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, vol. 44, no. 9, pp. 1474-1486. Morano, S 2019, ‘Retrieval Practice for Retention and Transfer’, Teaching Exceptional Children, vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 436-444 Pashler, H & Bain, P & Bottge, B & Graesser, A & Koedinger, K & McDaniel, M & Metcalfe, J 2007a, Organizing instruction and study to improve student learning (NCER 2007 – 2004), National Centre for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington DC. Pashler, H & Rohrer, D & Wiseheart, M & Carpenter, S 2007b, ‘Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences’, Psychonomic bulletin & review, vol. 14, no.2, pp. 187-93. Pearsall, G 2018, Fast and Effective Assessment: How to reduce your workload and improve student learning, Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, VA, USA. Pyc, M A & Agarwal, P K & Roediger, H L 2014, ‘Test-enhanced Learning’, in VA Benassi, CE Overson, & CM Hakala (eds), Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum. Teachpsych.org, viewed 29 May 2022, http://teachpsych. org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php Rau, M & Aleven, V & Rummel, N 2013, ‘Interleaved practice in multidimensional learning tasks: Which dimension should we interleave?’, Learning and Instruction, vol. 23, pp. 98-114. Rohrer, D & Dedrick, R & Hartwig, M 2020, ‘The Scarcity of Interleaved Practice in Mathematics Textbooks’, Educational Psychology Review, vol. 32, no.3, pp. 873-883. Shute, V 2008, ‘Focus on Formative Feedback’, Review of Educational Research, vol. 78, no. 1. pp. 153-189. Wiseheart, M & Vul, E & Rohrer, D & Wixted, J & Pashler, H 2008, ‘Spacing Effects in Learning A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention’, Psychological Science, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 95-102. Yan, V & Bjork, E & Bjork, R 2016, ‘On the difficulty of mending metacognitive illusions: A priori theories, fluency effects, and misattributions of the interleaving benefit’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 145, no. 7, pp. 918-933.

Fyfe, E 2016, ‘Providing feedback on computer-based algebra homework in middle-school classrooms’, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 63, pp. 568-574.

Glegg, P 2015, ‘Testing as a Tool for Learning: Ideas for Classroom Application’, Teaching Business & Economics, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 14-16.

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Francis, S & Nagel, M 2020, ‘Your high-performance guide to study and learning’, Hawker Brownlow Education, University of Sunshine Coast, Queensland.

Fyfe, E & Rittle-Johnson, B 2016, ‘The benefits of computer-generated feedback for mathematics problem solving’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 147, pp. 140-151.

Helen Philp Secondary English Teacher

PRIORITISING READING PLEASURE Reading Immersion in St Margaret’s English (RISE) The importance of reading to young people’s successful outcomes and participation, both in and beyond school, is undeniable. Reading’s significance is affirmed within the Australian F–10 Curriculum, where word recognition and phonic knowledge are taught from foundation years, and literacy, a General Capability encompassing reading, must be prioritised across all subject areas to enable ‘learning and communicating in and out of school and for participating effectively in society’ (ACARA 2020).

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Thus, the value of reading as a skill is well-established. But what of reading for pleasure? In her article Reclaiming Pleasure in the Teaching of Reading (2012), Sharon Murphy notes an increasing ‘preoccupation with standards and literacy skills’ in educational policy documents over the past 100 years and less explicit discourse about the role of pleasure in reading. Terms such as

‘delight’, ‘glow’ and ‘love’ are sidelined by a focus on functionality in reading instruction, reflecting the need for schools to ensure student achievement in text-based tests and to support students’ ability to participate in societies and economies where ‘literacy and the “knowledge economy” [are] driving forces’ (Murphy 2012, p. 321). However, the English teachers at St Margaret’s, for whom a passion for reading comes not only from its operation as a functional skill of literacy and academic performance, but also from its potential for imaginative escape, empathic engagement, aesthetic quality, and joy, recognise the importance of pleasure if students are to read actively, widely, and on into adulthood. Indeed, as Murphy (2012, p. 325) suggests: ‘When pleasure and reading are companions, we know very well that children become engaged readers and are likely

to continue to read throughout their lives.’ Moreover, we know that pleasure and function are inextricably linked; our experience repeatedly affirms the association between the enjoyment of reading and reading achievement. It is from this context that Reading Immersion in St Margaret’s English, or RISE, was introduced in 2022. Beginning with Year 8 and extending to Years 7 and 9 in 2023, RISE complements the already rich reading culture of the English and Literacy Boost programs at St Margaret’s. Pleasure is paramount, as is a desire to inspire a lifelong love of reading in all students. To achieve our ambitious ends, the department identified several priorities that shaped RISE’s content and structure: firstly, the need to activate pre-requisite knowledge before reading to ensure baseline comprehension; secondly, exposure to a wide range of voices and genres; and

finally, opportunities for student-choice that afford self-differentiated levels of challenge and perceptions of ownership in students’ relationship with reading. The activation phase

Textual range in RISE In contributing ideas for the RISE program, one St Margaret’s English teacher said: There are so many great middle years novels that we could be exploring. Maybe just exposure might be a good way to go – to different kinds of stories to balance and complement the subject matter explored in the [existing English] programs. Indeed, the amount of quality text-options can be a challenge for teachers designing English programs constrained by time and by the desire to include canonical texts alongside the contemporary, and to ensure representation of diverse voices and

Another activation task takes a morphological approach before reading the crime and mystery text The Outlaws Scarlett and Brown, by Jonathon Stroud. Students list words beginning with the prefix ‘out’, then use that list to determine what the prefix denotes, and finally define the word ‘outlaw’, hypothesising what qualities an outlaw might possess. One component of proficient comprehension is the ability to cope with any unfamiliar words encountered

during reading (RAND & Snow 2002, p. 37), and proficient comprehension is a foundational component of pleasurable reading.

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Prior to reading each text in the RISE booklet, the teacher leads the class through activities designed to activate pre-requisite knowledge. UK Assistant Principal and English Teacher Jennifer Webb explains on her web log how these tasks ‘contextualise the text’, and, through associated discussion, teachers ‘ensure that students have the baseline understanding they need in order to access what is coming in a meaningful way’ (Webb 2022). While the explicit teaching of comprehension skills is prioritised elsewhere in the English and Literacy Boost curriculums and not the core focus in RISE, we understand the absence of meaningful understanding to be a barrier to enjoyment when reading.

For example, before reading two poems from Joseph Coehlo’s book The Girl Who Became a Tree, students read a brief synopsis of the Greek myth of Daphne, a girl who transformed herself into a tree to escape the god Apollo. Students infer what can be learned about Daphne from the ancient myth to understand how Coehlo has adapted it into a modern story of a girl who seeks privacy and solace in her local library.

cultures. Some of our eager readers enjoy specific authors, genres, or book series so much that their wider reading becomes bounded within these preferences. Conversely, some students don’t know where to start with their self-selection of texts for independent reading, so abundant are the available choices or limited their reading of texts that they actually enjoy. Thus, textual range and exposure emerged as priorities for RISE. The program includes excerpts and activities from twelve different genres, including Historical Fiction, Science Fiction, Inspirational Women and Girls, Australian First Nations Voices, Memoir, and Hybrid or Graphic texts. The scope for pleasure and reading inspiration is maximised through this variety, offering ‘something for everyone’ and the opportunity for students to empathically engage with experiences both like and unlike their own. In these ways, RISE creates ‘a quilting of voices so that our students will be able to “hear” and “see” multiple possibilities’ (Pierce-Baker 1990, p. 159). Student choice – taking ownership of the reading journey

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We have already characterised our current educational climate as dominated by standardisation and testing. Within this context, if students are to feel empowered and motivated, it is particularly important for teachers to give them voice and choice (Simmons & Page 2010, p. 65). With its focus on reading pleasure and participation in the now, and a love of reading that endures into the future, such student choice is fundamental within RISE. Its format respects students as readers capable of selecting texts and associated activities that align with their capabilities and interests. Indeed, as Murphy (2012, p. 35) states: ‘Offering choice or some degree of autonomy, a characteristic associated with enjoyment and pleasure, can do much on its own.’

Choice is embedded in RISE in two ways. Firstly, students can choose from different creative activities that further explore the lesson’s reading. For example,

after reading the historical fiction extract from When the Guns Fall Silent by James Riordan, students choose one of the text’s sentences as a prompt for imaginative writing. Their options are ‘It was so peaceful’, ‘How can you explain fear?’, or ‘How could they understand?’. After reading an extract from Ahn Do’s memoir, The Happiest Refugee, which describes his family’s perilous escape by boat from Vietnam to Australia, students choose whether to write imaginatively about a memorable journey they have taken, or to write empathically in the form of a diary entry from Ahn Do’s mother’s perspective, recounting the journey described in the text. Secondly, students can choose from a suggested reading list to extend their exposure to each text and its genre. The ‘Extend’ step at the end of each RISE lesson’s activities encourages students to either read the whole book from which the extract was drawn, or to select from a recommended wider reading list at the back of the booklet. The books are categorised by genre, with three or four suggestions provided for each. The St Margaret’s Senior Library stocks copies of all texts referenced in the RISE booklet, either in physical, eBook or audio format. Measuring impact

RISE’s format and collaborate to identify opportunities for future growth and modification, reshaping the program to maximise its potential as it expands to Years 7 and 9 in 2023. Parents are also well-placed to gauge our success; they may observe more reading at home, or perhaps their daughter will initiate or participate more enthusiastically in conversations about books with explicit reference to reading in RISE. Ultimately, while measuring impact and the improvement of pedagogical approaches to reading are important, RISE offers respite from formal curriculum and the focus on functional skills. Through an approach that empowers and respects students’ autonomy and individuality as readers, we hope that ‘delight’, ‘glow’ and ‘love’ will come to characterise their relationship with reading at St Margaret’s and beyond. References ACARA 2020, Australian F-10 Curriculum Version 8.4, viewed 30 March 2022, https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10curriculum/learning-areas/ Coehlo, J 2020, The Girl Who Became a Tree, Otter-Barry Books, Herefordshire, UK. Do, A 2010, The Happiest Refugee, Allen and Unwin, Australia. McGraw, A and Mason, M 2017, ‘Reading as an imaginative act: Strategies for reading’, English in Australia, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 9-19.

Encouraging reading for pleasure, maximising reading motivation and inspiring a lifelong love of reading are admirable and valuable aims. But the St Margaret’s English Department must now address the question of how to measure whether RISE is fit-for-purpose. Pleasure and motivation are abstract concepts, so how are we to know if the program has been a success?

Murphy, S 2012, ‘Reclaiming Pleasure in the Teaching of Reading’, Language Arts, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 318-328.

This year, we will gather qualitative feedback from students and staff, using questionnaire responses, teacher observations, and class discussions to glean enjoyment and the extent to which the program has encouraged more pleasurable, regular, or more varied reading practices. Year 8 teachers will participate in reflective conversations about the strengths and weaknesses of

Riordan, J 2000, When the Guns Fall Silent, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

Pierce-Baker, C 1990, ‘A Quilting of Voices: Diversifying the Curriculum/Canon in the Traditional Humanities’, College Literature, vol. 17, pp. 152-161. RAND Reading Study Group & Snow, C 2002, ‘A Research Agenda for Improving Reading Comprehension’, Reading for Understanding, pp. 29-59.

Simmons, A & Page, M 2010, ‘Motivating Students through Power and Choice’, The English Journal, vol. 100, pp. 65-69. Stroud, J 2021, The Outlaws Scarlett and Browne, Walker Books, Australia. Webb, J 2022, ‘A Literacy post…’, Funky Pedagogy, web log post, viewed 28 January 2022, https://funkypedagogy.com/aliteracy-post/

The benefits of involving students in the business of philanthropy

Our students are the reason that donors invest in our school, whether that be in bursaries for girls to access or continue their St Margaret’s education despite their financial circumstances or in bricks and mortar to create an educational environment that supports a high-quality teaching and learning

Lara Pickering Director of Philanthropy and Stakeholder Engagement

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When I share that our students at St Margaret’s actively engage in helping to fundraise for their school, I’m often met with a look of surprise. It is very typical within the university sector that the beneficiaries of philanthropy play a role in the management of donor relationships throughout the cultivation, solicitation, and stewardship stages; however, in schools we tend to encourage our students to direct their efforts in fundraising to societal causes.

experience for all. To deliver an authentic experience for our donors where they feel truly connected to the cause, engaging our students in the process makes sense. But what about from a student perspective? It has been said that our students do not view themselves or their school as a worthy cause. They have traditionally focused on fundraising for community non-profit organisations that too will make a significant difference in the lives of those they assist. And this should continue. However, it need not be one or the other. Also providing the opportunity for our students to engage with our donors lays the groundwork for them to pay their wonderful educational experience forward. It allows them to view their education and institution through the lens of a donor. While the reasons that donors give to our school are varied, common motivation can be found in that they are giving to an organisation that meets needs, not that has needs. They are investing in the next generations of young women who will go on to make a positive contribution to broader society. Their giving will have a ripple effect. Seeing their institution through the eyes of a donor helps us to build and strengthen our culture of philanthropy. A wonderful example of this in action has been having our students who are being supported by a donor-funded bursary meet with the donor and hear from them as to why supporting girls’ education is important to them on a personal level. Our students’ role here in donor stewardship not only helps to foster the culture of philanthropy at the student level but also creates an experience for the donor that encourages them to continue or extend their support as they are seeing firsthand the impact they are having. This can also be achieved by having our students participate in other stewardship activities such as writing thank you notes or a letter of gratitude to those supporting their school. On Giving Day, our students are also involved in making phone calls to Old Girls, parents, and other members of the St Margaret’s community to promote awareness of the school’s philanthropic activities and to ask for and encourage participation in giving. This is a valuable exercise in developing some of the soft skills for our senior students who volunteer. It creates a scenario where they are developing specific communication skills. Communicating verbally over the phone with a person, one to one, that they do not know personally requires them to build rapport, to actively listen, and to read verbal cues in language and tone, while always remaining polite and courteous representing their school.

Some calls may also require some thinking on their feet and problem solving. Participating in these activities also teaches teamwork and helps to develop self-confidence. According to Apex Leadership Co. (2020), ‘Interestingly, self-confidence can also be built by hearing that dreaded word “no.” Especially for younger children that may be used to getting their way, hearing the word no and moving past it to receive more “yeses” can help encourage children to keep going … and that helps improve self-esteem. Many other parts of fundraising help build self-esteem, including hard work, goal setting and achievement. As students push themselves through challenges and achieve their goals, their self-confidence will grow.’ While it is exciting for them to receive a ‘yes’ and to secure a donation in this scenario, equally of value are the calls where they hang up and have engaged in a very positive conversation with a past student who is keen to hear about their St Margaret’s experience and the school now. These points of connection are extremely valuable for us in engaging our Old Girls in the life of the school in the present day. Engaging our students in philanthropy also helps to bolster their school pride. Knowing that someone who is no longer a student at the school is passionate enough to donate and invest in the school now is extremely powerful. It wasn’t just the senior students that took valuable lessons away from Giving Day. Our Pre-Prep students made a group decision to donate their gold coins on the day to the Scholarship Fund for bursaries, in their words, ‘to help girls learn’. Here, they made a decision based on the impact they wanted their collective dollar to have at their school – future philanthropists in the making! References Apex Leadership 2020, What Children Learn from Fundraising, Apex Leadership Co, viewed 3 June 2022, https://apexleadershipco.com/ blog/what-children-learn-from-fundraising

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Mulu M aguydan

Margot Shave Secondary English Teacher

Pronounc ed moo -loo moo g-eye-du n

Mulu Maguydan: A collection of stories from our Elders

Following the success of our first publication, Gidhal, in 2020, St Margaret’s is proud to launch Mulu Maguydan, a collection of Elder stories, during NAIDOC Week 2022. The magazine is a culmination of 18 months of conversations and research by the 32 First Nations students of St Margaret’s and was coordinated by me and Assistant Head of the English Faculty Noel Peinke. The project is the result of an Innovation Grant, awarded to both teachers in March 2021, allowing funds to organise excursions and incursions for these students to meet Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists, writers, journalists, elders, curators, and librarians working in and around Brisbane. As two non-Indigenous teachers, it was vitally important that the voices for this project came from First Nations people. In this, we owe a debt of gratitude to Aunty Lesley Williams, Rhianna Patrick, Ellen van Neerven, Nikita Newley and staff from the Queensland State Library for sharing their time and expertise in working with the girls through their storytelling, art workshops and writing sessions. Both Gidhal and Mulu Maguydan (moo-loo moog-eye-dun) are tangible acts of Reconciliation within our school as the goal behind both projects has been to strengthen relations between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous Australians through sharing knowledge. This comes from asking questions and learning about the unique community and culture of the families of our First Nations students. The end result is a repository of stories for the entire St Margaret’s community. In the time since Gidhal was published in October 2020, the magazine has been used across the entire school with First Nations students sharing their stories with Pre-Prep and primary classes. Articles from the magazine were used in the Year 10 Religion, Values and Ethics classes. The Sociocultural Faculty also used Aunty Lesley Williams’ stories as part of their Year 10 Rights and Freedoms unit in Term 3 last year, looking at how the lives of Indigenous Australians were controlled by the government. The magazine was also awarded an Innovative Schools Award in 2020 for its contribution to Reconciliation, by The Educator magazine.

At publication, we have a beautiful magazine, published in-house by our marketing department, which becomes another rich vein of stories from our First Nations families. We are honoured to read of Chantay and Aaliyah Turner’s grandmother, Aka Kailang, a proud Wagadagam woman from Mabuiag (Mabuyag) Island in the Torres Strait, who worked to support women who had been victims of domestic violence until she passed away in 2007. We learn of Sharlotte Parker-Barry’s Aunt and Elder, Aunty Kerry, and her childhood spent around Mt Isa, learning to hunt and cook goanna, kangaroo and bush turkey. We imagine the life of pearl diver Ali Drummond, who worked on pearling ships in the Torres Strait and raised seven children with his wife, Carmen, on Thursday Island. The stories invite us in and allow us a moment to consider the racism and injustice experienced by these family members and the stories of grandparents and relatives who spent their lives living under the Aboriginal Protection Act, finally repealed in 1969, (National Museum of Australia 2022). They also remind us of resilience and many of the extraordinary lives of these Elders. Above all, these are stories for our collective future. Each interview has been shared willingly and students are to be applauded for their commitment and respect shown to the process. I would like to thank the staff who generously supported Elder Stories over the past few months, the students who worked tirelessly on their submissions, and above all, the families of our First Nations students who fielded phone calls and emails, sent photos, shared artworks, answered questions and placed their trust in us to share their stories in this publication. References

National Museum of Australia 2022, Defining Moments: Aborigines Protection Act, viewed 31 May 2022, https://www.nma.gov.au/ defining-moments/resources/aborigines-protection-act

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For Mulu Maguydan – or Elder Stories as the project was named during the 18 months working period – the students were asked to think about an Elder from their family or wider community and spend time learning more about their childhood, work life and their hopes and dreams for the future.

Meanin g Story

one From the Jandai/Gu which is war/Yag sp Ngugi pe oken by the Nu ara languages na oples fro m Quan gal, Goenbal an damook a Country d .

Nikki Townsend Dean of Students

The importance of co-curricular involvement for students

Co-curricular activities are non-academic programs that contribute and complement the academic curriculum. The camps, service learning, sport, music, and global exchange programs combine with St Margaret’s pastoral care days to play a very significant role in reinforcing students’ overall development by fostering the necessary qualities and skills that enhance their understanding levels and academic learning capabilities. St Margaret’s is committed to establishing the educational foundation for young women to contribute confidently to their world with intuition, imagination, and integrity. The school is known for a culture of learning that extends beyond academic domains, offering a diverse range of co-curricular activities that provide challenges outside the classroom and enable students to strengthen their minds and bodies and develop commitment and determination. Involvement in co-curricular activities develops students’ talents and abilities, their understanding of responsible participation, and inspires contribution to a greater purpose. There are five key components to St Margaret’s co-curricular program that underpin the school’s aspiration of enriched learning, the intent and the guiding principles of which foster the development of a person with good character. The school aims to prepare our students to be confident, capable, and compassionate young women, and this mission is supported by our co-curricular programs. These five components are very much inter-related. 1. Courage and resilience

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Through co-curricular involvement, students have the opportunity to strengthen existing talents and find their passion, which in turn builds confidence and self-esteem. When students feel confident in a supported environment, they are more prepared to step out of their comfort zone and take risks. The more exposure students have to feeling a little uncomfortable with the unknown, the more they will develop the courage to try new things. When stepping out of their comfort zone, students may experience the fear of failure. For example, failure could mean that the student has not been selected for their desired team, club, or group. The student may feel devastated by this outcome. However, through failure, students can learn the most valuable lessons about themselves, such as learning to cope with disappointment and the importance of being able to bounce back with determination and commitment (Crimson 2022). 2. Service to others

Through service learning, students are encouraged to take thoughtful, ethical, and purposeful action to advocate for a

more just world. Students are provided with the opportunity to lead initiatives that have a positive impact on other people and, more broadly, society. They come to understand the importance of giving back, becoming active citizens who engage meaningfully with the community. Providing service to others inspires a student’s contribution to a greater purpose. Students can gain a better understanding of themselves and others as they explore and develop ways to contribute to their communities. The OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) suggests that ‘reinforcing global competence is vital for individuals to thrive in a rapidly changing world and for societies to progress without leaving anyone behind’ (PISA 2022). 3. Emotional and intellectual intelligence In conjunction with the academic program, whether it be through the sport, music, drama, or service programs, or the various clubs and activities offered at the school, St Margaret’s is facilitating the development of students’ intellectual and emotional intelligence. Ryan (2022) says research suggests that ‘students who manage their own emotions and manage the emotions of others effectively appear to be able to focus on learning, have a positive attitude towards learning, make an effort to learn, and perform better’. A person’s ability to perceive, control, evaluate, and express emotions is vitally important, particularly when they are working in a team situation. Having knowledge of the world,

visual processing, working memory, and reasoning are also equally important attributes required to assist individuals to navigate a successful and meaningful life. 4. 21st century life skills Twenty-first century skills are more important to students now than ever before. They not only provide a framework for successful learning in the classroom, but they ensure students can thrive in a world where change is constant and learning never stops (Ross 2017). These skills are also enormously important for our nation and global future. St Margaret’s cocurricular activities provide varied opportunities for students to enhance their critical and creative thinking; gain the skills to engage effectively with the community; demonstrate initiative and communication; learn skills around team dynamics and collaboration; and embrace and promote inclusion and grow their awareness of diversity. These are all considered life skills for the future and are most definitely transferrable from the classroom into the workplace. 5. Leadership St Margaret’s is committed to creating female leaders of today and tomorrow, knowing full well that women in leadership have a positive impact. The Rockefeller Foundation (2022) reports that currently ‘there is an appetite and readiness to change workplace cultures contributing to gender inequalities’, stating that women hold just four per cent of leadership positions in the workplace. The school’s co-curricular program provides many opportunities for the girls to take responsibility and sit in positions of leadership. Many of these roles are formally recognised, but leadership in many forms is encouraged and acknowledged through the co-curricular program. Engaging in the life of the school community supports the successful development of a student as a lifelong learner and as a positive participant in the wider civic life of the community. The co-curricular program provides students with the motivation, skills, and confidence they need to confront the many complex challenges they may face in their lives today and as the leaders of tomorrow. Girls are prepared for leadership throughout their school life by participating in co-curricular activities, enhancing their growth in awareness, self-esteem, and responsibility.

The school is tracking our students’ involvement in cocurricular activities through our award-winning St Margaret’s Plus Program, which identifies the skills they are obtaining through their participation at school. Interestingly, Crimson (2022) suggests: ‘Co-curriculars are a critical part of your university application. They demonstrate who you are outside of the classroom and provide an opportunity to showcase your leadership skills and community involvement.’ St Margaret’s is encouraging our students to build their extracurricular profile over their secondary schooling years, which is tracked through St Margaret’s Plus. It is vital for students to think strategically about how they can enhance their candidacy for not only university but for their future careers. References Crimson Education 2022, Top 8 Benefits of Extracurricular activities for High School Students, viewed 3 March 2022, https:// www.crimsoneducation.org/au/blog/extracurriculars/benefits-ofextracurricular-activities/ PISA 2022, Preparing our youth for an inclusive sustainable world – The OECD PISA global competence framework, viewed 8 March 2022, https://www.oecd.org/education/Global-competency-for-aninclusive-world.pdf The Rockefeller Foundation 2022, Women in Leadership: Why it Matters, viewed 10 March 2022, https://www.rockefellerfoundation. org/wp-content/uploads/Women-in-Leadership-Why-It-Matters.pdf Ross D 2017, Empowering our Students with 21st-Century Skills for Today, Getting Smart, viewed 3 March 2022, https://www. gettingsmart.com/2017/04/24/empowering-students-21st-centuryskills/ https://rune.une.edu.au/web/bitstream/1959.11/16879/7/open/ SOURCE04.pdf Ryan, C 2014, Emotional Intelligence and Learning: Background to the study, viewed 5 March 2022, https://rune.une.edu.au/web/ bitstream/1959.11/16879/7/open/SOURCE04.pdf

It should be noted that co-curricular activities have many additional values for the girls to strengthen their mind and body. They provide an opportunity for students to put down

In conclusion, research suggests that students who participate in co-curricular activities show better academic results, have a stronger sense of belonging and connection to community, and are more likely to lead a healthy and active lifestyle. Student wellbeing through co-curricular engagement and academic performance are intrinsically linked. The goals of St Margaret’s co-curricular program are to support students’ wholistic education. A person of good character learns skills through the co-curriculum that are transferable into the classroom and beyond the school gates. Through immersive experiences within the classroom and beyond, St Margaret’s is assisting students to test the unfamiliar and step out of their comfort zone without the fear of failure; subsequently their lives will be enriched by these offerings.

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All co-curricular activities aim to foster essential leadership qualities and skills, including self-awareness, responsibility, motivation, empathy, active listening, courage, honesty, integrity, confidence, respect, innovation, creativity, resilience, and ethical behaviour. These are the values that relate to all aspects of a contemporary education for young women. St Margaret’s acknowledges that in the world in which we live and work, there is now more than ever a need for courageous and moral female leadership.

their devices and have fun. With anxiety a very real concern for girls’ schools today, the neurological benefits derived from these activities, such as promoting oxytocin secretion, which improves a person’s mood, and reducing cortisol, which reduces anxiety, can only help girls to perform to their best.

THRIVE… don’t survive!

Nicole Walker Head of Year 11 Navigating the journey of school certainly does have its challenges, its twists and turns. Learning is varied, dynamic and often fast-paced. Pedagogy is guided by research and supports students to learn and succeed as they engage with the curriculum. Explicit teaching enhances students’ learning outcomes and their grasp of concepts, which deepen their insights and ability to transfer knowledge. Visible learning strategies, such as articulating and displaying learning intentions at the start of each lesson, aid students to learn concepts deeply and engage quickly with content being covered to ’make connections across ideas’ (Hattie 2012, p. 16). Classrooms are certainly exciting places to be!

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Queensland’s new senior assessment system requires teachers to guide students in new ways. Likewise, students are required to process information differently and retain knowledge from two sequential units of work over a twelve-month period. External exams require students to demonstrate syllabus objectives and a deep understanding of subject matter, and this contributes up to 50 per cent of their overall result for subjects. Observations, reflections and feedback from students have inspired an exploration into applying an explicit teaching of social and emotional skills to support students in this ‘high-

stakes’ context so they can function calmly and confidently as information is analysed and synthesised. Similar to the sharing of learning intentions, it has been exciting to witness students growing in confidence as they become increasingly cognisant not only of the ‘how’ but of the ‘why’ strategies are useful. This is echoed by educator and author Ron Ritchhart who believes that ’the extent that students can develop a greater awareness of thinking processes, they become more independent learners capable of directing and managing their own cognitive actions’ (2011, p. 22). The strategies below have been shared with groups of current senior students, and the results indicate that they feel increasingly confident and calm prior to and during exam situations. They can function well. •

Teach students how their brains work. Psychologist Andrew Fuller believes that as students understand their thinking more and what is happening in their brain, they are empowered to realised that some thoughts are unhelpful/fleeting and should not be retained, and that anxiety inhibits memory function (Fuller 2022).

•

Learn that the short-term memory, housed in the pre-frontal cortex, is impacted when students become concerned. This reinforces the benefit of using wellbeing strategies and reminds students of the need to commit learning to long-term memory so that patterns and connections can be made under pressure. Deep sleep helps to retain information as memories are consolidated (Lu & Woodruff 2019, p. 9); indeed, sleep routines and ‘wind’ down routines support wellbeing.

References

Create parallels between the skills demonstrated while playing sport or learning an instrument and effective study habits as this empowers students to actively connect the present with prior successes. Intentionally focusing on the consistent training that has occurred or imagining the success that has already been felt builds confidence. As students actively catalogue and remember skills and learning experiences, a ‘confidence bank account’ is created (Humphrey & Hughes 2021, p. 167).

Fuller, A 2022, How to increase your marks at school, viewed 28 May2022, https://andrewfuller.com.au/free-resources/

Talk aloud to reframe situations and remind oneself of work completed, which are literal applications of positive self-talk! Psychologist Erin Leyba (2019) confirms that using the voice to hum or sing stimulates the vagus nerve and is an effective calming strategy. View potential ’threats’ as ‘challenges’ (Shean 2019). A holistic, pragmatic perspective of exams is advised as emotions can be controlled as students are aware of the natural responses their bodies have when preparing to work hard or perform, such as an increased heart rate.

•

Record study and revision sessions to increase motivation and build self-efficacy (Fuller 2022).

•

Transform ideas from one medium to another. Fuller believes that memories are made as transformation occurs. For example, if the information is visual, use words to describe it or, if the information is verbal, lists and images help to make connections to prior learning (2022 p. 2). This concept elevates study notes and involves more of the senses to enhance learning (Lu & Woodruff 2019, p. 13).

•

Build resilience by reflecting after an exam to identify strategies that helped to create focus and mental clarity to give advice to one’s future self (Layba 2019).

•

Be patient with the learning process! Fuller states that it ‘takes 24 repetitions to get to 80 per cent of competence … [to] build mastery” (2012, p. 2). Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset and the power of ‘yet’ continues to ring true (2010, p. 3).

Fuller, A 2012, Re-inventing schools from the brain up – A discussion paper, viewed 4 June 2022, https://andrewfuller.com.au/freeresources/ Fuller, A 2022, Ten Ways Schools Can Reduce Anxiety, viewed 28 May 2022, https://andrewfuller.com.au/free-resources/

Hattie, J 2012, Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximising impact on learning, viewed 15 May 2022, https://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&as_ sdt=0%2C5&q=hattie+visible+learning&btnG=&oq=hattie+visible Humphrey, J & Hughes, J 2021, High Performance: Lessons from the Best on Becoming Your Best, Century Trade, UK Layba, E 2019, ‘10 Better Ways to Help an Anxious Child Calm Down’, Psychology Today, viewed 3 February 2022, https://www. psychologytoday.com/us/blog/joyful-parenting/201903/10-betterways-help-anxious-child-calm-down?fbclid=IwAR0IqGA3U9lKK8K DBJHaZq6mwcDnhGL_ZBO3wQY7QXtTdMaj7hu3xS2A_Ok Lu, D & Woodruff, A 2019, The Brain: Learning and Memory, Issue 2, Queensland Brain Institute, viewed 1 May 2022, https://qbi.uq.edu.au/ brain/learning-memory/factors-affecting-learning Ritchhart, R et al. 2011, Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Interdependence, viewed 25 May 2022, https://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&as_ sdt=0%2C5&q=ron+richhart+making+thinking+visible&btnG= Shean, M 2019, Don’t calm down! 4 ways to harness exam anxiety, Generation Next, viewed 3 February 2022, https://www. generationnext.com.au/2019/10/dont-calm-down-4-ways-to-harnessexam-anxiety/

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The supportive environment within which our students learn facilitates growth and empowers them to step into bright futures. The strategies uncovered this far in this journey are empowering students to trust themselves more, to work intentionally and to lean into their knowledge – to stand strong when the pressure is on and thrive!

Dweck, C 2010, Even Geniuses Work Hard. Giving Student Meaningful Work, viewed 20 April 2022, https://asset-pdf.scinapse.io/ prod/61822749/61822749.pdf

GIFTED, NOT GUARANTEED: Kate Wiedemann Secondary English Teacher

why gifted underachievers must matter more

The myth that gifted students will automatically emerge as ‘winners’ is unfounded and highlights a gap in Australian education’s approach to equity. LET ME OFFER A HYPOTHETICAL: Bella is a Year 9 student considered mildly gifted since early primary school. Witty in word-play, she makes deep inferences, joins concepts in insightful ways, and solves complex mathematical problems with gusto on the spot. Yet simultaneously, and increasingly since entering high school, her class assignments and exams are a pallid reflection of her conceptual abilities. She avoids homework, except for Maths. In other classes, she distracts herself by researching arcane subject matter that may have arisen in the learning. She avoids activities that practise skills. Her notes – when she takes or brings them – are disorganised or incomplete. She resists encouragement, reminders or punitive measures by instructors to engage in the work, yet claims she isn’t ‘very challenged’. Her marks – except for Maths – are slowly but steadily declining. Her other teachers have passed through phases of puzzlement and irritability to now shrug, saying: ‘She’s probably capable of much more but you can only lead a horse to water...,’ ‘Maybe she’s not really that gifted anyway...,’ ‘If she’s gifted, she’ll be fine in the end…’, ‘Look, I have more at-risk students to worry about…’. ‘They’ve got the winning hand’– the myth that giftedness guarantees ‘success’

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The Bella hypothetical is uncannily representative of the engrained myth that giftedness guarantees high achievement for students, a conception that ‘giftedness will out’ (Callahan 2017, p. 157). This assumption is the handmaiden of other categorical beliefs that has crystallised around the concepts of talent and giftedness, including the innateness and fixedness of giftedness; it’s not uncommon to hear the folkloric chestnut ‘you either have it or you don’t’ rolled out in educational settings (Callahan 2017, p. 153). After all, if we follow pioneering gifted educator Leta Hollingworth’s sentiment that every genius must have been a gifted child (Lo et al. 2019, p. 173), it is understandable that parents, students, and educators alike may fall victim to the inverse illogicism: the false reductive reasoning that all gifted learners are thus pre-destined to

realise their talents. By that faulty logic, up to 10 per cent of our students (the estimated proportion of students in a given cohort with potential or actual ability substantially beyond their years) would have a ‘winning advantage’ in school and life. None of these assumptions are supported by evidence. The reality, as highlighted by the significant prevalence of gifted underachievers in our classes, the comparative underenrolment of students in a designated gifted program, and the pointed under-representation of key demographics who are recognised as potentially gifted, shows there is no guarantee that giftedness translates to success in school, much less in life. In fact, the rate of gifted underachievers has been alarmingly assessed as high as 60 per cent (Ronskley-Pavia 2020, p. 1). Even without stark statistics and in the absence of a universally accepted definition of gifted underachievement (Reis & McCoach 2000, p. 114), teachers know underachievement of gifted (latently talented) students when they see it: students often test poorly; they achieve at or below grade-level expectations in one or all of the basic skills areas; their daily work is incomplete; there is a vast gap between qualitative levels of oral and written work; they often exhibit low self-esteem or evidence perfectionistic tendencies; and they can manifest complete disengagement or negative attitudes to schooling (Reis & McCoach 2000, p 114). The list is long, and checklists, such as Joanne Whitmore’s (1980) tool to identify gifted underachievers, have been helpful for educators for decades (Whitmore 1980). The harms of underachievement are also well-categorised for both gifted and typical students: students are less likely to be identified as gifted or receive important educational services (Snyder & Linnenbrink-Garcia 2013, p. 209); underachievement has negative implications for tertiary study and the workplace (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 558 ); it has been linked to depression and behavioural issues; and researchers have argued that ‘the consequences of underachievement represent a loss to society’ and ‘…underachievement may also hamper the individual’s life pursuit of self-actualization’ (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 559). Studies of gifted underachievers over a decade after school show their educational and occupational status ‘paralleled their grades in high school, rather than their abilities’ (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 562). The dramatic disparity between a student’s potential and their actual performance – and the misunderstanding that accompanies this – led pioneer psychologist, researcher and advocate of gifted educator Sylvia Rimm to label underachievement and disengagement nothing short of a ‘quiet crisis’ (Rimm 2018, p. 8). The issues that plague typical students who underachieve similarly manifest in students with extraordinary potential.

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Yet, while significant underachievement amongst nongifted learners – and particularly non-gifted students with learning disabilities – is a priority for educators, the same priority has not been given to gifted underachievers. Fatalist beliefs that they’ll succeed in the end, persistent culturally led charges of the elitism of gifted education, narrow or fixed understandings about human development and potential, and a lack of confidence in a teacher’s ability to halt and reverse underachievement have contributed to educator silence in the face of real struggle (Rimm 2018, p. 10). Thus, the most dangerous belief may not be that gifted students can underachieve, but that their failure to thrive is not even worthy of intervention. Indeed, Australian educator Michelle Lucas, in Australia’s Teacher Magazine (2021), argued that [gifted] underachievement… is, in part, propagated [emphasis mine] by the dangerous myth that learners will succeed regardless. ‘A roll of the dice’: the role of context and chance The strongest proof against deterministic beliefs of gifted learners’ achievement is the role that context and chance plays in a learner’s growth. Growth is more a matter of ‘zigs and zags than some predetermined, connected and linear pattern’ (Lewis 1998, p. 108). Further, the myth that genius will out is implicitly contested by Francoys Gagné (2009) in his Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT), which highlights the process of development from ‘raw material to realized talent’ (Gagné 2009, p. 6). In Gagné’s model, the preferred model for most Australian states, a learner’s context also interacts with the learner’s intrapersonal components to influence talent development into actualised performance. Gifted learners are part of a complex system, an ‘actiotope’ (Ziegler et. al. 2017, p. 311) that is malleable, multi-variable, manifested uniquely, and inter-dependent on and responsive to the dynamic context of the learner, their gifts, and their environment, including their educational network (Callahan 2017; Gagné 2009; Ziegler & Stoeger 2017). The DMGT also emphasises the critical role the educational environment plays in the developmental process through formal and systematic ‘investments’ into the transformation of a learner’s gifts.

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Of course, for all the best laid plans, chance plays a significant role as a qualifier of development of students with latent gifts. Chance is the unpredictability of one’s birth, including physical, cognitive and emotional gifts (and/or disabilities). It is also the vagary of background; one cannot choose their cultural heritage, class, family, or neighbourhood. These catalysts influence the way that gifts are developed (Gagné 2012, p. 4) in part because they influence access to specific educational opportunities. It is no coincidence that gifted students from lower SES backgrounds are under-represented amongst gifted learners, or that a significant component of gifted underachievers have other exceptionalities such as learning disabilities (Callahan 2017). To coin a phrase by psychologist

John William Atkinson (as cited in Gagné 2012, p. 5), the ‘roll of the dice…the accidents of birth and background’ reminds us of the ‘unpredictable nature of learners’ lives’. But rather than foster a fatalistic attitude to this unpredictability, the DMGT promotes the importance of systematic, formal interventions to identify, encourage and stimulate learners’ growth, regardless of their circumstances. For at-risk groups, one could argue that intervention is even more an intervention of equity. Who is at risk on the slippery path to ‘success’? So, who are these at-risk gifted students? Many schemas aim to make account of gifted underachievement, from Thinking Types to psychological characteristics, to social, cultural and other groups. However, there is general agreement that understanding both specific and multi-variate causes of underachievement in this diverse group is crucial (Siegle & McCoach 2020, p. 1599). Figure 1 outlines some groups of students at risk of underachieving. Figure 1: Learner types at risk of being gifted underachievers •

member of a non-dominant cultural group

•

student with other identified exceptionalities, e.g., a need for learning support, emotional support, and/or speech and language support student with a physical disability

•

student with significant discrepancies between measured verbal and performance abilities, and/ or with certain patterns of scatter on the WISC III intelligence test

•

a lower socioeconomic background

•

a non-traditional learner

•

student who demonstrates at-risk behaviours

•

non-identification, particularly for disadvantaged students, due to limited professional development*

Sources: (National Centre for Gifted Education 2013; *NSW Government 2021) A quick glance of the list above shows readers that, with the exception of measured high IQ, the risk factors parallel those of typical underachievers (i.e., students not classified as ‘gifted’). Indeed, some research suggests that underachieving gifted students share more in common with underachievers from typical populations than they do with achieving gifted students (Dowdall & Colangelo 1982, as cited in Reis & McCoach 2000, p. 158). If true, then schools’ reluctance to deal with gifted underachievement is even more ethically problematic. Do not all children failing their potential deserve support? Are we giving underachievement of all students the attention it warrants?

Myth 1: ‘Hey, their marks are still pretty good…’. Truth: Mild underachievement matters Because underachievement is a shortfall of learner’s potential, gifted students who receive As can still be underachieving (Ronksley-Pavia 2020, p. 3). Of course, gifted learners are not always equally outstanding in all areas, but even allowing for student autonomy in their selectivity in learning of interest, lacklustre performance can indicate a deeper risk – a potential mismatch between the child’s interests and an inappropriate or unmotivating curriculum (Rogers 2015, p. 391). The gap between some gifted learners and some typical students in a mixed ability class, which may be as great as five or six years, narrows as underperformance continues. We can extrapolate further: PISA results across 2000 - 2018 show a decline in the proportion of high performing students in reading, and mathematical and scientific literacies (Lucas 2021). Some learners can be selective and exercise autonomy in their choices. Some can reverse underachievement (Ballam 2017, p. 14). But many cannot. For these students, it is an ominous trajectory to more pronounced underperformance and disengagement. Myth 2: ‘They probably aren’t gifted anyway!’ Truth: Underachievement can be involuntary A significant portion of underachievers are unlikely to have been considered as ‘gifted’ in the first place. These are the marginalised and even silenced students – groups that face persistent disadvantage of birth and background include the following: a) Low SES students Underachievement – like giftedness – transcends racial and ethnic barriers, affecting students from all socioeconomic groups in varied ways and to varied degrees (Siegle & McCoach 2018, p. 562). Yet in a gifted cohort, there is a disproportionate achievement gap among students with particular demographic characteristics related to ethnicity, low socio-economic status [SES], and limited English proficiency (Siegle & McCoach 2018, p. 564). Even more concerning is the underrepresentation of these students in formal gifted programs in the first place (Ballam 2017, p. 11). Gifted students from higher income homes progress twice as fast as their gifted peers from lower-income homes (Siegle & McCoach 2018, p. 564) and are four times more likely to be selected for gifted programs than students from lower income families.

Culturally diverse students with gifts face unintentional bias at school and in society (Siegle & McCoach 2018). There can also be a lack of understanding of aspects of their environment that interplay with their intrapersonal attitudes to being both gifted and underachieving. In Australia, for example, the academic goals of gifted Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have largely been thought to be at odds with this culture’s egalitarian ethos (Carter 2021). Equally, it has been argued that educators too often take a ‘deficit’ perspective and may not fully comprehend differences in learning styles, knowledge systems and cultural practices of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander gifted students (Carter 2021). Clearly, educators have much to learn about the specific needs and particular gifts of this group as it intersects with underachievement. c) Gifted with learning disabilities (twice exceptional students) One of the most ‘enigmatic’ (Wormald 2017) groups of hidden underachievers is the 2E (twice exceptional) gifted students who also have a diagnosed disability, including learning disabilities, mental illness, and physical or neurological developmental disabilities such as ADHD and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Of particular interest is the role that attention may play in the underachievement of gifted students; a recent study has found between 30 and 50 per cent of gifted children met the screening criteria for ADHD (Siegle & McCoach 2020). The invisibility (particularly of students with learning or neurological disabilities) is doubly problematic: firstly, their gifts are often masked by their disability, preventing their inclusion in gifted programs in the first place; and secondly, the impact of their disability may not be treated with formal appropriate intervention programs (Siegel & McCoach 2020). It is telling and inadequate that this group tends to be dealt with separately in research into gifted underachievers, possibly because the cause of their underachievement is presumed to be ‘already known’ due to their disability (Reis & McCoach 2000, p. 164). Excitingly, the awareness of educators over the past five years in the area of 2E students in Australia has intensified, along with new prevalence studies that suggest, based on NCCD data, the incidence of 2E students in Australian schools range between two to seven per cent of the total student population (i.e., 78,668 to 283,204 students) (Ronksley-Pavia 2022). Such studies highlight the criticality for enhanced policy, advocacy, funding and understanding and intervention for this group of children. Myth 3: ‘They’re too far gone; they don’t want to help themselves’. Truth: Low-achieving gifted underachievers need intervention

The causes of serious disengagement are vast, ranging from intrapersonal issues, to environmental factors of family and teacher relationships, to a complete disaffection with the schooling system. But achievement (and underachievement) is often an interaction of beliefs (Siegel & McCoach 2005). For example, a fixed mindset about intelligence may prevent a

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Of course, not all gifted young people from low SES backgrounds fall by the wayside. For some, adversity can actually promote resilience (Williams 2017). Yet it is well-accepted that poverty is linked to other significant risk factors, such as high stress in a household, and has been linked with higher risks of familial instability and violence. The ‘interrelatedness’ of environmental and intrapersonal influences, of risk and protective processes in these students’ lives, has a ‘direct impact on whether or not their gifts and talents are realised’, making them more likely to be ‘involuntary underachievers’ (Ballam 2017, pp. 23-24).

b) Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) students

people-pleasing, extrinsically motivated student from seeking deeper learning opportunities (Siegle & McCoach 2005). Other theories suggest significant gifted underachievers hold a combination of problematic beliefs: (a) they lack confidence in their skills so are afraid to try and fail; (b) they do not see value in their work; or (c) they see themselves as disadvantaged from the get-go (Siegle & McCoach 2005; Siegel 2013). Maladaptive coping behaviours, declining value beliefs, and motivation deficits are dangerous combinations during the developmental trajectories (Snyder & Linnenbrink-Garcia 2013, p. 210).

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But as educators, we know we cannot downplay the criticality of the interactions of the learning settings and curriculum choices on student motivations. Many gifted students underachieve ‘by default’ because they simply do not receive the content or instruction necessary to reach their potential (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 565). Lack of appropriate strategies such as acceleration, ability groupings, highly differentiated curriculum, enrichment opportunities, formal mentoring with external organisations, and a commitment to personalised case management or ‘coaching’ by caring education professionals (teachers, psychologists, support workers) contributes to schools’ struggle to engage disengaged students. Most gifted students spend 80 per cent of their time in regular classroom settings (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 656) OR working on

the same undifferentiated content instead of using enriched curriculum or working with some form of like-ability groups, the latter of which is overwhelmingly supported for its efficacious differentiation for gifted students (Steenburgen-Hu et al. 2016; Preckel et al. 2019; Vogl & Preckel 2014; Stabler et al. 2016). Further, 61 per cent of teachers are not formally trained in catering for advanced students (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 565) or face structural, cultural or personal challenges in providing for gifted students. ‘Snakes or Ladders?’: Implications for learners and schools Clearly, schools need to see they are a crucial – though not guaranteed – part of student success. Educators with a limited understanding of the varied, holistic and particular needs of gifted learners across the trajectory of their learning process (Snyder & Linnenbruck-Garcia 2013, p. 211) may develop inappropriate remedial measures that are ineffectual at best. Regarding the role of teachers, outcomes of formerunderachieving gifted students suggest the opportunities and relationships that teachers provided (or withheld) were more impactful than the materials and content in remediating their underachievement (Ballam 2017). On the other hand, unsupportive relationships with teachers appeared to be

damaging, eliciting feelings of neglect (Ballam 2017). Reengaging learners in activities and projects that engage their strengths and motivate them can re-awaken dormant potential, as proven by former underachievers (Ronksley-Pavia 2020, p. 9). This is primarily because children need caring adults who can facilitate access to further developmental opportunities. Indeed, offering numerous meaningful opportunities is the key to developing resilience, giving young people ‘a chance to find their way out of circumstances that potentially put them at risk’ (Ballam 2017, p. 23).

survey I conducted with 15 fellow teacher practitioners across multiple sites, there was 89 per cent agreement that many teachers would not feel confident developing specific academic supports for gifted students (Wiedemann 2021). The perceptions of teachers in this informal survey, though obviously not statistically reliable, are arguably aptly illustrative of the way educators may feel ineffectual in the face of an underachieving gifted learner [see Figure 2 for a snapshot of responses]. These responses echo the findings of a vast and growing body of studies in the United States by eminent researchers such as Reiss & Renzulli (2009) and Australians experts Jarvis & Henderson (2012), Rogers (2007), and Rowan & Townend (2016). The latter argues that early-career teachers are mostly ‘under-prepared in areas related to gifted education and have no clear or accessible pathway to post-graduation, professional learning opportunities and informal support structures that could help them develop in this area’ (Rowan & Townend 2016, p. 6). Further, even experienced teachers lack access to targeted, evidence-based professional development that meets the varied needs of the profile of learners in their teaching environment (Rowan & Townend 2016, p. 6).

Tackling the issue of gifted students’ underachievement also raises philosophical implications for schools; the concept of ‘underachievement’ asks: whose standards have not been achieved? What are the consequences if these are not achieved? For the chronically underachieving gifted child, the result is simple and natural: if they do not manifest capabilities and abilities, they usually are no longer classified as gifted. This use it or lose it paradigm is unsettling; what, then, is the ‘essence of the child’? (Delisle 2004, as cited in Siegle & McCoach 2018, p. 560). The label of underachiever is a ‘value-laden judgement about the worthiness of certain accomplishments’ [that] is illustrative of a value conflict between adult 2. IDENTIFICATION & INTERVENTION: To what extent do you agree or disagree and child (Reis & McCoach 2000, p. 156). with the following statements? Teachers may also feel they are unintentionally perpetuating a ‘fixed mindset’ about what constitutes excellence. For example, when I conducted a very small, informal qualitative survey of fifteen teaching practitioners across multiple Brisbane independent secondary schools, one colleague who identified as being new to teaching gifted students commented they ‘would have concerns about ‘labelling’ students as gifted. Is there a possibility of writing them or others off? How does this align with damaging fixed vs growth mindset issues in students (and teachers!)’ (Wiedemann 2021).

Figure 2: 15 respondents’ views in an informal collegiate survey on perceptions of gifted education (Wiedemann 2021) ‘Because they ARE worth it’: Recommendations to address the problem

Does remediation ‘fix’ the problem? The answer depends on what ‘fixes’ educators value. On the one hand, a recent meta-analysis of interventions by Steenburgen-Hu, OlszewkiKubilius and Calvert (2020) supports arguments such as those by Siegle and McCoach (2018) that there is little evidence of significant improvement by most interventions on academic performance, especially in terms of course grades (Steenburgen-Hu et. al. 2020, p. 15). However, more

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Further, gifted education – and gifted underachieving – is a long-term process that needs to be ‘recalibrated almost constantly for each variable’ (Ziegler & Stoeger 2017, p. 190), which implies a highly individualised learning program and intense case management of students. Schools without the resources for a range of evidence-based formal and informal assessments across a learner’s schooling will find it hard to track underachievement outside of academic marks and course grades. Even schools with a designated gifted program may not have school officer resources available to case-manage gifted students, or to coordinate interventions for those underachievers. Generally speaking, differentiation and extension opportunities are devolved to individual teachers, whose best intentions, skills and professional dedication often cannot compensate for specific training in teaching gifted underachievers. Of the respondents to the small informal

significantly for a long-term, student-focused view of growth and potential, research does suggest that interventions focusing on the connection between underachievement and perfectionism, motivation, and cognitive challenge and engagement are making ground (Steenburgen-Hu et al. 2020, p. 15). Programs such as the Achievement Outcomes Model of intervention (AOM) popularised by Siegle & McCoach (2005), or Rimm’s trifocal model (2008) complement Gagne’s DMGT in that they recognise the learner as the central focus of a wider organism. The relative success of these psychological interventions reminds us that change comes when ‘students… have fully accepted and embraced they were both gifted and underachieving’ (Cavilla 2017, p. 63). The following are also recommendations to address both the myths and the real problem: 1) Curriculum and learning re-design for all gifted learners could consider: part-time or full-time special ability classrooms for gifted underachievers (Whitmore 1980); increasing the ceiling thresholds on assessment instruments; significant differentiation of curriculum to offer challenge on a daily basis (Rogers 2015, p. 383); outreach and partnerships with universities and training organisations (Williams 2017); mentoring with talent experts; and interventions that increase greater meaning and value, such as engagement in real-world tasks that interest students (Siegel & McCoach 2018, p. 570). Acceleration is a recommended strategy with substantial evidence of effectiveness; teachers’ concerns acceleration leads to negative social effects has not been substantiated by evidence, but its positive effects on motivation have (Assouline 2018 cited in Lucas 2021). 2) Socio-affective psychological programs that include all learners with specific needs. Because many underachieving students, including those with learning disabilities or other disadvantages, report feeling disconnected (Siegle & McCoach 2018), it is important to foster inclusion and a locus on self-control through peer groups that build belonging through social and peer-tutoring activities; social skills instructions by school counsellors to target self-concept and idea about self-efficacy; preventative counselling; cultural mentors that strengthen cultural identity and reinforce belonging; support for students whose executive functioning capacities need help i.e. organisation and executive functioning; student journaling and reflection; and family outreach and therapies (Gilar-Corbi et al. 2019, p. 8)

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3) Teacher training, advocacy and school culture. Research has shown that some teachers – regardless of years of general professional experience or even contact with gifted students – harbour unproven assumptions about gifted students, caused in part by the lack of formal training on myths about giftedness (Heyder et al. 2018, p. 39). For example, as seen in Figure 2, an informal survey of a small group (n = 15) of teaching practitioners with

varying years of service and direct exposure to teaching gifted students, all respondents agreed or strongly agreed that teacher ongoing education does not include gifted education. Encouraging teachers’ evidence-based knowledge about giftedness, particularly about the link between achievement and giftedness, could also ‘foster teachers’ diagnostic abilities in underachievement’ (Heyder et al. 2018, p. 38). Specific training to debunk myths and to involve teachers in opportunities for research and support to create effective interventions builds student perceptions that teachers can be caring mentors who make a difference. Furthermore, creating a culture that values not only strong academic achievement but also values effort, curiosity and the intrinsic value of learning is an important responsibility for leaders and all education professionals. Finally, as one Queensland school principal outlines, schools need to advocate for underachieving students by intervening early and in a supportive way to ‘identify what is going on in that child’s world and what they need from us to support them to make a positive move forward in their education’ (QCAA 2020). Yet it would be remiss not to highlight the problematic wider context of Australia’s approach to matters concerning gifted education. Despite growing recognition of gifted education as an area of educational, political and economic concern, progress in policy to support gifted students has been slow to develop here, as in many countries (Rowan & Townend 2016, p. 6), resulting in ‘few tangible changes in legislative measures or school level alterations (Walsh & Lolly 2018, p. 82). Some researchers have claimed this, coupled with Australia’s distinctive cultural ‘tall poppy’ attitude to gifted students and an ‘ever-present belief’ that gifted students will do well (Walsh & Jolly 2018, p. 84), has produced a general climate that is not conducive to the development of talent. It is yet another echo of the ‘quiet crisis’ stifling this group of students with particular needs. Conclusion One of the most damaging stereotypes about giftedness in our schools and broader society is that the luck of potential means a person is ‘set for life’. At its best intentioned, it is a cavalier quasi-justification for the lack of resources provided to students identified as gifted, or the denial of them completely to those not so identified. Thus, the reality of gifted underachievement points to a problem much larger than a ‘few slipping grades’ of ‘a couple of smart kids’. If those with outstanding potential struggle to navigate a path to realising their fullest potential, then we must be concerned for the wellbeing – academic and psycho-social – of all learners, especially those without the resources or resilience to self-correct. Helping all young learners – including those with gifts – to negotiate often slippery paths of development to emerge as their best self is an equity mandate worthy of action.

References Ballam, N 2017, ‘Risk and resilience in gifted young people from low socio-economic backgrounds’, in N Ballam & R Moltzen (eds), Giftedness and Talent: Australasian Perspectives, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, pp. 7-31. Callahan, C 2017, ‘The Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Students’, in C Callahan & H Hertberg-Davis (eds), Fundamentals of Gifted Education; Considering Multiple Perspectives, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, pp. 153-166. Carter, E 2021, ‘Orbiting two worlds: shifting conceptions of giftedness amongst Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians’, Roeper Review, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 79-98. Cavilla, D 2019, ‘Maximizing the potential of gifted learners through a developmental framework of affective curriculum’, Gifted Education International, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 136-151. Gagné, F & Schader, R 2006, ‘Chance and talent development’, Roeper Review, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 88-90. Gagné, F 2009, ‘Building gifts into talents: detailed overview of the DMGT 2.0’, in B MacFarlane & T Stambaugh (eds), Leading change in gifted education: The festschrift of Dr. Joyce VanTassel-Baska, Prufrock Press, Waco, TX, pp. 61-80. Gilar-Corbi R, Veas, A, Minaro, P & Catejon, J 2019, ‘Differences in personal, familial, social and school factors between underachieving and non-underachieving gifted secondary students’, Frontier in Psychology, viewed 11 November 2021, https://www.frontiersin.org/ articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02367/full Heyder, A, Bergold, S & Steinmeyer, R 2017, ‘Teachers’ knowledge about intellectual giftedness: a first look at levels and correlates’, Psychology Learning & Teaching, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 27-44. Lo, C, Porath, M, Yu, H, Chen, C, Tsai, K & Wu, I 2019, ‘Giftedness in the making: a transactional perspective’, The Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 172-184. Lucas, M 2021, ‘Identifying gifted students- teacher misconceptions’, Australian Council for Education Research, viewed 11 November 2021, https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/identifying-giftedstudents-teacher-misconceptions Lucas, M 2021, ‘Underachievement of gifted students – effective interventions’, Australian Council for Education Research, viewed 11 November 2021, https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/ underachievement-of-gifted-students-effective-interventions QCAA 2020, Responding to gifted and talented students, viewed 11 November 2021, http://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/p-10/student-diversity/ gifted-talented-education/responding-gifted-talented-students Rimm, S, Siegle, D & Davis, G 2018, Education of the Gifted and Talented (Seventh Edition), Pearson, New York.

Ronksley-Pavia, M & Neumann, M 2020, ‘Conceptualising gifted student (dis)engagement through the lens of learner (re) engagement’, Education Sciences, vol. 10, pp. 1-13. Ronksley-Pavia, M 2022, ‘Ability in Dis/Ability: an overview of twiceexceptionality (and multiple exceptionality) in Australia’, proceedings of the Gifted and Talented Education Symposium 2022, Griffith University, viewed, 27 May 2022. Rowan, L & Townend, G 2016, ‘Early career teachers’ beliefs about their preparedness to teach: implications for the professional development of teachers working with gifted and twice-exceptional students’, Cogent Education, vol. 3, no. 1. Siegle, D & McCoach, D 2018, ‘Underachievement and the gifted child’, in S Pfeiffer, I Shaunessy-Dedrick & M Foley-Nicpon (eds), APA Handbook of Giftedness and Talent, American Psychological Association, pp. 559-573. Siegle D, DaVia Rubenstein L, McCoach DB 2020, ‘Do you know what I’m thinking? A comparison of teacher and parent perspectives of underachieving gifted students’ attitudes’, Psychol Schs 2020, pp. 1-19. Steenburgen-Hu, S, Olszewski-Kubilius, P & Calvert, E 2020, ‘The effectiveness of current interventions to reverse the underachievement of gifted students: Findings of a meta-analysis and systematic review’, Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 64, pp. 132-165. Snyder, K & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L 2013, ‘A developmental, personcentered approach to exploring multiple motivational pathways in gifted underachievement’, Educational Psychologist, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 209-228. Walsh, R & Jolly, J 2018, ‘Gifted Education in the Australian Context’, Gifted Child Today Magazine, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 81-88. Wiedemann, K 2021, Perceptions of secondary teachers about key issues related to gifted and talented education, Unpublished Sample Survey. Whitmore, J 1980, Giftedness, Conflict and Underachievement, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. Williams, L 2017, ‘Supporting the development of academic talent: the perspectives of students, parents and teachers’, in N Ballam & R Moltzen (eds), Giftedness and Talent: Australasian Perspectives, Springer, Singapore, pp. 277-304. Wormald, C 2017, ‘An enigma: barriers to the identification of students who are gifted with a learning disability’, in N Ballam & R Moltzen (eds.), Giftedness and Talent: Australasian Perspectives, Springer, Singapore, pp. 331-351. Ziegler, A, Chandler, K, Vialle, W & Stöger, H 2017, ‘Exogenous and endogenous learning resources in the actiotope model of giftedness and its significance for gifted education’, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, vol. 40, no. 4. pp. 310-333.

Reis, S, Hebert, T, Diaz, E, Maxfield, L & Ratley, M 1995, Case Studies of Talented Students Who Achieve and Underachieve in an Urban High School, Research Monograph 95120, The University of Connecticut, CT. Reis, S & McCoach, DB 2000, ‘The underachievement of gifted students: What do we know and where do we go?’, Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 44, pp. 152-170.

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Rogers, K 2007, ‘Lessons learned about educating the gifted and talented: a synthesis of the research on educational practice’, Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 382-396.

Imagine your future...

atSt Margaret’s Australia’s Boarding School of the Year 2019 and 2020

Isobel Roe (’08) Journalist

2020

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATION AWARDS

Sunata Edition 12 Principal: Ros Curtis Editors: Karen Gorrie, Wendy Johnston Graphic Designer: Pam Smiles Photographer: Victoria Nikolova, Sophia Taylor

EDITION TWELVE

2022 SUNATA

Sunata

EDITION TWELVE

Learning is a lifelong process of keeping abreast of change.

STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

ceTLe Centre for Teaching and Learning Excellence

Sunata 2022

Articles inside

The benefits of involving students in the business of philanthropy

Gifted, not guaranteed: Why gifted underachievers must matter more

Thrive…don’t survive

Prioritising reading pleasure – Reading Immersion in St Margaret’s English (RISE

'Mulu Maguydan': A collection of stories from our Elders

The importance of co-curricular involvement for students

Applications of effective teaching strategies

Embedding divergent thinking and creativity in mathematics

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on early childhood development

Cultural appropriation and First Nations people

Looking to the future in Australian boarding

Towards environmental sustainability in schools

Developing a leadership identity

To lead is to serve: An essay examining the biography Pope Francis: Life and Revolution through the lens of servant leadership theory

What my Intel Pentium Pro didn’t teach me at university: The changing face of the Australian tertiary experience

The evolution of student wellbeing at St Margaret’s

The importance of career development education for contemporary learners

In support of gender diverse students in Australian schools

What community consultation revealed about our school values

The importance of trust in teams

Cultivating literate learners in the 21st century

From the bush to the big smoke: The transition to secondary school for our rural boarders