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Set2-ASelf-StudyGuide (AsperlatestGATESyllabus)
Ar.SwapnilS.Vidhate
B.Arch.(UniversityofMumbai)
M.Plan(NIT,Bhopal)
Publishedby: Mrs.RachanaS.Vidhate
C-801,SunSatellite,NearSuncity, Anandnagar,SinhgadRoad,Pune-411051.
Phone:+91-9096192660
e-mail:rachanagk017@gmail.com
Informationcontainedinthisbookhasbeenobtainedbyauthorfromsourcesbelievedtobereliableand arecorrecttothebestofhisknowledge.Everyefforthasbeenmadetoavoiderrorsandomissionsandensure accuracy.Anyerrororomissionnotedmaybebroughttothenoticeoftheauthorwhichshallbetakencareofin theforthcomingeditionofthisbook.However,authordoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyorcompletenessofany informationpublishedherein,anddoesnottakenotresponsibilityorliabilityforanyinconvenience,expenses,losses ordamagetoanyoneresultingfromthecontentsofthebook.
Theauthorofthebookhastakenallpossiblecaretoensurethatthecontentsofthebookdonotviolateany existingcopyrightorotherintellectualpropertyrightsofanypersoninanymannerwhatsoever.Intheevent,the authorhasbeenunabletotrackanysourceandifanycopyrighthasbeeninfringed,thefactsmaybebroughtto thenoticeoftheauthorinwritingforcorrectiveaction.
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FirstEdition:December2020
©ALLRIGHTSARESTRICTLYRESERVEDWITHTHEPUBLISHERforCompetitiveExams,Set-2,ASelf- is theoutcomeofrecommendations&suggestionsofmanystudentswhohavereferredtheSet-1,ofthisbook ofGATE&otherNationallevelRecruitmentexamslikeISRO&UPSC Althoughthereisconsiderableamountofinformationavailablerelatedtoallthetopicscoveredinthesyllabus ofGATE-Architecture&Planning,itiswidelyscatteredinnumeroustextbooksandguidelines.Despiteofmany references,asinglebookcomprisingofallthesetopicsisnotavailable.Ontheotherhand, fordoingmultiplerevisionsofalltopicsisrequiredwhilepreparingfortheseexams.Thus.therewasaneedof suitable-StudyGuidewhichcancovertheentireGATESyllabusinatopicwisemannerkeepinginview,the scopeofquestionsforGATEandotherexamsbasedonsimilarpattern.
Thebasicideabehindwritingthisbookwastoarrangetherelevantinformationrelatedtothetopicin acrisp&systematicway,whileavoidingjustadditionofalltheavailableinformationfromvarioussources.The bookhasbeendividedintothreeparts:PartA(CommontopicsinArchitecture&Planning),PartB1(Architecture) andPartB2(Planning),basedonlatestGATE-2021syllabuspattern.Further,underthese3parts,thereare13 Sectionsonthesamepatternunderwhichthesub-topicshavebeenexplained.Thebookhasbeenwrittenina simpleandsystematicwayforeasyunderstanding.Thediagrams,illustrationshavemadethetheorymatter interesting.Itisanattempttocondense,simplifyandcompileinformationfrommultiple&authenticatesources, includingmyownexperienceofwritingthe-ofthisbook.Thus,thecarehasbeentakentomention& highlighttheyea fromtherelatedtheoryinordertounderstandthe importanceofthetopicwhilereferringthebook.Forthose,whowanttodigdeeperintoparticulartopics,the sectionwisebibliographyhasbeenaddedatendofthebook.
ItistohighlightthatsyllabusforGATE-Architecture& iscomprehensiveinthefieldandithas coveredalmosttheentiretheoryofalltheyearsofgraduation.Also,ithasbeenobservedthat,therecruitment &PGEntranceExamsatState&Nationallevelarebeingconductedbasedonthesimilarsyllabus.Thus,this bookwillbealsohelpfultoUG&PGstudentsasareferenceguidebookfortheirUniversityExamsaswellasfor GATE&otherCompetitiveExams.Iamsurethat,thebookwilleaseyourcomfortlevelwhilepreparingforthese exams.Wewillwelcomethesuggestionsfromthereadersforimprovingthebookinanymanner.
Ar.SwapnilS.Vidhate (Author)
Iexpressmysincerethankstomybelovedwifeforyourconstanthelp,supportand encouragementwhilecompilingthisbookaftercompletionofSet1.Itwouldhavebeenimpossibletocomplete thisbookwithoutyourcontinuouscheer-upandguidancerightfromthebeginningtilltheend.Yoursuggestions forshortlistingtheinformationrelatedtotopicsofyourinterestincludingRemoteSensing&GIS,Urban Governance/Geography/Economicswasagreathelp.Iamdedicatingthisbooktoyou&ourbeloved foryourencouragementandlove.Iwouldalsoliketothankyoufortakingalltheeffortsinprocessof publishingthebook.Thankyousomuch.
-Ar.SwapnilVidhate
Thearchitecturaldrawingneedstorepresentthree-dimensionalforms,constructions,andspatialenvironmentson atwo-dimensionalsurface.Threedistincttypesofdrawingsystemshaveevolvedovertimetorepresentit,which are-Multiview,Paraline,andPerspectiveDrawings explainedbelow.
Term Description Projection Drawing
PicturePlane
Sightlines
HorizonLine
Centerof Vision
Theground plane(GP)
Theground line(GL)
Coneof Vision
Convergence
Allthreemajordrawingsystemsresultfromathree-dimensionalsubjectwhichisprojectedonto atwo-dimensionalplaneofprojection,ormoresimply,ontothepictureplane.
Allthreemajordrawingsystemsresultfromthewayathree-dimensionalsubjectisprojected ontoatwo-dimensionalplaneofprojection,ormoresimply,ontothepictureplane.
Projectorstransferpointsonthesubjecttothe pictureplane.Theseprojectorsarealsocalled sightlinesinperspectiveprojection.
Thehorizonline(HL)isahorizontalline representingtheintersectionofthepictureplane (PP)andahorizontalplanepassingthroughthe stationpoint(SP).
Itisthepointonthehorizonlineatwhichthe centralaxisofvision(CAV)intersectsthepicture plane.
Itisahorizontalplaneofreferencefromwhich heightscanbemeasuredinlinearperspective.
Itisahorizontallinerepresentingtheintersection ofGPandthepictureplane(PP).Thedistance fromGLtothehorizonline(HL)isequaltothe heightofthestationpoint(SP)aboveGP.
ItdescribesthesightlinesradiatingoutwardfromSPandformingananglewithCAVinlinear perspective.Theconeofvisionservesasaguideindeterminingwhatistobeincludedwithin theboundariesofaperspectivedrawing.
Convergenceinlinearperspectivereferstotheapparentmovementofparallellinestowarda commonvanishingpointastheyrecede.
Anysingleorthographicprojectioncannotconveyfacetsofasubjectthatareobliqueorperpendiculartothe pictureplane.Onlyrelatedorthographicprojectionscangivethisinformation.Forthisreason,Multiviewdrawings areusedtodescribeathree-dimensionalsubjectfullyandaccurately.TheMultiviewdrawingsaretermedas follows-
1Plans
2Elevations
3Sections
Topviewsareorthographicprojectionscastontothehorizontalpictureplane.In architecturaldrawing,topviewsarecalledasplans.
Frontandsideviewsareorthographicprojectionscastontotheverticalpictureplanes.In architecturaldrawing,frontandsideviewsarecalledaselevations.
Orthographicprojectionsofcutsmadethroughabuildingtodescribedifferentlevelsinit arecalledassections.
Whileorthographicprojectionsdescribeathree-dimensionalsubjectthroughaseriesofdistinctbutinterrelated two-dimensionalviews,paralinedrawingsconveythethree-dimensionalnatureofaformorconstructionina singlepictorialview.Insimplewords,anyorthographicprojectionisaparalinedrawing.However,theterm othosesinglepictorialviewsdescribedasbelow.Thetypesof Paralinedrawingsarediscussedbrieflybelow:
Theseprojectionscanproduceisometric, diametricortrimetricviews.Itisanorthographic projectionofathree-dimensionalformthatis inclinedtothepictureplaneinsuchawaythat itsthreeprincipalaxesareforeshortened. Axonometricprojectionisaformoforthographic projectioninwhichtheprojectorsareparallelto eachotherandperpendiculartothepicture plane.
Axonometric Projections
a)IsometricProjections: Isometricprojectionisan axonometricprojectionofa three-dimensionalsubject inclinedtothepictureplane insuchawaythatitsthree principalaxesmakeequal angleswiththepictureplane andareequallyforeshortened (ISRO-2017)
b)DiametricProjection: Diametricprojectionisan axonometricprojectionin whichtwooftheprincipal axesareequally foreshortenedandthethird appearslongerorshorter thantheothertwo.
c)TrimetricProjection:Trimetric projectionisanaxonometric projectioninwhichallthree principalaxesareforeshortened atadifferentrate(GATE-2008). Outofthesethree,themost commonlyusedinarchitectural drawingisisometricprojection.
Obliqueprojectionrepresentsathree-dimensional formorconstructionbyprojectingparallellinesat someconvenientangleotherthan90°tothe pictureplane.Aprincipalfaceorsetofplanesof thesubjectisusuallyorientedparalleltothepicture planeandisthereforerepresentedinaccuratesize, shape,andproportion.
a)PlanObliques:Planobliquesorientthe horizontalplanesofthesubjectparalleltothe pictureplane.Thesehorizontalplanesare thereforeshownintruesizeandshape,whilethe twoprincipalsetsofverticalplanesare foreshortened.Planobliqueshaveahigher angleofviewthanisometricdrawings.An advantageinconstructingplanobliquesisthe abilitytousefloorplansasbasedrawings.
b)ElevationObliques:Elevationobliques orientoneprincipalsetofverticalplanesof thesubjectparalleltothepictureplane.This setisthereforeshownintruesizeandshape, whiletheotherverticalsetandtheprincipal horizontalsetofplanesareboth foreshortened.
Perspectiveprojectionportraysathree-dimensionalformorconstructionbyprojectingallofitspointstoapicture plane(PP)bystraightlinesthatconvergeatafixedpointrepresentingasingleeyeoftheobserver.Whilewe normallyseethroughbotheyesinwhatwecallbinocularvision,perspectiveprojectionassumesweviewathreedimensionalsubjectorscenethroughasingleeye,whichwecallthestationpoint(SP).Unliketheparallel projectorsinorthographicandobliqueprojections,theprojectorsorsightlinesinperspectiveprojectionconverge atthisstationpoint.PictorialCharacteristicsofPerspectiveDrawingsTheconvergingsightlinesinperspectivegive
risetothetwoprincipalpictorialcharacteristicsofperspectivedrawings:convergenceofparallellinesand reducedsizewithdistance.Parallellinesinthesubjectorsceneappeartoconvergewhentheyare perpendicularorobliquetothepictureplane(PP).Thesizeofanelementorobjectappearstodecreaseasit recedesfromtheobserver.
Theexperientialnatureofaperspectivedrawingreliesonourabilitytodefineatleastthreelayersofdepthwithin ascene:aforeground,amiddleground,andabackground.
Perspectivedrawingsassumethereisanobserverlocatedataspecificpointinspaceandlookinginaspecific direction.Multiviewandparalinedrawings,ontheotherhand,donotmakereferencetothepointofviewofan observer.Wecanviewthedrawingsfromvariousanglesandbecomfortableinreadingtheobjective information.Oureyescanroamovertheexpanseofaplanorparalinedrawingandbeabletocorrectly interpretthegraphicinformation.
Thelocationofthepictureplane(PP)relativetoanobjectaffectsonlythefinalsizeoftheperspectiveimage.The closerPPistothestationpoint(SP),thesmallertheperspectiveimage.ThefartherawayPPis,thelargerthe image(GATE-2020,2004,2002).Assumingallothervariablesremainconstant,theperspectiveimagesare identicalinallrespectsexceptsize.
Drawing Description
Linearperspectiveisvalidonlyformonocularvision(SingleEyeView).Aperspectivedrawing assumesthattheobserverseesthroughasingleeye.Inanyrectilinearobject,suchasacube, eachofthethreeprincipalsetsofparallellineshasitsownvanishingpoint.Basedonthesethree majorsetsoflines,therearethreetypesoflinearperspective:one,two,andthree-point perspectives.Whatdistinguisheseachtypeissimpl subject.Thesubjectdoesnotchange,onlyourviewofit,butthechangeofviewaffectshow thesetsofparallellinesappeartoconvergeinlinearperspective.
a)One-pointPerspective-Theone-point perspectivesystemassumesthattwoofthethree principalaxesoneverticalandtheother horizontalareparalleltothepictureplane.Alllines paralleltotheseaxesarealsoparalleltothepicture plane(PP),andthereforeretaintheirtrue orientationanddonotappeartoconverge.Forthis reason,one-pointperspectiveisalsoknownas parallelperspective
Linear Perspectives
b)Two-pointPerspective-Thetwo-pointperspective vision(CAV)ishorizontalandthepictureplane(PP) isvertical.TheprincipalverticalaxisisparalleltoPP, andalllinesparalleltoitremainverticalandparallel intheperspectivedrawing.Two-pointperspectiveis probablythemostwidelyusedofthethreetypesof linearperspective.Unlikeone-pointperspectives, two-pointperspectivestendtobeneither symmetricalnorstatic.
C)Three-pointPerspective-ThreePointPerspectiveis themostcomplexformofperspectivedrawing.Threepointperspectiveusesthreesetsoforthogonallinesand threevanishingpointstodraweachobject.Inoneand two-pointperspective,thepictureplaneisfixedatright anglestothegroundplane.Inthree-pointperspective, thepictureplaneseemstobesetatanangleasthe viewertendstotilttheirheadbackorforwardtolookup ordownfromtheeyelevel.(GATE-2018)
Tomakethecompositioneffective,attractiveandpleasing,wehavetofollowcertainprinciples.ThePrinciplesof Composition,Art&Architectureareasfollows:
AUnity
Unitymeansonenessandbringsharmonywiththesurroundings.Similarformsgive coherencetothepartsandintegritytothewhole(UPSC-CPWD-2016).Anurbanformso plannedandcreatedasinglepictureofunity.Dissimilarforms,texturesandcolorlackunity. ArrangementoforgansinthehumanbodyexemplifiestheDesignPrincipleofUnity.(UPSCCPWD-2016)
BSegregation
Thecompositionyoufollowshouldformanindependenceunitbyseparatingfromothersby enclosingmasses.Itcanbemadeupneutralforms,averagetexturesorsubduedcolorsof buildingmasses.Avoidbuildingsthatexhibitextremecharacteristics.
CCoherenceComplicatedcompositionslackcoherence.Toomanysortsofbuildings,elementsand accessoriesresultinlackofcoherence.
Therearetwotypesofbalancesuchassymmetricalbalanceandasymmetricalbalanceor occultbalance.
(i)SymmetricalBalance:Balancemeansequalityandcanbeeasilyobtainedby symmetricaltypeofplantsorfeaturesoneithersideofthecentralaxisofcomposition. Twobuildingsofoutstandingcharactercanbeusedoneithersideoftheavenue. Balanceshouldbedynamic,vital.Henceitshouldberhythmic.
(ii)AsymmetricalorOccultBalance:Twounequalmassesoneithersideofthecentralaxis formasymmetricalbalance.However,theycanbeplacedinsuchawaythatthey appearinequilibrium.Balanceshouldbefelteventhoughnotbepresent.Meticulously arrangedoccultbalanceaddssoftnessandfreedomtothecomposition.Thisistheonly sortofbalancethatcanharmoniouslyemployedinUrbanandvisualdesign.Theentire schemeshouldblendwithotherbuildings,roads.Landscapeandmassesoffoliageto representabalancedeffect.
Thebuildingorthegroupofbuildingsmustbeinscalewithitssurroundings.Somebuildings dependonscalefortheircharmsuchasacottage.Thepartsofthecompositioninrelation toeachothershouldexhibittheirtruesize.Ifabuildingoranybuiltformmakesotherobjects tookgrosslyenlargedorinsignificantlysmall,thentheobjectisoutofscale.Also,heavylookingbuiltformsarenotinscaleforsmallsites.
Itisadevicetogivecontinuitytothedesign.Itdevelopsrhythmicsequenceproducinga coherenteffect.Incaseofarcadeandrollingsurfaceofthesea(Wavesatregularintervals) thereisrhythmofdirection.Emphaticforms,brilliantcolors,contrastingtextureordensity maybecontrollingfactor.Avoidmonotony,variety,accentoncontrastinformormassalso rulethecomposition.Usedistinctiveelementsforarhythmicarrangement.Columnsand openingslikewindowscanbeusedtocreatetherhythmiceffect.Ithelpstoholdtogether andcarrytheeyefromoneparttoanother.Groupofbuildings,treeswithregularheights focustheeyeatthemeetingplaceofterminals.Twoorthreedifferentelementsmaybe repeatedinsequenceorirregularlyspacedmassesofthesamehueenhancethe effectiveness.(UPSC-CPWD-2015)
Selectpaintsforlongcoloreffects.Usecolor,formandpatterntogiveabalancedpicture. Afeelingofcoherenceindesignisachievedbycoloraswellasorbysimplerepetitionof samecoloratregularintervals.
Itisgenerallyusedforthoseprojectswheretimerequiredto completevariousactivitiesarenotknownasapriori.Itisprobabilisticmodel&isprimarilyconcernedfor evaluationoftime.Itiseventoriented
PERT(ProgramEvaluation&ReviewTechnique)
CPM(CriticalPathMethod)Itisacommonlyusedforthoseprojectswhicharerepetitiveinnature&whereone haspriorexperienceofhandlingsimilarprojects.Itisadeterministicmodel&placesemphasisontime&costfor activitiesofaproject
PERT CPM
PERTisusedfornon-repetitivejobslikeplanning theassemblyofthespace.
Itisaprobabilisticmodel.(GATE-2015,2009, ISRO-2015)
Itisevent-oriented(GATE-1991)astheresultsof analysisareexpressedintermsofeventsor distinctpointsintimeindicativeofprogress.
Itisappliedmainlyforplanningandscheduling researchprogrammes(ISRO-2017).
PERTincorporatesstatisticalanalysisandthereby determinestheprobabilitiesconcerningthetime bywhicheachactivityorentireprojectwouldbe completed.
PERTservesasusefulcontroldeviceasitassists managementincontrollingaprojectbycalling attentiontosuchdelays.
CPMisusedforrepetitivejoblikebuildingahouse.
Itisadeterministicmodel.(GATE-2009)
Itisactivity-orientedastheresultorcalculationsare consideredintermsofactivitiesoroperationsofthe project.
Itisappliedmainlyforconstructionandbusiness problems.
CPMdoesnotincorporatestatisticalanalysisin determiningtimeestimates,becausetimeisprecise andknown.
ItisdifficulttouseCPMasacontroldeviceforthe simplereasonthatonemustrepeatthe entireevaluationoftheprojecteachtimethe changesareintroducedintothenetwork.
Thevariousterms/formulaerelatedtobothCPM&PERTmethodsofProjectManagementareexplainedbriefly below:
AProject
Aprojectcanbedefinedasasetoflargenumberofactivitiesorjobs(witheachactivityconsumingtime& resources)thatareperformedinacertaindeterminedsequence.
Anetwork
Anetworkisagraphicalrepresentationofaproject,depictingtheflowaswellasthesequenceofwelldefinedactivities&events.
Anactivity(Alsoknownastask&job)
Itisanyportionofaprojectwhichconsumestimeorresourcesandhasdefinablebeginning&ending(GATE1998,ISRO-2017).
Event(Alsoknownasnode&connector)
Itisthebeginning&endingpointsofanactivityoragroupofactivities(GATE-2008).
StepsfordrawingCPM/PERTnetwork
Analyze&breakupoftheentireprojectintosmallersystemsi.e.,specificactivitiesand/orevents. Determinetheinterdependence&sequenceofthoseactivities. Drawanetworkdiagram.
Estimatethecompletiontime,cost,etc.foreachactivity. Identifythecriticalpath(longestpaththroughthenetwork). UpdatetheCPM/PERTdiagramastheprojectprogresses.
Eachactivityoftheprojectisrepresentedbyarrowpointingindirectionofprogressofproject.Theeventsof thenetworkestablishtheprecedencerelationshipamongdifferentactivities.
Threerulesforconstructingthenetworkareasfollows:
Rule1.Eachactivityisrepresentedbyone&onlyone,arrow. Rule2.Eachactivitymustbeidentifiedbytwodistinctevents&Twoormoreactivitiescannothavethesame tailandheadevents.
Followingfigureshowshowadummyactivitycanbeusedtorepresenttwoconcurrentactivities,A&B.By definition,adummyactivity,whichnormallyisdepictedbyadashedarrow,consumesnotimeorresources.
Insertingdummyactivityinoneofthefourwaysinthefigure,theconcurrenceofA&Bcanbemaintained, anduniqueendeventsforthetwoactivitiescanbeprovided(tosatisfyRule2).
Dummyactivityisahypotheticalactivitywhichtakesnoresourceortimetocomplete.Itisrepresentedby brokenarrowedline&isusedforeitherdistinguishingactivitieshavingcommonstarting&finishingeventsorto identify&maintainproperprecedencerelationshipbetweenactivitiesthatarenotconnectedbyevents. (GATE-2008,2004,ISRO-2015).
Rule3.Tomaintaincorrectprecedencerelationship,thefollowingquestionsmustbeansweredaseachactivity isaddedtothenetwork:
(a)Whatactivitiesmustbeimmediatelyprecedingthecurrentactivity?
(b)Whatactivitiesmustfollowthecurrentactivity?
(c)Whatactivitiesmustoccurconcurrentlywiththecurrentactivity?
Theanswerstothesequestionsmayrequiretheuseofdummyactivitiestoensurecorrectprecedenceamong theactivities.Forexample,considerthefollowingsegmentofaproject:
ActivityCstartsimmediatelyafterAandBhavebeencompleted. ActivityEstartsonlyafterBhasbeencompleted.
Part(a)ofthefigureabove,showstheincorrectrepresentationoftheprecedencerelationshipbecauseit requiresbothA&BtobecompletedbeforeEcanstart.Inpart(b)theuseofdummyrectifiessituation.
4.Deleteallthearrowsgoingoutfromthesenumberedeventstocreatemoreinitialevents.Assignthenext numberstotheseevents.
5.Continueuntilthefinalorterminalnode,whichhasallarrowscominginwithnoarrowgoingoutis numbered.
Determinationoftimetocompleteeachactivity
TheCPMsystemofnetworksomitstheprobabilisticconsiderationandisbasedonaSingleTimeEstimateofthe averagetimerequiredtoexecutetheactivity.
Theoptimistic,mostlikely,pessimistic&expectedtime
InPERTanalysis,thereisalwaysagreatdealofuncertaintyassociatedwiththeactivitydurationsofany project.Therefore,estimatedtime(te)isbetterdescribedbyaprobabilitydistributionthanbyasingleestimate. Three-timeestimates(frombetaprobabilitydistribution)aremadeasfollows:
TheOptimisticTimeEstimate(to):Shortestpossibletimeinwhichanactivitycanbecompletedinideal conditions.Noprovisionsaremadefordelaysorsetbackswhileestimatingthistime.
TheMostLikelyTime(tm):Itassumesthatthingsgoinnormalwaywithfewsetbacks.
ThePessimisticTime(tp):Themax.possibletimeifeverythinggoeswrong&abnormalsituationsprevailed. However,majorcatastrophessuchasearthquakes,labortroubles,etc.arenottakenintoaccount.
Theexpectedtime(meantime)foreachactivitycanbeapproximatedusingtheweightedaverage.
ItistheprocessoftracingthenetworkfromSTARTtoEND.Itgivestheearlieststart&finishtimesforeach activity.
Earliesteventtime(Ej): possible.Ej isthemax.ofthesums(Ei +tij)involvingeachimmediatelyprecedenteventi&interveningeventij.
ItistheprocessoftracingthenetworkstartingfromLASTnode&movingbackward.
Latesteventtime(Lj):Thelatesttimethateventicanoccurwithoutdelayingcompletionofbeyonditsearliest time.Li isthemin.ofthedifferences(Li -tij)involvingeachimmediatelyprecedenteventj&interveningeventij.
AnexampleofEarliesteventtime&Latesteventtimeisasfollows:
ArchitectsGuidebookforCompetitiveExamsbyAr.SwapnilS.Vidhate
InaccordancewithZeroSlackConvention,ifnoscheduledateforcompletionoftheprojectisspecified,then L=Efortheterminaleventoftheprojectshouldbeadopted.
ItisaconventiontokeeptheearliestallowancetimeoftheSTARTeventaszero.
Thecriticalpathisthepaththroughtheprojectnetworkinwhichnoneoftheactivitieshavefloat(totalfloatis zero).Thedurationofprojectisfixedbythetimetakentocompletethepaththroughthenetworkwiththe greatesttotalduration(GATE-2000,1993,1991).TheactivitiesonCriticalPathareknownascriticalactivities.A delayinthecriticalpathdelaystheproject.Similarly,toacceleratetheprojectitisnecessarytoreducethe totaltimerequiredfortheactivitiesinthecriticalpath.DummyActivitymayormaynotlieoncriticalpath. Acriticalpathsatisfiesfollowing3conditions:
EST=LST
EFT=LFT
Ej Ei =Lj Li =tij
Thecriticalpathcanbeidentifiedbydeterminingthefollowingfourparametersforeachactivity:
EST-earlieststarttime:theearliesttimeatwhichtheactivitycanstartgiventhatallitsprecedentactivities mustbecompletedfirst=Ei
EFT-earliestfinishtime:Thesumoftheearlieststarttimefortheactivity&thetimerequiredtocompletethe activity=EST(i-j) +tij
LFT-latestfinishtime:thelatesttimeatwhichtheactivitycanbecompletedwithoutdelaying(beyondits targetedcompletiontime)theproject=Lj
LST-lateststarttime:Thedifferenceoflatestfinishtime&thetimerequiredtocompletetheactivity=LFT(i-j) -tij
Thetotalfloattime
Thetotalfloattimeforanactivityisthetimebetweenitsearliestandlateststarttime,orbetweenitsearliestand latestfinishtime.Itistheamountoftimethatanactivitycanbedelayedpastitsearlieststartorearliestfinish withoutdelayingtheproject=LST-ESTorLFT-EFT=LFT-EST-tij =LFT-(EST+tij)
Theslacktime
Theslacktimeorslackofaneventinanetworkisthedifferencethelatesteventtime&earliesteventtime(LiEi)
Thefreefloattime
Thefreefloattimeofanactivityisequaltotheamountbywhichitsdurationcanbeincreasedwithoutaffecting eithertheprojecttimeorthetimeavailableforthesubsequentactivities(GATE-2006,2005,2001,UPSC-CPWD2016).Itindicatesthevaluebywhichanactivitycanbedelayedbeyondtheearlieststartingpointwithout affectingtheearlieststart,&therefore, thetotalfloatoftheactivitiesfollowingit=TotalFloat ij (Slackofevent j).
Theindependentfloattime
Theindependentfloattimeofanactivityistheamountbywhichthedurationofanactivitycouldbeextended withoutaffectingthetotalprojecttime,thetimeavailableforsubsequentactivitiesorthetimeavailableforthe precedingactivities(GATE-2020)=[FreeFloatij(Slackofeventi)]orZERO,whicheverishigher.Also,ESTof followingactivityLFTofprecedingactivityDurationofcurrentactivityorZero,whicheverishigher.
Activityhavingnexthigherfloatthanthecriticalactivity
Theseactivitieshavenegativefloat.Itresultswhenactivitydurationismorethantimeavailable.Itindicates abnormalsituationrequiringastohowtocompresstheactivity.
SubcriticalPath
Thepathwiththenextleastfloatsthancriticalpathissubcriticalpath.
Followingtrophiclevelscanbeidentifiedinafoodchain
Autotrophs
Herbivores
Carnivores
Omnivores
Decomposers
Theyaretheproducersoffoodforallotherorganismsoftheecosystem.Theyarelargelygreen plantsandconvertinorganicmaterialinthepresenceofsolarenergybytheprocessof photosynthesisintothechemicalenergy(food).
Theanimalswhicheattheplantsdirectlyarecalledprimaryconsumersorherbivorese.g., insects,birds,rodentsandruminants.
Theyaresecondaryconsumersiftheyfeedonherbivoresandtertiaryconsumersiftheyuse carnivoresastheirfood.e.g.,frog,dog,catandtiger.
Animalsthateatbothplantandanimalse.g.,pig,bearandman
Theytakecareofthedeadremainsoforganismsateachtrophiclevelandhelpinrecyclingof thenutrientse.g.,bacteriaandfungi.
Typesoffoodchains
Inanecosystem,thetwochainsareinterconnectedandmakey-shapedfoodchain.Thesetwotypesoffood chainsare:-
(i)Grazingfoodchains:Itstartsfromthegreenplants thatmakefoodforherbivoresandherbivoresinturn forthecarnivores.
(ii)Detritusfoodchains:Itstartsfromthedeadorganic mattertothedetrivoresorganismswhichinturnmake foodforprotozoantocarnivoresetc.
Trophiclevelsinanecosystemarenotlinearrather theyareinterconnectedandmakeafoodweb.Thus, foodwebisanetworkinterconnectedfoodchains existinginanecosystem.Oneanimalmaybea memberofseveraldifferentfoodchains.Foodwebs aremorerealisticmodelsofenergyflowthroughan ecosystem.
Ecosystemsarecapableofmaintainingtheirstateof equilibrium.Theycanregulatetheirownspecies structureandfunctionalprocesses.Thiscapacityof ecosystemofself-regulationisknownashomeostasis. Inecology,thetermappliestothetendencyfora biologicalsystemtoresistchanges.
Ecologicalpyramidsarethegraphicrepresentationsoftrophic levelsinanecosystem.Theyarepyramidalinshapeandtheyare ofthreetypes:Theproducersmakethebaseofthepyramidand thesubsequenttiersofthepyramidrepresentherbivore,carnivore andtopcarnivorelevels.
Inanecosystemthattheamountofenergydecreasesateach subsequenttrophiclevel.Thisisduetotworeasons:
1.Ateachtrophic,apartoftheavailableenergyislostin respirationorusedupinmetabolism.
2.Apartofenergyislostateachtransformation,i.e.,whenitmoves fromlowertohighertrophiclevelasheat.
Itistheratiobetweentheamountofenergyacquiredfromthe lowertrophiclevelandtheamountofenergytransferredfrom highertrophicleveliscalledecologicalefficiency.Lindmanin1942 definedtheseecologicalefficienciesforthe1st timeandproposed 10%rulee.g.,ifautotrophsproduce100cal,herbivoreswillbeable tostore10cal.andcarnivores1cal.However,theremaybeslightvariationsindifferentecosystemsand efficiency).
Ecosystemalwaysremainsinthestateofequilibrium.Theequilibriumisdynamicisnatureandbioticcomponents appearanddisappeartimetotimeduetotheirdeathorpredator.Inaddition,decomposerconvertsthe complexorganicmatterofdeadplantandanimalsintothesimpleinorganicsubstances.Thesesimpleinorganic substancespassthroughthesoil,plantsandanimalsinacyclicmanner,andthiskeepsthelifegoingoninan ecosystem.Thus,bothbioticandabioticcomponentsareinadynamicstate.
Anecologicalcommunityisthesetofinteractingspeciesthatmakesupthelivingpartofecosystem.Itisdifficult toknowtheentiresetofspeciesinteractinginsameplaceandfunctioningtogether.Hence,definitioncanbe confinedtoparticularareawherethecommunityconsistsofallthespecieswhethertheyareknowntointeract ornot.Accordingtothis,exampleforecologicalcommunitywouldbetheanimalsinazooplacedindifferent cages.
Ecosystemchangesovertimeandspace,thenareaswithoutlifeonearthcanbefilledwithlivingbeings.This changingnatureofcommunitiesandtheirabilitytorecoverfromdisturbanceinecosystemiscalledecological succession.Therearetwostagesofsuccession.
TheancienttreatiessuchasManasaraandVastushastradescribethebuiltformandurbancharacterofthecity planningandurbandesignprinciplesandfunctionalandenvironmentalrelationships.Thereare8typesofvillage /cityplans (GATE-2016,2013,2011,2008,2004,2002,1998)
Dandaka
Streetsarestraightandcrosseachotheratrightanglesatthecenter
Villagehas4gatesonfoursides
Villageisrectangular/square
Widthofthestreetvariesfromone-fivedanda
2transversestreetattheextremitieshavesinglerowofhouses
Thevillageofficeslocatedintheeast.
thefemaledeity/chamadevatalocatedoutsidethevillageandthemale deitiesinthenorthernportion
Sarvotobhadra
Thistypeoftownplanisapplicabletolargervillagesandtowns,whichhave tobeconstructedonasquaresite.
Accordingtothisplan,thewholetownshouldbefullyoccupiedbyhouses ofvariousdescriptionsandinhabitedbyallclassesofpeople. Thetempledominatesthevillage.
Nandyavarta
Thisplaniscommonlyusedfortheconstructionof townsandnotforvillages.
Itisgenerallyadoptedforthesiteseithercircular orsquareinshape,30004000houses. Thestreetsrunparalleltothecentraladjoining streetswiththetempleofthepresidingdeityin thecenterofthetown.
ofwhichisfollowedinthislayout.
Padmaka
Thistypeofplanwaspracticedforbuildingofthetownswithfortressall round.
Thepatternoftheplanresemblesthepetalsoflotusradiatingoutwardsfrom thecenter.
Thecityusedtobepracticallyanislandsurroundedbywater,havingno scopeforexpansion.
Swastika
Swastikatypeofplancontemplatessomediagonalstreetsdividingthesite intocertainrectangularplots.
Thesiteneednotbemarkedoutintoasquareorrectangleanditmaybeof anyshape.
Arampartwallsurroundsthetown,withamoatatitsfootfilledwithwater. Twomainstreetscrosseachotheratthecenter,runningsouthtonorthand westtoeast.
Prastara
Thecharacteristicfeatureofthisplanisthatthesitemaybeeithersquareor rectangularbutnottriangularorcircular.
Thesitesaresetapartforthepoor,themiddleclass,therichandthevery rich,thesizesofthesitesincreasingaccordingtothecapacityofeachto purchaseorbuildupon.
Themainroadsaremuchwidercomparedtothoseofotherpatterns. Thetownmayormaynotbesurroundedbyafort.
Karmukha
Thisplanissuitablefortheplacewherethesiteofthetownisintheformofa boworsemicircularorparabolicandmostlyappliedfortownslocatedon theseashoreorriverbanks.
Themainstreetsofthetownrunfromnorthtosouthoreasttowestandthe crossstreetsrunatrightanglestothem,dividingthewholeareaintoblocks. Thepresidingdeity,commonlyafemaledeity,isinstalledinthetemplebuild inanyconvenientplace.
Chaturmukha
Chaturmukhatypeofplanisapplicabletoalltownsstartingfromthelargest towntothesmallestvillage.
Thesitemaybeeithersquareorrectangularhavingfourfaces. Thetownislaidouteasttowestlengthwise,withfourmainstreets. Thetempleofthepresidingdeitywillbealwaysatthecenter.
TheSumeriansdevelopeda numberofcitiessurrounded byagriculture.Theyshared thesameculture,but organizedthemselves independently.
Themajorcitiesdeveloped bySumeriansinclude:Ur, Kish,Lagash,Nippur,Uruk andEridu.
Urbecamethecapitalof thewholeofsouthern Mesopotamiaunder Sumeriankings.
Excavationproducedroyal tombs(Ziggurats)containing gold,silver,bronzeand semipreciousstones
ThecitywascapitalofNeoBabylonianEmpireunder NebuchadnezzarIIbetween 604to561BC.
Thecitywasplannedinan areaof400hawitha populationof100,000and wasofsquareshapedivided bytheriverEuphrates.
Thecitywasfullofhouses, threetofourstoryhighand havebeenlaidoutwithits streetsstraight,notably thosewhichrunatright anglesandleadtotheriver.
TheearliestremainsofPersepolisdatefromaround 515BC.ThecitywasknownasParsawhichmeans
Thegreatcomplexwascreatedbyatleastthree PersianMonarchs(Darius,Xerxes,Artaxerxes)as oneofthecapitalsofthePersianEmpire.Itsruins revealarchitectureinfluencesfromothercultures inMesopotamia.
Persepoliswasbuiltinterracesfromtheriver Pulwarandroseover125,000sq.ft.beingpartlycut intothemountain.
Themainfeaturesofurbandesignincluderegular shapemonumentalstaircases,bigperistyle (columnedhalls).
XerxesIbuiltagreatpalacewhichconsistedofa grandhallthatwas82ft.longwithfourlarge columnsontheentrance.
Averybigcisternwascarvedattheeasternfootof themountaintocatchtherainwatersopeople couldbatheanddrink.
Thewallsbuiltaroundthecitymadeiteasyto defendanysection.Thewallswereveryhigh,and hadfortifiedtowers.
ThecitywasdestroyedbyAlexanderthegreat.
Thetownwaserectedfortheworkmenemployed inconstructingthenearbypyramidanditwas abandonedwhenthepyramidwascompleted Thetownwassquareinshapewiththestreets runninginthenorth-southandeast-westgrid pattern.
Thehouseswerebuiltofmudbrickhaving beamed,flatmudroofs,opencourtsand porticoesandtheearliestexamplesofsupporting woodencolumn,flutedandonaraisedbase.
(GATE-2016,2013)
Thestudyofurbanlandusegenerallydrawsfromthreedifferentdescriptivetheories/models.
1.ConcentricZonetheory.
2.Sectortheory.
3.Multiplenucleitheory.
Thesemodelsweredevelopedtogeneralizeaboutthepatternsofurbanlandusefoundinearlyindustrialcities oftheU.S.Asthesearegeneralmodelsdevisedtounderstandtheoverallpatternsoflanduse,noneofthem canaccuratelydescribepatternsofurbanlanduseinallcities.Infact,allofthesemodelshavebeencriticized forbeingmoreapplicabletocitiesintheU.S.thantocitiesofothernations.
1.ConcentricZonetheory(GATE-2017,2007,1993)
Theory-Theconcentriczonemodelwasamongtheearlydescriptionsofurbanform.
OriginatedbyEarnestBurgessinthe1920.Theconcentriczonemodeldepictstheuseof urbanlandasasetofconcentricringswitheachringdevotedtoadifferentlanduse.The modelportrayshowcitiessocialgroupsarespatiallyarrangedinaseriesofrings.Burgess describedthechangingspatialpatternsofresidentialareasasaprocessof"invasion"and "succession".
1.CentralBusinessDistrict(CBD)-Thisareaofthecityisanon-residentialarea.Thisareaiscalleddowntown,a lotofskyscrapershousesgovernmentinstitutions,businesses,stadiums,andrestaurantsarefound.
2.ZoneofTransition-Thezoneoftransitioncontainsindustryandhaspoorer-qualityhousingavailable.Created bysubdividinglargerhousesintoapartments.
3.Zoneoftheworkingclass-Thisareacontainsmodestolderhousesoccupiedbystable,workingclassfamilies. Alargepercentageofthepeopleinthisarearent.
4.Zoneofbetterresidence-Thiszonecontainsnewerandmorespacioushouses.Mostlyfamiliesinthemiddleclassliveinthiszone.
-Thisareaislocatedbeyondthebuild-upareaofthecity.Mostlyupper-class residentsliveinthisarea.
Assumptionsofthetheory
Olderbuildingsaresituatedinthecitycenter. Newerbuildingsaresituatedatedgeofcity. Landvaluesarehighestincitycenter.
Strongeconomicandethnicsegregationisexisting.
Low-incomegroupslacktransportandliveclosetocitycenter. Citiesdeveloponaflatplainwithequalaccesstotransport.
Achievementsofthetheory
Thisledtoademand-dominatedmodelinwhichdemandforbetterhousingdrivesthewealthiestawayfrom theaginganddecayinghousingneartheindustrializingcitycentertowardtheperiphery. Thisleadstoinvasionofthebestlandbythoseresidentsandindustriesthatcanaffordit.
Thecentralbusinessdistrict(CBD)expandsintothesurroundingtransitionzone.Theresultisthatnatural areas
ArchitectsGuidebookforCompetitiveExamsbyAr.SwapnilS.Vidhate
Criticismofthetheory
Itassumesanisotropicplain. Landmayrestrictgrowthofcertainsectors. Themodeldoesnotfitpolycentriccities.
ItdescribesthepeculiarAmericangeography,wheretheinnercityispoorwhilesuburbsarewealthy.
Exampleofthetheory
Burgessappliedhismodel toChicago,asshownin thediagram.Thecitycore wasdestroyedinthe GreatFireof1871andas thecitywasrebuilt,social patterningevolvedand Chicagobecamea segregatedcitywith concentriczones.By1910, 78%ofAfricanAmerican livedinthedilapidated housingalongtheBlack Belt.
Todaygentrificationschemesareoccurringinthenearwestand southsidesofChicago.Gentrificationisthe processwherebyolddeterioratedindustrialorlow-classhousing areasareregenerated.
Theory-SoonafterBurgessgeneralizedabouttheconcentriczoneformofthecity, HomerHoytre-casttheconcentricringmodel.In1939,Hoytmodifiedtheconcentric zonemodeltoaccountformajortransportationroutes.Recallthatmostmajorcities evolvedaroundthenexusofseveralimportanttransportfacilitiessuchasrailroads,sea ports.Hoyttheorizedthatcitieswouldtendtogrowinwedge-shapedpatterns,orsectors, radiatingfromtheCBD.Hoyt'ssectormodelissimplyaconcentriczonemodelmodified toaccountfortheimpactoftransportationsystemsonaccessibility.
Firescanbegroupedasfollowsbasedonthecauseoffire:
A.Solidfuels,e.g.,wood,paper,cloth,etc.
B.Flammableliquids,e.g.,petrol,oil,paints,fats,etc.(UPSC-CPWD-2015)
C.Flammablegases,e.g.,methane,propane,acetylene,etc.
D.Flammablemetals,e.g.,zinc,aluminum,uranium,etc.
E.Electricalequipment.
F.Unsaturatedcookingoils.
Aportablefireextinguishermustcontainthetypeoffireextinguishingagentsuitableforthefireitisrequiredto extinguish.Itmustalsobeclearlyidentifiablebycolorcodingforitsintendedpurpose.
ExtinguishingagentExtinguishercolor
Application
Water Red CarbonaceousFires,paper,wood,etc.
Foam RedwithcreambandCarbonaceousfires,paper,woodaswellasflammableliquids, oils,fats,etc.
CarbondioxideRedwithblackbandElectricalfiresandflammableliquids
DrychemicalsRedwithblueband Allfires.
Watersprinklersprovideanautomaticspraydedicatedtotheareaoffireoutbreak.Sprinklerheadshave temperaturesensitiveelementsthatrespondimmediatelytoheat,dischargingthecontentsofthewatermain towhichtheyareattached.
Inadditiontoarapidresponsewhichreducesandisolatesfiredamage,sprinklersuselesswatertocontrola firethanthefirefightingservice,thereforepreventingfurtherdamagefromexcesswater.
Thesimplestapplicationistoattachandsuspendsprinklerheadsfromawatermainfixedatceilinglevel. However,somemeansofregulationandcontrolisneeded.
Sprinklerheadspacing-Areacoveredbyonehead, maximum12m2
Maximumdistancebetweenheads-4m
Maximumdistancefromwalltoceilingmounted head-2m.
Minimumdistancebetweenheadsinthesame room-2m(only1headperroomisnormal).
Operatingpressure-Minimum0.5bar(50kPa).
Thearrangementofpipeworkwilldependonthebuildingshapeandlayout,thepositionoftheriserpipeand thenumberofsprinklerheadsrequired.Toprovideareasonablybalanceddistribution,itispreferabletohavea centerfeedpipe.Inpracticeitisnotalwayspossibleandendfeedarrangementsareused.
a.Staggeredarrangementof sprinklerheadsonanordinary hazardinstallation:
b.Calculatingthenumberof sprinklerheads:
e.g.,anordinaryfirehazard categoryforafactoryhavinga floorarea20mX10m.
Area,20X10=200m2 .
Ordinaryhazardrequiresa maximumservedfloorareaof12 m2 persprinklerhead.
Therefore:200÷12=16.67i.e.,at least17sprinklerheads.
Forpracticalpurposes,18couldbe installedasshowninbelowfigure:
Themaximumareaservedbyeachsprinklerhead=3.33mX3.33m=11.1m2 .
Thisissatisfactory,beinglessthan12m2 .
Example:Iftheareacoverageofonesprinkleris20m2,withamaximumandminimumspacingof4.6mand1.8 mrespectively,theminimumnumberofsprinklersrequiredtobearrangedinaregularorthogonalgridtocover theareaofa15mx20mroomwouldbe_______(GATE-2013)
Explanation:
ToProvideminimumnumberofsprinklersinaroomofdim.15mX20m, eachcoveringareaof20m2,withmaximumandminimumspacingof 4.6mand1.8mrespectively,thefollowingstepsshouldbeadopted.
1.Markthegridof4.60mX4.60malongwidthandlength.Buthere, areabetweengridswillformsquarehavingareaof21.16m2 Whereas.themaximumareaonesprinklercancoveris20m2 asper giveninformation.
2.Thus,thegridalongshortersideshouldbechanged,insuchaway thatthesquareswhichwillbeformedbetweenthem,willhavearea of20m2 orlessthanthat.
3.Minimum20sprinklerscanbeprovidedwiththegridasshownin theadjacentfigure.
StructureMenhir(Monolith)
Description
Theseareenormousstone pillars,withaheightfrom3 to20meters,placed verticallyintheground(the largestoneweighed300 tons)(GATE-2009).
Dolmens
Thesearelarge,stonestructures, placedhorizontallyontopofa stonebase,oraclosedstone boxwithacircular(mostoften), triangular,orsquareentrance (GATE-2009).
Cromlech(Stonehenge)
Thesearecirclesofstone.A seriesofuprightstones arrangedinacircleand supportinghorizontalslabs.
StructureGreatPyramidofCheops(Kufu)
TempleofKhons,Karnak
Description
ThegreatpyramidofCheopsissquareonplan, 760feeteachway,itsareaabout13acres.The facesofthepyramidareequilateraltriangles laidslopingandmeetinginapoint.Twoair channelsledtotheouterfaceofthepyramid forventilation.Thereweretwochambersinthe pyramid,oneknownasthe connectedwithapassageleadingoffthatto the andtheotherbelowthe ground.(GATE-2014)
Theentrancetothetemplewasbetween ormassiveslopingtowers,oneachside ofthecentralgateway.Theentranceleadsto thelargeoutercourtyardwhichwasopento skyinthecenter.Thiscourtyardwassurrounded byadoublecolonnadeonthreesides,andled uptotothehypostylehall,inwhichlightwas admittedthroughclerestoryabove,formedby thedifferentheightofthecolumns.(GATE2015,2009,2006)
ArchitectsGuidebookforCompetitiveExamsbyAr.SwapnilS.Vidhate
Structure
Description
Mastaba(TombStructure)
Itisaflat-roofed,rectangularstructurewith inwardslopingsides,constructedoutofmudbricks.Mastabaswereoftenaboutfourtimes aslongastheywerewide,andmanyrosetoat least30feetinheight.Theywerebuiltwitha north-southorientation.InsidetheMastaba,a deepchamberwasdugintothegroundand linedwithstoneandbricks.Theburial chamberswerecutdeep,untiltheypassedthe bedrock,andwerelinedwithwood.(GATE2018,UPSC-CPWD-2016)
Pylons
Itwasadepictionoftwohills"betweenwhich thesunroseandset.Itwasasymbolic architectureofacultbuildingwhichwas associatedwiththeplaceofrecreationand rebirth.(GATE-2014,2009)
Structure
Structure
Ziggurat
ThePalaceofSargon,Khorsabad
Description
Thesetempleswerebuiltindiminishingstages ofmasonrywithbuttressedwall.Theywere severalstoriesinheightandconstructedwith coloredglazedbricks.Awalledenclosure surroundedthewholestructure.Theanglesof thesetemplesweremadetofacethecardinal pointwhichwascontrastingtotheEgyptian pyramids.(GATE-2018)
Thepalacewasraiseduponaterraceor platformofbrickworkfacedwithstone,46feet abovetheplain,fromwhichitwasreachedby meansofbroadstairwaysandslopingplanes orramps.Thepalacecontainedthreedistinct groups Apartment),TheHarem(PrivateApartment) andTheKhan(ServiceChambers)arranged roundahugecourtyard.Thetemple observatorywassituatedonthewesternsideof theplatform.
Structure
Inverted arch footings
Continuous footings
Thistypeoffootingisusedonsoftsoils toreducethedepthofthe foundation.Loadsaboveanopening aretransmittedfromsupportingwalls throughinvertedarchestothesoil.In thistypeoffootings,theendcolumns mustbestableenoughtoresistthe outwardpressurecausedbythearch action.However,withtheadventof RCC,invertedarchconstructionis rarelydoneatpresent.
Inthistypeoffootingasingle continuousR.C.Slabisprovidedas foundationoftwoorthreeormore columnsinarow.Thistypeoffooting issuitableatlocationsliableto earthquakeactivities.Thisalso preventsdifferentialsettlementsin structures.(ISRO-2018,2019)
Strapor Cantilever footings
Strapfootingconsistsoftwoormore individualfootingsconnectedbya beamcalledstrap.Thistypeof footingisusedwherethedistance betweenthecolumnsissogreatthat thetrapezoidalfootingbecomes quitenarrowwithbendingmoments.
Grillage footing
Thistypeoffootingsisusedtotransmit heavyloadsfromsteelcolumnsto thesoilshavinglowbearingpower Thistypeofarrangementsprevents deepexcavationsandprovides necessaryareaatbasetoreduce theintensityofthepressure.
Araftormatisacombinedfooting thatcoverstheentireareabeneatha structureandsupportsallthe columns.Theyareusedwherethesoil masscontainscompressiblelensesso thatthedifferentialsettlementabove highlycompressiblesoilsbymaking theweightofthestructureandraft approximatelyequaltotheweightof thesoilexcavated.Theraftis composedofreinforcedconcrete beamwitharelativelythinslab underneath.(GATE-2005)
b.Deepfoundations:Thesefoundationscarryloadsfromastructurethroughweakincompressiblesoilsorfillsonto thestrongerandlesscompressiblesoilsorcracksatdepth.Thesefoundationsareingeneralusedasbasements, buoyancyrafts,caissons,cylinders,shaftandpiles.Someofthemaredescribedbrieflybelow.
Buoyancy Rafts
Theyarehollowsubstructuresdesigned toprovideabuoyantsubstructure beneathwhichreducenetloadingson thesoiltothedesiredlowdensity.
Caissons
Shaft foundations
hugeboxmadeupofreinforced concrete.Theyarehollowsubstructures frominsidedesignedtobeconstructed onornearthesurfaceandthensunkas singleunitstotheirrequiredlevel.Itisthe foundationusedfortheconstructionof bridges,piers,abutmentsinriver,and dockstructureinverydeepwater. Caissonsareclassifiedintothreetypes: Open,box&pneumaticcaissons.
Theyareconstructedwithindeep excavationsupportedbylining constructedinplaceandsubsequently filledwithconcrete.Thedrilledshaft foundationsaredividedintotwotypes: Endbearing(Theaxialloadresistanceis basedonthecapacityofthesubsurface conditionsatthetiporbaseofthedrilled shaft.)&Side(Skin)friction(Theaxialload resistanceisbasedonthecapacityof thesubsurfaceconditionsalongthesides /surfaceareaofthedrilledshaft)
Pile Foundations
Thepilefoundationisaconstruction supportedonpiles.Apileisanelement ofconstructioncomposedoftimber, concreteorsteeloracombinationof them.Thepilesmaybeplaced separatelyortheymaybeplacedin formofaclusterthroughoutthestructure. Thepilesareclassifiedbasedonfunction (Bearingpile,FrictionPile,ScrewPile, CompactionPile,UpliftPile,BatterPile andSheetPile)andmaterials& composition(Cementconcretepiles, timberpiles,steelpiles,sandpilesand compositepiles).(GATE-2005)
SolarChart(Sunpath)consistsof4linesoffollowingtypes(GATE-2018):
Azimuth Lines Azimuthanglesrunaroundtheedgeof thediagram.
Altitude Lines
Altitudeanglesarerepresentedas concentriccirculardottedlinesthatrun fromthecenterofthediagramout.
Date/Month Lines
Datelinesstartontheeasternsideofthe graphandruntothewesternsideand representthepathofthesunonone particulardayoftheyear.InEcotect,the firstdayofJanuarytoJuneisshownas solidlines,whileJulytoDecemberis shownasdottedlines.
HourLines/ Analemma
Hourlinesareshownasfigure-eight-type linesthatintersectthedatelinesand representthepositionofthesunata specifichouroftheday.Theintersection pointsbetweendateandhourlinesgive thepositionofthesun.
Thesolarreflectanceisthefractionofsolarradiationreflectedbyroof.Thecomplementofreflectanceis absorptance;whateverradiantenergyincidentonasurfacethatisnotreflectedisabsorbedintheroof.The reflectanceandabsorptanceofbuildingmaterialsareusuallymeasuredacrossthesolarspectrum,sincethese areexposedtothatrangeofwavelength.
Reflectanceismeasuredonascaleof0to1,with0beingaperfectabsorberand1beingaperfectreflector. Absorptanceisalsoratedfrom0to1,andcanbecalculatedfromtherelation: Reflectance+Absorptance=1.
atedbyaparticular materialtoenergyradiatedbyablackbodyatthesametemperature. radiatetheabsorbedenergy.Atrueblackbodywouldhaveane=1whileanyrealobjectwouldhavee<1. Emissivityisadimensionlessquantity(doesnothaveunits).Ingeneral,thedullerandblackeramaterialis,the Themorereflectiveamaterialis,theloweritsemissivity.
Inhotclimates,coolroofs(orhighemissivityorthermalemittanceroofsurfaces)areaneffectivewaytoreduce reducetheneedforairconditioningandmakebuildingsmorecomfortabletothepeopleinside.Thelightcolor reflectssunlightandheatawayfromthebuilding,andthehighemissivityorthermalemittanceallowsheatto escapetotheatmospherewhenthesurfacebecomesheated.Althoughsomesurfaces,suchasgalvanized metal,haveahighreflectance,theyhavealowemittance.Thesesurfacesreflectheat,butheatthatis absorbedcannotescape.Othersurfaces,suchasdarkpaint,haveahighemittancebutalowreflectance. Thesesurfacesallowheattoescape,butdoapoorjobofreflectingheatthatstrikesthesurface.
AnUrbanHeatIslandisametropolitanurbanarea,whichissignificantlywarmerthanitssurroundings.As populationcentersgrowinsize,theytendtohaveacorrespondingincreaseinaveragetemperature.Scientists refertothisphenomenonastheUrbanHeatIslandEffectThetwomaincausesoftheurbanheatislandare modificationofthelandsurfacebyurbandevelopmentandwasteheatgeneratedbyenergyusage.One consequenceofurbanheatislandsistheincreasedenergyrequiredforairconditioningandrefrigerationincities thatareincomparativelyhotclimates.(GATE-1995,1993).
VisualLightTransmittance(alsoknownasVisualTransmittanceVT)isdefinedastheratiooflightthatpasses throughtheglazingtothelightpassingthroughperfectlytransmittingglazing.Inotherwords,italsoreferstothe fractionofvisiblelighttransmittedthroughtheglazing.VLTaffectsenergyconsumptioninbuildingbyproviding daylightthatcreatestheopportunitytoreduceelectriclightinganditsassociatedcoolingloads.Glazingwithlow SHGCgenerallyhasalowVLT;however,iftheVLTistoolow,theoutsideviewfrominsidethebuildingwillbe impaired.WithlowerVLT,thedaylightingintheinteriormayalsoreducetoalevelthatmayrequiresupplemental occupants.Thus,buildingswithlowerwindowtowallratios(WWR),mayneedhigherVLT.
Askylightisafenestrationsurfacehavingaslopeoflessthan60degreesfromthehorizontalplane.Other fenestration,evenifmountedontheroofofabuilding,isconsideredverticalfenestration.Skylightscanbe installedintoaroofsystemeitherflush-mountedorcurb-mounted(includingsitebuilt).Inordertocreatea
Itisthesolarprotectionsystemconsistingoffixedslatsorgrids, placedoutsidethebuildingfacadeinfrontofopenings.Itshieldsthe interiorofthebuildingbyregulatingthedirectsunrayscomingfrom theexternalside(GATE-2019,2006,UPSC-CPWD-2015,2016).
Regionscanbeclassifiedbasedonparameterssuchas,EnvironmentandLandSuitability,Demographic,Quality ofLife,Flows(Supplyofrawmaterials,finishedgoods,floatingpopulation,finance),Economic&Investments, others.
Forplannedandsustainabledevelopmentofthehumansettlements,theregionalplanningapproachneedsto bepromoted.Theplanningregionscouldbeclassifiedunderthreeheads:
(a)AdministrativeRegions:whichcanbeDistrictRegionsorMetropolitanRegionsaspertherecommendationsof the73rd &74th ConstitutionalAmendmentAct,
(b)InvestmentRegions:whichcanbenewinvestmentmanufacturingzones,industrialandfreightcorridors, specialinvestmentregionsetc.TheycouldbeidentifiedunderNationalActs/policies,
(c)Specialregions:whicharesensitiveintermsofenvironment/socioeconomicorpoliticalaspects.
ThissectionisalreadycoveredintheSection5.1- .
Planning
Planningisauniversalhumanactivity,abasicsurvivalskillinvolvingtheconsiderationsofoutcomesbefore choosingamongalternatives.
Planningisconsideredwithland
Allinformationconcerningland,itsshape,fertility,appearanceandvalueisofdirectinteresttotheplanner.This includesgeographical,economicandvisualmattersandthesearethethreemaindivisionswhichappearand reappearinallthesubjectsinvolvedwiththeadditionofafourth,thesecondaspect,whichismingledwith, distinguishablefromtheeconomicaspects.
6.Design
2.DefiningtheObjectives
Toregulategrowth,tonullifythebadeffectsofpast growth,toimprovethetransportationfacilities,to optimizetheresourcesutilization,tobalancepopulation andeconomicactivities,topromotesocialintegration amongdifferentcategories,topromoteaconvenient comfortable,beautifulandhealthyenvironment.
3.DataCollection(StudiesandSurveys)
Identificationoftrendanddirectionofgrowth,Traffic survey,Studyondemography,Climate,Resourcesand otherpotentials.
4.DataAnalysis
Intheformofstudymaps,graphs,charts,etc.andlong term&short-termobjectivesareidentified.
5.Forecasting
Demographicprojection&forecastingbasedon migration,employment,industrializationand urbanization.
Preparationofdevelopmentplans,formulationof zones,alterationtotheexistingzoningregulations, wideningofroadsetc.
7.FixingthePriorities
Identificationofprioritiesbasedontheneed, importanceandurgency.
8.Implementation
Implementationbythesuitableauthorities,within time&mustsatisfyalltherequiredobligations.
9.Review,EvaluationandFeedback
Monitoringbyperiodicalinspections,feedbacks& reviewreports.
MasterPlan
Thiscanbereferredasmasterkeytothesituationasitisthecomprehensiveschemeofdevelopmentthat includesthegeneralfundamentals.Thecolorcodesusedinmasterplanfordifferentlandusesareasfollows
Landuse Color
Residential Yellow Commercial Blue Industrial Violet
PublicandSemiPublic Red
Recreational Green Transportation Grey
Publicutilitiesandfacilities Brown
CityDevelopmentPlan
CitydevelopmentPlan(CDP)isdefinedunderJNNURMasoneoftheguidelinestoavailfundsunderit.Itenlists theobjectivesofcitydevelopmentandapproachforpreparationofthesame.(GATE-2014,2010,UPSC-CPWD2015)
StructurePlan
Astructureplanwhichsinglesoutforattentionofcertainaspectsoftheenvironmentusuallythelanduses,the mainmovementsystemsandthelocationofcriticalfacilitiesandbuildings.Suchaplanaimstoinfluence andperhaps shouldnotbedecidedattheoutset.
ZonalPlan
AZonalDevelopmentPlanmeansaplanforaZone(Division)ofthelargerarea.TheZonalPlan(DivisionalPlan) detailsoutthepolicyoftheMasterPlanandactsasalinkbetweenthelayoutandtheMasterPlan.The developmentschemes/layoutplansindicatingusepremisesshouldconformtotheMasterPlan/Zonal
ActionAreaPlansarerequiredtobepreparedforvariousareasthroughouttheCountypriortothesubmission ofplanningapplicationsfordevelopmentonthoselands.ThegeneralpurposeforActionAreaPlansistoensure thatdevelopmentisundertakeninasustainableandintegratedmanner.Anactionareaplanshouldsetdown theframeworkforthesustainable,phasedandmanageddevelopmentofaparticulararea.
TownPlanningschememeans,schemesmaybepreparedaspertheprovisionoftherespectiveStateTown PlanningandUrbanDevelopmentActfortheareawhichisinthecourseofdevelopmentlikelytobeandfor buildingpurposeoralreadyupon.Thismethodwasintroducedthrough .Later amendedtoNewBombayTownPlanningAct:1954.TheseactswereinstrumentaltoconceptualizetheTown PlanninginIndia.Rapidlydevelopedareasoutsidethelimitsofurbanauthoritieswererequiredtobedeveloped inplannedmanner.ThebasicconceptofTownPlanningSchemeispoolingtogetherallthelandunderdifferent ownershipsandredistributingitinaproperlyreconstitutedformafterdeductingthelandrequiredfortheopen spaces,socialinfrastructure,services,housingfortheeconomicallyweakersectionandroadnetwork.The processenablesthelocalauthoritytodeveloplandwithoutfullyacquiringitandgivesitapositivecontrolover thedesignandthetimingoftheurbangrowth.ToachievetheobjectivesoftheDevelopmentPlan.Town planningschemesarepreparedgivingmicrolevelplanningforsmallerareasofabout100hectares.Theseareas arealreadyunderthepressureoftheurbandevelopment.T.P.Schemesarejointventurebetweenthelocal authoritiesandtheowneroftheplotswhovoluntarilyagreetopooltheirland,redistributethatlandamongthem andsharethedevelopmentcosts.
Remotesensingisdefinedasthescienceandtechnologybywhichcharacteristics ofobjectsofinterestcanbeidentifiedwithoutdirectcontactwithit(GATE-2006) Thereflectedorradiatedelectromagnetic(EM)wavesarereceivedbysensors aboardplatform.ThecharacteristicsofreflectedorradiatedEMwavesdependon thetypeorconditionoftheobjects.
Inactiveremotesensing, activeSensorsareused whichprovidetheirown energysourcefor illumination (e.g., SyntheticApertureRadar (SAR),LaserScanner (LIDAR).Anactivesensor emitsradiationwhichis directedtowardthe targettobeinvestigated.Theradiationreflectedfrom thattargetisdetectedandmeasuredbythesensor.
AdvantagesofActiveRemoteSensing
Theabilitytoobtainmeasurementsanytime, regardlessofthetimeofday,seasonor(weather). Examinewavelengthsthatarenotsufficiently providedbythesun(e.g.,microwaves), Bettercontrolthewaythatatargetisilluminated.
DisadvantagesofActiveRemoteSensing
Activesystemsrequirethegenerationofafairly largeamountofenergytoadequatelyilluminate targets.
InPassiveremote sensing,passive sensorsareused whichmeasure energythatis naturallyavailable (e.g.,Optical sensors).Thesun providesavery convenientsource ofenergyfor passiveremotesensing.Thesun'senergyisreflected forvisiblewavelengths,orabsorbedandthenreemittedforthermalIRwavelengths.
AdvantagesofPassiveRemoteSensing
Passivesystemsrequirelessamountofenergyas theymainlydependuponothersources(e.g.,sun) forenergy.
DisadvantagesofPassiveRemoteSensing
Forallreflectedenergy,thiscanonlytakeplace duringthetimewhenthesunisilluminatingthe Earth.
Energythatisnaturallyemitted(suchasthermal infrared)canbedetecteddayornight,aslongas theamountofenergyislargeenoughtobe recorded.
A.EnergySourceor Illumination
B.Radiationand theAtmosphere
C.Interactionwith theTarget
D.Recordingof Energybythe Sensor
E.Transmission, Reception& Processing
F.Interpretation andAnalysis
Thefirstrequirementforremotesensingistohaveanenergysourcewhichilluminatesor provideselectromagneticenergytothetargetofinterest.
Astheenergytravelsfromitssourcetothetarget,itwillcomeincontactwithand interactwiththeatmosphereitpassesthrough.Thisinteractionmaytakeplaceasecond timeastheenergytravelsfromthetargettothesensor.
Oncetheenergymakesitswaytothetargetthroughtheatmosphere,itinteractswith thetargetdependingonthepropertiesofboththetargetandtheradiation.
Aftertheenergyhasbeenscatteredby,oremittedfromthetarget,werequireasensor (remote-notincontactwiththetarget)tocollectandrecordtheelectromagnetic radiation.
Theenergyrecordedbythesensorhastobetransmitted,ofteninelectronicform,toa receivingandprocessingstationwherethedataareprocessedintoanimage(hardcopy and/ordigital).
Theprocessedimageisinterpreted,visuallyand/ordigitallyorelectronically,toextract informationaboutthetargetwhichwasilluminated.
Thefinalelementoftheremotesensingprocessisachievedwhenweapplythe informationthatwehavebeenabletoextractfromtheimageryaboutthetarget,in ordertobetterunderstandit,revealsomenewinformation,orassistinsolvingaparticular problem.
Mostremotesensingimagesarecomposedofamatrixofpictureelements,orpixels, whicharethesmallestunitsofanimage.Pixelsarenormallysquareandrepresenta certainareaonanimage.
Itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenpixelsizeandspatialresolution.Ifasensorhasa spatialresolutionof20mandanimagefromthatsensorisdisplayedatfullresolution, eachpixelrepresentsanareaof20mx20montheground.Inthiscasethepixelsize andresolutionarethesame.However,itispossibletodisplayanimagewithapixelsize differentthantheresolution.Manypostersofsatelliteimageshavetheirpixels averagedtorepresentlargerareas,althoughtheoriginalspatialresolutionofthe sensorremainsthesame.
Commercialsatellitesprovideimagerywithresolutionsvaryingfromafewmetersto severalkilometers.
Generallyspeaking,thefinertheresolution,thelesstotalgroundareacanbeseen.
Aphotographcouldalsoberepresentedanddisplayedinadigitalformatby subdividingtheimageintosmallequal-sizedandshapedareas,calledpicture elementsorpixels,andrepresentingthebrightnessofeachareawithanumericvalue ordigitalnumber.
Itisdefinedasaninteractivecomputer-basedsystemthathelpsdecisionmakerstoutilizedataandmodelsto solvesemistructuredorunstructuredproblems(Gorry&ScottMorton,1971).Thesystemcaptures,stores, processes,displays,organizes,prioritizesandvisualizesthedecisionswithspatialandtemporaldimensions.Ituses computerizedtoolstoanalyzelargeamountsofdataandcomplexrelationsformakingrationaldecisions.
ThefocusofDSSintermsofspatialdataisprovidingflexibleandadaptabletoolsforpolicyanalysisandquick responseratherthanprovidingmodelstoanswerstructuredproblems.
GISiswidelyusedinlocalandregionalplanningformanaging,integrating,andvisualizingspatialdatasets.GIS providesallthebiophysicalinformationfortheDSS.Theinformationincludesclimate,soilsandtopographicdata andinformationonthefarminfrastructure.However,beyondbasiclevelsofdecisionsupport,GISremainslargely externalartifactstothedecision-makingprocess.ItresultsthatmostGISsoftwarearemoresuitableforproviding limitedoutputsthanasatoolfordecisionsupport.
AremotesensingandGISbaseddecisionsupportsystemisefficienttollforobtaininginformationaboutland coverandlandusedata.Landcoverreferstothephysicalcharacteristicsofearth'ssurface,capturedinthe distributionofvegetation,water,soilandotherphysicalfeaturesoftheland,includingthosecreatedsolelyby humanactivitiessuchassettlements,etc.Whereas,landusereferstothewaylandhasbeenusedbyhumans andtheirhabitat,usuallywithaccentonthefunctionalroleoflandforeconomicactivities.LandcoverandLand useanalysisisdonetounderstandthedynamicsoflandusechangesandthecausesforthechanges.These changesmayleadtocriticalecologicalandenvironmentalimpacts.
Thedecisionsupportsystemusedforobtainingdataandtotakefurtherdecisionsaboutlanduseandlandcover changesiscalledasGRDSS(Geographicresourcesdecisionsupportsystem).OneoftheGISplatformsusedfor GRDSSisGRASS(GeographicResourcesAnalysisSupportSystem)whichisanopen-sourceplatform&usedin sustainableresourcesmanagementbyanalyzingthelikelyimpactsassociatedwiththedecisionrelatedtoland usechanges.Ithasthecapabilitiesofvectoranalysis,imageprocessing,datamanagement,statisticalanalysis andspatialmodellingalongwithgraphicsproductionwhichhelpsinvisualizingthedata.Landuseandother naturalresourcemanagementincludingenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA)canbevisualizedbyGRASSGIS.
Itisamapthatshowstheboundariesandownershipoflandparcels.Somecadastralmapsshowadditional details,suchassurveydistrictnames,uniqueidentifyingnumbersforparcels,certificateoftitlenumbers, positionsofexistingstructures,sectionorlotnumbersandtheirrespectiveareas,adjoiningandadjacentstreet names,selectedboundarydimensionsandreferencestopriormaps(GATE-2002).
Aerialphotographyisoneofthemostcommon,versatileandeconomicalformsofremotesensing.Itwasthe firstmethodofremotesensing viewoflargeareaswhichenablestoseesurfacefeaturesintheirspatialcontext.
Thescaleofaerialphotographexpressesthemathematicalrelationshipbetweenthedistancemeasuredon thephotoandthecorrespondingdistancemeasuredontheground.Inotherwords,itstatesthatoneunitof distanceonaphotographrepresentsaspecificnumberofunitsofactualgrounddistance.Thescalesmaybe expressedasunitequivalents(1mm=25m),representativefractions(1/25,000)orratios(1:25,000).E.g.,Ifthe scaleofthephotographis1:65,000,then1inchonthephotowouldrepresent65,000inchesonground.The largerthesecondnumberinthescale,smallerthescaleofthemap.Thus,largescalephotographwillprovide detailedandhigh-resolutionviewofasmallareawhereassmallscalephotographwillnot.
E.g.,1.Inasitemap,arectangularplotmeasures150mmx40mm,andthewidthofthefrontroadinthemap measures16mm.Actualwidthoftheroadis4m.IfthepermissibleFARis1.2,themaximumbuilt-upareafor theresidentialbuildingwillbe_____m2 (GATE-2019)
Explanation:
Itisgiventhat,dimensionsofplotonmapis150mmx40mm.Also,widthoffrontroadinthemap=16mm.
Actualwidthoftheroadis4monground.
Itmeansthat,16mmonmapisequalto4m(4000mm)onground.
Thus,1mmonmapisequalto250mmonground.Itmeansthatscaleofthemapis1:250.
Thus,actualdimensionofplotonground=(150x250)mmx(40x250)mm
=37,500mmx10,000mm
=37.5mx10m.(As,1meter=1000mm)
Thus,actualplotarea=375m2
Itisgiventhat,permissibleFAR=1.2.Thus,maximumbuilt-uparea=FARxplotarea=1.2x375=450m2
E.g.,2.Theactualroofareaofabuildingis3,60,000sq.m,whichonasiteplanmeasures25sq.cm.Thescaleof thesiteplanis1:_________(GATE-2015)
Explanation:Assume,thebuildingisofperfectsquaresize.
Itmeasures25sq.cm.ofmap.
Thus.Sideofthesquareonmap=5cm=0.05m
Thus,scaleofthesiteplanis0.05:600=1:12000
Itisthescienceandtechnologyofobtainingspatialmeasurementsandothergeometricallyderivedproducts withtheuseofphotographs.Theanalysisproceduresrangefromobtainingdistances,area,elevationsusing hardcopyphotographicproducts,equipmentandsimplegeometricconceptstogeneratedigitalelevation models(DEMs)byusingdigitalimagesandanalyticaltechniques.Earlier,itwasmainlyusedinpreparationof topographicmaps.Now-a-days,photogrammetricoperationsareextensivelyusedtoproducearangeofGIS dataproductssuchasthematicdatain2Dand3D,rasterimagesandDEMs,etc. -
representedas:S=d/D
TheScaleofaphotographisdeterminedbythefocallengthofthecameraandtheverticalheightofthelens abovetheground.Thefocallength(f)ofthecameraisthedistancemeasuredfromthecenterofthecamera lenstothefilm.Theverticalheightofthelensabovetheground(H-h)istheheightofthelensabovesealevel (H),minustheheightofthegroundabovesealevel(h).Therelationisexpressedbytheformula: S=f/(H-h)
E.g.,1.Anaircraftflyingatanaltitudeof5000mabovemeansealeveltakesaerialphotographsofaflatterrain havinganaverageelevationof1000mabovemeansealevel.Thescaleofphotographsis1:20000Whatisthe focallengthofthecamera(incm)?(GATE-2012)
Explanation:
Scale(S)= Focallength(f)
{HeightofAircraft(H)-Heightofplaceabovemeansealevel(h)}
Here,S=1/20000,H=5000m,h=1000m.Thus,f=(H-h)/S
f=(5000-1000)/20000=0.2m=20cm
Thus,focallengthofthecamerais20cm.
