Introducing ‘narrative’
What does narrative mean?
The way that stories are told, how meaning is constructed to achieve the understanding of the audience. Groups events into cause and effect – action and inaction. Organises time and space in very compressed form. The voice of the narrative can vary; whose story is being told and from whose perspective? Narrative plot refers to everything audibly or visibly present, i.e. selective. Narrative story refers to all the events, explicitly presented or referred. In film, narrative is constructed through elements like camerawork, lighting, sound, mise-en-scene and editing. 2
Why is narrative important to us? We use narratives or stories to make sense of our lives and the world around us. There are different ways in which we use the narrative form:
As children we listen to fairytales and myths/legends. As we grow older, we read short stories, novels, history and biographies. Religion is often presented through a collection of stories/moral tales e.g. the Koran, the Bible, the Ramayana, etc. Scientific breakthrough is often presented as stories of an experimenter/scientist’s trials. Cultural phenomena such as plays, films, dance and paintings tell stories. News events are told as stories. Dreams are retold as stories. 3
Approaches to studying narrative
There are many ways of looking at and thinking about narratives.
For nearly 2300 years various ‘thinkers’, philosophers and theorists have tried to explain how narratives work.
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Aristotle Over 2000 years ago the Greek philosopher Aristotle observed that all narratives have: a beginning a middle an end
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Five-stage narrative structure
Exposition – setting scene and introducing characters:Little Red Riding Hood has to take food to grandmother who is ill
Development – situation develops, more characters introduced:She sets out through woods where wolf is lurking
Complication – something happens to complicate lives of characters:She meets wolf, he delays her and rushes ahead and ties up grandmother
Climax – decisive moment reached; matters come to head; suspense high:She arrives, comments on size of grandmother’s ears, etc., Wolf eats her up
Resolution – matters are resolved and satisfactory end is reached :Wolf falls asleep, passing forester investigates noise, rescues grandmother from cupboard and Red Riding Hood by cutting Wolf’s stomach open 6
Todorov’s approach to narrative
Todorov suggests that all narratives begin with equilibrium or an initial situation (where everything is balanced). This is followed by some form of disruption, which is later resolved. With the resolution at the end of the narrative a new equilibrium is usually established.
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Todorov’s approach to narrative There are five stages a narrative has to pass Through: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The state of equilibrium (state of normality – good, bad or neutral). An event disrupts the equilibrium (a character or an action). The main protagonist recognises that the equilibrium has been disrupted. Protagonist attempts to rectify this in order to restore equilibrium. Equilibrium is restored but, because causal transformations have occurred, there are differences (good, bad, or neutral) from original equilibrium, which establish it as a new equilibrium.
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Todorov’s approach to narrative
In these stages, narrative is not seen as a linear structure but a circular one. The narrative is driven by attempts to restore the equilibrium. However, the equilibrium attained at the end of the story is not identical to the initial equilibrium.
Todorov argues that narrative involves a transformation. The characters or the situations are transformed through the progress of the disruption. The disruption itself usually takes place outside the normal social framework, outside the ‘normal’ social events (e.g., a murder happens and people are terrified or someone vanishes and the characters have to solve the mystery).
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A Summary of Todorov’s approach to narrative
Narratives don’t need to be linear.
The progression from initial equilibrium to restoration always involves a transformation
The middle period of a narrative can depict actions that transgress everyday habits and routines.
There can be many disruptions whilst seeking a new equilibrium (horror relies on this technique).
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Propp’s approach to narrative
Vladimir Propp studied hundreds of Russian folk and fairytales before deciding that all narratives have a common structure. He observed that narratives are shaped and directed by certain types of characters and specific kinds of actions He believed that there are 31 possible stages or functions in any narrative. These may not all appear in a single story, but nevertheless always appear in the same sequence. A function is a plot motif or event in the story. A tale may skip functions but it cannot shuffle their unvarying order.
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Propp’s approach to narrative Propp believed that there are eight roles which any character may assume in the story:
Villain − struggles with hero Donor − prepares and/or provides hero with magical agent Helper − assists, rescues, solves and/or transfigures the hero Princess − a sought-for person (and/or her father) who exists as goal and often recognises and marries hero and/or punishes villain Dispatcher − sends hero off Hero − departs on a search (seeker-hero), reacts to donor and weds at end False Hero − claims to be the hero, often seeking and reacting like a real hero Princess’ father – rewards the hero 12
Propp’s 31 narrative functions Preparatory section 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
One of members of a family absents him/herself from home An interdiction (ban) is addressed to the hero Interdiction is violated (villain usually enters story here) Villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to find children/jewels etc. or intended victim questions villain) Villain receives information about victim (villain gets an answer) Villain attempts to deceive victim by using persuasion, magic or deception (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim) Victim submits to deception and thereby unwittingly helps enemy (hero sleeps)
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Propp’s 31 narrative functions Villainy/lack (plot set in motion) 8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Villain causes harm or injury to member of a family (e.g. abduction, theft, casts spell on someone). Alternatively, a member of family lacks something, desires or desires to have something (magical potion, etc.). Misfortune or lack is made known: hero is approached with a request or command; hero allowed to go or is dispatched. Seeker (hero) agrees to or decides upon counteractions. Hero leaves home interrogated, attacked, etc. which prepares way for receiving magical agent or helper (donor usually enters story here). Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers. Hero is tested against them. 14
Propp’s 31 narrative functions 14. 15.
Hero acquires use of magical agent (directly transferred, purchased, etc.). Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of object of search.
Path A: Struggle and victory over villain; end of lack and return 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Hero and villain join in direct combat. Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf). Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, etc.). The initial misfortune or lack is liquidated (object of search distributed; spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed). Hero returns. Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero). Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides, etc.). 15
Propp’s 31 narrative functions Path B: Unrecognised arrival, task, recognition, punishment, wedding 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.
Hero, unrecognised, arrived home or in another country. False hero presents unfounded claims. Difficult task is proposed to hero (trial by drink, riddle, test of strength). Task is resolved or accomplished. Hero is recognised, often by mark or object. False hero or villain is exposed and/or punished. Hero is given new appearance (is made whole, handsome, etc.). Villain is pursued. Hero is married and ascends throne.
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Criticisms of Propp
Propp’s theory of narrative seems to be based in a male orientated environment (due to his theory actually reflecting early folk tales) and as such critics often dismiss the theory with regard to film. However, it may still be applied because the function (rather than the gender) of characters is the basis of the theory. E.g. the Hero could be a woman; the reward could be a man.
Critics argue that Propp’s strict order of characters and events is restrictive. We should rather apply the functions and events randomly as we meet new narratives. E.g. the Hero may kill the Villain earlier than Propp expects.
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Criticisms of Propp
Some critics claim there are many more character types than Propp suggests and we should feel free to identify them. E.g. the stooge in a sci-fi film, who is usually nameless and usually killed early on to suggest the power of the alien force, is a typical modern character type.
AS Level examiners have grown to HATE Propp- because everyone learns the lists & tries to apply it to any narrative they are discussing. It applies to Fairy Stories and to other similar narratives based around 'quests' – THEREFORE - IT DOES NOT APPLY TO ALL NARRATIVES.
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An example: Star Wars The hero is dispatched on a search, struggles with and defeats the villain, marries the Princess. The Hero is introduced in the initial situation. Example: Luke Skywalker
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An example: Star Wars The dispatcher directs the hero to depart on the search. The dispatcher is usually introduced in the initial situation. Example: Luke’s Uncle Owen, in Star Wars IV:A New Hope. (The uncle directs Luke to take care of the droids, which is why he goes out into the desert on that fateful night) 20
An example: Star Wars The villain Near the beginning of the tale the villain performs an act of villainy. Later the villain struggles with and is defeated by the hero. The villain appears twice in the story, first as a surprise, the second as a result of the hero’s search. Example: Darth Vader 21
An example: Star Wars The helper helps the hero search out and struggle with the Villain and generally provides assistance in difficult situations. The Helper is provided to the Hero by the Donor. Example: Ben Kenobi often appears from the grave to give Luke advice 22
An example: Star Wars The donor provides the hero with a magical agent that will help in the pursuit of, and struggle with, the Villain. The Hero usually encounters the Donor by accident once the tale is under way. Examples of Donors include: Yoda in Star Wars, the magical agent given is ‘the Force’ 23
An example: Star Wars The false hero Who disrupts the hero’s success by making false claims. - The False Hero is at last seen to be what they are. They often expose themselves through the display of non-heroic actions, including cowardice, cheating and other false actions. See Point 28 above
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/storytelling/plo 24
An example: Star Wars The Princess (and/or her Father) assign the hero tasks to perform, recognise the Hero when he returns, and expose False Heroes and Villains. The Princess usually marries the Hero. The Princess and/or her Father are usually introduced in the initial situation Example: Princess Leia, in Star Wars 25
An example: Star Wars The Princess’ Father who acts to reward the Hero for his efforts
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Claude Levi-Strauss’s approach to narrative ď Ź
ď Ź
After studying hundreds of myths and legends from around the world, Levi-Strauss observed that we make sense of the world, people and events by seeing and using binary opposites everywhere. He observed that all narratives are organised around the conflict between such binary opposites, or narratives progress through the threat of conflict arising from binary opposites 27
Claude Levi-Strauss’s approach to narrative ď Ź
As well as Aristotle deciding that 'all drama is conflict' in the 4th century BC, 20th century theorist Claude Levi-Strauss suggested that all narratives had to be driven forward by conflict that was cause by a series of opposing forces. he called this the theory of Binary Opposition, and it is used to describe how each main force in a narrative has its equal and opposite. Analysing a narrative means identifying these opposing forces 28
Examples of binary opposites
Good vs evil Black vs white Boy vs girl Peace vs war Civilised vs savage Democracy vs dictatorship Conqueror vs conquered First world vs third world Domestic vs foreign/alien Articulate vs inarticulate Young vs old Man vs nature
Protagonist vs antagonist Action vs inaction Motivator vs observer Empowered vs victim Man vs woman Good-looking vs ugly Strong vs weak Decisive vs indecisive East vs west Humanity vs technology Ignorance vs wisdom
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Joseph Campbell’s approach to narrative The Hero’s Journey
After comparing the myths, legends and religions of various cultures in his book, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Joseph Campbell observed that most narratives follow a common pattern of the mythic hero quest, journey or monomyth. Campbell believed that most narratives, regardless of their time, place or culture, follow the same narrative stages and contain universally recognisable characters and situations i.e. archetypes.
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Archetypes Archetypes are recurring character types (and relationships), and/or patterns of symbols or situations found in mythology, religion and stories of all cultures.
Examples of character archetypes Hero (Arthur, Theseus, Simba) Shadow (Scar, Minotaur, Voldermort) Outcast (Cain, Ancient Mariner) Devil figure (Lucifer, Anakin/Darth Vader) Woman figure: Earth mother (Mother Nature) Temptress (Eve, Sirens, Delilah) Platonic ideal (Dante's Beatrice) Unfaithful wife (Anna Karenina, Madame Bovary) Wise old man (Merlin, Rafiki, Yoda, Dumbledore) 31
Archetypes Situation archetypes Quest (Holy Grail, Ahab) Initiation (Huck Finn, Stand by Me) Fall (Paradise Lost, Darth Vader) Death and Rebirth (Christ, Hercules)
Archetypal symbols Light–darkness Water–desert Heaven–Hell
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Campbell’s monomyth Stages of the hero’s journey:
Departure, separation World of common day Call to adventure Refusal of the call Supernatural aid Crossing the first threshold Belly of the whale Descent, initiation, penetration Road of trials Meeting with the goddess 33
Campbell’s monomyth Woman as temptress Atonement with the father Apotheosis The ultimate boon
Return
The refusal of the return The magic flight Rescue from within Closing the threshold Return Master of the two worlds Freedom to live 34
Chris Vogler and the hero’s journey in Hollywood Chris Vogler, story analyst for various Hollywood film companies, was inspired by Campbell when he wrote his book, The Writer's Journey. Vogler developed and simplified Campbell’s stages of the hero’s journey. Emphasises importance of mythic structure and mythic archetypes when constructing screenplays and analysing ‘classic’ examples of film. Vogler argues that great films are such because they ‘have an appeal that can be felt by everyone, because they well up from a universal source in the shared unconscious and reflect universal concerns’. Vogler’s re-definition of character archetypes and the 12 'stages' of the hero's journey has become very influential in Hollywood.
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Vogler’s 12 stages of the hero’s journey 1.
Ordinary world -The hero's normal world before the story begins
2.
Call to adventure -The hero is presented with a problem, challenge or adventure
3. 4. 5. 6.
Refusal of the call - The hero refuses the challenge or journey, usually because he's scared Meeting with the mentor - The hero meets a mentor to gain advice or training for the adventure Crossing the first threshold -The hero crosses leaves the ordinary world and goes into the special world Tests, allies, enemies - The hero faces tests, meets allies, confronts enemies & learn the rules of the Special World
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Vogler’s 12 stages of the hero’s journey cont. 7.
Approach to the inmost cave - The hero has hit setbacks during tests & may need to try a new idea
Supreme ordeal - The biggest life or death crisis 9. Reward (seizing the sword) - The hero has survived death, overcomes his fear and now earns the reward 10. The road back - The hero must return to the Ordinary World. 11. Resurrection - another test where the hero faces death – he has to use everything he's learned 12. Return with the elixir - The hero returns from the journey with the “elixir”, 8.
and uses it to help everyone in the Ordinary World
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Vogler’s archetypes and their functions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Hero − to serve and sacrifice Mentor − to guide Threshold guardian − to test Shapeshifter − to question and deceive Shadow − to destroy
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Summary
Aristotle − beginning, middle and end Todorov − equilibrium disequilibrium reequilibrium Propp − 31 Functions Levi-Strauss − binary oppositions Campbell − Monomyth and archetypes Vogler − 12 stages and archetypes
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Summary of Structuralism A Structuralist approach to film narrative argues: ď Ź
That there is an underlying structure, which can be uncovered, and that elements of this structure are common to all narratives.
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In short narratives share a common structure 40