est African Studies
West African Studies
At
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel GeoGrAphy, economicS And Security
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel GeoGrAphy, economicS And Security
SAHEL AND WEST AFRICA
Club Secretariat
a
gl
an
ce
About The Atlas builds on maps and statistics to analyse, from a regional perspective, the challenges facing the SaharaSahel. It describes the Sahara-Sahelian space and geography (Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger and Tunisia), reveals some socio-economic indicators of the area and decrypts the various security (terrorism and trafficking) and development challenges linked to mobility (trans-Saharan routes and trade, migration, nomadism, borders and free movement). A strengthened, consolidated and continuing dialogue among North, West and Central Africa is an essential element for the long term stabilisation of the Sahara-Sahel.
Five leading personalities complete the publication by expressing the region’s key challenges with regard to their Sahel strategies. The Atlas is available in English and French, and the analysis is illustrated with more than 100 maps and 30 figures. This At a Glance edition: • introduces the Sahara-Sahelian space and geography; • presents some socio-economic indicators; and • highlights the various links between mobility, networks and security.
The countries analysed in this study Tunis
Algiers Atlantic Ocean
Rabat
At
MOROCCO
las
Laghouat
Béchar râa
uD
d da
ma Ha Tindouf
Laayoune
Nouadhibou
Atar
Nouakchott
Dakar GAMBIA
Banjul
Arlit Timbuktu
GUINEA- Bissau BISSAU GUINEA Conakry Freetown SIERRA LEONE Monrovia LIBERIA
LIBYA EGYPT
Djanet
Aïr Mountains
NIGER
Niamey
Al Jawf
TOGO GHANA
Yamoussoukro Accra
Faya Largeau SUDAN CHAD
N’Djamena Abuja NIGERIA
Porto-novo Lomé Malabo
CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CAMEROON
2
Palm grove limit
Other city
Cram-Cram limit
Adrar
SOUTH SUDAN Juba
Bangui
Yaoundé 0
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
National capital
Khartoum Abéché El Fasher
Zinder
Ouagadougou BURKINA FASO BENIN
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
Libyan Desert
Marzuq
Agadez
Gao
MALI Mopti Bamako
Ghat
Tessalit
Tidjikdja
SENEGAL
In Amenas
Tibesti
Ifoghas
Trarza Tagant
Cairo Awjilah
Tamanrasset
Taoudenni
Adrar
Benghazi
Ghadames
n Erg ster Ea
Hoggar Mountains
El Djouf
MAURITANIA
Tripoli
In Salah Tassili n ’Aj jer Reggane
Tanezrouft
Mediterranean
Tozeur
ALGERIA
rg ern E est W Tademaït Adrar Iguidi Plateau Erg Chech Erg
Zouirat Fderik
TUNISIA
500 km
Source: Retaillé D., P. Drevet, O. Pissoat, J. Pierson 2014
Principal physical landscapes
International border
Equator/Greenwich Meridian crossing
African country not included in study
Source: Retaillé D., P. Drevet, O. Pissoat, J. Pierson 2014
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
Chapters Chapter 1 – Sahara-Sahelian space and geography
Chapter 4 – Ancient and new mobility in the Sahara-Sahel
The characteristics of Sahara-Sahelian space and geography are based on social, economic and spatial mobility. Through a mapping exercise, this chapter describes the SaharaSahel through its ancestral networks, route empires, borders and its history, migratory movements, tourism and conflict and instability.
The different forms of mobility can be understood through social dynamics, namely networks. These networks began developing with trade caravans and have continued to evolve over time. The rationales underlying this activity are based on pastoral mobility and solidarity rather than the relations among states in the region. Political power plays, particularly between Algeria and Libya, interfere in their relations with countries in the Sahel.
Chapter 2 – Socio-economic indicators within Sahara-Sahel countries
Chapter 5 – migration and Sahara
The indicators are analysed through population and economic data. Population data show strong growth in Sahel states and stable growth in North African states, accompanied by intense urbanisation. Gross domestic Product (GDP) figures indicate a contrasting picture, with North African economies having significantly higher GDP growth rates and income levels than Sahelian economies.
The shared human space is centred on economies and migrations, which are both primarily informal. Starting in the 1960s, the development of the sparsely populated Algerian and Libyan Sahara has depended on labour from the North Sahel. This population redistribution, which has since persisted, served as the basis for diaspora dynamics and reinforced regional integration.
Chapter 3 – Petroleum and networks of influence in the Sahara-Sahel
Chapter 6 – Nomadism and mobility in the Sahara-Sahel
Various oil companies have been established over the years. This chapter analyses the role of Sahara-Sahelian oil in the regional and global economy and market. The oil and gas sector accounted for one quarter of the cumulative GDP of Sahara-Sahel countries in 2013, with Algeria and Libya as the third and fourth largest African producers.
Nomadism and its various forms of mobility and pastoralism connect the Sahara and the Sahel. It has adapted to change through partial, limited sedentarisation and diversified means of livelihoods. This chapter describes the continuity and change of pastoralism, notably social recomposition, migration and the nomadic space.
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
3
Chapter 7 – Borders, cross-border co-operation and freedom of movement in the Sahara-Sahel
Chapter 10 – An institutional point of view on the challenges of the Sahara-Sahel
The cross-border functional dynamics in the Sahara-Sahel are important to understanding borders, cross-border co-operation and freedom of movement. Border regions perform a number of functions in an institutional context, where free movement is subject to the uncertainties of political developments and, more recently, of security concerns. Traffickers’ use of border networks and corridors for various activities that feature differing degrees of violence is an added complication today.
The insights provided by representatives of the EU, UN, AU and ECOWAS illustrate the development and security challenges faced by the Sahara-Sahel. These initiatives call for the strengthening of dialogue among all actors involved to achieve lasting peace and security for the West African population.
Chapter 8 – Security issues, movement and networks in the Sahara-Sahel This chapter describes the evolution of regional instability in the Sahara-Sahel since the 1960s. The analysis emphasises that the nature of conflicts has changed over the past decade. Less locally contained and often cross-border and more violent in nature, these modern-day crises require new institutional responses that can adapt to the flexibility of terrorist networks.
Chapter 9 – Trafficking economies in the Sahara-Sahel
The contributors to this chapter are: • Mr Michel Reveyrand de Menthon, European Union Special Representative for the Sahel; Mr. Jérôme Spinoza, Political Adviser to the European Union Special Representative for the Sahel. • Ms Hiroute Guebre Sellassie, Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary General for the Sahel. • Dr Ibrahim Assane Mayaki, Chief Executive Officer of the Secretariat of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). • Mr Kadré Désiré Ouedraogo, President of the Economic Community of West African States Commission (ECOWAS).
The nature of trafficking and its geographical scales, as well as its effect in the Sahara-Sahel, are important to the understanding of current mobility and instabilities. The role of trafficking cannot be underestimated both in terms of its structuring or destructuring effects on politics, territories or societies. Trafficking connects the Sahara-Sahel to the world economy, which is an indication of the international scale of national and cross-border issues.
4
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
spaces and geography An understanding of the Sahara-Sahel on the basis of its social, economic and spatial mobility can help bring together its two sides and reactivate an area of mobility currently viewed as segmented. The main element of this approach is moving beyond two contradictory ways of thinking about space – as production or as movement. The production perspective indicates that bioclimatic zones determining production dominate the geographic understanding of the area. In this view, the 200 mm annual precipitation isohyet is defined as the cut-off point for aridity,
below which farming and herding are no longer possible. The annual precipitation isohyet is often used to delimit the Sahara-Sahel. However, this approach does not fully reflect the reality of the Sahara-Sahel, which is characterised by trade, complementarity and movement. By contrast, the movement perspective indicates that a spatial understanding based on movement or routes sheds light on other opportunities for socio-economic ties and on the vitality of networks.
The “geographic” Sahel
Average annual rainfall (mm/year) 0
50
200
400
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
600
and more
Source: UNEP, Environmental Data Explorer – http://geodata.grid.unep.ch
5
Is the Sahara-Sahel empty, as is often claimed? The answer is yes if we refer to the population density per square km. The Atlas suggests another image in calculating the number of inhabitants per km of road or trail. This illustration shows, in the area thought to be empty, significant population densities along the routes. For Sahara-Sahel inhabitants, the territory is bound to the road. Ultimately,
the space between the roads is of very little importance. Along this network of roads we find a large number of towns and we have to bear in mind that most Sahara-Sahel residents are town-dwellers. Often, these towns are oases whose location is determined not by the presence of water, but rather by their function as stopovers, or as transit and trade locations.
Linear density of population Number of inhabitants by linear km of road (including Saharan trails)
Algiers Tunis
0-80 Rabat
80-180 180-600
Tripoli
600-2 500 2 500-6 000
Béchar
6 000-72 000
El Golea
Key cities (more than 10 000 inhab.)
Hun Adrar
Tindouf
Laayoune
Sabha
Reggane
Marzuq Arak
Ghat Al Jawf
Zouerat Nouadhibou
Birak
Tamanrasset
Atar
Nouakchott
Timbuktu
Gao
Agadez
Dakar
Abéché
Mopti Bamako
Niamey N’Djamena
Source: DIVA, 2013 (www.diva-gis.org/gdata)
6
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
Algiers Alger
Trans-Saharan commerce according to Monod’s circulation zones Fès
Mogador
Dr
Tunis
aa
d an
fi Ta
fel
Tripoli
t
Benghazi
Ouargla
Ghadames
Touat
Fezzan Tidikelt Ghat
I II
Koufra
III
Al Qatroun
Adrar
Tibesti
Kawar Tidjikja Oualata
N
cir iger
cle
Faya
Aïr
Hausa lands
Bornu
Waddai
Darfour
Cities and rest stops
Sedentary cores
I
Western zone, Moorish
Trans-Saharan routes
Oasis cores
II
Central zone, Tubu
Dry zones
Saharan empty areas
III
Eastern zone, Touareg
Source: Drozdz M. 2005, geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr, ENS-Lyon / DGESCO
City population
Cities 10 000 - 50 000 50 000 - 100 000 100 000 - 350 000 350 000 - 1 million 1 - 2 million 2 - 4 million more than 4 million
Other city
Source: Natural Earth 2013 (www.naturalearthdata/downloads/10m-cultural-vectors/10m-populated-places/)
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
7
the population and the economy The countries of the Sahara-Sahel are classified into two groups: The Sahara-Sahel covers 9.6 million km², more than twice the area of the European Union and representing nearly • North Africa (Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia), and one-third of the African continent. Since the partition of Sudan, Algeria is the largest country in Africa in terms of • the Sahel (Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Chad). surface area, with 2.4 million km 2. The four North African countries have a combined surface area of 4.8 million km 2, The population and Algeria accounts for 50% of this. In 2012, the combined population of the 8 Sahara-Sahel countries was 136 million. The 4 North African countries Urbanisation has been the most important manifestation of have a combined population of 88 million, almost double population dynamics observed over the past half century in the combined population of its four Sahelian neighbours West Africa. Although Sahelian countries still have some of the lowest levels of urbanisation in the world, the pace of (48 million). urbanisation has been astonishing. The level of urbanisation Between 1990 and 2010, the population in the Sahel grew in the Sahel increased from 2% in 1950 to 25% in 2010. by an average annual rate of 3.3%, almost doubling from The urban population increased 46-fold, from 250 000 to 23.7 million to 45.2 million inhabitants. By contrast, growth 11.6 million people, at an average annual rate of 6.6% per year. rates in North Africa slowed down to 1.5% (from 63.3 million to 85.4 million inhabitants) during the 1990–2010 period. Population by country, 2012 North Africa (88 million inhabitants)
Algeria 38.5
Morocco 32.5
Tunisia 11
Libya 6
Sahel (48 million inhabitants)
= 1 million
Niger 17
8
Mali 15
Chad 12.5
Mauritania 4
Source: SWAC/OECD based on WDI 2014, World Bank
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
Surface area by country and region (in million km2) Sahel (4.8 million km2)
North Africa (4.8 million km2) Libya 1.8
Tunisia 0.2
Mali 1.2
Mauritania 1
Morocco 0.4
Niger 1.3
Algeria 2.4
Chad 1.3
Source: WDI 2014, World Bank
Population growth and total population in North Africa and Sahel, 1950–2012 2.3 Population growth and total populatio in North Africa and Sahel, 1950-2010 % 3.5
38.3
45.2
Sahel
32.3
3.0 29
37.7
48.7
2.5
63.3 23.7
18.6 2.0
14.9 12.3
North Africa
75.2
1.5 85.4 79.7 1.0
0.5
14.9 Total population in million 0 1950–60
1960–70
1970–80
1980–90
1990–00
Source: SWAC/OECD based on DESA UN, World Population Prospects: the 2012 Revision
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
2000–05
2005–10 * * The population figures correspond to end of period values.
9
Evolution of country population (in million)
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Morocco 9
Algeria 38.5 12.3
15.9
19.8
26.2
31.7 Morocco 32.5
Algeria 8.9 11.3
14.7
19.5
24.7
28.7 Niger 17.2
Mali 4.6 5.1
5.7
6.7
8.1
11
Tunisia 3.1
Mali 14.9 3.9
4.4
5.8
8
10.3
Niger 2.6
Chad 12.5 3.3
4.4
5.8
7.8
9.6
Chad 2.5
Tunisia 10.8 3
3.6
4.5
6
8.3
Libya 1.1
Libya 6.2 1.4
Mauritania 0.7
2012
0.9
2.1
1.2
3.1
1.5
4.3
2
5.2
2.7
Mauritania 3.8
Source: DESA UN, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision and WDI 2013, World Bank
10
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel Š OECD 2014
Urban areas in the Sahel, 1950 – 1980 – 2010 1950
Number of inhabitants
10 000 – 15 000
100 000 – 300 000
15 000 – 50 000
300 000 – 1 million
50 000 – 100 000
> 1 million
MAURITANIA NIGER MALI CHAD
1980
2010
Source: Africapolis - SWAC/OECD 2014
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
11
The economy although its GNI per capita exceeds that of Mauritania by 260% (and those of Chad and Mali by 400%).
The Sahara-Sahel encompasses economies that are of diverse sizes and levels of development. In 2012, the combined GDP of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia surpassed that of its southern neighbours (Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger) by a factor of 11. Chad, Mali and Niger are low-income countries, whereas Libya is a high-income country. Morocco is the only North African country that is still a lower-middle-income country,
Over the last two decades, the real GDP growth rate of Sahelian countries exceeded that of North Africa. Since 2000, GDP growth has further accelerated in the Sahel and averaged 5.5%. With the exception of Niger, all Sahel countries grew faster than their North African neighbours.
The Sahara-Sahelian GDP divide Sahel (32 billion USD)
North Africa (412 billion USD)
Niger 7
Chad 11 Mali 10
= 5 billion Algeria 208
Morocco 96
Libya* 62
Tunisia 46
Mauritania 4
* latest data available 2009
Source: SWAC/OECD based on WDI 2013, World Bank
Per capita income GNI per inhabitant (Atlas method, current USD) 14 000 high income 12 615
12 930
10 000
8 000
6 000 upper middle income 4 150 4 110
4 085
lower middle income 2 950 2 000 low income
1 035
1 110
740
660
Chad
Mali
0 Libya*
Tunisia
Algeria**
Morocco
Mauritania
370 Niger
* 2009 data; ** 2011 data Source: SWAC/OECD based on WDI 2013, World Bank
12
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel Š OECD 2014
2.18 Per capita real GDP growth rates 1970-2012
Per capita real GDP growth rates over the past four decades (annual average) % 6 Chad 4
Morocco Tunisia
3.4 North Africa average** 2.6
Libya* Mauritania Algeria
2.1
2 0.6
Mali
0.6
0 Sahel average -0.8
-2
1970-80
1980-90
Niger
-0.3
-1.0
1990-00
2000-12
-4
* Data for Libya 2000–2009 ** North Africa average excluding Libya
Source: SWAC/OECD based on WDI 2013, World Bank
Two important challenges Mobile and flexible criminal networks and trafficking at the regional scale For a long time, geographers have identified the complex relationship between mobility and territory. Social networks have played a major role in enhancing mobility and exchanges as well as erasing the very notion of borders. Historically, the Sahel and the Sahara were linked by networks of pre-colonial empires founded on movement or, more accurately, on the control of roads and trade. Today, the spatial organisation of the Sahara-Sahel captures the new An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
conditions of the globalised world where places primarily function through the intersection of flows, such as the flow of goods and people. The development of urban centres, social networks and traders is at the nexus of all these flows. Criminal networks – terrorism and the trafficking of arms, drugs and human beings – are taking advantage of this spatial and social structure.
13
Trafficking in the Sahara-Sahel has been facilitated by intense spatial mobility and continuous circulation relying on old influential networks. In some cases, trafficking has even enjoyed the support of local communities. The crisis in Mali has made the effect of trafficking visible, particularly its link with the financing of Salafi jihadists. Trafficking also raises questions regarding economic ties on both sides of the Sahara. The Maghreb is the point of origin and reception
of trafficked products, which take place along traditional trans-Saharan trade routes. Adapting policies and strengthening co-operation among neighbouring states, securing borders, preventing criminal development and formulating appropriate responses to flexible and mobile criminal networks to control national territory are particularly important challenges for the region.
Boko Haram NIGER Zinder Diffa
Maradi
CHAD
Sokoto Sokoto Katsina Katsina
Kano
Zamfara
N’Djamena
Jigawa
Yobe
Maiduguri
Kano Kebbi
BENIN
Gombe Kaduna
CAMEROON
Bauchi
Jos
Niger
Adamawa Plateau
Kwara
Abuja Nassarawa
Oyo
Taraba Osun
Kogi
Ekiti
Main area of activity of the sect 2014 Benue
Ondo
Ogun Lagos
Ebonyi
Anambra Imo
Bayelsa Rivers
Arms trafficking Nigerian states with Sharia law
Enugu
Edo
Delta
Geographic origin and diffusion of activities of the sect since 2009
Ethnolinguistic areas Abia
Cross River
Akwa Ibom
Kanuri Hausa Yoruba Ibo
Source: SWAC/OECD 2014
14
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel Š OECD 2014
The ephemeral Azawad Area controlled by Ansar Dine
LIBYA
Surge by Ansar Dine
ALGERIA
MNLA progress Azawad Touareg
Tamanrasset
Town attacked by the MNLA since january 2012 Town captured by the MNLA and Ansar Dine (between February 8 and April 3, 2012). Taken over by Ansar Dine after austing the MNLA (between March 18 and October 1, 2012) Attack or kidnapping claimed by AQIM between 2007 and 2012
Tessalit Ti-n-Zaouatene Aguelhok
MAURITANIA
Arlit Anéfis
Border Road Timbuktu Goundam Niafounké
Niger
Kidal
Gao
Diré
Léré
Agadez
Bourem
NIGER Ménaka
Ansongo Andéramboukane
Towns and cities
MALI
Douentza Mopti
More than 1 million Ségou
More than 100 000 50 000 - 100 000 10 000 - 50 000
BURKINA FASO
Niamey
Other locality
Nguru
Sokoto Katsina
Koutiala Bamako
Zinder
Maradi
Birnin-Kebbi
Ouagadougou
Gashua
NIGERIA Gusau
Kano
Sources: Retaillé D. and O. Walther, New ways of conceptualizing space and mobility 2012; Africapolis - SWAC/OECD 2014; Natural Earth 2013
Transnational nature of instability and the responses Identifying responses to the security challenges undermining the stability of the Sahara-Sahel must be done in a transnational manner through strong regional co-operation and co-ordination. Security challenges affect not only North, West and Central Africa but also the international community. Institutional cross-border and/or regional responses should be based on a thorough understanding of the nature of terrorism and trafficking in the Sahara-Sahel. An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
There are numerous initiatives. The United Nations, the African Union, ECOWAS and the heads of state of 5 Sahelian countries – Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger (G5 Sahel) – have formulated regional strategies aimed to stabilise and develop the Sahara-Sahel. Many multilateral institutions are committed to working alongside them, with the European Union at the forefront along with the main development banks (World Bank, African Development Bank, Islamic Development Bank, etc.).
15
The bearers of these strategies meet regularly, but operational and co-ordination challenges remain immense. The difficult question of how to distribute tasks among the institutions has not yet been decided.
Nigeria is taken into account only accessorily. How can the necessary co-operation between Maghreb and Sub-Saharan countries be developed? Last, there is the complex issue regarding the simultaneous implementation of security and development actions.
Is the geographic scope of responses well suited? How can Nigeria especially be well considered in these strategies?
Cocaine flows Transit areas
TUNISIA
Transatlantic flows Regional flows
MOROCCO
Main coastal transit countries
ALGERIA
LIBYA EGYPT
WESTERN SAHARA
MALI MAURITANIA
NIGER SUDAN
SENEGAL
CHAD
CAPE-VERDE
Highway Ten
GAMBIA GUINEA-BISSAU
GUINEA
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
SIERRA LEONE
Name given by the cartels to the maritime route along the 10°N parallel
BURKINA FASO
LIBERIA
BENIN
NIGERIA
TOGO C.A.R.
SOUTH SUDAN
CAMEROON GHANA
Source: UNODC 2013
16
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
Niger faced with regional threats
LIBYA
ALGERIA
NIGER
Arlit Kidal Agadez
MALI
Agadem
CHAD
Niamey Dosso
Zinder
Maradi
Diffa
Sokoto Kano
Maïduguri
N’Djamena
BOKO HARAM Abuja
NIGERIA
Ethnolinguistic groups
U
HAUS A
EG
TUB
TO
R UA
KA
NU
RI
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
Saharan zone: less than 200 mm of rainfall per year; approximately 600 000 km² and less than 0.5 million inhabitants in its Nigerien part. Uranium mines and oil.
Area regularly food and nutrition insecure
Sahel’s vulnerable zone: the interannual variation of the length of the rainy season exceeds 30%. Approximately 5 million rural inhabitants in its Nigerien part, predominantly agro-pastoralists.
Regional diffusion of instability
Area of conflict / instability
Involuntary migration
17
THE CLUB: WORKING TOGETHER FOR REGIONAL INTEGRATION we are the only international platform entirely dedicated to regional issues in West Africa. OUR MISSION is to enhance the effectiveness of regional policies and of partner support. WE DO this by: Facilitating dialogue, information-sharing and consensus-building; Providing independent, factual and forward-looking analysis; Devising guidelines and policy tools.
Our Areas of Work: regional governance of food & nutrition security (FNS), a permanent networking effort:
We facilitate consensus-building and help improve co-ordination.
West African Futures (WAF), a two-year thematic cycle promoting innovative approaches for policies
and international co-operation strategies: In 2015-16, we focus on cross-border co-operation.
Our Members include three West African organisations (ECOWAS, UEMOA and CILSS) and seven OECD member countries (Austria, Belgium, France, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Switzerland and the United States). The European Union is an important partner and contributes to our financing. As Observers, the African Union/NEPAD Agency, Canada and ROPPA are closely associated with our work.
Stay connected • www.oecd.org/swac • West Africa Gateway www.westafricagateway.org • Weekly Newsbrief - Sign up on the gateway! www.westafricagateway.org/ • www.facebook.com/OECDSWAC • www.youtube.com/user/SWACoecd 18
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
HOW TO ORDER THIS PUBLICATION Quantity
ISBN
Publication Title
978-92-64-22234-2
An Atlas of the Sahara - Sahel
Price € 90
$ 126
Total £ 81
¥ 11 700
Please circle the appropriate currency: € – US$ – £ – ¥
Total
Add € 6.00 – $ 8.20 – £ 4.40 – JP¥ 900 for shipping costs Grand total
(Prof./Dr./Mr./Ms.) First name:
Family name:
Company: Address: Town:
Postal/Zip code:
Country:
Tel.:
Fax:
E-mail:
Cheque (payable to OECD)
Please charge my card:
Card No.
Visa Card
Mastercard/ Eurocard
Card expiry date
American Express
Control number
Please indicate the last 3 numbers which appear on the back of your credit card, close to your signature
Date
Signature
OECD Mail Order Address Turpin Distribution Services Limited Stratton Business Park, Pegasus Drive Biggleswade, Bedfordshire SG18 8QB United Kingdom Tel.: +44 (0) 1767 604960 Fax: +44 (0) 1767 601640 E-mail: oecdrow@turpin-distribution.com An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel © OECD 2014
Turpin Distribution The Bleachery, 143 West Street New Milford, CT 06776 United States Toll free: +1 (800) 456 6323 Fax: +1 (860) 350 0039 E-mail: oecdna@turpin-distribution.com
Buy this book from our online bookshop to receive free shipping and immediate access to your free online copy www.oecd.org/bookshop
19
West African Studies
An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel GeoGrAphy, economicS And Security While the Sahara-Sahel region has experienced recurrent episodes of instability, the recent crises in Libya and Mali have increased the level of violence. These two crises have reshaped the region’s geopolitical and geographical dynamics. The current crises are cross-border and regional, and addressing them requires new institutional responses. How can the countries that share this space – Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Niger and Tunisia – in collaboration with other countries of the region, such as Nigeria, work together towards its stabilisation and development? Historically, the Sahara plays the role of intermediary between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. Even before Roman times, the area was criss-crossed by roads, principally serving a military use in this period. Today, commercial and human exchange is vibrant, founded on social networks. These networks have more recently been used by traffickers. Understanding the nature of this trafficking, the geographic and organisational mobility of criminal groups, as well as migratory movements is of strategic importance. This work aims to contribute towards this objective and to help inform the Sahel strategies of the European Union, United Nations, African Union and ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) in their attempts to forge a lasting peace. This Atlas proposes a cartographic and regional analysis of security and development issues. It provides objective information for the necessary dialogue between regional and international organisations, states, researchers and local stakeholders. part i. reactivating a space of fragmented circulation Chapter 1. Sahara-Sahelian space and geography Chapter 2. Socio-economic indicators within Sahara-Sahel countries Chapter 3. Petroleum and networks of influence in the Sahara-Sahel part ii. Securing the Sahara-Sahel by integrating its social and spatial mobility Chapter 4. Ancient and new mobility in the Sahara-Sahel Chapter 5. Migration and the Sahara Chapter 6. Nomadism and mobility in the Sahara-Sahel Chapter 7. Borders, cross-border co-operation and freedom of movement in the Sahara-Sahel Chapter 8. Security issues, movement and networks in the Sahara-Sahel Chapter 9. Trafficking economies in the Sahara-Sahel Chapter 10. An institutional point of view on the challenges of the Sahara-Sahel