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ince Ancient times humanity has sought to immortalize the dead. The ancient Egyptians believed so devotedly in an afterlife they constructed great monuments — the pyramids, as testimony to their beliefs. Today, our modern cemeteries are rich with our efforts to pay homage to the dead—architecturally and symbolically. A walk through a graveyard in any American city will uncover an abundance of symbolic treasures. Headstones and monuments speak to us in a language we have understood since the first pictographs—the language of symbols—something that stands for or represents something else. Although American cemeteries lack such grandiose architectural accomplishments as the pyramids, popular forms of Egyptian architecture abound. One of the more commonly seen examples is the obelisk. The obelisk is believed to symbolize a ray of sunlight and corresponds to the Egyptian’s worship of the sun-god, Ra. The original structures date back to ancient Egypt, during the period of the Old Kingdom, approximately 2650-2134 B.C.. Their popularity in modern times is attributed to their graceful, heavenward reaching lines and the four sides which afford further room for inscription, as opposed to headstones, which have only one face.1 A less common but equally intriguing form of architecture is the tumulus. These mounds of earth resemble small hills and are one of the most ancient forms of burial monument, dating back as far as 4,000 to 5,000 years B.C. Constructed from rocks they are then covered with earth to form their shape. In larger cemeteries, where it’s possible to see one or two tumuli, many are ravaged by time and erosion and reveal their rocky foundations. 1 The tumuli found in modern cemeteries are, in most cases, used for members of fraternal societies or military organizations, which has been attributed to their ancient use as burial mounds for warriors. Many are in fact only tumulus-like and contain only the cremains of a fraternal society while incorporating a small-scale chapel with an altar and religious statues.1
Most American cemeteries are microcosms of historical architectural periods. There are six general categories used to describe American cemetery architecture: ancient pagan, Egyptian, Classical, Gothic, late-nineteenth and early twentieth-century, such as Art Nouveau, Art Deco and modern classicism and uniquely funerary architecture. 1 The Classical period is by far the most prevalent form of cemetery architecture. It is easily recognized by soaring Greek columns and ornate column capitals, and while it is impossible to ignore the beauty of these monuments it is in fact the symbols used for their embellishment that can tell us so much about the dead—and the living. Epitaphs inform us of names, dates and sometimes a quotation or short poem may offer us a glimpse of the personality and beliefs of the deceased. But it is the multitude of symbols adorning the headstones and monuments that volunteer a wealth of personal and cultural knowledge. As Richard Meyer states in the preface of Douglas Keister’s Stories in Stone, “Visual symbolism on grave markers has been present as long as such memorials have existed, and the process remains vital and ongoing in our own time.”1 During the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries representations of death exposed the cultural perception of the time— skulls, skeletons, coffins, scythes. Death was imminent and inescapable. Cultural shifts during the ensuing centuries are evident in the dramatic change in funerary symbolism — from morbid images of death to graceful, uplifting draped urns, clasped hands and winged angels embarking on their journey heavenward. Just as our perception of death has changed over time so to has our symbolic representation — our cemeteries are living testimony to our own search for eternal life, and for our desire for the safe passage of our loved ones to an afterlife that may or may not exist.1 There can be no doubt about the implied meaning of much of the symbolism found in our cemeteries, particularly religious symbolism, however gravestone scholars still debate the meaning of
many of the more esoteric symbols. Just as the architecture has been divided into broad categories so to have the symbols we use. While it is impossible to cover all the categories and sub-categories for this report, (there are hundreds), the following pages will explore some of the more common symbols, their categories and their supposed meanings according to the research that has been conducted.
Flowers and Trees Flowers and trees signify the natural beauty of nature and the fragility of life. As with our use of the obelisk the use of flowers as symbols of remembrance dates back to the ancient Egyptians. According to Douglas Keister, author of Stories in Stone, “the Egyptians were the first culture to use flowers in a widespread way in funerary rites. They believed that the subtle scent of flowers contained a key to divine powers.”1 One of the more popular flowers used for funerary monuments is the rose. While Christians were reluctant to adopt the rose as a symbol, due to its ancient associations with the hedonistic Roman culture, its popularity and longevity won out and the rose now stands as a cherished symbol, adorning the headstones of many Christians, particularly the graves of women. According to The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols, “in Christian iconography the rose may be either the chalice into which Christ’s blood flowed or the transfiguration of those drops of blood.” 2 More simply, Keister’s research concludes, “In Christian symbolism, the red rose became a symbol of martyrdom, while the white rose symbolized purity. In Christian mythology the rose in Paradise did not have thorns, but acquired them on Earth to remind man of his fall from grace; however, the rose’s fragrance and beauty remained to suggest to him what Paradise is like. Sometimes the Virgin Mary is called the “rose without thorns” because of the belief that she was exempt from original sin.” 1 Roses share their popularity with another flower, one which I found to be even common on headstones in the cemeteries I visited—the calla lily. The calla lily first arrived in the United States during
the second half of the nineteenth century. Historically it was used by the Romans to acknowledge the progression of the winter solstice—bringing light to the darkest days of the year. 3 At the time of its arrival in the United States cemeteries were beginning what Keister calls their “golden-age.” He suggests on tombstones it symbolizes majestic beauty and marriage.1 From the same family, the Madonna or Easter lily is believed to symbolize purity and chastity, and has its roots in ancient Greek mythology. The ancient Greeks believed white lilies were created from drops of milk from Hera, the mother of all gods, after she created the Milky Way.1 When we see them on headstones the notion of purity can also be interpreted, according to Keister, as the casting off of earthly possessions and the attainment of heavenly/spiritual qualities. From a more practical perspective it is believed that lilies were used so frequently during funerals because they have a powerful scent, which helped to mask any offending odors.1 Trees and particularly their foliage are also popular forms of funerary art. The oak tree’s leaves, while not as common as flowers, appear with regularity on headstones throughout larger cemeteries and the interpretation of their meaning is varied. Oak leaves can symbolize, strength, endurance, eternity, honor, liberty, hospitality faith and virtue.1 Keister explains its many meanings, “All of these elements combined make the oak a symbol of the power of the Christian faith even in times of adversity. The oak, along with the aspen and the holly is one of the trees that lays claim to being the tree that was made into Christ’s cross.”1 Treestones or tree stumps experienced enormous popularity over a 25 year period in the United States from the 1880s until around 1905, particularly in the Midwest, which is probably attributed to the fact that they were available through the Sears and Roebuck catalog.1 Classified as folk art, treestones are traditionally carved out of limestone or marble. The design depicts either a tree cut down or a tree with its branches lopped off close to the trunk. The name of the
dead is often carved into the trunk of the tree and the stumps of removed branches, in some cases, have the initials of previously deceased family members.4 Symbolically the tree stump represents a life cut short and the tops are often adorned with a cross or similar icon possessing its own symbolic meaning.
Birds and Animals Since ancient times animals have played an important role in our lives. Like us, they are living, breathing creatures, who eventually die. By using them as symbols in our cemeteries we are referencing not only their symbolic meaning to us, but in many cases these animal symbols are representative of the animals attributes we would like to possess ourselves. In no case is this more apparent than in the case of the eagle. The eagle is the most omnipotent bird symbol. Throughout time and across continents and cultures the symbol of the eagle has endured. The eagle is considered the King of the birds, and as The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols explains. “King of the birds, deputy or messenger of the highest heavenly godhead and of the fire of Heaven, the Sun, at which it alone dares stare without burning its eyes, the eagle is so important a symbol that there is no written or pictorial image, historic or mythic, in European or any other civilization, in which it is not the companion, when it is not the representation of the highest gods and the greatest heroes. The eagle is the attribute of Zeus (Jupiter) and of Christ, the imperial emblem of the Caesars and of Napoleon, while on the North American prairie as well as in Siberia, Japan, China and Africa, shamans, priests and seers in common with kings and great commanders have borrowed the attributes of the eagle in order to share its powers.”2 When found in our cemeteries the eagle is most often thought to represent the Resurrection and rebirth. In some cases, according to Keister it can also be seen as a sign of generosity because of the old legend of the eagle’s hunger that states no matter how voracious the bird’s appetite is, it will leave half of its prey for other creatures.1
From the power of the eagle to the innocence of a lamb the vast array of animal symbols used in funerary art to represent our hopes and beliefs crosses even religious boundaries. The lamb has symbolic importance in the Christian, Jewish and Muslim cultures, but when found in an American cemetery it is usually adorning the grave of an infant or child because of it’s symbolic relationship to innocence.1 By far the most common animal symbol in the cemetery is that of the dove. It can be found in a variety of poses, including carrying an olive branch, which is a reference to the dove sent out by Noah to search for land.1 Keister quotes from genesis 8: 10 And he stayed yet other seven days; and again he set forth the dove out of the ark, 11 And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth. And then explains: “The dove then became a symbol of purity and peace because God had made peace with man.”1 In our search for immortality we use the dove as our guide and adorn our headstones with this delicate creature in the hope that we find eternal peace and happiness. Marine animals are also included in our language of funerary icons. The dolphin, a mythic animal from ancient times and sacred to the ancient Greeks who believed dolphins transported souls, represents metamorphosis. Keister suggests their appearance on funerary monuments symbolizes ”...salvation (in mythology they are often portrayed as rescuing sailors), transformation (Bacchus was said to have turned drunken sailors into dolphins), and love (they are widely thought of as friendly and playful marine mammals).1 There are ancient myths which propose the dolphin’s friendliness towards humans is driven by the fact they are reformed pirates— tormented by Dionysius they went mad and jumped overboard, only to be transformed into dolphins, which is why dolphins are believed to try and save humans from shipwrecks.2
Winged Messengers Considered by many to be the intermediaries or messengers, between heaven and earth, varying forms of angels fill our cemeteries. Their graceful forms dot the landscape, and a great number stand perched atop massive stone pedestals, guiding the souls they are placed to protect and guide heavenward. While their smaller counterpart, the cherubim, is often found on the graves of children. Historically the angels found in American cemeteries are steeped in Christian tradition but references to angels exist in most religions. Keister tells us, “the word angel comes from the Greek word angelos which means “messenger”. In Islam, founded by the Prophet Muhammad (A.D. 571-632) in Arabia, angels are an important part of the belief system. Mala’ika, the word for “messenger is the Islamic term for angel. The chief duty of these angels was to carry messages to Allah.”1 References to angels can be found in both the Old and New Testaments. There are seven angels mentioned in Revelation and the book of Enoch contains many angel names. Michael is considered leader of the angels, but perhaps the most well known angel is Gabriel, who is usually depicted with some form of horn. Gabriel is the angel of the Annunciation due to the fact that it was he whom God sent to announce the birth of Jesus. Named angels are believed to be numerous and originate almost exclusively from secular writings, as Keister suggests, “...so many that fourteenth century cabalists, employing an interesting calculation using words as numbers and numbers as words, calculated the number of practicing angels at 301,655,722. Albertus Magnus put the number at ‘6,666 legions with 6,666 angels per legion,’ or 44, 445, 556.” While different church sects can’t seem to agree on any exact number of angels, nearly all biblical scholars agree the number of angels is fixed.1 After the death of Christ interest in angels grew and there were believed to be so many that a need to classify them and estimate their numbers developed. Keister explains the role of
Dionysius in this classification. “In the fifth century A.D. Middle Eastern scholar and mystic Dionysius the Areopagite created The Celestial Hierarchy as well as treatises in Christian angelology. Dionysius deliberated over the references to angels in the scriptures as well as nonbiblical sources. He postulated that there were nine classes, or choirs of angels that were divided into three spheres. Other scribes such as Dante, St. Jerome, and Gregory the Great have made their own adjustments to The Celestial Hierarchy, but Dionysius’ list is the one generally accepted today.” 1 The fascination with angels grew so great, several early churches became concerned that there was more attention being paid to angels than to God. This fascination with angels was given a name — angelolatory, or the worship of angels. 1 With so much interest in angels —almost obsessive in some cases, throughout history, it isn’t hard to see why they have become such popular forms of memorial art. Interestingly, though, their physical attributes were never described in the bible and the winged presence we associate with them now began in the Middle Ages and was perfected during the Renaissance. Because of how we perceived angels— as heavenly messengers — we gave them wings, so it is no wonder then that they have become our cherished symbols of a safe passage to an afterlife and as our guardians here on earth. 1
The Cross The cross is humankind’s oldest symbol. It predates Christianity by many thousands of years. A cross discovered in Crete is believed to date back to the fifteenth century B.C. The cross, according to the Penguin Dictionary of Symbols is the “third of the four basic symbols—the others being the center, the circle and the square—and provides a link between the other three. By the intersection of two right angles at the center, it opens the latter to the external world; when drawn within a circle, it divides it into four segments; and it gives birth to the square and the triangle when its four ends are joined by right angles. From these simple factors a highly complex symbolism derives, and they have fathered
a language that is both universal and extremely rich.”2 A quotation from the 1966 French book Introduction au monde des symboles, by G. de Champeaux and Dom Sterckx, included in the Penguin Dictionary, perhaps explains why the cross was adopted by Christians. “...the cross performs a function of synthesis and measurement. In it Heaven and Earth are conjoined...in it time and space are intermingled. The cross is the unbroken umbilical cord of the cosmos, linking it to the center from which it sprang. Of all the symbols the cross is the most universal and all-embracing. It symbolizes intervention, mediation, the natural and permanent structure of the universe and communication between Heaven and Earth and Earth and Heaven.”2 The crosses we see in cemeteries today evolved from three basic types: the Greek Cross, the Latin cross and the Celtic cross. The variations on these are endless—there are thousands, but all are tied to religious beliefs. The Greek cross is represented like a + sign with equi-distant arms, the Latin cross (probably the most common in American cemeteries) resembles a ‘t’ with the crossing arm above the center. And perhaps the most interesting, the Celtic cross, (entire books have been dedicated to their history), which has a circle (nimbus) connecting the four arms.1
Man-Made Symbols While we bestow symbolic significance upon historical structures, animals, religious icons and mythical creatures in our efforts to commemorate the dead, we have also given inanimate objects the same important role. In the nineteenth-century the urn was one of the first funerary icons to replace symbols of death such as a skull and crossbones or skeletons. They were purely decorative and hugely popular, particularly the draped urn which was placed on top of columns and pedestals. As Keister states, “some nineteenth-century cemeteries appear to be a sea of urns. The drape can be seen as either a reverential accessory or as a symbol of the veil between earth and the heavens. The urn is to ashes as the sarcophagus is to the body, which makes the urn a very curious nineteenth-
century funerary device, since cremation was seldom practiced.” 1 Another object given special meaning is the torch. It is purely a funerary symbol and is found on headstones in an inverted position. The torch can either have a flame or be without one. The most common form is with the flame and alludes to the soul (fire) continuing to exist in the next life. When the flame is absent it represents a life extinguished. 1 We have also attached symbolic signifigance to an open book. Found atop headstones, Keister suggests it implies, “in its purest form an open book can be compared to the human heart, its thoughts and feelings open to the world and to God.”1 Another interpretation may be associated with The Quest for the Holy Grail where the attainment of the ‘Missing Word’ will grant the highest wisdom which has become inaccessible to earth-bound humanity.2 So, perhaps, the open book suggests in death we acquire the highest wisdom we have been unable to attain in life. The crown appears obvious in its intentions—its attributes according to Keister are victory, leadership and distinction. It is commonly found combined with a cross on the headstones of York Rite Masons.1 But its symbolism is actually far more intricate and involved than he suggests. Whether its appearance on headstones signifies a more complicated symbolism, as suggested in The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols, or if it merely denotes the qualities of leadership and distinction is debatable but a more in depth look behind the symbolism of the crown is certainly worthwhile. The Dictionary tells us, “three factors supply the bases of the crowns symbolism. Being set on the crown of the head gives it overriding significance. It not only shares the qualities of the head— the summit of the body—but also the qualities of whatever surmounts the head itself, a gift coming from on high. It sets the seal of transcendence upon the character of any accomplishment. Its circular shape is indicative of perfection and of its sharing in the heavenly nature of which the circle is the symbol. It marries, in the person crowned, what is above and what
is below, but in so doing marks the bounds which in any other person divide the celestial from the terrestrial, the human from the divine. As a reward of virtue, crowns are promises of eternal life on the pattern of that of the gods.”2 So isn’t it probable, at least, that the crown may also symbolize our wish for eternal life—our desire to “marry” our earthly existence with whatever lies ahead of us in death. As with every symbol discussed here, the true meaning of the language revealed in cemeteries, like the crown example proves, is open to interpretation—and perception. Now, more than ever, with the modern-day monuments being erected in our cemeteries, will the future interpretation of symbols become purely subjective.
Our Modern Tributes Our desire to make a lasting first impression seems to have extended to making a lasting final impression. No longer do we simply adorn our headstones with a symbol acknowledging our religious beliefs, nor do we wish to see our own human traits personified through an animal like the eagle, and of course the simple beauty of a rose signifying purity will never do. We are, for all intents and purposes, making sure we have the last say— sometimes a loud one— about who we were and about what we achieved. How will a tomb built to resemble a Rolls Royce car be interpreted in several hundred years time? Was the deceased or were his loved ones implying he was the “Rolls Royce” of men? Or did he worship the car? Did he own one? Did he always want to own one? Does he expect to drive one in Heaven? And we have to hope his wife shares his desires, because although she is still with the living, her name is already chiseled into the tomb alongside his. We can only assume she is content to spend the afterlife beneath a car—albeit a solid marble one. Does this mean a Rolls Royce will, in several hundred years, take on the status that the pyramid or obelisk has now? If a Rolls Royce is our chosen mode of transport to the next world, then I imagine it’s only natural that some of us will want to take our favorite
possessions with us—golf clubs and a craps table. Given, the headstone/tomb accompanying these monuments acknowledges the deceased as an avid golfer and gambler, but is that really what we want to leave behind as our legacy. Both of these items suit my father perfectly—he lived for both— but I think he’d turn in his grave if I erected them within a hundred feet of his grave site. Surely death is about something more than our obsessive habits and consumerism. Our cemeteries are steeped in ancient history. We wander through them and can readily apply our knowledge of ancient cultures to the monuments and symbols we encounter. In two or three hundred years how will someone wandering through a cemetery interpret our garish tributes to ourselves? Some of the monuments we’re building today have no historic or symbolic significance—they’re just things—consumable things. Throughout the ages we have sought some meaning in death. We use symbols as a language to explain our beliefs, to acknowledge our search for something more than what exists on the physical plane. Historically we have employed symbols of natural beauty, religious significance and winged angels with their gifts of protection and communication, today we’re using the Rolls Royce, golf clubs and a craps table—and that’s only here in Baltimore. According to my research Hollywood cemeteries, naturally, are alive with kitsch, ego driven tributes. It’s hard to not be amused by our modern interpretation of the funerary monument. I admit to finding my discoveries terribly funny, and was thrilled to find them for this report. But as someone who respects history and ancient cultures I worry what we’re losing—what we won’t be leaving behind. When future generations seek to understand us through death, or rather through our beliefs surrounding death, which we have always expressed symbolically, what will they find? A Rolls Royce ready to ram through the gates of heaven, with a Chevy in tow driven by the golfing gambler?
References: 1.
Keister, Douglas. “Stories in Stone.” Utah: Gibbs Smith, Publisher
2.
Chevalier, Jean & Gheerbrant Alain, translated by Buchanan-Brown, John. “The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols.” London: The Penguin Group
3.
“Rochchester’s History - Cemetery Monuments” Vintageviews.org http://www.vintageviews.org/vv-tl/pages/Cem_Monuments.htm
4.
“Oregon Coastal Flowers Hisory of the Calla Lily” Flowersbulbs.com http://www.flowersbulbs.com/history_calla_lily.php
Photographs: All images © 2007 Sue Tatterson New Cathedral Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland Loudon Park Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland Historical Old Salem Cemetery, Catonsville, Maryland Western Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland
Sue Tatterson PBDS 723 Theory of Visual Communication Spring 07 Semester Project