Perception of Residents on Housing Alternatives after 2015 Gorkha Earthquake - Bhaktapur

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING AND POST DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION PLANNING ICEE-PDRP 2016 24-26 APRIL 2016, BHAKTAPUR, NEPAL

Perception of Residents on Housing Alternatives in the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake Post disaster Reconstruction— A Case Study of Bhaktapur Mohan Moorti Panti and Sujan Shresthaii

Abstract The paper makes a study on the perception of the households towards the possibilities of reconstruction of their dwellings damaged by the tremors of Gorkha Earthquake 2015. The case studies are from two localities of Bhaktapur. The survey identifies houses of different degree of damage due to the earthquake and studies the location, plot shapes, surrounding building situations, and access to the dwelling unit. The resident household owners were given three different alternatives in the rebuilding of the house. The first one is to rebuild the dwelling in the existing plot by the owner and the second is first to make plot adjustment planning of the concerned area before the owner carries the rebuilding work. The third is to build cooperative housing with living space arranged in a single or two floor levels where the construction will be managed by community cooperative or public institution. This paper then makes an analysis on the correlation of the existing dwelling environment properties and the perception of the residents on the various rebuilding alternatives.

Keywords: Reconstruction, Bhaktapur, housing alternatives, urban renewal, regeneration

1. Introduction The reconstruction works following the Nepal Earthquake 2015 is a daunting task and faces numerous difficulties to overcome. The problems on rehabilitation and reconstruction are of manifold dimensions such as of human resource, management, finance, legal structure and administration.

These dimensions belong to instruments of conventional operation for any project. With more than six hundred thousands of dwellings collapsed, reconstruction of dwelling units in both the urban and rural situations is of utmost importance in the rehabilitation works. The nature of reconstruction of urban area differs from that of rural areas. Kathmandu Valley is one of the severely affected regions among the 14 districts as categorized by the Reconstruction Authority. It is also in this Valley that most of the urban population of the country is concentrated. Other settlements of concentration affected by the earthquake are small market town settlements.

In the Valley geography, the damage is more pronounced at east and southeast direction. Sankhu i. Professor, Postgraduate Department of Urban Design and Conservation. PhD; Email: sribahal@gmail.com ii. Architect, Adjunct Lecturer, IEC College of Art and Fashion. Email: das.sujan@gmail.com

at the east has 80% of its houses collapsed or partially damaged, Bhaktapur with 34% full damage and another 12% suffered partial damage.1 Harisiddhi, Thasi and Bungamati that suffered similar extent of damage are in this region. Another aspect of the damage distribution is that the concentration is primarily in the historic town areas.

The damage in the historic town area was not unexpected. It was a common scene prior to the happening of earthquake to find houses in the lanes of these towns soared by timber posts. The problem of the historic town area is not only in the aged and weak physical structure. In the process of gradual densification in the settlement quarters, the density exceeds 600 p/ha, a high value for the multistory units. The result is to be seen in the lack of sunshine, good lighting condition and ventilation.2 In course of dwellings’ late history, they were partitioned among the heirs who either cut the unit into two halves or shared floors in a complex manner. The partition raises a number of problems—narrow frontage, weak structure and complexity in ownership. Inefficient layout of floor due to the shape is common3. The complexity of ownership almost closes the possibility of renewal or reconstruction. The sum result has been that the dwelling environment gradually deteriorated and the townscape disfigured.

In addition to these problems of the dwelling environment, accessibility due to either the narrow lane or under passages to the unit or the plot is a handicap affecting the development potential of the quarter.

With all the problems that existed prior to the earthquake in these urban quarters of Kathmandu Valley towns, the reconstruction following the damage of the earthquake is a task that requires the responsible authorities and the related communities to consider in a holistic approach of redevelopment. However, up to the time of present study, the governments—state and local, have not worked out any policy in this direction. What is in the scene is the status quo—which leaves the town rebuilding work at the mercy of individual household. This scenario will recreate the existing problems including the vulnerability to disaster such as the earthquake.

In the above context, this paper makes a study of two settlement quarters in Bhaktapur, and surveys the opinion of the residents with respect to their understanding on reconstruction.

2. Post Earthquake Housing Reconstruction works A review of housing reconstruction works in the regions that suffered heavy damage from earthquake in the past three decades show a number of approaches applied in housing rehabilitation.

A review of three instances—one of Kobe, Japan, one of Bhuj, India and one of Kathmandu, Nepal will highlight some of the issues and reconstruction approach taken in the rehabilitation work.

In Kobe, following the 7.5 magnitude earthquake of 1995, which displaced 120,304 households in the city of around two millions by that time, the municipality, within a short period of two months from the event of earthquake, adopted a reconstruction plan. The plan categorized the devastated areas into two types—the areas planned to make plot readjustments and the next as urban redevelopment projects. This was done by applying the instrument of zoning that sought to improve the situations of congestion and accessibility network, while at the same time building green and open space. Specific project area implementation plans were discussed with the community and adopted between the period from 1996 to 1999 with greater part completed by 1997. Within the city area, there were 11 town blocks covering an area of 143 ha identified for the plot readjustment and 26 ha for redevelopment works. This is an area about one and half times larger than the historic settlement area of Bhaktapur. The plot readjustment process unfolded in two ways—one initiated by

the municipality and the other by the community itself. Altogether, there were 13345 households covered in this category of the development. Following the readjustment of the plots and reallocation, the development of the housing reconstruction took a variety of forms—from individual constructions to redevelopment works by community cooperative, development of the lot by the real estate companies, and construction of housing by prefecture, and by municipality. The new development increased accessibility with a green play field in each block4.

The residents at the initial stage were cynical to the plot readjustment work worked out by the municipality. But a consuming process of interaction among the affected residents, and by employing the help of the professionals, the community devised their own plans different from that of the municipality. The plan was more concerned with the experience and the specific requirements of the community than the standard traditions followed in land readjustment planning up to that time in Japan. For instance, not all streets less than 4 m wide were widened as required earlier in the plan of municipality. And not all lanes were made thorough. However, the new plot readjustment plan proposed from the community was also not a unanimous agreement but the community managed to get the plan into the reconstruction program5.

The reconstruction of Bhuj, on the other hand, attempted to decongest the built up of the city that existed prior to the earthquake. The 6.9 magnitude earthquake of 2001 in Bhuj of Gujarat, India, had half of the buildings damaged with over 7000 human casualties. The streets were narrow and the average density within the walled city area is indicated by the number of plots per hectare which stood at around 100 in average. Among a number of options to open street network, the Bhuj Area Development Authority selected the plot readjustment approach and applied the town planning scheme to make plot readjustments in the areas of the affected quarters. In this process of opening up the street network and open spaces, a principle of equity was implemented where the contribution to be made by the affected households was proportionately lowered for the smaller plots compared to the larger ones. Plots that were smaller than 30 m2 were not deducted. The plan was left open for two months to solicite community opinion. At the end, the community accepted the plan as the plan further raised the market value of the plots6.

In the context of Nepal, in recent history, the earthquake of 1934 was of devastating scale than any other that followed it in the past 80 years. The report of 1934 Earthquake gives a record of 4,296 deaths in the Kathmandu Valley7, and it is thought that the strength of the quake that hit the Valley was much stronger than the present one. The number of dwellings collapsed in the three cities was 4083 units, with more than half from Bhaktapur. The devastation was no less damaging than the present one.

The redevelopment undertaken in one particular area of Kathmandu following the 1934 earthquake in Kathmandu is notable. The area is at the south of the old city and adjacent to the Hanuman Dhoka Palace. The new development even incorporated southwest part of the Malla period palace area. The locality, later known as New Road or Juddha Sadak area spans more than 700 m in north south direction and 450 m in east west direction. The redevelopment plan primarily incorporated the buildings fronting the planned street networks with a quarter block at the central zone. This planned frame covered an area of around 9 ha. It has a central park—the Bhugol Park, with a memorial monument of the earthquake event. The area was not only for housing rehabilitation, it was planned more as a new urban center with city services such as a cinema hall, a bank, a post office, a high school and a fire brigade. The streets were lined with three story buildings with shops at the ground floor and dwelling space in upper floors. This reconstruction was a new urban form. Yet the

uniformity in height, façade form and color presented a harmonious townscape within the area. The locality functioned as the most fashionable and thriving commercial centre of the city, its glamour only dimmed by the developments of the past few decades.

3. Methodology of the Present Survey Work The historic city of Bhaktapur suffered heavy damage by the 2015 earthquake. Certain areas such as the eastern and southern sectors of Bhaktapur suffered more damage compared to other areas (Fig 1).

The damage swept the whole cluster of houses in particular quarters such as that of Taulachen-Jelan area and Khalaa (Fig 2). The survey selects these areas to explore the possible alternatives of reconstruction.

A scenario of three reconstruction alternatives was represented through graphic illustrations and explained to the residents on their respective advantages.

The three alternatives are (1) Type A— construction of the dwelling in the existing plot by the owner, (2) Type B— make plot adj ust ment planning of the concerned area before the owner carries the rebuilding work, and (3) Type C—construction of cooperative housing with Fig 1. Damage assessment of Bhaktapur. UNOSAT, 2015 Apr 27. living space arranged in a single or two floor levels where the construction will be managed by community cooperati ve or publi c institution.

The tool of explanation consists of a five page illustration of the three alternatives, which is furnished with illustration of an existing situation of a settlement quarter and alternative Layout Plans that could be possible in the redevelopment (Fig 3).

Fig 2. Location of study area—Taulachhen and Khalaa, Bhaktapur.

Further, dwelling floor plans, 3d views of unit layout and

Fig 3. Pages of illustrated pamphlet on the three possible reconstruction types. The first page (top left) gives the general introduction.

color photographs illustrating the living environments of three different alternatives accompany the illustration book. A summery description in text of the three housing environment is also provided explaining the general situation of the historic town quarters, its development, conservation and renewal possibilities8.

The survey was conducted in January-February 2016,9 and collected basic data on each household of the survey area in four basic themes—household structure, ownership of the lot, physical properties of the lot, present shelter situation and then on the reconstruction alternatives. Physical properties of the lot such as location, frontage and lot area were drawn from the cadastral survey map. The location type of the dwellings is classified into four categories according to the facing of the dwelling, which could be the main street, secondary street, internal lane and courtyard. This category reflects the morphology of traditional settlement pattern of the study areas and relates to the market value of the plot, accessibility, and quality of light and space in the interior and exterior environment of the dwelling.

The base map used is the cadastral map of 2042 BS, which is available at a scale of 1/500. A more detailed data on floor plans and other aspects of the dwellings of Taulachen was available from our earlier studies10. With respect to Khalaa neighborhood, however, floor plans are not available.

Following the distribution of the illustrated pamphlet and allowing the residents a few days of study, individual opinions of the residents were surveyed through the questionnaire to collect data on the residents’ dwelling damage situation, preference to mode of reconstruction and other features. At the time of survey, records in numbers on damage situation of Bhaktapur municipality were available in the ward scale, but the damage distribution by urban blocks and individual dwelling unit has not yet been mapped in the town space. This survey maps the report of the residents with respect to the damage situation in the respective study area as derived from the assessment of the resident themselves.

4. The Case Study of Bhaktapur 4-1. Taulachhen Taulachhen is at the eastern sector of Bhaktapur (Fig 2). The area is selected partly because there has been extensive study on physical and socio-cultural aspects of the area prior to the earthquake, and in recent context, Taulachhen and its neighboring areas suffered greater damage in Bhaktapur.

The area covers 1.26 ha with 192 dwelling units and a population density of 670/ha11.

The quarter is part of the Taulachhen tole, which extends towards north and to the east of the quarter block surveyed. Most of the population is of Prajapati community. Within the quarter, there is a considerable space, both open and built, used for production of pottery and paper craft. However, all these works have now come to a halt following the damage of the earthquake.

Location Dwelling Condition No Damage Repairable Partial Damage Full Damage Total

Main St 4 13% 1 3% 8 25% 19 59% 32 100%

Secondary Lane 3 6 4 40 53

6% 11% 8% 75% 100%

Interior Lane 6 9% 7 10% 11 16% 45 65% 69 100%

Courtyard 2 2% 14 17% 14 17% 53 64% 83 100%

Total 15 6% 28 12% 37 16% 157 66% 237 100%

Table 1. Damage situation of study area of Taulachhen, (survey: 2015 Jan.)

The physical condition of the locality has been studied by a student group of KhEC (2012) and Shrestha (2013). The study makes a documentation of the physical state of the quarters and its social structure, and analyses the floor space use, lighting and ventilation, and the type of partitions of the building among its heirs. It shows that as much as 72 % of the houses are either deficient in living space, light Fig 4. Distribution of damage situation, Taulachhen, Bhaktapur, and ventilation, or have poor 2015 Jan. structural quality of the building.

2 The present survey finds that Household type Ownership type* Frontage** m (N =45) Area m (N (N = 45) (N = 48) = 59) 66% of the units suffered full J E Single Multi < 2.4 2.4-5 5-8 <20 < 32 damage and another 16% were N partially damaged (Table 1, Fig 16 10 19 31 (6) 17 9 28 (13) 8 22 49

This may be compared Note: with the ward scale municipal * Single ownership in parenthesis indicate households in joint family. records, which gives 53% ** Frontage in parentheses are of plots belonging to multiple ownerships. dwellings suffering full Table 2. Household type, ownership and lot sizes, Taulachhen. damage and another 16% partial damage12. At present, 50% of the residents are 4).

1ST/2ND FL PLAN

G FL PLAN (27.6 sqm)

11300

2400

now either residing or using to sleep at night time in the temporary shelter in nearby fringe locality such as Libali of 5-10 minutes distance from Taulachhen. Studies prior to the earthquake have identified 60% of the buildings of the quarter vulnerable in terms of structural safety. Now the number of houses that suffered serious damage due to 2015 earthquake requiring rebuilding is 82%. The distribution of the damage in the quarter with respect to the four location situations is almost similar.

The questionnaire survey covers 59 households in a total of 237 units within the quarter block. The distribution is stratified representing the general situation of the respective four localities. Household data and the physical properties of the dwelling plots are compared with the choice made for the reconstruction alternatives.

The plots are extremely fragmented with 83% of the plots being less than 32 m2 (Table 2). This border line is selected taking into account of the room layout in a unit of three story with three bedroom and one living room for a

3000

9200

G FL PLAN (27.6 sqm)

1ST/2ND FL PLAN (27.10 sqm)

Fig 5. Possible Layout plans with frontage 2.4 m and 3.0 m. Both plans give a minimum area of about 27 m2.

family of fiveâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the average household size in the core city area of Bhaktapur13. A plot with less than this area in the frontage range of 3-4m will have difficulty to provide enough rooms and living space.

Further, 20% of the lots have frontage less than 2.4 m, which makes it difficult for any functional layout in the rooms (Fig 5). In the plots with frontage between 2.4--5 m, close to half are of multiple ownerships. Altogether, when one considers the possibility of the partitioning of the plots now belonging to the extended household units, 86% of the plots will have frontage less than 2.4 m. This future reality is demonstrated by the existing fragmentations where frontage as nominal as 1.6 m and plot area down to 9 m2 has been noted. Thus, both from the consideration of frontage width and the plot area, a rational consideration would suggest an urgent need of readjustment in the existing plot patterns.

All Frontage Location Frontage >3m Main st 32 19 (59%) Second St 53 30 (57%) Internal lane 72 32 (44%) Courtyard 83 40 (48%) 240 121 (50%)

Table 3a. Distribution of dwelling frontage type (N = 240), Taulachhen.

Location Main st Second St Internal lane Courtyard

Frontage >3 m

Choice in Reconstruction type* (N = 49)

3 5 8 13

A 3/3 2/3 2/2 6/9

B 0/2 1/2 0/0 0/3

C 0/2 2/3 6/7 7/13

29

13/17

1/7

15/25

Total (all frontage) 7 8 9 25 49

Notes: * Observations in denominator are choice from all frontages (N = 49).

Table 3b. Distribution of dwelling frontage type greater than 3 m, and the choice in modes of housing reconstruction (N = 49), Taulachhen.

On the reconstruction type preferred by the residents, 35% preferred to build in the original plot without going to any readjustment plan. The rest 65% preferred for plot readjustment (Table 3).

Within this group, it is important to note that the number opting for apartment type is greater (78%) compared to the individual plot type.

A relationship between the existing location, frontage of the plot and the choice on the mode of reconstruction became apparent. Out of 17 who chose to build on the existing plot, 13 had the plot frontage greater than 3 m. Likewise, there is also positive correlation with the location of the dwelling. Owners with their lots in the main street were definitely inclined to the existing state compared to others while it is 40% for the owners facing courtyard, the next to prefer this choice.

This is in contrast to houses facing internal lanes where three fourth chose the option for the plot readjustment. This finding takes further significance when considering the relationship of the degree of damage to the choice on housing type. The choice is not related at all to the type of damage the dwelling suffered in the 2015 earthquake. It is found that although the house suffered major damage, if it is located at the main street and courtyard and has wider frontage, the choice is inclined towards the first choiceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;that is going with the existing situation. Taulachhen quarter thus shows a matrix of relationship where frontage and location are determinant in making the choice than the degree of damage the building suffered. If a dwelling is at the main street or in a courtyard the owner opts for the first choice, while if the dwelling is at the interior or secondary lane, the option is to the second and third choice.

4-2. Khalaa Khalaa is a neighborhood locality at the central south of Bhaktapur (Fig 2). Its main street is the route of chariot of Bhairav and Bhadrakali during the Bisket Festival. Both the chariots are stationed in one of its squareâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the Yasin-khya, and a massive wooden Postâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the yasin, is raised here on the occasion of the New Year. The locality has special historical and cultural importance to the city and Nepali culture.

The survey covers two blocks close to the Yasin-khya (Fig 6). Altogether, 58 answer sheets were retrieved out of 91 houses studied within the area. This is also one of the areas that suffered heavy damage in the earthquake (Table 4). The records of the

municipality of wards 11 and 12 where Khalaa is located, gives 53% dwellings suffering full damage and 11% of Fig 6. Quarters surveyed in Khalaa area, Bhaktapur. partial damage. In the present survey area, out of 58 households, four are repairable with one intact; 21% suffered partial collapse and remaining suffered full damage. 26 households have temporary shelter but not all use the shelter for living. Most of the households use the ground and first floors of the damaged house.

In the household structure, extended household is prevalent compared to nuclear ones (Table 5).

Deg ree of Da ma g e

Choi ce of recons tructi on ty pe

Shel ter ( N = 54)

pres ent us e F ul l Pa rti a l Sepa ra te R epa i ra bl e Inta ct l ower f l oors of da ma g e da ma g e uni t s hel ter both da ma g ed hous e 41

12

4

1

26

18

15

4

A

B

C

17

34

4

Table 4. Damage situation and choice in the mode of housing reconstruction, Khalaa.

Household type

Ownership

Frontage (N = 32)

plot area (N = 33)

nuclear/joint extended single multiple <2.4 m 2.4-5 m 5-7 m <20 m2 <32 m2 33 25 43 (12) 13 2 21 (7) 9 (3) 4 9 (+9) Notes: 1, Single ownership in parenthesis are of extended households which are presently in single ownership.

2. Frontages in parenthesis are of extended households.

3. Numbers of plot in parenthesis indicate those plots belonging to extended households, which 2

presently have more than 32 m area but will be less than that when partitioned among the heirs.

Table 5. Household type, dwelling frontage and lot area, Khalaa.

The nature of household structure is closely related to the use of the present dwelling, and the way it is inherited among its heirs affects the existing dwelling environment through partitions of its space or through further building in the vacant areas of the plot. It is to be noted that plot fragmentation in this area is much less compared to that of Taulachhen. Yet when future possible subdivision between the extended households is considered, plots with frontage less than 2.4 m reaches 68%. Similar is the situation with respect to the available plot size. Therefore, a significant number of households have to shift to the new location, which in general would be the newly developing fringe areas.

This is a critical situation on the continuity of the community and on family relationships which

All Frontage Main St 16 Secondary St 31 Courtyard 16 Internal lane 28 91 Location

Frontage >3 m 12 (75%) 25 (81%) 12 (75%) 22 (79%) 71 (78%)

Table 6a. Distribution o f dwelling frontage (N = 91), Khalaa.

Frontage Choice of Reconstruction Type* Total (All >3 m A B C frontage) Main St 7 3/9 4/5 0/0 14 Secondary St 6 0/2 5/6 1/1 9 Courtyard 3 1/2 2/2 0/0 4 Internal lane 8 1/1 6/6 1/1 8 24 5/14 10/19 2/2 35 Notes: * numbers in denominator indicate choice from all frontage types (N = 35).

Location

Table 6b. Distribution of frontage type and choice in the mode of housing reconstruction (N = 35), Khalaa.

often times hinges on the property inheritance.

The choice in the new construction type by the residents of this locality is generally inclined towards the second alternative (55%--Table 6b). This proportion significantly increases when the total number of dwellings facing secondary lane and internal lanes (Table 6a) is considered, which is proportionately much more than in the number of observation obtained for the reconstruction choice given in Table 6b. The choice is not related to any particular household type. But 64% households located at Main St and 50% of the courtyard preferred for type A, while for households of the rest two locations—secondary street and internal lane is 22% and 12%. This preference with respect to the location confirms to that of Taulachhen. But the choice in Khalaa is not evidently related to the frontage unlike the case of Taulachhen.

The choice on the mode of reconstruction is also not influenced by the degree of dwelling damage.

On the structure type, the choice, in general, is towards RCC. However, it is important to note that a greater number of households opted for three story dwelling compared to the next of four. This is in contrast to the situation prior to the earthquake when most of the dwellings were of four story or more. Considering the available floor space prior to the quake, this lowering in the number of story must be residents’ perception that further addition of floors is detrimental to the safety of the building. This is one important aspect that could be given due consideration in the reconstruction.

Lowering the number of building story is desirable in a number of respects—light and ventilation, convenience of use, and maintenance of harmony in the townscape environment.

5. Conclusion The survey study, following the earthquake on the existing housing environment and the residents’ opinion on the preference of the three possible modes of reconstruction, shows three interrelationships between the housing environment and the preference in the modes of housing

reconstruction. The first is that around two thirds prefer for plot readjustment, and within this group, a greater percent of the residents of Taulachhen opted for cooperative housing mode, while in Khalan preference to individual unit plot after readjustment plan is overwhelming. The choice to cooperative mode of Taulachhen probably relates to the degree of fragmentation of the dwelling lots where 84% of the lots are less than 32 m2, and more than half with frontage less than 2.4 m when probable family partition is considered. Studies in Bungamati and Asan of Kathmandu also have shown similar preferences in reconstruction alternatives14. The second relation is that those who opted for no change in the existing lot are primarily located in the Main Street or in courtyards. Households located at secondary street and internal lanes are more inclined to the later two modes of reconstruction. While it is the fact that more than two thirds of dwellings need reconstruction following the damage due to the 2015 earthquake, the choices are not related to the degree of damage. It is to be noted that the Main Street has more market value with opportunity for commercial and business use, while dwellings facing the courtyard have better open environment. The third important relationship is that most of the households consider building of three or three and half story dwelling. At the time when more than five story is a common scene in the existing townscape, and considering the extent of tiny plots in historic areas, this is a new perception on the dwelling following the 2015 earthquake.

Therefore, in the various modes of reconstruction alternative, the residents of the towns surveyed suggest that if residents have the understanding on the detail aspects of the development with clear image on physical form and functional aspects such as frontage matters and environments provided by the open court on the one hand, and financial benefits, and matters of conservation of community and culture on the other, a greater majority prefers for the plot readjustment before going to individual constructions. When one considers the severe fragmentation of plots in Taulachhen where around 82% of the plots have to be rebuilt and similar percentage of the plots donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t even reach the minimum lot size, building on the same plot again is the waste of resource. This is tantamount to conservatism than conservation of the historic urban fabric. Therefore, a comprehensive consideration on redevelopment and renewals with â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;build back betterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; concept take immediate importance for any reconstruction effort to be made in these localities.

Endnotes: 1.

2.

3.

Bhaktapur nagarpalika, 2072 VS (2015).

KhEC, 2012.

Shrestha, 2013.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Kobe City, 2011.

Ando, 2002a.

Balachandran, 2006.

Jabara, 1991 VS (1935).

8. Shrestha, S., and Pant, M., 2072 VS (2016).

9. Authors acknowledge the guidance and assistance from Ramsundar Bhele and Amir Livi in introducing the existing situation of Khalaa area, and for cooperation in the survey work. Special acknowledgement is to Bisnuganga Chawal for assisting in the survey work and for drawings of the dwelling plots on Khalaa area, and to Srijana Prajapati on the survey of Taulachhen. Other participants in the survey of Khalaa are Rabita Shilpakar, Uma Laghu, Rabina Awal, Minu Chuka, Teressa Prajapati, Nina Malla, Irna Pradhananga and Rosani Prajapati.

10. KhEC, 2012.

11. The number of households in the earlier survey (Shrestha, 2013) was 192.

12. Bhaktapur nagarpalika, 2072 VS (2015).

13. Ibid., it gives a total population of 81847 and total number of households 17698. Thus, the average household size is 4.6.

14. Shakya and Shakya, 2016 on Bungamati, and Dhungana and Suwal, 2016, on Asan.

References 1. Ando, Moto-Ou, 2002a. Hansin awaji daisinsai—hisai to jutaku seikatsu fukkou (Great Hansin Awaji Earthquake—Victims and Housing Rehabilitation).

2. Ibid, 2002b. Hansin awaji daisinsai—fukkou toshi keikaku jigyou-machi zukuri 3. Balachandran, 2006. The Reconstruction of Bhuj—Case Study: Integration of Disaster Mitigation into Planning and Financing Urban Infrastructure after and Earthquake.

4. Bhaktapur nagarpalika, 2072 VS (2015). Bhaktapur—mahabhukampa vishesha (Earthquake special issue).

5. Dhungana, Sristi and Sumitra Suwal, 2016. A Survey Study of Asan on Housing Reconstruction following Nepal Earthquake 2015 (unpublished). Postgraduate Department of Urban Design and Conservation, Khwopa Engineering College.

6. GSDMA, 2002. Gujarat Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Policy. Gandhinagar, India.

7. Jabara, Brahma Samsher, 1991 VS (1935). Nepalko mahabhukampa 1990 (The Great Earthquake, 1935, of Nepal). 3rd edition, 2072 VS (2015), Kathmandu.

8. KhEC, 2012. Conservation Study of Taulachhen Neighborhood. Conservation Studio Report, Department of Architecture, Khwopa Engineering College.

9. Kobe City, 2011. kobesi kokusai koto kensetsu jigyou: sinsai fukkou tochi kuka seiri jigyou (Reconstruction of Kobe--the Internation Harbour City: Disaster Recovery and Land Readjustment Project).

10. Shakya, Bidita and Jeniya Shakya, 2016. A survey study of Bungamati on Housing Reconstruction following Nepal Earthquake 2015 (unpublished). Postgraduate Department of Urban Design and Conservation, Khwopa Engineering College.

11. Shrestha, Sujan, 2013. Regeneration of Taulachhen tole, Bhaktapur. Unpublished Thesis, B. Arch., Khwopa Engineering College, Bhaktapur.

12. Shrestha, Sujan and Mohan Pant, 2016. Kathmandu upatyakaka sahar vasti punarutthan tatha punanirmanka kehi sambhabanaharuko sachitra adhyayan (An Illustrated Study on the Possibilities of Renewal and Reconstruction of Kathmandu Valley Towns). Khulaa Akas, Bhaktapur.