วารสารมหาวิทยาลัยศิลปากร by SURIC

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Volume 12 Number 1 (January-June) 2012

Level of sufﬁciency in the local politics

Teacher Written Feedback for L2 Learners’ Writing Development Napaporn Srichanyachon

High

Medium

Level of morality in SAO

Level of morality in the council of SAO

Low

Level of morality in ofﬁcers of SAO

Model of the relation of the involvement in SAO for raising morality of local politics

Perceived Value

Service Quality Tourist Satisfaction

Destination Image Tourist Complaints

Corporate Social Responsibility

Post-Purchase Behavioral Intention

Morality Based on Sufﬁciency Economy Philosophy with the Management of Subdistrict Administrative Organization (SAO) to Raise the Sufﬁciency of Chiang Mai Local Politics Wirasak Somyana

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization Ousanee Sawagvudcharee The Relationships of Factors Affecting Post-purchase Behavioral Intentions in Tourism Sector Wiwat Jankingthong and Pattanij Gonejanart Book Review Iljas Baker

ISSN 1513-4717

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts

Copyright All rights reserved. Apart from citations for the purposes of research, private study, or criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any other form without prior written permission by the publisher. Published by Silpakorn University Printing House. Silpakorn University, Sanamchandra Palace Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73000

ÂŠSillpakorn University ISSN 1513-4717

Editorial Advisory Board

Silpakorn University Journal of

Emeritus Prof. Chetana Nagavajara, Ph.D. Social Sciences, Humanities, and Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, Arts is published in June by Thailand Silpakorn University. The journal Prof. Santi Leksukhum, Ph.D. features articles and research notes/ Department of Art History, Faculty of Archaeology, articles in the fields of Art and Silpakorn University, Thailand Design and the Social Sciences and Emeritus Prof. Kusuma Raksamani, Ph.D. Humanities. Its aim is to encourage Department of Oriental Languages, Faculty of Archaeology, a n d d i s s e m i n a t e s c h o l a r l y Silpakorn University, Thailand contributions by the Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Assoc. Prof. Rasmi Shoocongdej, Ph.D. faculty members and researchers. Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University, Thailand Well researched, innovative works Assoc. Prof. Maneepin Phromsuthirak, Ph.D. by other scholars are welcome. A Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, Thailand review committee consisting of Prof. Samerchai Poolsuwan, Ph.D. academic experts in the relevant fields Faculty of Sociology & Anthropology, will screen all manuscripts, and the Thammasat University, Thailand editorial board reserves the right Assist. Prof. Wilailak Saraithong, Ph.D. to recommend revision/ alteration, English Department, Faculty of Humanities, if necessary, before their final Chiang Mai University, Thailand acceptance for publication. Assist. Prof. Alice Thienprasert, Ph.D. Director, Silpakorn University Research and Development Institute, Thailand

Editor Assoc. Prof. Thanik Lertcharnrit, Ph.D. Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University Editorial Board Asst. Prof. Bamrung Torut, Ph.D. Faculty of Education, Silpakorn University Asst. Prof. Kamonpan Boonkit, Ph.D. Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University Asst. Prof. Supaporn Nakbunlung, Ph.D. Department of Sociology-Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiangmai University Prof. Miriam Stark, Ph.D. Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii, USA Assoc. Prof. Peter Smith, Ph.D. International College, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom Asst. Prof. Matthew Liebmann, Ph.D. Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, USA Managing Editor Pranee Vichansvakul All correspondence should be addressed to : Managing editor, 44/114 Soi Phaholyothin 52, Phaholyothin Road, Klongthanon Saimai, Bangkok 10220 Telephone : 080-5996680 Fax : 66-2973-8366 E- mail address : pranee_aon1@hotmail.com Web site : http: //www.journal.su.ac.th and www.surdi.su.ac.th Information about the Journal An electronic journal is provided on the web site (http://www.journal.su.ac.th and www.surdi.su.ac.th)

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Volume 12 Number 1 (January-June) 2012

Contents

Editorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Note

Articles

Teacher Written Feedback for L2 Learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Writing Development

Napaporn Srichanyachon

Readiness and Development of Readiness in

Social Welfare Work for the Disabled of Tambon

Administration Organizations, Nakhon Pathom

Province, Thailand

Thanayus Thanathiti, Songsri Soranastaporn and Narin Sangraksa

Morality Based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy with the Management of Subdistrict Administrative Organization (SAO) to Raise the Sufficiency of Chiang Mai Local Politics

Wirasak Somyana

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

The Relationships of Factors Affecting Post-purchase Behavioral Intentions in Tourism Sector

Wiwat Jankingthong and Pattanij Gonejanart

Book Review Urry, John. 2011. Climate Change & Society. Polity Press,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Giddens, Anthony. 2011. The Politics of Climate Change.

Polity Press, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Iljas Baker

Editorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Note

Welcome to the first issue of Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts for 2012! We have made great effort to provide readers with a broad range of papers over the past several months. At a glance, however, it seems that papers on aspects of the social sciences and humanities appear to dominate over those on the arts. As the editor, I would like to inform contributors that we need more papers on the arts, while papers in the social sciences and humanities are still welcome. Like previous issues, this issue of SUJSSHA consists of a range of papers on education, sociology, economics, and communication, as well as a book review. Again, as editor, I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to all contributors to this issue, as well as our manuscript reviewers for their constructive comments on the papers. Last but not least, please be reminded that we always welcome submission of manuscripts under the broad themes of social sciences, humanities, and arts. Thanik Lertcharnrit, Editor thanik@su.ac.th

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts is indexed in the Thai Journal Citation Index Centre (TCI Centre) Database.

Teacher Written Feedback for L2 Learners’ Writing Development Napaporn Srichanyachon Language Institute, Bangkok University, Thailand Corresponding author: napaporn.s@bu.ac.th Abstract The article focuses on the importance of teacher written feedback on L2 students’ writing development including its effects on both students’ language accuracy and their motivation. It discusses students’ feedback preferences in terms of content, compares the methods of giving feedback, and suggests instructional practices to help teachers to provide effective written feedback for their students. Feedback can be given directly or indirectly. In order to give effective written feedback, teachers should consider their students’ needs for error correction and classroom realities. No matter what method is used, it is important for teachers in ESL and EFL settings to give students a crystal clear explanation. Also, teachers should include comments of praise and encouragement in their written feedback because positive feedback can boost student motivation to improve their writing skills. Key Words: Teacher feedback; Writing; L2

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Vol.12 (1) : 7-17, 2012

Napaporn Srichanyachon

Teacher Written Feedback for L2

Introduction Feedback is an essential component of any English language writing course. Ur (1996: 242) defines feedback as information that is given to the learner about his or her performance of the learning task, usually with the objective of improving their performance. Surveys of students’ feedback preferences generally indicate that L2 students prefer teacher written feedback to alternative forms such as oral and peer feedback (Saito, 1994; Zhang, 1995). Mostly students from cultures that see a teacher as the only source of authority value teacher revision more highly than other methods because they have confidence in the teacher’s knowledge and skill in English. Teacher written feedback or handwritten commentary is a primary method to respond to students’ essays to assist students’ writing development; teacher written comments on the students’ drafts indicate problems and make suggestions for improvement of future papers. Through feedback teachers can help students compare their own performance with the ideal and to diagnose their own strengths and weaknesses. Researchers have tried to find out what kinds of comments are most effective. The most common form of written feedback in L2 writing contexts has been concerned with error correction. Truscott (1996) doesn’t believe in the benefits of error correction and argued that this kind of feedback is harmful to students’ fluency and their overall writing quality and should be abandoned. He suggests that teachers should adopt a ‘correction-free approach’ in their classrooms. However, teachers in ESL/EFL settings may be reluctant to follow this advice. L2 learners may find difficulty identifying errors and using right words in their sentences due to their limited English proficiency. Research has indicated that L2 students benefit from error correction. Ferris and Roberts (2001) examined the effects of teacher feedback among university ESL student writers in terms of the percentage of errors they could revise when they self-edited their texts across three feedback conditions: (1) errors marked with codes; (2) errors underlined with no codes; and (3) no error feedback at all. They found that both

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error feedback groups significantly outperformed the no feedback control group. Similarly, Lee (1997) investigated the performance of ESL college students in Hong Kong and found out that the students corrected more errors when the errors were underlined or indicated. L2 students prefer errors marked with teachers’ codes because it is easy for them to edit and improve their papers. The error correction approach seems a reasonable course of action in our writing classes, but it is necessary to make sure we implemented it in the most effective manner. In the university where the author teaches, as in much of higher education in Thailand, class sizes are rising. Forty is common in this university. In addition, students in a class have different English background knowledge. There has been much discussion within the English department about how to manage the provision of feedback. This raises the question of the value of teacher comments and whether they have a role to play in L2 writing. Therefore, the article has been written in order to address various aspects to be considered while writing comments on student papers. It also addresses the importance of written feedback given by language teachers to their students. Students’ Feedback Preferences in Terms of Content In ESL/EFL writing classes, grammatical correction feedback represents one of the most crucial aspect of improving learners’ writing. Ferris (1997) examined whether certain types of commentary were more helpful than others in assisting L2 students to revise. The findings showed that marginal comments, requests for clarification, and comments on grammatical issues led to the most effective revisions. L2 students attach a great deal of importance to writing accuracy and are eager to obtain the teacher’s comments on their errors. They expect teachers to comment on their written errors and are frustrated if this does not happen (Leki 1991; Ferris and Roberts, 2001). According to Leki (1991), grammar feedback has been viewed as helpful by college level ESL students.

Napaporn Srichanyachon

Teacher Written Feedback for L2

Although most studies show that students require teacher feedback to highlight their grammatical errors, some reveal that they also want teachers to give them feedback on the content and ideas in their writing. Sträub (1997) found that students were interested in receiving feedback on both global issues (i.e., content, organization, and purpose) and local ones (i.e., sentence structure, word choice, and grammar). The students also indicated that they preferred comments that provided advice, included explanations, and employed open-ended questions. Therefore, when giving feedback on student errors, writing teachers should also give students comments on their content and provide several tips on how to improve their writing. As Chi (1999) points out, students appreciate comments that reflect the teacher’s involvement and engage them in an exchange about their writing. Method: Direct VS Indirect Feedback Direct feedback is a technique of correcting students’ error by giving an explicit written correction. On the other hand, indirect feedback is when the teacher indicates that an error has been made by means of an underline, circle, code, etc. Both methods can improve student’s writing, but a number of researchers think that indirect feedback is generally more appropriate and effective than direct feedback and brings more benefits to students’ long-term writing development than direct feedback (Lalande, 1982; Frantzen, 1995; Ferris, 2002). First, indirect feedback can guide learning and help the students solve problem by themselves (Lalande, 1982). Second, students are able to express their ideas more clearly in writing and to get clarification on any comments that teachers have made (Frodesen, 2001). In addition, students feel that indirect feedback is useful in encouraging them to reflect on aspects of their writing and to develop improvements (Miceli, 2006). Indirect feedback can be done by a code representing a specific kind of error. When giving indirect feedback, teachers underline errors and use codes to indicate the type of error such as SP (spelling error), P (fault in punctuation), and VT (wrong verb tense). This

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method gives students the opportunity to fix errors themselves. However, teachers should familiarize their students with the codes, so that they will not be surprised when they see teacher written comments. Indirect teacher feedback is very useful when it incorporated with student self-revision, but lower proficiency students may be unable to identify and correct errors even when they have been marked for them. Cohen and Cavalcanti (1990) investigated the relationship between teacher-written commentary and what L2 students do as a result of it. Their data showed that students who were especially weak looked forward to receiving feedback that acknowledged what they were doing was in line with the assignment. Ferris (2006) found that students utilized direct feedback more consistently and effectively than indirect types, partly as it involves simply copying the teacher’s suggestion into the next draft of their papers. Thus, direct feedback can be more beneficial to students in some contexts, especially when revising syntax and vocabulary (Miceli, 2006). According to Ferris (2002), direct feedback is appropriate, however, (1) for beginner students; (2) when errors are ‘untreatable’, i.e., errors not amenable to self-correction such as sentence structure and word choice and (3) when teachers want to draw students’ attention to other error patterns which require student correction. The danger of direct feedback is that teachers may misinterpret students’ meaning, and students may express confusion and dissatisfaction with teachers’ feedback. When students have different opinions from the teacher’s response, they may resist to revision and feel a teacher’s feedback is invalid or incorrect. Consequently, in facilitating teacher feedback in L2 writing, teachers need to consider students’ English background knowledge and indicate their needs for error correction. Direct feedback seems to be appropriate for students with weak English skills. However, when giving direct feedback, teachers should also give them clear explanations about grammatical errors so that they can deepen their English knowledge. Also, a combination of direct and indirect feedback can be used for students

Napaporn Srichanyachon

Teacher Written Feedback for L2

in large mixed ability classes. The Role of Teachers in Providing Effective Feedback for L2 Students According to Barkaoui (2007), teachers need to: a) motivate students, b) model effective revision strategies, c) raise students’ awareness about the importance of (re)seeing their texts from the reader’s perspective, d) encourage students to reflect on and self-assess their own writing, and e) use appropriate writing tasks and activities for teaching and assessment. Feedback can serve as guidance for eventual writing development as far as students are concerned (Hyland, 2003). So, teachers should offer self–correction opportunity for their students by providing indirect feedback on student’s grammatical errors. Chandler (2003) examined whether teacher feedback in the form of underling errors could help East Asian college students improve their writing accuracy and whether the effects would last over one semester. The results showed that formal accuracy of student writing improved significantly if the participants were required to correct their errors than if they were not. Marking mechanical errors is not enough since it can be frustrating. Corrective feedback should be combined with classroom discussions, and teachers’ use of referential or open questions should be applied. As Ellis (1994, cited in Tribble, 1996) points out, open (information seeking) questions may result in more meaning negotiation and more complex learner output. Teachers should give information that a student can use and create environment in which students can explicit requests for particular kinds of help. Rae and Cochrane (2008) studied the student perspective of written assessment feedback and found out that students required the assessment item to be clearly presented, assessment criteria to be communicated before they commence their assessment, and instruction on how to make best use of the feedback they receive. To help students improve their abilities to revise, instructors are advised to provide specific guidance.

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

The Power of Teacher Written Feedback Feedback is “a key element of the scaffolding provided by the teacher to build learner confidence and the literacy resources to participate in target communities” (Hyland and Hyland, 2006: 83). It may serve not only to let learners know how well they have performed but also to increase motivation and build a supportive classroom climate (Richards and Lockhart, 1996). Teacher written feedback can serve as a powerful tool to motivate students in the writing process if done well. According to Brookhart (2010), feedback includes two factors: cognitive and motivational factors. It gives students information they need so they can understand where they are in their learning and what to do next—the cognitive factor. Once students feel they understand what to do and why, most students develop a feeling that they have control over their own learning—the motivational factor. Writing teachers should not simply respond to grammar and content but should include comments of praise and encouragement in their written feedback. Mitigation has been found to improve the confidence of students and lead them to be responsible for their writing (Weaver, 2006). To support effective written feedback, teachers should keep in mind that positive feedback is considered ‘positive reinforcement’ whereas negative feedback is considered ‘punishment’ (Brookhart, 2010: 11). Thus, teachers should be polite and mitigate their written feedback. Conclusion Teachers should be aware of the importance of providing effective feedback for the development of L2 learners’ thinking and writing. Feedback can encourage and advance student learning if it focuses on ‘growth rather than grading’ (Sadler, 1983: 60). To make use of its full potential, students must be able to self-manage learning and lecturers have a role in encouraging and motivating this ability within students (Nicol and MacFarlane-Dick, 2006). Thus, teachers may present themselves as helpful facilitators offering support and guidance.

Napaporn Srichanyachon

Teacher Written Feedback for L2

To give effective feedback to students to improve their written accuracy, classroom realities and the preferences of students must be considered. In L2 writing classes, students need teachers to check about the mistakes they made. When teachers give feedback, they should show students examples of how they can apply to improve their writing and give them the opportunity to talk in class to express their ideas and to discuss any challenging analytical issues. In addition, written feedback must be done politely. Remember mitigated commentary can be used as a tool to increase student motivation, engagement, and interest.

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

References Barkaoui, K. (2007) Revision in Second Language Writing: What Teachers Need to Know. TESL Canada Journal, 25(1): 81-92. Brookhart, S. M. (2010) How to Give Effective Feeback to Your Students. Instructional Supervision & Evaluation: The Teaching Process, pp. 10-18. Chandler, J. (2003) The Efficacy of Various Error Feedback for Improvement in the Accuracy and Fluency of L2 Student Writing. Journal of Second Language Writing. 12: 267-296. Chi, F. (1999) The Writer, the Teacher, and the Text: Examples from Taiwanese EFL College Students. Paper Presented at the World Congress of Applied Linguistics. Retrieved March 10, 2011, ERIC database. Cohen, A. D. and Cavalcanti, M. (1990) Feedback on Compositions: Teacher and Student Verbal Reports. In B. Krou (Ed.), Second Language Writing, pp. 155-177. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ferris, D. R. (2006) Does Error Feedback Help Student Writers? New Evidence on the Short- and Long-term Effects of Written Error Correction. In Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (Eds.), 81-104. _________. (1997) The Influence of Teacher Commentary on Student Revision. TESOL Quarterly, 31(2): 315-339. _________. (2002) Treatment of Error in Second Language Student Writing. Ann Arbour: University of Michigan. Ferris, D. R. and Roberts, B. (2001) Error Feedback in L2 Writing Classes: How explicit does it need to be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10: 161-184. Frantzen, D. (1995) The Effects of Grammar Supplementation on Written Accuracy in an Intermediate Spanish Content Course. Modern Language Journal, 79: 244-329. Frodesen, J. (2001) Grammar in Writing. In Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3rd ed.), pp. 233-248. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.

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Hyland, F. (2003) Focusing on form: Student Engagement with Teacher Feedback. System, 31: 217-230. Hyland, F. and Hyland, K. (2006) Feedback on Second Language Students’ Writing. Lang. Tech., 39: 83-101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lalande, J. F. (1982) Reducing Composition Errors: An Experiment. Modern Language Journal, 66(1): 140-149. Lee. I. (1997) ESL Learners’ Performance in Error Correction in Writing. System, 25(4): 465-477. Leki, I. (1991) The Preferences of ESL Students for Error Correction in College Level Writing Classes. Foreign Language Annals, 24(3): 203-218. Miceli, T. (2006) Foreign Language Students’ Perceptions of a Reflective Approach to Text Correction. Flinders University Languages Group Online Review, 3(1): 25-36. Nicol, D. and Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006) Formative Assessment and Self-regulated Learning: A Model and Seven Principles of Good Feedback Practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2): 199-218. Rae, A. M. and Cochrane, D. K. (2008) Listening to Students: How to Make Written Assessment Feedback Useful. Active Learning in Higher Education, 9(3): 217-230. Richards, J. C. and Lockhart, C. (1996) Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Sadler, D. (1983) Evaluation and Improvement of Academic Learning. Journal of Higher Education, 54(1): 60-79. Saito, H. (1994) Teachers’ Practices and Students’ Preferences for Feedback on Second Language Writing: A Case Study of Adult ESL Learners. TESL Canada Journal, 11: 246-270. Sträub, R. (1997) Students’ Reactions to Teacher Comments: An Exploratory Study. Research in the Teaching of English, 31(1): 91-119. Tribble, C. (1996) Writing. Oxford.

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Truscott, J. (1996) The Case Against Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes. Language Learning, 46: 327-369. Ur, P. (1996) A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory. Cambridge Teacher Training and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Weaver, M. R. (2006) Do Students Value Feedback? Student Perceptions of Tlitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Written Responses. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 31: 379-394. Zhang, S. (1995) Reexamining the Affective Advantage of Peer Feedback in the ESL Writing Class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4(3): 209-222.

Readiness and Development of Readiness in Social Welfare Work for the Disabled of Tambon Administration Organizations, Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand Thanayus Thanathiti1*, Songsri Soranastaporn1, Narin Sangraksa2 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand. 2 Faculty of Education, Silapakorn University, Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand. * Corresponding author: thanayust@yahoo.com 1

This research is funded by the Thailand Research Fund and the Office of the Higher Education Commission Abstract This research was aimed to study the readiness and development of readiness in social welfare for the disabled of Tambon administration organization, Nakhon Pathom Province. The mixed methodology used in this study included both quantitative research and qualitative research and it was divided into 2 phrases: (1) to study the readiness of Tambon administration organizations (TAOs) in Nakhon Pathom Province to provide services for disabled persons in terms of knowledge, attitude and participation and (2) to develop the readiness in terms of knowledge and attitude as well as to transfer how to provide services for disabled persons by means of seminars with specialists. The population of this study included administrators and staff of TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province, and they were the sample of this study. This sample was selected by the purposive sampling technique. The sample group of First phrase was composed of two groups: (1) 146 administrators of Tambon administration organizations, and (2) 1,247 officer of TAOs in Nakhon Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Vol.12 (1) : 18-39, 2012

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

Pathom Province. Second phrase was 67 participants in seminars, was composed of administrators, officer of TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province and people working for or related to the disabled. The research results revealed as follows. The readiness of TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province to provide services for disabled persons in terms of knowledge of the disabled and how to provide appropriate service was rated at the high level. The attitude to provide services for disabled persons was at the highest level. TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province participated in providing services for the disabled at the high level in terms of health and social services only. The other welfares matters such as education, occupation, and income; lodges; and recreation were rated at the low level. The problem was budget for managing welfare because it was insufficient and did not co-respond to the real practice of local welfare management. Moreover, the administrators of TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province did not set the operation of social welfare for the disabled at the high level. The disabled also did not realize their rights and did not co-operate in doing some activities. The researcher developed the readiness TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province to provide services for disabled persons by means of seminars, and participants stated that the seminars provided were useful and they gained some more knowledge. Key Words: Readiness; Social welfare; Disabled person; Tambon Administration Organization

Thanayus Thanathiti et al.

Readiness and Development of Readiness

Introduction Thailand has implemented the B.E. 2550 Act on Life Quality Development of the Disabled since September 27, 2007. Major contents of the act on rehabilitation of the disabled include improving or maintaining competency or ability of the disabled by means of medical, religious, educational, social or vocational processes in order to provide them an opportunity to work or maintain their livelihood in the society with the fullest extent of their potential. Additionally, the contents on improving their quality of life include rehabilitation, providing welfare, promoting and protecting their rights, supporting their independent livelihood, having honor of being humans and equality, and fully and effectively participating in social activities under the conditions accessible and beneficial to the disabled. The 2542 B.E. Local Administration Decentralization Act authorizes local administration organizations to provide local people education, training and development of life quality suitable to local contexts. However, works on social welfare for the disabled at the local level have not clearly been materialized regarding policies and measures on the provision of welfare and services to improve the quality of life of the disabled. This may be due to the lack of readiness on knowledge about the disabled and on principles of suitable welfare management for the disabled. In order for social welfare works for the disabled to materialize, it is imperative to investigate readiness and development of readiness in social welfare work for the disabled of Tambon administration organizations (TAOs), Nakhon Pathom Province as a pilot project in order to provide a guideline for other provinces to implement. The objectives of this investigation were to examine readiness in social welfare works for the disabled of TAOs in terms of knowledge, attitude and participation of TAO members concerning the issue, and to develop readiness of TAOs on the issue by means of training.

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

Literature Review Human Rights and Development of the Disabled’s Life Quality According to human right, the disabled are essential resources as same as normal persons, so development of the disabled’s life quality has been mission for all countries, including Thailand. Thus, the Act of 2007 for promoting and developing of the disabled’s life quality was promugated on September 27, 2007. The main purpose of this Act is to arrange rehabilitation of the disabled i.e. promote or to maintain the ability of disabled by using a health care system, religion, education, society, or occupation, so disabled will have opportunities to work and live in their society efficiently. Moreover, their quality of life is also promoted and developed. For examples, provide rehabilitation, arrange welfare, promote and maintain human right, support independent living and human dignity as same as others, and encourage social participation completely and perfectly so the disabled can access and use facilities for their benefit (The Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, 2007). Needs for Welfare of Disabled The following theories and concepts related to needs for welfare of disabled are described. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is illustrated the shape of a pyramid. The fundamental levels of needs is the largest and the most so it is at the bottom; whereas, the need for self-actualization is at the top of the pyramid. According to Maslow’s, needs of disabled is also in a hierarchy. First, they need to be healthy, and then they need to have safety and security in terms of daily life, society, and environment. Therefore, government and related organization need to arrange welfare for the disabled. ERG Theory of Motivation Alderfer (1972) developed ERG Theory of Motivation based on Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs. Alderfer’s ERG Theory differs from Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory in that the former divides needs into

Thanayus Thanathiti et al.

Readiness and Development of Readiness

three types: existence, relatedness, and growth. People have foundation needs for survival and they also want to grow up in their career so government needs to respond to the disabledâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s need and tries to make it equally to normal persons. Welfare Models for Disabled The Ministry of Social Development and Human Security (2007: 210-223) conducted research on Welfare models for severe disabled in Thailand and three models were developed. 1) The Institutional Welfare Model The Institutional Welfare Model refers to a government model. Government arranges welfare and subsidizes together such as education, health care, occupation, and incomes. 2) The Double Welfare Model The Double Welfare Model refers to a model which both government and private sectors cooperate to arrange welfare for the disabled who registered with government. These organizations provide services for the disabled in 7 aspects: education, health, occupation, facilities, society, recreation, law, counseling, and assistance for their fundamental survival. 3) The Multiple Sectors Welfare Model The Multiple Sectors Welfare Model refers to a model which government, communities, and people from many organizations cooperate to arrange welfare for the disabled and this model functions as Community Welfare. The aims of this model are to strengthen and to develop quality of the disabledâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life in community and to provide suitable welfare for the disabled. The welfare provided are based on budgets, production, ideology, and religion of each community. Theory Related to Readiness Development Learning theory developed by Edward Lee helps to explain readiness development. People will success or failure depend on their behaviors. They have to be ready to do, practice, and reinforce. Learning depends on the learning theory developed by Thorndike (Thorndike, as cited in Curren, 2003).

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Law of Readiness: Behavior and learning are influenced by the readiness. If they are ready to learn or do any activity, they will learn or do happily. Law of Exercise: If persons do or practice more frequently, they will be better and skilled (Law of Use). Law of Effect: If persons do activities and they satisfy, they will do those activities again. They will do more if they are reinforced positively. The Law of Readiness was applied in this study by taking into account that the extent to which administrators and staff of TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province were ready in terms of knowledge, experiences, skills, attitude, and participation for arranging the disabledâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s welfare. If the readiness of these persons were low, then the law of Exercise will be conducted by providing useful and related experiences for them. Consequently, these persons will be able to provide welfare more effectively. Methods Mixed methodology both quantitative research and qualitative research was used in this study. Details are below. Population and Sample The population of this study included administrators and staff of 101 TAOs of 7 Amphurs (Muang, Kampangsen, Nakhonchaisri, Dontoom, Banglane, Samphran, and Bhudamonthon) in Nakhon Pathom Province, and they were the sample of this study. This sample was selected by the purposive sampling technique. The sample of this study comprised 3 groups and was described as follows. 1. The sample for quantitative study included 1,393 subjects, and they answered questionnaires and were selected by purposive sampling. 2. The sample for qualitative study (in-depth interviews) included 14 subjects. They were administrators and staff who worked on welfare for disabled of TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province and selected by purposive sampling.

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3. The sample of the third group (67 subjects) was used for developing their readiness to operate welfare for disabled and these subjects were selected by purposive sampling. The study process was divided into two phases. Phase 1 examined readiness in social welfare works for the disabled of TAOs The investigation focused on readiness in knowledge, attitude and participation of TAO members in social welfare works for the disabled. Both qualitative and quantitative methodology was used to collect the data from the sample group: TAO members in the province Quantitative Methodology This is to survey readiness of TAOs in social welfare works for the disabled by using the questionnaires in regard to readiness in knowledge, attitude and participation of TAO members in the social welfare works. There were 1,393 respondents, divided into 146 TAO administrators (presidents, vice presidents and secretaries) and 1,247 state officers in offices of TAOs in the province. Qualitative Methodology This is to investigate opinions on problems in carrying out social welfare works for the disabled and their solutions. The data were collected by using open-ended questionnaires with 1,393 respondents, divide into 146 TAO administrators and 1,247 state officers in offices of Tambon Administration Organization. In-depth interviews were conducted with 14 respondents, divided into seven TAO administrators and seven officers in offices of TAO. The interviews focused on current situations and problems in providing social welfare to the disabled in the province. Phase 2 was the development of readiness of TAOs in social welfare works for the disabled by conducting a seminar. The seminar on a guideline on providing community-base welfare to the disabled was organized on January 20, 2010 at the Institute of Asian Languages and Cultures, Mahidol University. The purpose was to equip TAOs with knowledge, attitude and principles on providing

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welfare to the disabled. The two keynote speakers were Khun Jeerasak Sriphromma, from Office of Nakhon Prathom Social Development and Human Security, and Asst. Prof. Dr. Tavee Cheausuwantavee, a lecturer from Ratchasuda College, Mahidol University. There were 67 participants attending the seminar. Research Instruments Before developing research instruments, researchers reviewed literature and studied theories and concepts which were related to welfare for disabled. Then information was analyzed and synthesized for developing questionnaires and semi-structured interview questions. 1. Questionnaires Included 6 Sections Section 1 asks the subjects about their background, including gender, education levels, duration and position of working at TAOs in Nakhon Pathom Province, and members of any organization. Section 2 asks the subjects about their knowledge of the disabled and welfare arrangement for disabled. Six questions were included and ranked into 3 scales: high, moderate, and low. Section 3 asks the subjects about their attitudes to welfare arrangement for the disabled. Ten questions were included and ranked into 5 scales: highest, high, moderate, low, and lowest. Section 4 asks the subjects about their participation in welfare arrangement for disabled in terms of health (5 questions), education (4 questions), occupation and income promotion (5 questions), accommodation (4 questions), recreation (4 questions), and society service (4 questions). These questions were both multiple choices and rating scale which was ranked into 3 scales: high, moderate, and low. Section 5 asks the subjects about their co-operation with other organizations in welfare arrangement for disabled. Questions were both multiple choices and open-ended. Section 6 asks the subjects about problems, obstacles, and solution in welfare arrangement for disabled. Questions were both multiple choices and open-ended. Questions were open-ended.

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2. Semi-Structured Interview Two main questions were prepared and used for opening discussion and then researchers asked additional questions based on the intervieweeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responses in order to gain more details on the topic. See two questions below. 1. Current situation of working on welfare for disables How does your TAOs arrange welfare for the disabled in terms of health, education, occupation and income promotion, accommodation, recreation, and society service? 2. What are problems and obstacles in welfare arrangement for disabled? And how do you solve these problems and obstacles? Reliability and Validity of Instruments Questionnaires developed by researchers were verified by two disabled experts: Asst. Prof. Dr. Tavee Cheausuwantavee and Dr. Dollaporn Phuakkhong who worked at Rajchasuda College, Mahidol University. These two experts were specialized in rehabilitation of the disabled who lived in communities. Moreover, both questionnaires and in-depth interview were reviewed and accepted by Mahidol University IRB before being used for collecting data. Data Analysis The questionnaire responses were analyzed by using the Statistic Package for Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics used in this study were frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean, and standard deviation. All in-depth interviews tapes and all open ended data were transcribed and analyzed by using content analysis. Then these data were categorized with open and axial coding. The results of analysis were described.

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

Research Results The research results are divided into there parts. They include demographic data of the sample group, readiness of TAOs in providing welfare to the disabled and development of readiness of TAOs in providing welfare to the disabled by means of a seminar. Part1 Demographic data of the sample group It is found that, of the officers from 101 TAOs who were the sample group, 55.60% were females, 56% had bachelor degrees with an average working period of four years, and 70.80% worked for their respective TAOs for less than five years. Additionally, 85.80% were operational staffers. In terms of being membership of local groups or organizations, 81.80% were not members of any group, whereas 7.30% were members of village councils. Part 2 readiness of TAOs in providing social welfare to the disabled Knowledge about the Disabled It is revealed that general knowledge about the disabled of TOA members was at a high level (88.10%). Regarding specific knowledge, it is found that knowledge about disabled people and provision of welfare to the disabled was at a high level, 89.80% and 88.20% respectively. Attitude toward Social Welfare Works for the Disabled The analysis reveals that attitude of the sample group toward the provision of social welfare for the disabled was at the highest level. Participation in Providing Social Welfare for the Disabled It is revealed that participation of the sample group in providing social welfare to the disabled in general was at a low level (43.80%). For participation in specific areas, it is found that participation in providing health services and social services was at a high level, 58.70% and 56.50% respectively. Participation in other fields was at a low level, including education (52.60%), career and income promotion (50%), shelter (48.20%), and recreation (57.80%).

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Current Situations and Problems in Providing Social Welfare to the Disabled Qualitative data for this section were collected by using in-depth interviews with personnel of the participating TAOs in terms of health services, education, vocational and income promotion, shelter, recreation, and social services. The results are as follows. Health Services TAOs provides health services to the disable by providing mobile medical services at their homes or specified areas in collaboration with local medical personnel in order to give medical check-ups and preliminary treatments. Moreover, TAOs planned to incorporate community health care systems with the state health insurance system, the state â&#x20AC;&#x201C;sponsored Health Insurance Fund. In cases of serious health problems of the disabled who required specialist care, TAOs would coordinate with district or provincial hospitals to request for specialists. Education TAOs did not directly provide the disabled educational scholarships. However, only Thung Kraphanghom Tambon Administration Organization, Kamphaengsaen District, provided scholarships to the disabled to attend training at its vocational training center. If there were any scholarships, they would be through local schools and most recipients were regular students. Nevertheless, there were short training courses conducted by external specialists, with topics ranging from the rights, adjustment to livelihood of the disabled. Vocational and Income Promotion Most TAOs provided welfare on vocational and income promotion to the disabled. The main income source of the disabled was the state subsidized 500-bath monthly allowance. For other vocational activities, the disabled were encouraged to participate in the production process of local vocational groups. If they were not skillful vocationally, training courses were organized with the help of external specialists. After the training, financial and technical supports were provided to the trainees. Furthermore, the disabled were encouraged to form into vocational

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groups in order to request financial supports from concerned state agencies. Shelter Most TAOs provided housing repair services to the disabled. In cases of housing construction, it would be incorporated with the Ban Therd Thai Project with a requirement that the disabled must be owners of the land. The project was one of many that celebrated his Majesty the King, with the construction cost of 100,000 Baht. In cases of those without homes or relatives, TAOs would coordinate with concerned state agencies in order to provide shelters for them. Recreation TAOs did not specifically organize recreational activities to the disabled, but to the public in general. This was because the disabled were not both interested in and cooperative with the organizations. Furthermore, they were afraid of accidents related to such activities. Social Services Most social services were in the form of transportation to facilitate the disabled in carrying out necessary activities, such as registration of the disabled, requesting wheelchairs from concerned state agencies, opening bank accounts for their monthly allowances, elections, attending meetings or seminars, or participating in group activities for the disabled. Coordination with Concerned Agencies to Provide Social Welfare to the Disabled For registration and equipment assistance, TAOs would coordinate with the office of Nakhon Pathom Social Development and Human Security. As for health services, coordination would be with private agencies like the provincial Rotary Club for assistance on equipment and other facilities for the disabled. Problems in Providing Social Welfare to the Disabled and their Solutions The data for this section were collected from open-ended questionnaires and in-depth interviews with administrators of TAOs and other officers. The findings are summarized as follows.

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Budget Problem TAOs in the province are mostly of medium-sized organization, with an income of 6-20 million bath excluding subsidies. Consequently, operational budget was relatively limited and little was allocated for social welfare. Nevertheless, they would request budgets for community social welfare every year. In principle, budget proposals must pass a public resolution of the community. Generally, the elderly would better be able to form into groups to get budget supports from TAOs than the disabled. This is because the latter is more individualistic due to their physical disabilities and health problems, making it more difficult to communicate with one another and to form into groups to receive financial support. Solution Guidelines It is recommended that TAO officers seek budget support from other concerned agencies. They would also like the government to increase financial support for social welfare works for the disabled besides the monthly allowance. It is further suggested that each TAO allocate more budget for community welfare operations. Problems on Cooperation from the Disabled and Caretakers It is found that most disabled people were not aware of and did not protect their rights as community members. They usually did not participate in activities and relatives or care-takers did not take welfare of the disabled seriously. This is partly due to their physical disabilities, which make it difficult to contact TAOs. Movement of the disabled is regarded as a burden by relatives and caretakers. Furthermore, relatives or guardians took a fair share from monthly allowances of the disabled. Solution Guidelines It is recommended that effective communication between TAOs and the disabled should be improved. Disabled people should be made aware of their rights in getting welfare from local administration organizations. In case of transportation problem, transportation should be provided or services should be served at their homes. As for caretakers,

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

more public relations should be launched to make them aware of the rights of disabled people. They should take those under their care to be registered in order for them to be eligible for welfare services from TAOs. Problems of Personnel Shortages in Charge of Social Welfare Works From the open-ended questions and in-depth interviews, it is revealed that there was only one officer, a community development officer, in charge of social welfare works and activities for the elderly, the disabled and the youths in the communities. Therefore, he/she was unable to supervise and carry out all welfare works. Another problem was that the officer lacked knowledge about welfare for the disabled because he/she was not specialized in this field and did not get additional training from concerned state agencies. Solution Guidelines It is recommended that more personnel in charge of welfare and health care services of the disabled be recruited. Furthermore, current personnel should be trained and equipped with knowledge about welfare works for the disabled, so that such knowledge could be used as a guideline for providing welfare services to the disabled in their respective communities. Problems of TAO Administrators Neglecting Welfare Works for the Disabled It is found that TAO administrators did not perceive welfare services for the disabled as important. Therefore, budget for the welfare works was hardly allocated, making welfare services for the disabled fewer than those for other groups in the communities. Solution Guidelines It is recommended that administrators realize problems and hardship of the disabled first hand by working with responsible officers in the field. The action would raise their conscience in truly dealing with problems of the disabled in their communities.

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Problem of State Subsidies It is found that allocation of state subsidies had not covered all disabled individuals in the communities. Furthermore, the government had not allocated welfare budget for the disabled to local administration organizations with low incomes. Solution Guidelines It is recommended from TAO members that the government systematically transfer social welfare works to TAOs and allocate sufficient budgets for the operations of welfare services to the disabled. It is further recommended that TAOs collaborate with local administration organizations, the private sector and foundations in providing welfare services for the disabled and others in their respective communities. Part 3 Developing readiness in social welfare works of TAOs by providing knowledge A seminar on a guideline for providing community-based social welfare for the disabled was organized with 67 TAO members. The topics included assisting disabled people, registering disabilities and the rights to receive state assistance, and principles in providing welfare for the disabled. The details are as follows. Assisting Disabled People Assistance provided for the disabled is divided into three areas: social services, social assistance and social insurance. Assistance on social services includes the following: 1. Access to the rights of the disabled by registering their disabilities 2. Public health, e.g., community-based medical rehabilitation, the 30-baht medical scheme and promotion of physical well-being 3. Education, e.g., preliminary assistance and preparation and educational promotion by coordinating with schools for the disabled, regular school, and non-formal and informal educational institutions 4. Labor and income, e.g., cooperating with state and private businesses for employment of the disabled and hiring disabled persons in the communities

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

5. Other services, e.g., protection of the rights of the disabled and social and social welfare development of the disabled by cooperating with the private sector in the community Social assistance includes the following: 1. Educational assistance, e.g., school lunch/supplementary food, scholarships, instructional media, educational facilities, and school buses 2. Social welfare assistance, e.g., financial and non-financial support, devices and equipment for the disabled, allowances, and coordinating with state welfare institutions for residential and vocational assistance Social insurance includes the following: 1. Requesting assistance from the Social Insurance Fund 2. Requesting monetary compensation in case of work-related accidents Registration of disabilities and rights to receive state assistance Qualifications for disability registration are as follows: 1. Disabilities designated and proven by medical professionals 2. Visually evident disabilities, including complete visual, auditory and physical impairments that make such people unable to depend on themselves The rights to receive state assistance are as follows: 1. Financial assistance without interest for career establishment 2. Vocational support 3. Disability allowances for those registered since April 2010 4. Other state assistance 5. Shelter provision for those without caretakers Principles in providing welfare for the disabled Community-based rehabilitation has the following characteristics. 1. It is organized by and within the community. 2. It is about rehabilitation (welfare provision). 3. It is about the equality of opportunity and social co-habitation. 4. Disabled persons, their families and the community must be actively involved.

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5. It aims at helping and developing disabled persons in four major areas, namely health, education, vocation, and social services. In providing welfare for the disabled, it must be based on the six principles, namely inclusion, participation, sustainability, empowerment, self-advocacy, and barrier-free environment Feedbacks from the participants of the seminar revealed that the contents of the seminar and their application were interesting and beneficial to social welfare works of TAOs at the highest level. The guest speakers were knowledgeable and their delivery skills to facilitate easy understanding were at the highest level. They were able to answer questions at a high level. The results indicated that the seminar was successful in developing knowledge, attitude and welfare implementation principles of the participants. Discussion Readiness of TAOs in Social Welfare Provision for the Disabled It is found from the investigation that personnel of TAOs in the province were knowledgeable about disabled persons and providing welfare for the disabled at a high level. The finding points out that the personnel were aware of basic human rights stated in the constitution and were interested in providing welfare for the disabled in their communities. Their attitude toward the welfare provision was at the highest level, which would lead to effective and efficient welfare works. The finding is in line with that of Narong Phetprasert (2001:16-40), revealing that community-based welfare starts from belief and idealism before implementation. It is a creation of an ideal society, which affects and changes lifestyles, consumption, production and commercial behavior, and mentality as well as attitude toward life. It depends largely on confidence, devotion and cooperation of community leaders as well as public interest-oriented administration. As a consequence, if such conditions prevail in the TAOs, provision of social welfare for the disabled will be effective and efficient, improving the quality of life of

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disabled persons. Nevertheless, implementation of and participation in social welfare works for the disabled was at a low level in general. Welfare on health and social services was at a high level by coordinating with local health centers and hospitals. Public health personnel were asked to give medical check-ups and provide preliminary treatments. Serious cases were sent to the hospital. The welfare is in a form of local network. The finding is line with that of Aphisak Theerawisit et al. (2009: abstract), revealing that welfare works were operated via local community sub-committees with an emphasis on local networks and greater flexibility. Social service provision was mostly in the form of transportation for the disabled to carry out activities. Other welfare provision included vocation and income generation, recreation and shelter, which were at a low level due to problems of both parties. TAOs had limited budgets for overall operations. A part of the budget was allocated for welfare of other groups like the elderly, children and youths, and women. There was none exclusively allocated for the disabled. Moreover, each TAO had only one community development officer in full charge of welfare provision. The most important problem was that TAO administrators did not pay attention to welfare of disabled persons. The finding is in line with that of Narong Phetprasert (2009:16-40), stating that for social welfare provision to become effective, it required faith and devotion of community leaders. If TAO administrators did not pay serious attention to welfare of the disabled, it would be difficult for the provision to become materialized and successful. Problems of the disabled stemmed from the fact that they were not aware of and protect their rights as community members. They were not cooperative in participating in activities. Furthermore, relatives or caretakers did not perceive the importance of welfare of the disabled. This is because their health problems, disabilities and restricted freedom of movement make it difficult to take part in activities. Such restricted mobility is perceived as burdensome. The finding is in line with that

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of Withayakorn Chiangkul (2003: abstract), revealing that poor and underprivileged persons had low self-esteem and felt intimidated when contacting state agencies for their welfare. Thus, it is recommended that TAOs encourage the disabled to form into a group to get more involved with the organization. Additionally, disabled persons should be made aware of their rights. For welfare provision for disabled persons to become successful, state, private and local sectors must be rigorously involved. Aphinya Wetchayachai and Kitiphat Namthatpathamadul (2003: abstract) recommended that, in order to provide welfare for the poor, the under privileged and the socially risky groups, it was imperative to shift the paradigm, which was the problem of social structure. The establishment of community welfare funds should be supported as a financial source to help one another. Socially problematic individuals with potential should be encouraged to get involved in managing the funds. Additionally, the state sector must be sincere in allocating budgets for community welfare that was in line with actual local contexts. The findings from this investigation reveal that TAO personnel would like to get more budgets and fully transfer welfare provision authority to these local organizations. This means that the state provides sufficient budgets so that TAOs are able to manage in accordance with actual social welfare works. Due to a limitation of budgets, allocation to cover all kinds of community welfare might not be possible. One way to make welfare for the disabled effective is to cooperate with local state and private sectors as an operation network. A community welfare fund should be established in order to support community welfare works. These practices are in line with the concept of social welfare provision for the disabled devised by the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security (2006: 210-223). The ministry recommended a multiple sector welfare model, which is the social welfare provision between the state and private sectors. Budget is provided by the government while welfare operations are carried out by non-governmental organizations

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and the public sectors. It is community-based welfare that empowers communities and improves the quality of life of community member. Suitable welfare provision for the disabled should involve multiple social sectors that empower a communityâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;based welfare system. The system is based on local financial and production support as well as an incorporation of social and religious idealism. Developing Readiness in Providing Social Welfare to the Disabled by a Seminar The first phase of the investigation revealed that TAO members wanted knowledge on social welfare provision. Thus, a seminar was held on January 20, 2010 and the evaluation revealed that the attendantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge on the issue increased. The finding is in line with Thorndikeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Learning Theory (Thorndike, as cited in Curren, 2003), stating that success of personal behavior depends on consequences of actions, which include readiness to take actions, practice and reinforcement. Organizing the seminar according to their needs was a kind of knowledge management. Once they were equipped with necessary knowledge, it is expected that providing social welfare to the disabled in their communities would be more effective. Recommendations Support from the State Sector in Providing Social Welfare for the Disabled The research findings point out that the state sector has not paid serious attention to improving the quality of life of the disabled. Allocation of monthly allowances for disabled persons is not thorough and insufficient. Other welfare services have not been provided. The following recommendations are for the government to carry out. 1. Budgets for other social welfare services for the disabled should be allocated to local TAOs and work force for welfare operations of the local organizations should be sufficient. 2. Social welfare works and authority to manage the budget for the purpose should be fully transferred to the local organizations. The

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practice is in line with the decentralization acts. Support from TAOs in Providing Social Welfare for the Disabled 1. Administrators of TAOs should pay more attention to social welfare works for the disabled, since they play a crucial part in maintaining and developing social welfare works in their communities. 2. TAOs should encourage the disabled to form into groups and provide them community space to participate in community activities. 3. TAOs should support the establishment of community welfare funds in order to help community members and suitably allow disabled persons to get involved in management of the funds. 4. TAOs should implement the multiple sector welfare models by coordinating with local private and state agencies in providing social welfare to the disabled. The practice would empower communityoriented welfare based on local resources and incorporation of religious and social idealism to create a sustainable welfare system.

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References Alderfer, C. P. (1972) Existence, Relatedness, and Growth; Human Needs in Organizational Settings. New York: Free Press. Chiangkul W. (2003) Developing a Welfare System for the Poor and Underprivileged: Small-scaled Independent Business Owners. Bangkok: Center for Politico-economics Studies, Chulalongkorn University. Curren, R. (2003) A Companion to the Philosophy of Education. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. King Mongkut Institute. (2005) Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2540, Revised in 2548 B.E. Nonthaburi: Kaenchan. Maslow, A. H. (1970) Motivation and Personality. (2nd ed). New York: Harper & How. Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. (2006) The Proper Welfare for Persons with Severe Disabilities in Thailand. Research Report. Bangkok: Ekphimthai. Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. (2007) The Act of 2007 for Promoting and Developing of the Disabledâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Life Quality. Bangkok: Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. Phetprasert, N. (2001) Community-Based Welfare. Bangkok: Center for Political and Economic Studies, Faculty of Economics, Chulalongkorn University. Theerawisit, A., et al. (2009) A Pilot Project to Drive Social Development Strategies and Area-Based Social Welfare Provision in Khon Kaen Province. Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (1997) Legislation on Equal Opportunities and Full Participation in Development for Disabled Persons: Examples from the ESCAP Region. Thailand: n.p. Wetchayachai, A. and Nonthapathamadul, K. (2003) Developing a Welfare System for the Poor and Underprivileged: The Poor and Socially Deprived Groups. Bangkok: Adison Press Products.

Morality Based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy with the Management of Subdistrict Administrative Organization (SAO) to Raise the Sufficiency of Chiang Mai Local Politics Wirasak Somyana Department of Sufficiency Economy, Faculty of Management Science, Ubon Ratchathani University, Thailand. Corresponding author: wirasak@cmru.ac.th Abstract This research aimed to study morality based on sufficiency economy which is appropriate to the management of subdistrict administrative organizations (SAO) and can increase the morality of these organizations when they applied this morality to their management. Quantitative analysis was used to evaluate the achievement of raising the political morality of 27 SAO in Chiang Mai which were used as the sample in this study. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 16 was used to analyze the data. Limited Dependent Variable Model (LIMDEP) version 9 was used to test the hypothesis. The research outcome was that integrity, diligence and lack of greed are the most appropriate forms of morality based on sufficiency economy for the management of these 27 organizations 99%, 99% and 95% level of significance respectively. These can raise morality by 36.01%. It illustrates that all of these moralities based on sufficiency economy applied in the management of SAO can reflect the image of decentralization of local political development and democracy. Key Words: Morality Based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy; Management, Subdistrict Administrative Organization (SAO); Political sufficiency Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Vol.12 (1) : 40-51, 2012

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

Introduction The 11th socio-economic strategic plan of Thailand was made in the period that the country confronted a rapid change in socio-economical and environmental development. As a result, sufficiency economic philosophy was instituted and widely applied to individuals, families, societies which could help to create the resistance so that it would help to develop the country have a society which is environmentally friendly and contented. Thailand thereby emphasized human resource development and tried to provide a chance for people to access resources, knowledge, technology as well as sources of production which are friendly to the environment. The development base on sufficiency economy as well as the involvement of people in every area were also realized and emphasized (Office of the National Economics and Social Development Board, 2011). The strategic plan of Chiang Mai (2011-2014) not only aimed to become a prosperous, splendid and happy city in Asia for all residents and visitors as well as a gateway for international trade based on sufficiency economy but also emphasized at increasing income. The local government still follows capitalism by setting ways to promote and support trade and investment. It emphasizes materialism such as money, profit and competition and believed that this will make people happy. The socio-economic development of Chiang Mai was however unsuccessful because it couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t make the income distribution to people in local communities. The populism policy that Chiang Mai uses to develop the socio-economics of the city at present contradicts to sufficiency economy. Socio-economic development based on sufficiency economy emphasizing a balance of income distribution and reduces the income gap among people, developing their potential capacity consisting of production and hearts of people (Somyana, 2010). This can create sustainable development for the city. The capitalism concept which emphasizes materialism rather than moral and virtue improvement of people creates many problems for society (Somyana, 2009) such as competition and taking advantage

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of people who lack opportunity. As a result, the government has tried to solve this problem by bringing good governance to operate in its work and let other officials to carry out their work based on good governance emphasizing in transparency and involvement. This principal can work well depending on how much it can be implanted in the hearts of people who follow the principle of good governance. If there is no implanting in the hearts of people it will not succeed in the development of the city. Subdistrict administrative organizations have worked more closely with local people and the central government has empowered them to supervise the local community. As a result, they have the authority to administer and manage their organizations such as they obtain their administrative staffs by elections. They can manage and look after the income and expenditure themselves. However, local communities are still been controlled by the regional government. Thus, the ways that they administer themselves and the ways that they have been administered by the regional government system is contradictory. Conflict of interest is the main obstacle to increasing the efficiency of their organizations. If the administrative staffs of these organizations and the regional government realize the principle of good governance and operate their work to most people’s needs, it can operate more efficiently so that it can really help their organizations to develop. His Majesty King Bhumiphon offered guidelines to work based on sufficiency economy so that it will bring happiness, progress and peace to the country and the people. Some people such as Puey Aungpakorn, Buthathatphikuak and E.F Shumaker, a German economist suggested the similar concept as the King. E.F.Shumaker presented a new economic concept on the topic of “Buddhist Economics” in an article. This concept is opposed to the progress of materialism. It stressed the importance of people over productivity. The concept of Khandi “the answer is in the village” emphasized sufficiency of the community level. This concept is the opposite of the capitalism which supports the greed (Somyana, 2009).

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

If the subdistrict administrative organization administer and manage local communities to develop their socio-economic by applying the 5 moralities of the King; 1) integrity; 2) generosity; 3) equity; 4) patience and 5) diligence (Phantasean, 2008), it will be appropriate to the socio-economics of Thai society and can be applied to the operation of local communities. All of these 5 moralities have been applied to the management of these SAO so that it will make a change in the pattern of performance of local communities by emphasizing people involvement. The final goal of the performance of the subdistrict administrative organizations is to develop politics resulting in a happy local community. As a result, these organizations should bring morality to their work and educate as well as implant a morality concept in people by persuading people to follow the morals, setting a framework to work with people as well as make the evaluate their work based on morality. Purpose of Research (1) To study appropriate morality based on sufficiency economy in the management of subdistrict administrative organizations (2) To study the increase of morality in subdistrict administrative organizations by applying morality based on sufficiency in the management of subdistrict administrative organizations. Research Methodology This study creates an understanding of the phenomena by systematic analysis to look for appropriate types to apply in the management of subdistrict administrative organizations. Primary data was by interviewing officers of Chiang Mai subdistrict administrative organizations and secondary data was obtained from literature reviews, analysis and synthesis to look for the answers in the research. The solution will be to create a model in order to look for an appropriate type of involvement of organizations and local communities.

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(1) Population The population in this study was subdistrict administrative organizations in Chiang Mai. At present, there are 25 districts and 204 subdistrict administrative organizations in Chiang Mai. (2) Sampling The sampling in this study was restricted to the staffs who have worked for at least 1 year but not more than 4 years at the subdistrict administrative organizations (the term of administrative staffs is 4 years). 27 samples were selected by sampling from 54 SAO where the administrative staffs had worked for no more than 4 years. There were 3 kinds of sampling; 1) the administrative staff of SAO; 2) officers of organizations and 3) the council of the SAO (3) Instrument for collecting the data This study used the systematic analysis and econometrics to analyze the data in order to make the study more reliable and valid. (3.1) Primary data was obtained from surveying and interviewing the sample from 27 subdistrict administrative organizations (3.2) Secondary data was obtained from strategic plans, projects, operational plans , annual reports of these 27 SAO. (3.3) Instrument for collecting data The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative research in this study. Technical statistic for estimation was used to test the accuracy of the research outcome. Qualitative research was used to support the quantitative research in order to obtain a more precise and clear answer from the qualitative research. The instrument to collect data consisted of questionnaires and interviews. SWOT analysis was also used to analysis the context of SAO. (4) Conceptual Framework This study aimed to study the relation of the involvement of the 3 parts mentioned above in the model below:

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts

Level of sufficiency in the local politics

High

Medium

Level of morality in SAO

Level of morality in the council of SAO

Low

Level of morality in officers of SAO

Model of the relation of the involvement in SAO for raising morality of local politics

1) SAO staffs such as the leaders of SAO reflect how they

apply morality based on sufficiency economy to their work. Criteria for measuring level of morality were classified into 3 levels The highest: 80.01 - 100 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working High: 65.01 - 80.00 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working Medium: 50.00 - 65.00 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working 2) SAO officials such as government officers, employees reflect how they apply morality based on sufficiency economy to work with SAO administrative staffs and delegates from people who are the members of the SAO council. Criteria of the level of morality base on sufficiency economy is classified in to 3 levels

Morality Based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy

Wirasak Somyana

The highest: 80.01 - 100 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working High: 65.01 - 80.00 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working Medium: 50.00 - 65.00 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working 3) SAO council consisted of delegates from local committees who had been people selected to be members of the council in order to inspect the SAO and consider the approval of the operation consistent with the vision and project of SAO staffs. It reflects how they apply morality based on sufficiency economy to their work with SAO staffs and officers. Criteria of the level of morality based on sufficiency economy is classified into 3 levels. The highest: 80.01 - 100 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working High: 65.01 - 80.00 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working Medium: 50.00 - 65.00 %, level of applying morality based on sufficiency economy in working The result form the relation of the involvement from the triple party is the sufficiency of the local politics development. Researcher had set the 3 levels of sufficiency of political development High level: 80.01-100% political development Medium level: 65.01-80.00% political development Low level: 50.00-65.00% political development (5) Data analysis and discussion Researchers used simple statistics such as percentage and testing by histogram to consider the distinction of frequency and cumulative percent and used statistic package of social science program (SPSS) version 16 to group the level of the marks. The researcher analyzed the result to look for the relation of variables affecting the level of morality based on sufficiency economy and tested the hypothesis

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by Limited Dependent Variable Model version 9. This research used Ordered Probit, Maximum likelihood estimates and marginal effect. There are 5 variables affecting the level of morality based on sufficiency economy; integrity, generosity, patience, diligence and lack of greed. The function of study can illustrate as follow; (Calkins. P., A. Wiboonpongse and S. Sriboonchitta, 2009: 159 - 166)

yi* = X i' β + µ i

(1) ∗

yi = 1

if yi ≤ 0

yi = 2

if 0 < yi ≤ γ

yi = 3

∗

if yi > γ

yi = β 0 + β1 X 1 + β 2 X 2 + β 3 X 3 + β 4 X 4 + β 5 X 5 + µi (2)

yi = 1 low in sufficiency for local politics

yi = 2 medium sufficiency for local politics

yi = 3 high sufficiency for local politics

level of integrity

level of lack of greed

level of patience

level of diligence

level of generosity

βi

the coefficient of variables

µi

error of the model

number of SAO in this study; i means the first SAO

to the 27 SAO th

Morality Based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy

Wirasak Somyana

Results of Research The analysis result of the 2nd equation can be concluded as the 3rd equation yi = 114.82 + 0.58 X 1** + 2.07 X 2* + 0.70 X 3 + 2.30 X 4** + 1.10 X 5 (3) The restricted log likelihood is -28.91181 and log likelihood function is -.1200002E-04 and Chi square (Sig at .001) is 57.82360. The result of the analysis by ordered probit for relation of 5 types of morality base on sufficiency economy which is appropriate to apply in SAO management, the model has the level of significance at Îą= 0.001. As a result, this model is good in explaining the level of morality in SAO management. However, this model can only forecast 58.10% the total level of the variables correctly which is the medium level forecasted. The forecast which is the most accurate is in the medium level by 91.6% and the high level of the forecast is 57.10%. As a result, the variable of the morality regarding integrity, diligence were applied the most in SAO management with 99% of level of significance. Lack of greed is another variable be applied in SAO management with 95% of level of significance. Types of morality base on sufficiency economy applied to SAO management with community can create the achievement for raising the local political development as illustrated in table 1

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Table 1 Illustrates the achievement for raising the sufficiency of SAO politics from morality development

Independent Variables

Low level of political development ( y = 1)

Medium level High level of political of political development development ( y = 2)

( y = 3)

Marginal effect

X 1 (Level of integrity)

-.0395

-.3205

.3601**

X 2 (Level of lack of greed)

.0980*

.7944

-.8924

X 3 (Level of patience)

.0523

-.4243

.4766

X 4 (Level of diligence)

-.0192

.1560**

.1752

X 5 (Level of generosity)

-.0090

-.0730

.0820

Source: The research study

significance at Îą= 0.01

significance at Îą= 0.05

The marginal effect reflected 3 levels (high, medium and low) for local politics development. The marginal effect of integrity has a chance to develop and it reflected in the high level of political development which increased by 36.01%. Lack of greed of SAO has a chance to develop and reflected the low level of well-being of local politics development which increased 9.8%. The diligence has a medium chance to develop which increased 15.6%. These illustrated that applying

Morality Based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy

Wirasak Somyana

morality based on sufficiency economy particularly integrity, lack of greed of officers and SAO administrative staffs in SAO work could motivate political morality leading to a decentralization of the local community. If there is motivation and support to create and increase morality in SAO, it can develop morality in local politics sustainably. Conclusion This research can explain that morality based on sufficiency economy; integrity, diligence and lack of greed of SAO is the most appropriate to SAO management of 99%, 99% and 95% of the level of significance respectively and affect 36.01% of increase for the local political development. As a result, applying integrity, diligence and lack of greed to officers and administrative staffs reflect the political development of the decentralization to local communities so it illustrates democracy in politics. Acknowledgements This research would not have been completed if there had been no help or support from many people. First of all I would like to express my sincere thanks to Prof.Dr. Aphichai Pantasean, Prof.Dr. Aree Wiboonpong and Prof.Dr. Songsuk Sriboonjit who guided and commented as well as gave beneficial suggestions. I also would like to thank very much delegates of subdistrict administrative organizations for their good cooperation and for guidance from the Office of the Ombudsman Thailand.

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References Calkins, P., Wiboonpongse, A., and Sriboonchitta, S. (2009) Econometric Advances in the Service of M acroeconomic Prediction and Planning: An Overview. Journal of Economics and Management, 5(2): 159-166. Office of Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. (2009) Index for Measuring the Socioeconomic Development Based on Sufficiency Economy: Office of Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. (2011) The 11th National Socio Economic Developmental Plan. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. Phantasean, A. (2008) Research Synthesis, Literature and Research Report of Sufficiency Economy (1999 - 2007). Somyana, W. (2008) Learning Management for Socio-economic Development in Rural and Urban A reas, Chiang Mai Province, Research Report Submitted to the National Research C ouncil of Thailand. Somyana, W. (2009) Learning Management for Socio-economic Development in Rural and U rban Areas, Chiang Mai Province, Research Report Submitted to the National Research C ouncil of Thailand. Somyana, W. (2010) Learning Management for Socio-economic Development in Rural and U rban Areas, Chiang Mai Province, Research Report Submitted to the National Research C ouncil of Thailand. Sriboonchitta, S., Wiboonpongse, A., and Calkins, P. (2009) Bottomup National Policy Guidance from the Tambon: A Recuvsive SEM Approach. The ISSAAS International Congress 2008, 23-27 February 2009, The Emerald Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand. Wiboonpongse, A. (2008) Participatory Action Project â&#x20AC;&#x153;Learning to Develop Subdistricts Base on S ufficiency Economyâ&#x20AC;?. Institute for Sufficiency Economy Research and Promotion. 51

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization Ousanee Sawagvudcharee Centre for the Creation of Coherent Change and Knowledge (C4K) Corresponding author: Ousanee.sawagvudcharee@gmail.com Abstract The aim of this paper is to focus on demonstrating faults of internal communication in privatization. A case study approach is employed in this paper employs wherein a qualitative data collection was conducted. Interviews were used to identify key issues from the perspective of those employed in the case study organization. With special reference to Thailand, the case of the privatization of the Provincial Electricity Authority was observed. It is anticipated that the paper will present lacks of internal communication in a positive light, thus encouraging more widespread application to assure successful outcomes in similar projects. Key Words: Privatization; Internal Communication; State-Owned Enterprise

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Vol.12 (1) : 52-71, 2012

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Introduction In dealing with this topic, it is essential to bear in mind that privatization transitions these SOEs into the competitive market (Clutterbuck et al., 1991; Parker, 1995; Kahn and Minnich, 2005). It develops SOEs through improving performance, productivity, service, and profit (Parker, 1999; Conklin and Hunter, 2001; McAdam et al., 2003). However, if the privatization process is not done correctly, then the results can be contrary. During privatization, some change agents of privatization and governments forget to look back at the key features of SOEs (Nwankwo, 1996; Potts, 1999). Instead, they just focus on benefits, finance, regulation, and the desired format in a manner similar to other privatized SOEs (Potts, 1999; Jelic et al., 2003; Stephen and Backhaus, 2003). This reveals flaws in the privatization process and the crucial factors that impact on employees and others who will be directly affected in a period of drastic change. For this reason, a large number of privatized SOEs have had problems with staff and the general public ever since the idea of privatization evolved in Britain during the Thatcher government of the early 1980s (Clutterbuck et al., 1991; Nwankwo, 1996; Potts, 1999). Failures of privatization will necessarily be revealed in due course, since it will be reflected throughout the systems and in each of the SOEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s functions. Some possible outcomes include invisible organization collapse, poverty increase, corruption increase, and unfairness to the population of countries, particularly with respect to the distribution of social utilities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in particular, the poor and socially excluded (Lodhia and Burritt, 2004). In the brief introduction, one of the key components of internal marketing is internal communication. The paper is designed to demonstrate the importance of internal communication during the privatization process. It is also designed to seek to understand how it should be used to facilitate the efficiency of the change process. Accordingly, the paper is focused on the perspective of employees who are subjected to privatization and who often have little understanding

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

why change is taking place. The next section will address the objective and question of the paper. Objective and Question The objective of the paper is to analyze the lack of internal communication. The researcher realized that the development of communication within a state-owned enterprise during the privatization process can be an effective tool to help people involved. It can make the process more effective. This raises the central question of this paper – ‘In what kinds of key issues of internal communication should be developed to facilitate the privatization process more efficiently?’ This is due to the fact that in order to effectively deal with a turbulent period of transformation, such as privatization, a government and a privatization change agent have to let employees have a clear understanding of the privatization’s objectives. In order to reach their objectives, they should use communication within state-owned enterprises as a tool to efficiently facilitate a process of privatization. Literature Review Privatization is a popular solution. Many governments have applied by implementing the privatization SOEs (Clutterbuck et al., 1991). It aims to provide services more professionally to satisfy population rather than state-owned bureaucracies. An additional aim is to reduce the size and the cost of subsidies from the governments (Clutterbuck et al., 1991; Parker, 1999; Burnes et al., 2004). It is more complicated than most people realize or expect. In order to implement privatization, some SOEs undergo a transformational change. This allows the organizations deal with the three factors of processes individually: - (1) individual, (2) group, and (3) organization processes (Coghlan, 1994; Nwankwo, 1996; Chapman, 2002). These reactions can occur in any viable system within a complex organization, such as an SOE. This can lead many privatized organizations to confront mistakes and will sooner or later return to affect the whole system of the SOE.

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Reforming State-Owned Bureaucracies as Privatization The aim of privatization is to focus on the efficient development of quality products and services. Fundamentally, it is about a transfer of assets, facilities, services, and ownership from being state owned to privately owned (Clutterbuck et al., 1991). In other words, privatization can be about a transformation of services, products, and facilities or improving patterns of work/ performance from the public sector stateowned enterprise as an effective private entrepreneur (Taylor and Warrack, 1998; Prizzia, 2001). This includes developing public sector state-owned enterprises to become more responsibility effective for the population. However, Clutterbuck et al., (1991) stated that â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Many newly privatised companies made the mistake of attempting to deal with their problems with a sequential approach.â&#x20AC;? The concept of privatization is widely recognized as an effective strategy to improve performance and increase productivity. It has been established that privatization can help governments reduce the subsidies they provided initially as well (Clutterbuck et al., 1991; Burnes et al., 2004). Generally, they cut costs first and then move into investing, thinning out management, and improving customer service. In countries such as Canada, New Zealand, China, India, the United States of America, and many countries in Europe, privatization was introduced after the 1980s (Yonnedi, 2010). However, in each country, privatization has been introduced and implemented differently. It depends on how well each government and privatization change agent understands, applies, and manages the transformation process. This is because different SOEs in different countries have different mandates. This depends on the environment of the SOEs. There is no ideal method to implement privatization. In order to deal with an organizational transformation change, such as privatization, three core issues must be emphasized (Chapman, 2002). According to Chapman (2002), these issues are: (1) understanding of environment of organizations, (2) adopting appropriate strategies that match each hierarchical level of organizations, and (3) allowing

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

stakeholders to participate in a smooth manner. There needs also to be an organizational shift in order to enter a period of transformational change. This change involves a general change in three factors; (1) attitudes, (2) beliefs, and (3) cultural values of individual people in a SOE (Coghlan, 1994). These three factors are essential in order to reform an organization as they will be most affected by the change. Moreover, Yolles (2001) indicated a concept of culture that intertwines values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. This notion of culture is defined as sharing perspectives, values, beliefs, norms, and the expectations of the members of an organization (Lewis, 1994; Lund, 2003). This should explain why culture can lead to unique organizational characteristics and different behavior. This can also explain why prominent organizations can represent aspects of their culture of origin. Reducing the Gap by Communicating Internally Effectively Dunmore (2002) indicated that an aim of internal communication is to apply pressure on the internal culture and behavior of employees. It supports an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s objectives and strategies (Greenberg and Baron, 1993; Dunmore, 2002; Spitzer and Swidler, 2003). Internal communication helps people to develop better relationships with stakeholders, especially during a transformational change of privatization. It encourages and distributes information, knowledge sharing, and commitment to all stakeholders. It helps to reduce resistance as effective communication can develop openness among stakeholders and change agents, particularly during a period of turbulent change like privatization. Having good and suitable internal communication helps to identify strengths and weaknesses in the decision-making process (Drake et al., 2005). It also helps to understand employee needs and satisfy their wants. This will include understanding employee attitudes, beliefs, cultural values, and knowledge. The Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) is one of a number of profitable SOEs in Thailand. In the early stages of the organization, the

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old PEA exclusively supplied electricity and utilities to the households of the royal family (PEA, 2005). After that, a company from Denmark won the contract to continue producing and supplying electricity to the rest of Thailand (PEA, 2005). After the contract ended, the new PEA was established and governed by the Ministry of Interior under the 1960 Act by Royal Decree, which was enacted on September 20, 1960 (PEA, 2003). In 2009, the PEA was responsible for seventy-three provinces in four regions of Thailand: the northern, northeastern, central, and southern regions (PEA, 2009). It excludes Bangkok, Nonthaburi, and Samut Prakarn (PEA, 2009). In 2001, the PEA has had to administer processes of change to achieve the goals of privatization (PEA, 2003). This is seen as a move whereby the organization would be better able to serve the Thai population. The PEA aims to keep on improving its productivity while maintaining its safety practices at the maximum levels of reliability, feasibility, and satisfaction (PEA, 2003). This is one of the facets of the many areas of change that has resulted from the introduction of the privatization process at the PEA. Under the plan, the PEA has to restructure the organization to make it a private enterprise (PEA, 2005). As a nationwide entrepreneur, the organization is a major employer with a large staff of great diversity in levels or authorities (PEA, 2005). Its scattering locations make internal communication all the more essential in the transformational process. Moving from the traditional SOE to a private enterprise firm is easier said than done. It seems to be referring to a practical reformation process in an organization. Pitfalls may occur but it is difficult to determine clearly what these pitfalls would involve (Appelbaum et al., 1998). This can affect employees in particular and other stakeholders in general (Nwankwo, 1996). This is one of the facets of the many areas of change that has resulted from the introduction of the privatization process at the PEA. Furthermore, in striving to improve relations with customers, management can concomitantly help the organization to improve their attitude regarding customer service. This includes

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

developing a good relationship with customers and implementing a new methodology to gain insight into customer needs and wants. In order to achieve this, the organization has to educate the internal customers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; employees â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to understand how to act and perform in organization. This is seen as serving to reduce problems and other critical issues regarding providing products and services for customers. It can also help internal customers be aware of what is going on and enable them to develop a better appreciation for delivering products and services to customers (Piercy, 1995; Papasolomou, 2006). Instead of leaving the solution of problems until they reach a critical level, it would be possible to address them on an immediate basis. This creates a greater chance for the organization to satisfy customer needs and wants, and to deliver the best possible service to them. The privatization process of the PEA here periodically speeded up or slowed down, depending on various factors. These factors include the role of government, the influence of political groups and power, public concern, and the economic situation. These factors engendered a problematic state of affairs. Until now, the privatization has been put on hold due to a decision by Supreme Administrative Court (SAC) resulting in opposition to the ideal of privatizing the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) (Chareonwongsak, 2007). The significance of the PEA is that it services regional offices located around Thailand. This illustration shows that the organization has differentiations in the organizational environment that develop from community life-style, backgrounds, and the lifestyles of the employees. Furthermore, the PEA changed the organizational structure from time to time since the privatization program was implemented (PEA, 2005). The structure of the organization is still complex between levels or authorities. There is still a strong line of central command. The organization structural change shows that the organization has continued to maintain a bureaucratic structure. Additionally, the Marketing Department was eliminated, even though it would have been useful in transition to a private enterprise firm. Since the privatization began,

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there has been heavy resistance and numerous adversities stemming from that resistance. Consequently, failures cannot be seen or noticed in the short-term, but they will be in the long-term, at least internally. These failures will also be reflected throughout the system and within each function of the organization. Methodology As established above this research involved a case study approach conducted at the PEA. It was chosen as this was seen as the most suitable way to assist the researcher to have an ability to pinpoint the attributes and characteristics of a specific organizational context. The choice of a case study also helps the researcher to have a clear understanding of the real situation, employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, culture values, knowledge, and their reactions to the privatization. The research data collection was undertaken between the years 2004 and 2005. It used a qualitative form, involving interviews as the details are provided in the next section. Qualitative Data Collection In this data collection, qualitative interviews were employed. The main round of interviews was preceded by a pilot round, involving five interviewees. Four of these were from inside the organization, representing operational, management, senior management, and executive levels. The fifth participant came from outside the PEA. This could also help to estimate an approximate time that would be required for each interview. The pilot interviews were successful in assisting with a refinement of the proposed interview questions. Semi-structured interviews were used with the initial questions developed by drawing on key terms from the relevant literature. The aim of this interview was to encourage the interviewees to explore, explain, and describe what happened in their own words without exerting bias and undue influence. The main interviews were conducted with the support of twenty people, again representing the four levels of positional hierarchy, who were based across the geographical operations of the

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

PEA. The interviews were conducted in a setting where privacy could be assured. At the beginning, the interviewees were told of the time required to complete each interview, a guarantee given of the anonymity, and confidentiality of any information, they would provide. With permission the interviews were audio recorded to enable the researcher to concentrate on interactions within each session. This also allowed the researcher to transcribe the interviews to facilitate the coding process. It was important that the researcher undertook this task because of familiar with what transpired within each interview, so guaranteeing the accuracy of the data. At this point the services of a native English speaker were utilized. This was necessary to assist in the translation of the interviews from Thai to English. This work was undertaken only following the completion of a confidentiality agreement. To assure that all the information from the interviewees would not be disclosed to any third party. This agreement included protecting the information from copying, recording, or retention after transcription and translation were performed. Once the data transcription was completed an adaptation of thematic coding was then used for analysis. Findings and Discussion This section presents the key findings that have been identified through in-depth questioning during the study conducted in the case study of the PEA. This data is, in effect, an expansion of the content of the in-depth interview findings explicated in the qualitative method. The study found that most of the time, the employees received unclear communication about the privatization. There were also many unclear viewpoints presented to them. The following statements from the interviews offer support for this: â&#x20AC;&#x153;We did not receive proper communication about the privatization at the PEA.

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What we have been doing was following orders.” “However, it depended on informed sources, such as from news, newspaper, and the talk among colleagues. “If there were many informed sources, we would see many things happen.” “There were informed sources which caused opposing information about the same situation of privatization.” This variety of informed sources came from many communication channels. Some of them came from news of the talk among colleagues and news items or newspapers reports, instead of receiving the information from the privatization change agent, particularly with the employees at lower levels of the organization. As the quotes below clearly show: “We often talked among colleagues about the privatization instead of receiving proper communication from the change agent of the privatization. This was because we were at lower levels of the organization.” “We did not often receive appropriate communication from the change agent of the privatization. This was because we were at lower levels of the organization and the organization was nationwide with a huge hierarchy.” This is one of the problems that stem from a lack of internal communication that can cause conflict and opposition against the PEA privatization. For this reason, having proper internal communication helps the privatization change agent and the government to identify strengths and weaknesses in a process of decision making (Drake et

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

al, 2005). It also helps to meet the employees needs and satisfy wants (Burnes, 2004). Additionally, the privatization change agent was unable to gain some insight into the organizational environment and could not develop a clearer understanding of its culture. One cause was the structure of the communication chain was long. This led the process of the communication be slow. The distribution of communication took the length of time to filter down in the numerous levels below. This caused the organization to face internal communication hurdles, as well as having difficulties of problems in achieving internal communication development. Most of the employees, particularly those at the lower levels of the organization, had less chance to communicate properly. They also had less chance to provide effective feedback about what they thought, liked and disliked. This is because there could be negative repercussions for doing so, as the evidences had shown: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The communication about the privatization was lack. Although there were public hearings but you knew they were a matter of formality. Not thing would be carried on, eventually. That was it. This was privatization in Thailand. It privatized our nature resources by hiding private interests such as hidden agenda, sale of shares to business, and send their own people to work in executive positions for private interests. You know, it happened in almost all the privatized SOEs in Thailandâ&#x20AC;? As the PEA is a bureaucracy with a large, complex hierarchy, it has an impact on employees who receive communications. The study found that the employees at higher levels typically had more opportunities to receive communication than the employees at lower levels of the PEA. Moreover, those employees at higher levels in the PEA were more likely to receive communication than those working at lower levels in

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the organization. This is because the huge, hierarchical organizational structure prevented the privatization change agent and the government from distributing or sharing information or suitable communication, particularly with the lower levels of the organization. It led to a lack of lower level employees being involved in the process. In addition, this was caused by the working environment of a public sector state-owned enterprise. This means that an employee of the public sector state-owned enterprise have to obey orders inevitably influenced by politicians and certain power cliques as the evidences show: “As you know that basically we had to wait for the government order. We did not have the authority to make change just as we would like.” “The government was the influence factor in the PEA privatization.” “However, the major factors were the government, politics, and groups of power.” The study also found that no one came to discuss the situation with the employees. There was also no reasonable explanation for the privatization given to the employees to obviate their confusion. In contrast, they were ordered to agree to follow the plan instead. Internal communications regarding the PEA privatization did not flow properly. Interruptions and errors frequently occurred. There was limited knowledge of or a lack of understanding of the employees and their feelings. These were cased by poor communication internally. There was no proper communication technique applied during the course of the PEA privatization. This led to an impact on the information. For example, the information was unclear and so the employees could not properly understand it. Consequently, there was a misunderstanding regarding the process. There was no reliable source that the employees

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

could receive information from, thereby gaining their trust in the privatization strategy. The stakeholders are directly affected by the result of the privatization. Moreover, the privatization was practically reforming the entire organization and this affected the employees directly. The PEA had to implement privatization to meet the Thai government’s decision to improve the organization as the study found. However, the organization was too large; its structure was too steep. It also had too many branches in regional areas around the country. These factors made it extremely difficult to provide suitable internal communication at all levels and in the branches in an efficient manner. In addition, there were many factors involved in the privatization process. These factors came from both inside and outside the organization. These factors caused the internal communication of the privatization process to become inefficient, as well as ineffective. Although it was the responsibility of the privatization change agent to move in and clarify the situation, they could not do effectively. Examples of the factors were the government, politics, and groups of power, and the employees’ conflict, as the evidences had shown. “The government was the major factor impact on the PEA privatization.” “However, the major factors were the government, politics, and groups of Power cliques.” “The employees’ conflict was one of the major factors in the PEA privatization.”

“The conflict of the employees affected the privatization process.”

Moreover, the privatization change agent was reluctant to make use of appropriate communication techniques with good resources

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to all employees around the country. Another problem was that most individuals, including the privatization change agent, were stuck with the bureaucratic system, in which they could give orders to employees without providing exact reasons for these orders. One major problem is because of the organizational oversize, there were many branches, called area regions, around the country. This is a challenge for the privatization change agent to efficiently provide good communication to all branches. Another major problem is a key factor from outside the organization, particularly from the government and other political factions. This influenced the organization not to provide a good internal communication system with clear information to the employees. The lack of internal communication could have a huge effect on the privatization process. If the organization and in particular, the privatization change agent, can apply the concept of internal marketing and start thinking of their employees as customers, then the organization will be able to implement an appropriate communication techniques (Ahmed and Rariq, 1995; Dunmore, 2002). As a result, their employees or internal customers should not misunderstanding of change. Moreover, the organization should allow the Marketing Department and the Human Resources Department to integrate their strategies. This can help the privatization change agent deals with the process effectively. Therefore, to apply the appropriate internal communication in a form of the internal marketing to the privatization process can help the organization to create positive perspectives for the employees to the process of change and can motivate the employees to help the organization privatizes effectively (Dunmore, 2002; Kinicki et al., 1992; Keenee, 2000; Ahmed and Rafiq, 2000). Finally, in order to focus on the aspects of internal communication, it helped that the privatization change agent distributed better and more appropriate information throughout the nationwide organizational system (Kinicki et al., 1992; Kitchen and Daly, 2002). From this, the employees could develop knowledge and create new mind-sets to go along with the privatization process. In addition, it also provided a chance for the privatization change agent to deal with many unexpected

Internal Communication Problems in Privatization

Ousanee Sawagvudcharee

and uncertain factors concerning the employees (Drake et al., 2005). These factors included attitudes, beliefs, and cultural values. As a result, these factors could not be accurately predicted. Likewise, it was essential that the privatization change agent must understand the attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, and mind-sets of the employees to generate new perceptions. Conclusion There has been demand for more effective internal communication techniques and clarification of the methods undertaken. Specific details, plans, and potential solutions for privatization have not been transparent. This failure is due in part to ineffective management of information leading to internal communication breakdown. The application of the concept of internal marketing in regard to internal communication can positively support the understanding of stakeholders. It can encourage on the motivational level, change the attitudes and enhance the knowledge of managers and employees towards the privatization process (Burnes, 2004). With significant characteristic of internal communication helps privatization change agents develop better understanding of stakeholders, particular with employees. It helps to reduce confusion of information about the same situation of privatization and also prevents those who are politically motivated from exploiting related information.

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The Relationships of Factors Affecting Post-purchase Behavioral Intentions in Tourism Sector Wiwat Jankingthong1 and Pattanij Gonejanart2 Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business Administration, Hatyai University, Thailand 2 Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand * Corresponding author: janwiwat@gmail.com 1

Abstract The purpose of this research was to study the relationships of factors affecting post-purchase behavioral intentions in tourism sector on the basis of the investigated variables from recent relevant literature. The exploratory results of this study led to identification of direct and indirect factors affecting post-purchase behavioral intentions, including corporate social responsibility, destination image, service quality, perceived value, tourist satisfaction and tourist complaints for the development of proposed model. Key words: Post-Purchase Behavioral Intentions; Tourist Complaints; Tourist Satisfaction; Perceived Value; Service Quality; Destination Image; Corporate Social Responsibility

Silpakorn University Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts Vol.12 (1) : 72-90, 2012

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Introduction Tourism has become one of the fastest growing industries in recent years. It is widely recognized that the growth rate of tourism has exceeded those of the other industries (Page, 2011). Moreover, tourism has been seen as the driving force for regional development. Successful tourism can increase tourist visitations to the destinations, income, employment and government revenues. How to attract the tourists to revisit or recommend the destination to others is crucial for the success of destination tourism development (Kastarlak and Barber, 2011). From the perspective of tourist consumption process, tourist behavior can be divided into three stages: pre-, during- and postvisitation (Kozak and Decrop, 2009). More specifically, tourist behavior is an aggregate term, which includes pre-purchase decision-making, onsite experience, experience evaluations and post-purchase behavioral intentions (Meng et al., 2011). It has been generally accepted in the literature that destination image, service quality, perceived value and tourist satisfaction have influence on post-purchase behavioral intentions (Alca単iz et al., 2009; Campo and Yag端e, 2008; Meng et al., 2011). The post-purchase behavioral intentions is viewed as an important research topic by both practitioners and academics. From a managerial point of view, positive post-purchase behavioral intention is the primary source of future revenues and is regarded as the key factor in winning market share. (Robinson and Etherington, 2006). Given that consumers have differing perceptions and needs, efforts to gain and retain customers cannot employ a uniform focus. That is why an understanding of how value and purchase behavioral intention are built is necessary in order to design market segmentation and service differentiation strategies (Oliver, 2010). In fact, different studies in the area of tourism have used the segmentation approach to justify the importance of designing actions oriented at different groups of tourists (Petrick, 2005). In the related marketing literature, creating and maintaining lasting relations

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Wiwat Jankingthong and Pattanij Gonejanart

with customers is key to achieving competitive advantages for service companies (Velรกzquez et al., 2011). The significance of post-purchase behavioral intentions has traditionally been highlighted in the literature from a perspective, as they have significant present and future values for company profits and continuity. In the short term, tourists spend more with the service provider (Oliver, 2010) and in the long term, they attract new customers by word of mouth (Chen and Chen, 2010). Since the nineteenth century, post-purchase behavioral intention researches in marketing have led to efforts to examine the causes and results of post-purchase behavioral intention (Robinson and Etherington, 2006). However, most of these studies explained antecedents of postpurchase behavioral intention from a single perspective, with no comprehensive model of post-purchase behavioral intention has yet developed. Although researchers have identified major driving factors of post-purchase behavioral intention such as tourist satisfaction, tourist expectations, perceived quality, and destination image (Gallarza and Saura, 2006), most of these constructs were investigated separately with respect to their relationships with post-purchase behavioral intention. The interrelationships among these constructs as well as their direct and indirect effects on post-purchase behavioral intentions have not yet been comprehensively investigated. In addition, when exploring consequences of post-purchase behavioral intention, most researches have focused on the positive association between tourist satisfaction and post-purchase behavioral intention (Yoon and Uysal, 2005). Few studies have addressed the relationship between post-purchase behavioral intention and tourist complaints (Wang et al., 2009). Therefore, the formation process and behavior consequence of post-purchase behavioral intention have not yet been fully examined. This study about the relationships of factors influencing post-purchase behavioral intentions in tourism sector examines secondary data in order to construct a proposed model for further development of structural equation model that relates variables influencing the post-purchase behavioral intention.

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Materials and Method This article undertakes a review and synthesis of post-purchase behavioral intention on the basis of the investigated variables in the recent literature on consumer behavior in the tourism sector to advance in this line of research. We have focused on examining post-purchase behavioral intention process and factors affecting post-purchase behavioral intention. The data collection for this study was undertaken from various sources including textbook, research, publication, Internet, and online databases. The main result of this article is a post-purchase behavioral intention model. Results and Discussion Post-Purchase Behavioral Intention The concept of post-purchase behavioral intentions is one of the most important devices used to measure the success of marketing strategy (Chen and Tsai, 2007; FlaviaÂ´n et al., 2001; Oliver, 2010). Post-purchase behavioral intentions can be defined as the future behavior commitment to purchase a product or service or the link with a provider on all those occasions when other alternatives are possible (Rundle-Thiele, 2005; Chen and Chen, 2010). According to the reinforcement theory, pleasant outcomes tend to generate repeat behavior, whereas unpleasant outcomes do not generate repeat behavior. In order to motivate consumers for repeat purchase or visitation, one has to develop positive perceptions to enhance their satisfaction. Satisfaction, in turn, does produce postpurchase behavioral intentions (Reisinger, 2009). More recent research works in the literature on post-purchase behavioral intention have focused on the characteristics of tourism in relation to other services (Chi and Qu, 2008). Further research is required to examine variables other than satisfaction in order to improve the understanding of post-purchase behavioral intentions (Meng et al., 2011). In this line, there are some studies analyzing the contribution of such variables as image, perceived value, satisfaction and other moderator determinants which can complete the nature of this construct

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of post-purchase behavioral intention in the tourism context (Ryu et al., 2008). In the past two decades, various researchers have incorporated the concept of touristsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; post-purchase behavioral intentions into the tourism context (Wang et al., 2009). They found that corporate social responsibility (Liu and Zhou, 2009; Pirsch et al., 2007), perceived value and tourist satisfaction had positive effect on post-purchase behavioral intention (Chen and Chen, 2010; Meng et al., 2011). However, the relationship between consumer complaints and consumersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; post-purchase behavioral intention is uncertain, depending on the effectiveness of the complaint handling (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2011). Ninety percent of the interviewees felt that tourist complaints have a negative relationship with post-purchase behavioral intention (Wang et al., 2009). Tourist Complaints Determinant of complaining behavior is consumer dissatisfaction, and this consumer action directly conveys expressions of dissatisfaction (Lee et al., 2011). Service companies have been increasingly encouraging their customers to voice their complaints directly to company representatives because, in most instances, a service failure can be recovered only if the customer lets the service provider know about the failure (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2011). However, previous studies suggest that about 50 percent of dissatisfied customers choose not to complain directly to the service provider (Gursoy et al., 2003). Instead, they tend to engage in a variety of activities like boycotting the product and/or engaging in adverse word of mouth advertising, which are likely to be detrimental to the service provider (Barlow and MĂ¸ller, 2008). In context of tourist complaints, unlike most other areas of consumer purchases, the tourist cannot inspect the merchandise in advance of purchase to inspect its soundness; neither can he return it for repairs in case of a malfunction (Lee et al., 2011). Therefore, the tourist will seek redress from service provider when they feel uncomfortable experience from tourism (Wang et al., 2009). However, effective handling complaints of service provider can effect intention to

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recommend of tourist (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2011). With thousands of holiday packages available at any one time, it is impossible for consumer groups to test and rate the tourism product. As a result, prospective travelers must either rely on recommendations from family or friends or else trust the travel agent when booking the tour for holiday (Yüksel, 2008). In contrast to most consumer purchases, a vacation often involves a fairly long lead time in making travel arrangements but a limited and designated time period in which the service may be utilized (Kozak and Decrop, 2009). There is as a consequence a considerable degree of pressure on the tourist to “have a good time” since the opportunity will not likely arise again until the next year. Effective handling of consumer complaints can improve market reputation and enhance economic profitability; therefore, consumer complaint behavior is receiving increasing attention (Yüksel, 2008). According to Hirschman’s exit-voice theory, when consumers become dissatisfied, the immediate consequence is increased consumer complaints (Wang et al., 2009). As a result, in consumer complaint behavior research, it is commonly accepted that a certain level of consumer dissatisfaction must exist for a complaint to occur. In addition, the satisfaction factor is a variable that influences tourist complaints (Lee et al., 2011). Tourist Satisfaction Tourist satisfaction is the result of the interaction between a tourist’s experience at the destination area and the expectations he had about that destination (Noe et al., 2010). Undoubtedly, satisfaction has been an important factor in planning marketable tourism products and services. Tourist satisfaction is important to successful destination marketing because it influences the choice of destination, the consumption of products and services, and the decision to return (Kozak and Baloglu, 2011). In academia, tourist satisfaction has been a popular topic since the early 1960s, reflected by the constant growth of literature on tourist satisfaction. Since the 1980s, consumer satisfaction research in marketing has led to efforts to examine the causes and results

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of tourist satisfaction (Wang et al., 2009). Moreover, in the formation of satisfaction the classical models, and have already highlighted the effect of satisfaction on consumer attitudes and intentions, one centre of interest in more recent satisfaction research, mainly in services, is the study of the consequences in the form of attitudes and behaviours (VelĂĄzquez et al., 2011). The investigation of consumer satisfaction in marketing and tourism began in the 1980s with many studies exploring consumer satisfaction with integrated models. (Oliver, 1980; Anderson and Sullivan, 1993; De Ruyter et al., 1997; Li, and Tse,1998; Hellier et al., 2003; Lam et al., 2004; Um et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008; Chen and Chen, 2010; Lee et al., 2011). The tourist satisfaction is the center of a chain between the cause and result relationships running from the antecedent constructs of tourist satisfaction, corporate social responsibility (He and Li, 2011), destination image, service quality, and perceived value, to the consequences of tourist satisfaction, tourist complaints, and postpurchase behavioral intention (Wang et al., 2009). Perceived Value Perceived value is defined as the consumerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s overall assessment of the utility of a product or service based on perceptions of what is received and what is given (Zeithaml et al., 2009), or a trade-off between perceived benefits and perceived costs (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2011). The study of perceived value on consumer behavior requires even greater effort for its conceptualization (Zeithaml et al., 2009). The studies on perceived valueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution to satisfaction and the subsequent consequences consider it to be a key element in academic research, as it provides more solid foundations for explaining post-purchase behavioral intention (Oliver, 2010). In the practical context of tourism companies, tourist perceived value is also essential for improving competitive advantages (Kotler and Keller, 2011). In general, consumer value involves a perceptive evaluation of an exchange between what is achieved (results and desired benefits) and what has been invested (money, time, and effort) (Chen and Tsai, 2007).

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The most widely accepted definition of perceived value is consumers’ global evaluation of the utility of a product according to their perception of what they receive and what they give (Kotler and Keller, 2011). According to the theoretical framework, value has two dimensions: the economic dimension which is united to the perception of price and the psychological dimension which includes the emotional and cognitive elements which influence the purchase decision (Gallarza and Saura, 2006). One area of interest has focused on relating perceived value to tourist satisfaction and post-purchase behavioral intention (Meng et al., 2011). Its contribution to post-purchase behavior intention has also been approached in numerous studies on services and in tourism literature (Velázquez et al., 2011). There is a consensus that service quality is an antecedent of perceived value and that perceived value is the variable which best explains satisfaction (Wang et al., 2009). In the tourism context, it has been found that service quality of a destination has a positive effect on perceived value, and perceived value of a destination has a positive effect on tourist satisfaction and post-purchase behavioral intention (Chen and Chen, 2010). Service Quality Service quality is a focused evaluation that reflects the customer’s perception of specific dimensions of service: reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, tangibles. Satisfaction, on other hand, is more inclusive: it is influenced by perceptions of service quality, product quality, and price as well as situational factors and personal factors (Zeithaml et al., 2009). In the service literature, service quality is generally understood to be an attitude concerning the superior nature of a service (Li and Song, 2011). It has a technical and a functional dimension which are associated respectively with the result (‘what’ the consumer is receiving) and the process (‘how’ the service is being received) (Grönroos, 2007). The differences and causal direction between satisfaction and service quality have been widely investigated (Wang et al., 2009). If service quality is a global evaluation and satisfaction

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is associated with a specific transaction, then that satisfaction will be an antecedent of service quality (Oliver, 2010). The opposite point of view is also defended based on the contribution service quality makes to satisfaction (Choi et al., 2004). The study about thermal tourism that shows the importance of the quality of the services on customer satisfaction (Velázquez et al., 2011). From the specific perspective, service quality is performance quality and includes the evaluation of aspects which are under the provider’s control, whereas from the global perspective, service quality is the quality of the experience which is associated with psychological benefits and affective satisfaction (Grigoroudis, 2009; Tian-Cole and Cromption, 2003). Tourism research shows that performance quality contributes to the formation of quality in the experience. This global quality influences satisfaction which leads to future behavioral intentions as some studies report (Castro et al., 2007). The indirect effect of service quality on post-purchase behavioral intention through perceived value and tourist satisfaction has been shown in several contributions in the tourism literature (Wang et al., 2009). In other works about tourism, destination image is found to have a positive effect on service quality (Chen and Tsai, 2007). Destination Image Destination image can be viewed as a set of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that people have of attributes and/or activities available at a destination (Echtner and Ritchie, 2003). Quite a number of writings on holistic nature of the image define destination image as the expression of all knowledge, impressions, prejudices, and emotional thoughts an individual or group has of a particular object or place (Alcañiz et al., 2009). Moreover, the destination image is defined as an individual’s mental representation of the knowledge, feelings, and overall perception of a particular destination (Kozak and Decrop, 2009). More recent research studies view destination image as a multi-dimensional construct consisting of tourists’ rational and emotional interpretations (Martin and Bosque, 2008).

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The cognitive image refers to the beliefs or knowledge a person has of the characteristics or attributes of a tourism destination (Boo and Busser, 2006). Most empirical studies in the tourism literature focus on the cognitive component of destination image through a multi-attribute approach (Govers et al., 2007). Those attributes are the elements of a destination that attract tourists such as attractions to be seen, environment to be perceived (e.g., weather, public hygiene), and experiences to remember underlying in the cognitive structure of destination image. The affective image, on the other hand, represents a touristâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feelings toward a destination (Kozak and Decrop, 2009). The role of tourism destination image can be viewed as a total impression represented in a travelerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s memory as a result of perceived attributes associated with the tourism destination (Beerli and Martin, 2004). Previous research studies show that destination image can influence tourist satisfaction and their behaviors such as the choice of a destination, the subsequent evaluations, and their future behavioral intentions (Loureiro and Gonzalez, 2008). The destination image is the center of a chain between the cause and result relationships running from the antecedent constructs of destination image, corporate social responsibility (Liu et al., 2010), to the consequences of destination image, tourist satisfaction (Wang et al., 2009). Corporate Social Responsibility Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is about how companies manage the business process to produce an overall positive impact on society. Generally, CSR is explained as corporate engagement in socially responsible behaviors in response to societal demands (Idowu and Louche, 2011). Moreover, CSR is a construct that encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time (Carroll, 2007). At present, there is growing interest in exploring the links between CSR and marketing to provide a framework to integrate CSR and marketing (Zanda, 2011). Maignan and Ferrell (2004) summarized the work of marketing scholars in examining consumer responses to CSR

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initiatives, the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility among marketing practitioners and the marketing benefits resulting from corporate actions with a social dimension (Benn and Bolton, 2011). These researchers have explored how companies use CSR in their marketing communication activities and they have proved that the changing attitudes of customers have driven companies to find new ways of making marketing increasingly relevant to society (Ihlen et al., 2011). The benefits of CSR for companies may include increased profits, organization image, customer satisfaction, post-purchase behavioral intention, trust, positive brand attitude and combating negative publicity ( Kotler and Lee, 2005; Jain et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2009). In the marketing context, the researchers found that the perception of CSR has a direct and positive influence on post-purchase behavioral intention towards the corporate (Liu and Zhou, 2009; Maignan and Ferrell, 2004; Pirsch et al., 2007; Salmones et al., 2005; Stanaland et al., 2011). In addition, CSR has indirect affect on post-purchase behavioral intention through satisfaction and image (He and Li, 2011; Liu et al., 2010). Conclusion and Limitation Tourist behavior can be divided into three stages: pre-visitation (corporate social responsibility and destination image), duringvisitation (service quality, perceived value, tourist satisfaction and tourist complaints) and post-visitation (intention to return, intention to recommend). Post-purchase behavioral intention is a feeling and a behavior generated both by cognitive and emotional aspects of tourism activities. Post-purchase behavioral intention is based on many factors such as tourist complaints, tourist satisfaction, perceived value, service quality, destination image and CSR. The study identifies the key drivers of post-purchase behavioral intention as well as their relationships, thus representing a significant step forward in the explanation of post-purchase behavioral intentions. The synthesis of this study is that

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factors influencing post-purchase behavioral intention include the direct effect of CSR, service quality, perceived value and tourist satisfaction which have a positive relationship with post-purchase behavioral intention and tourist complaints which have a negative relationship with post-purchase behavioral intention and the indirect effect of CSR, destination image, service quality and perceived value on post-purchase behavioral intention through tourist satisfaction and the indirect effect of destination image and service quality on post-purchase behavioral intention through service quality and perceived value, respectively, as show in figure 1. This study just investigates secondary data about the relations of factors influencing post-purchase behavioral intentions in tourism sector in order to construct a conceptual framework. Therefore, the proposed model needs further empirical studies to academically establish the impact of each antecedent variable toward post-purchase behavioral intentions in tourism sector.

Perceived Value

Service Quality Tourist Satisfaction

Post-Purchase Behavioral Intention

Destination Image Tourist Complaints

Corporate Social Responsibility

Figure 1 Post-purchase behavioral intention model Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Hatyai University, Thailand for sponsoring this project.

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Furthermore, the author would like to thank two advisors (Associate Professor Dr Pensri Jaroenwanit, Khonkaen University, Thailand and Associate Professor Dr Sanguan Lerkiatbuncit Prince of Songkla University, Thailand) for comments and meaningful advice. References Alcaniz, E. B., Garcia, I. S., and Blas, S. S. (2009) The Functionalpsychological Continuum in the Cognitive Image of a Destination: A Confirmatory Analysis. Tourism Management, 30(5): 715-723. Anderson, E. and Sullivan, M. W. (1993) The Antecedents and Consequences of Customer Satisfaction for Firms. Marketing Science, 12(2): 125-143. Barlow, J. and Møller, C. (2008) A Complaint is a Gift : Recovering Customer Post-Purchase Behavior Intention When Things Go Wrong (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Beerli, A. and Martin, J. D. (2004) Tourists’ Characteristics and the Perceived Image of Tourist Destinations: A Quantitative Analysis-A Case Study of Lanzarote, Spain. Tourism Management, 25(4): 623-636. Benn, S. and Bolton, D. (2011) Key Concepts in Corporate Social Responsibility. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Boo, S. Y. and Busser, J. A. (2006) The Hierarchical Influence of Visitor Characteristics on Tourism Destination Images. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 19(4): 55-67. Campo, S. and Yagüe, M. J. (2008) Tourist Loyalty to Tour Operator: Effects of Price Promotions and Tourist Effort. Journal of Travel Research, 46(3): 318-326. Carroll, A. B. (2007) Corporate Social Responsibility-evolution of a Definitional Construct. In A. Crane and D. Matten, (Eds.), Corporate Social Responsibility (pp. 303-324). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

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Castro, C. B., Martín Armario, E., and Martín Ruiz, D. (2007) The Influence of Market Heterogeneity on the Relationship between a Destination’s Image and Tourists’ Future Behaviour. Tourism Management, 28(1): 175-187. Chen, C.-F. and Chen, F.-S. (2010) Experience Quality, Perceived Value, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions for Heritage Tourists. Tourism Management, 31(1): 29-35. Chen, C. -F. and Tsai, D. (2007) How Destination Image and Evaluative Factors Affect Behavioral Intentions? Tourism Management, 28(4): 1115-1122. Chi, C. G. -Q. and Qu, H. (2008) Examining the Structural Relationships of Destination Image, Tourist Satisfaction and Destination Post-purchase Behavior Intention: An Integrated Approach. Tourism Management, 29(4): 624-636. Choi, K. S., Cho, W. H., Lee, S., Lee, H., and Kim, C. (2004) The Relationships among Quality, Value, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intention in Health Care Provider Choice: A South Korean Study. Journal of Business Research, 57(8): 913-921. De Ruyter, K., Bloemer, J., and Peeters, P. (1997) Merging Service Quality and Service Satisfaction: An Empirical Test of an Integrative Model. Journal of Economic Psychology, 18(4): 387-406. Echtner, C. M. and Ritchie, J. R. B. (2003) The Meaning and Measurement of Destination Image,The Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(1): 37-48. Flavia´n, C., Martı´nez, E., and Polo, Y. (2001) Post-purchase Behavior Intention to Grocery Stores in the Spanish Market of the 1990’s. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 8(2): 85-93. Gallarza, M. G. and Saura, I. G. (2006) Value Dimensions, Perceived Value, Satisfaction and Post-purchase Behavior Intention: An Investigation of University Students’ Travel Behaviour. Tourism Management, 27(3): 437-452. Govers, R., Go, F. M., and Kumar, K. (2007) Promoting Tourism Destination Image. Journal of Travel Research, 46(1): 15-23.

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Wiwat Jankingthong and Pattanij Gonejanart

Grigoroudis, E. (2009) Customer Satisfaction Evaluation. New York: Springer. GrĂśnroos, C. (2007) Service Management and Marketing: Customer Management in Service Competition (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. Gursoy, D., McCleary, K. W., and Lepsito, L. R. (2003) Segmenting Dissatisfied Restaurant Customers Based on their Complaining Response Styles. Journal of Food Service Business Research, 6(1): 25-44. He, H. and Li, Y. (2011) CSR and Service Brand: The Mediating Effect of Brand Identification and Moderating Effect of Service Quality. Journal of Business Ethics, 100(4): 673-688. Hellier, P. K., Geursen, G. M., Carr, R. A., and Rickard, J. A. (2003) Customer Repurchase Intention: A General Structural Model. European Journal of Marketing, 37(11/12): 1762-1800. Idowu, S. O. and Louche, C. (2011) Theory and Practice of Corporate Social Responsibility. Heidelberg: Springer. Ihlen, Ă&#x2DC;., Bartlett, J., and May, S. (2011) The Handbook of Communication and Corporate Social Responsibility. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Jain, A., Leka, S., and Zwetsloot, G. (2011) Corporate Social Responsibility and Psychosocial Risk Management in Europe. Journal of Business Ethics, 101(4): 619-633. Kastarlak, B. I. and Barber, B. K. (2011) Fundamentals of Planning and Developing Tourism. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kotler, P. and Keller, K. L. (2011) Marketing Management (14th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kotler, P. and Lee, N. (2005) Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the Most Good for Your Company and Your Cause. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Kozak, M. and Baloglu, S. (2011) Managing and Marketing Tourist Destinations: Strategies to Gain a Competitive Edge. New York: Routledge.

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Kozak, M. and Decrop, A. (2009) Handbook of Tourist Behavior : Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge. Lam, S., Shankar, V., Erramilli, M., and Murthy, B. (2004) Customer Value, Satisfaction, Post-purchase Behavior Intention, and Switching Costs: An Illustration from a Business-to-Business Service Context. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 32(3): 293-311. Lee, S., Jeon, S., and Kim, D. (2011) The Impact of Tour Quality and Tourist Satisfaction on Post-purchase Behavioral Intention: The Case of Chinese Tourists in Korea. Tourism Management, 32(5): 1115-1124. Li, L. and Tse, E. (1998) Antecedents and Consequences of Expatriate Satisfaction in the Asian Pacific. Tourism Management, 19(2): 135-143. Liu, Y., Ji, H., and Fenglan. (2010) A Study on the Perceived CSR and Customer Loyalty Based on Dairy Market in China. Paper presented at the 2010 7th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management, Proceedings of ICSSSMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; 10. Liu, Y. and Zhou, X. (2009) Corporate Social Responsibility and Customer Post-Purchase Behavior Intention: A Conceptual Framework. Paper Presented at the Proceedings of the 2009 6th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management, ICSSSM â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;09. Li, W. and Song, H. (2011) Tourist Perception of Service Quality in the Theme Park. Paper Presented at the International Conference on Management and Service Science, MASS 2011. Loureiro, S. M. C. and Gonzalez, F. J. M. (2008) The Importance of Quality, Satisfaction, Trust, and Image in Relation to Rural Postpurchase Behavioral Intention. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 25(2): 117-136. Lovelock, C. H. and Wirtz, J. (2011) Services Marketing: People, Technology, Strategy (7th ed.). Boston: Prentice Hall.

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Maignan, I. and Ferrell, O. (2004) Corporate Social Responsibility and Marketing: An Integrative Framework. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 32(1): 3-19. Martin H. S. and Bosque, I. R. (2008) Exploring the Cognitive-affective Nature of Destination Image and the Role of Psychological Factors in its Formation. Tourism Management, 29(2): 263-277. Martin, J. D., Petty, J. W., and Wallace, J. S. (2009) Value-based Management with Corporate Social Responsibility (2nd ed.). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Meng, S.-M., Liang G.-S., and Yang S.-H. (2011) The Relationships of Cruise Image, Perceived Value, Satisfaction, and Post-purchase Behavioral Intention on Taiwanese Tourists. African Journal of Business Management, 5(1): 19-29. Noe, F. P., Uysal, M., and Magnini, V. P. (2010) Tourist Customer Service Satisfaction: An Encounter Approach. New York: Routledge. Oliver, R. L. (1980) A Cognitive Model of the Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction Decision. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(11): 460-469. Oliver, R. L. (2010) Satisfaction : A Behavioral Perspective on the Consumer (2nd ed.). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Page, S. (2011) Tourism Management : An Introduction (4th ed.). Oxford, Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Petrick, J. F. (2005) Reoperationalising the Post-purchase Behavior Intention Framework. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5(3): 199-212. Pirsch, J., Gupta, S., and Grau, S. L. (2007) A Framework for Understanding Corporate Social Responsibility Programs as a Continuum: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Business Ethics, 70(2): 125-140. Reisinger, Y. (2009) International Tourism : Cultures and Behavior. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Robinson, S. and Etherington, L. (2006) Customer Post-purchase Behavior Intention : A Guide for Time Travelers. New York:

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Palgrave Macmillan. Rundle-Thiele, S. (2005) Exploring Loyal Qualities : Assessing Surveybased Post-purchase Behavior Intention Measures. Journal of Services Marketing, 19(7): 492-500. Ryu, K., Han, H., and Kim, T.-H. (2008) The Relationships among Overall Quick-casual Restaurant Image, Perceived Value, Customer Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(3): 459-469. Salmones, M., Crespo, A., and Bosque, I. (2005) Influence of Corporate Social Responsibility on Post-purchase Behavior Intention and Valuation of Services. Journal of Business Ethics, 61(4): 369-385. Stanaland, A., Lwin, M., and Murphy, P. (2011) Consumer Perceptions of the Antecedents and Consequences of Corporate Social Responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(1): 47-55. Tian-Cole, S. and Cromption, J. L. (2003) A Conceptualization of the Relationships between Service Quality and Visitor Satisfaction, and their Links to Destination Selection. Leisure Studies, 22(1): 65-80. Um, S., Chon, K., and Ro, Y. (2006) Antecedents of Revisit Intention. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(4): 1141-1158. VelĂĄzquez, B. M., Saura, I. G., and Molina, M. E. R. (2011) Conceptualizing and Measuring Post-purchase Behavior Intention : Towards a Conceptual Model of Post-purchase Behavioral Intention Antecedents. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 17(1): 65-81. Wang, X., Zhang, J., Gu, C., and Zhen, F. (2009) Examining Antecedents and Consequences of Tourist Satisfaction : A Structural Modeling Approach. Tsinghua Science and Technology, 14(3): 397-406. Yoon, Y. and Uysal, M. (2005) An Examination of the Effects of Motivation and Satisfaction on Destination Post-purchase Behavior Intention : A Structural Model. Tourism Management, 26(1): 45-56. YĂźksel, A. (2008) Tourist Satisfaction and Complaining Behavior : Measurement and Management Issues in the Tourism and

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Hospitality Industry. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Zanda, G. (2011) Corporate Management in a Knowledge-based Economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Zeithaml, V. A., Bitner, M. J., and Gremler, D. D. (2009) Services Marketing : Integrating Customer Focus Across the Firm (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Zhang, J., Shi, Y., Mu, W., Wang, X., and Zhang, X. (2008) Measuring Customer Satisfaction Based on Gap Model and Structured Equation Model in Agro Tourism Industry in Shandong, China. Paper Presented at the 2008 International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, WiCOM 2008.

Book Review Urry, John. 2011. Climate Change & Society. Polity Press, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 217 pages. Giddens, Anthony. 2011. The Politics of Climate Change. Polity Press, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 269 pages. Reviewed by Iljas Baker Social Science Division Mahidol University International College, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand Corresponding author: iljas.bak@mahidol.ac.th The academic and media discourses on climate change have been dominated by the physical or natural sciences and economics. Occasionally the effects (actual and potential) of climate change on the poorer regions of the world or on poor communities within these regions have been highlighted, but there has been a distinct lack of analysis of the societal processes that have led to their vulnerability in the first place. These two books attempt to persuade us that the social sciences generally, not only economics, have much to contribute to our understanding of the causes of climate change, the implications of climate change for the future of society, and the way forward to a low carbon economy and society. The domination of economics over the other social sciences (â&#x20AC;&#x153;economics imperialismâ&#x20AC;?) in the climate change discourse was, Urry informs us, clearly reflected in the Stern Review of 2006, which attracted wide media attention and was subsequently published as The Economics of Climate Change. Sir Nicholas Stern did what economists do and put a monetary value on the predicted effects of climate change (5% of global GDP per year, forever, possibly rising to 20%) unless serious efforts to stabilise greenhouse gases in the atmosphere were made; predictably

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economic measures were a large part of the solution. Stern’s report wasn’t unanimously lauded, even some economists expressed doubts about his methodology and conclusions, but it no doubt helped to reinforce the notion that economics is the indispensible social science. Urry, while acknowledging the importance of economics, views economic analyses of climate change as having three major limitations: (i) they ignore the social and political consequences of economic decision-making; (ii) they treat people as rational consumers maximising individual utility but fail to take into account the “very many social processes [that] are central to high carbon lives and also to potential low carbon lives” (p.3); (iii) most economists overestimate the power of the market and underestimate the significance of natural resources, including energy resources, for economic and social life, with shortages seen as a temporary phenomenon that the market can quickly put right. Crucially, Urry believes that if economics remains the dominant perspective when addressing climate change, policy-makers are unlikely to produce the social and physical conditions necessary for a low carbon society. It is essential, he believes, that the social sciences provide an analysis of how to move to a low carbon society involving a wide-ranging transformation of the patterns of social life and the nullification of the special interests of what he refers to as “the carbon military-industrial complex.” (p.157), which Giddens also sees as being necessary. Neither author appears to think success here will require establishing an alternative to capitalism. Urry believes that the transformation is more likely under conditions of greater social equity and stronger democracy involving decentralization within a country and probably some deglobalization in the economic sphere. Giddens would undoubtedly agree on the first two positions but perhaps not the third. Both would certainly support a greater cosmopolitanism and the exposing and shaming of intransigent corporations who are blocking reforms. Anthony Giddens is the UK’s leading public sociologist, a former adviser of the government of Tony Blair and a former director of the London School of Economics. His book has a narrower focus than

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Urry’s and is, he tells us in the introduction, an extended enquiry into why governments, politicians, business leaders, and most other people, generally act as though they can ignore the economic and social havoc that is likely to arise from global warming. The short answer to this is what he somewhat narcissistically refers to as “Giddens paradox”, [the idea has been around for decades] which states that the effects of global warming for most people are still not concrete enough for them to feel compelled to do something about it. Yet it is essential that it is tackled before we bear its full brunt. The longer answer is developed in the remainder of the book in which he gives his analysis of the political failure to bring global warming centre stage and his suggestions for rectifying this. Both authors agree with the robustness of the scientific evidence for global warming but acknowledge that there is some, albeit slim, risk that the consequences might not be as catastrophic as scientists believe. Nevertheless they believe we cannot postpone the transition towards a low carbon future and each puts forward interesting, not necessarily original, ideas about how we get there and the obstacles to be overcome. Urry though ultimately seems somewhat sceptical about the shift to a low carbon economy occurring unless the paradox that Giddens refers to somehow ceases to exist as a result of a sustained and severe global recession unambiguously caused by oil and gas shortages and incontrovertible evidence of climate change in the developed countries. Qualifying as such would be high record temperatures, deaths resulting from droughts and flooding, and severe food shortages. At one point he claims that perhaps the most important roles for sociologists will be in contributing to the field of disaster studies and the “sociology of vulnerability and resilience”. (p. 166) Giddens seems to hold out more hope of success but this is predicated to a large extent on climate change policy being able to survive shifts of government. Most of the efforts to tackle global warming have, he reminds us, been carried out by left of centre governments rather than their opposite and indeed a change to a right of centre government has usually led to an unravelling of the

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previous government’s policies designed to reduce GHG emissions. Giddens believes the state has the main role in tackling climate change but this will require broad popular support and great care not to infringe human rights and a commitment to deepening democracy. It’s main tasks will be to: encourage long-term thinking; managing climate change risks in the context of other risks faced by most societies; promote economic and political convergence as the foundation of responsible climate change and energy policies; intervene in markets; stand up to business interests that try to thwart climate change initiatives; keep it near the top of the political agenda; ensure that economic and fiscal policies support the transition to a low carbon future; work out a strategy for dealing with the effects of those climate changes that are by now inevitable; integrate measures to tackle climate change at all levels of the political system, from local to international. To achieve these tasks, he says, will require governments to radically overhaul themselves and their relations with markets and civil society. Drawing on the work of a variety of political commentators Giddens, uncontroversially, spells out what is required on the ground. An essential ingredient of success he believes will be a cross party “concordat” on GHG targets and how to reach them. And he wants such a concordat to be independently monitored by a body with the powers to prosecute the government if it fails to adhere to its commitments. The blurring of the boundaries of the social sciences is probably inevitable when dealing with real word problems and neither author, despite being an eminent sociologist, produces an exclusively sociological account of the causes and consequences of climate change, and economics, perhaps rightly, casts a long shadow in both books. Both authors provide rational and coherent accounts of the social, economic and political dimensions of climate change when analysing its causes, its possible consequences and way to a low carbon future. Each book lucidly brings together a wide range of social scientific thinking on climate change but ultimately contributes little that is original. I would recommend the books for undergraduate courses in the environment, politics, sociology and the like. 94

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