Helvetica by sydneyelle

H E LV E T I C A

Specific info including characteristics and connections History Designer Letters (Lowercase, Capitals, Numbers and Symbols) Anatomy Typeface family Texts

Size Line Length Leading

Punctuation Back Cover

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Helvetica San Serif Grotesque 1957 Max Miedinger Haas Switzerland

Characteristics C c S s e g Flat Terminals C O Q 0 Oval Counterforms G Has spur Q Straight angled tail R Curved, upright leg a Double-storeyed, curved at foot f r t Vertical terminals i j Square dots t Flat top-stroke y Flat, hooked tail

S P E C I F I C I N F O R M AT I O N

THE HISTORY

The first version of Helvetica was created in 1957 by Max Miedinger, a Swiss typeface designer. His goal was to design a new sans-serif typeface that could compete in the Swiss market with the goal to create a neutral typeface that should give no additional meaning. Miedinger wanted a font that was clear to the eye and could be used in a variety of ways. It was originally called Neue Hass Grotesk. In 1960, the typeface’s name was changed to Helvetica, which means “Swiss” in Latin. This was seen as more marketable internationally.

THE DESIGNER

MAX MI EDINGE R

When Max Miedinger was 16, he was urged by his father to begin his career in visual design as an apprentice typesetter at a book printing office for Jacques Bollman. From 1930 to 1936, he was trained as a typographer and then attended night classes at the School of Arts and Crafts in Zurich. Several years later, Miedinger joined the Globus department store’s advertising studio as a typographer and improved his skills through the work. After working there for 10 years, he became a customer counselor and typeface sales representative for the Haas’sche Schriftgießereiin Münchenstein.

In 1954 he created his first typeface design: Pro Arte, a condensed slab serif. At 1956, he decided to go for freelance graphic artist and advertising consultant, like his brother, and gain a certain amount of success over time. Being prompted by Edouard Hoffman, who believed in Miedinger’s talent, Miedinger was asked to design a new sans serif typeface for their advertisement to represent the company–Haas Type Foundry. During that time, Miedinger made his mark on the design history by creating the most used typeface of the 20th century, the Neue Haas Grotesk, which known as Helvetica.

After the development of Helvetica, Miedinger continued his freelance career and even though he was respected for his aesthetic work, he had not gained much attention for himself. Miedinger was never under spotlight or worldwide acclaimed for Helvetica like the typeface itself.

THE LETTERS

a abcde

ABCDEFGHIJ P Q R S

fghijklmnopqrstuv ! ?@ # $ % & ; : “ ” ’, . + = -

9 0

KLMNO T U V W X Y Z

Akjago Apex

Dot

Terminal

Stem

The curved stroke aiming downward from a stem. The curve at the beginning of a leg of a character, such as in an “m.”

APERTURE

A tapered or curved end on letters such as the bottom of C or e or the top of a double story a.

TAIL CROSS STROKE

BOWL

An upward vertical stroke found an the part of lowercase letters that extends above the typeface’s x-height.

The aperture is the partially enclosed, somewhat in a terminal. Usually found on a lowercase f.

The horizontal stroke across the stem of a lowercase t or f in a cross stroke.

CROTCH

The open space in a fully or partly closed area within a letter.

ASCENDER

The enclosed or partially enclosed counter below the baseline of a doublestory g.

The curved part of the character that encloses the circular or curved parts (counter) of some letters such as d, b, c, D, and B is the bowl.

FINIAL

A small stroke extending from the upper-right side of the bowl of lowercase g; also appears in the angeled or curved lowercase r.

Counter

Loop

SHOULDER

A small distinguishing mark, such as a diacritic on a lower case i or j. Also known as a Tittle.

BALL TERMINAL

LEG

The lower down sloping stroke of the K and k is called a leg. The same stroke on R.

EAR

STEM

Then stem is the main, usually vertical stroke of a letterform.

LOOP

CROSSBAR

The (usually) horizontal stroke across the middle of uppercase A and H is a bar. The horizontal or sloping stroke enclosing the bottom of the eye of an e is also a bar.

Leg

Ball terminal is a combination of a dot (tall dot) or circular stroke and the curved bit (hook) at the end of some tails and the end of some arms (a, c, f).

COUNTER

APEX

The point at the top of a character such as the uppercase A where the left and right strokes meet.

DOT

Crossbar

Ear

The litter extra stroke found at the end of main vertical and horizontal strokes of some letterforms.

The portion of some lowercase letterssuch as g and y that extends or descends below the baseline.

denfy Ascender

Bowl

Shoulder

Cross Stroke

MEAN LINE

The height of a capital letter measured from the baseline. The mean line, also (and more simply) known as midline, is the line that determines where non-ascending lowercase letters terminate in a typeface. The distance between the baseline and the mean line is called the x-height. An acute, inside angle where two strokes meet.

Cap-height x-height Baseline Descender Line

The baseline is the imaginary line upon which a line of text. In most typefaces, the descenders on characters such as g or p extend down below the baseline which curved letters such as c or o extend ever-so-slightly below the baseline. The baseline is the point from which other elements of type are measured including x-height and leading.

T H E A N AT O M Y

The descending, often decorative stroke on the letter Q or that the descending, often curved diagonal stroke on K or R is the tail. The descender on g, j, p, q, and y are also called tails.

DESCENDER

EYE LINK

A stroke that connects the top and the bottom bowls of lowercase double-story g’s.

CAP HEIGHT

Much like a counter, the eye refers specifically to the enclosed space in a lowercase “e”.

Tail

BASELINE

Aperture

Finial

Crotch

Ascender

TYPEFACE A typeface is a design created by a typographer or type designer. It incorporates the specific letter-forms that include the variations of stroke weight, the forms of serifs, the counter shapes, the finial styles, the lengths of ascenders and descenders, and any other characteristics that differ from one type design to another.

T Y P E F A C E F A M I LY FONT A font is the digital representation of a typeface. It is a collection of all the characters of a typeface in one size (12pt/1in) and one style (bold/italic). For example, Arial in 12pt size is a font, Arial in 18pt size is a font, and Arial bold in 24pt is also a font. Adobe’s type glossa- ry lists a font as “one weight, width, and style of a typeface.”

TYPEFACE FAMILY

The complete assembly of all sizes and styles of one typeface forms a type family. Web designers sometimes refer to it as a “font family” because that is the name of the CSS declaration. Usually the type family has the same name as the typeface. A type family may contain many variations, but all variations are based on common design characteristics. For example, the Caslon family consists of styles such as Roman (Regular), Italic, Semib- old, Semibold Italic, Bold, and Bold Italic. Each of the style and weight combinations is a typeface, and together they form a type family.

Light | 12pt | Tracking 80 | Optical Kerning

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!?@#$%&*;:|”’,.+=-({[]}) Light Italics | 12pt | Tracking 80 | Optical Kerning

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!?@#$%&*;:|”’,.+=-({[]}) Regular | 12pt | Tracking 80 | Optical Kerning

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!?@#$%&*;:|”’,.+=-({[]})

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!?@#$%&*;:|”’,.+=-({[]}) Bold | 12pt | Tracking 80 | Optical Kerning

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!?@#$%&*;:|”’,.+=-({[]}) Bold Italics | 12pt | Tracking 80 | Optical Kerning

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!?@#$%&*;:|”’,.+=-({[]})

T Y P E F A C E F A M I LY

Regular Italics | 12pt | Tracking 80 | Optical Kerning

TEXTS_SIZE

The basic character in a type design is determined by the uniform design characteristics of all letters in the alphabet. However, this alone does not determine the standard of the type face and the quality of composition set with it.

The appearance is something complex which forms itself out of many details, like form, proportion, ductus, rhythm etc. If every thing harmonizes, the total result will be more than the sum of its components. The only reliable basis for the design in a type is a positive feeling for form and style.

Headline Uppercase Bold 32/32 pt tracking 20 Kerning: Optical Byline Light Italics 7 pt Subhead Sentence Case Light 13/15.6 pt Tracking 0 Kerning: Optical

Body Title Sentence Case Bold Italics 28/33.6 pt Tracking 0 Kerning: Optical Main body Sentence Case Regular 8/10 pt Tracking 0 Kerning: Optical Pull Quote Sentence Case Light Italics 13/15.6 pt Tracking 0 Kerning: Optical

PEOPLE READ IN 3 WAYS: CASUALLY, SCANNING, AND IN AN ENGAGING MANNER. www.smashingmagazine.com

Casual reading is skimming over a text.Scanning with purpose is jumping down or across a text, looking for a specific piece of information. Engaged reading is sustained reading.

“

I don’t think that type should be expressive at all. I can write the word ‘dog’ with any typeface and it doesn’t have to look like a dog.

”

– Massimo Vignelli

Line height affects horizontal motion. Because readers scan content both horizontally and vertically, lines of text should feel like horizontal lines, not like woven fabric. A line height that is too tight could undermine horizontal eye movement and encourage scanning down the left edge. It could also force people to reread lines of text. On the other hand, a line height that is too loose could make lines of text visually “float away” from each other. The lines will no longer feel like a cohesive unit, and vertical scanning becomes more difficult.

TEXTS_LINE LENGTH

Hundreds of years of experience from print typography suggest that fairly short lines (3-4 inches) are both faster to read and preferred by users. Unfortunately the studies of onscreen reading yield mixed answers; apparently, on screen, longer lines (about twice the ideal length for print) help users read faster, but users still prefer the short lines (perhaps because their consistent feel with print).

These same studies show that onscreen reading is slower than print reading, however, and recent studies have shown less and less effect of line length on speed, possibly because display and font technology is improving rapidly. Translating the 3-4 inch rule into characters or m-widths for typical 10-point to 12-point type gives 60-75 characters or 30-45 em widths.

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process. The general idea is that we see words as a complete patterns rather than the sum of letter parts. Some claim that the information used to recognize a word is the pattern of ascending, descending, and neutral characters. Another formulation is to use the envelope created by the outline of the word. The word patterns are recognizable to us as an image because we have seen each of the patterns many times before. Regular 7 / 9 pt Tracking 0 Kerning: Optical

James Cattell (1886) was the first psychologist to propose this as a model of word recognition. Cattell is recognized as an influential founder of the field of psycholinguistics, which includes the scientific study of reading. Cattellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s study was sloppy by modern standards, but the same effect was replicated in 1969 by Reicher. He presented strings of letters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; half the time real words, half the time not â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for brief periods. The subjects were asked if one of two letters were contained in the string, for example D or K. Reicher found that subjects were more accurate at recognizing D when it was in the context of WORD than when in the context of ORWD. This supports the word shape model because the word allows the subject to quickly recognize the familiar shape. Once the shape has been recognized, then the subject can deduce the presence of the correct letter long after the stimulus presentation. The second key piece of experimental data to support the word shape model is that lowercase text is read faster than uppercase text. Woodworth (1938) was the first to report this finding in his influential textbook Experimental Psychology. This supports the word shape model because lowercase text enables unique patterns of ascending, descending, and neutral characters. When text is presented in all uppercase, all letters have the same text size and thus are more difficult and slower to read. The patterns of errors that are missed while proofreading text provide the third key piece of experimental evidence to support the word shape model. Subjects were asked to carefully read passages of text for comprehension and at the same time mark any misspelling they found in the passage. The passage had been carefully designed to have an equal number of two kinds of misspellings: misspellings that are consistent with word shape, and misspellings that are inconsistent with word shape. A misspelling that is consistent with word shape is one that contains the same patterns of ascenders, descenders, and neutral characters, while a misspelling that is inconsistent with word shape changes the pattern of ascenders, descenders, and neutral characters. If test is the correctly spelled word, tesf would be an example of a misspelling consistent with word shape and tesc would be an example of a misspelling inconsistent with word shape. The word shape model would predict that consistent word shapes would be caught less often than an inconsistent word shape because words are more confusable if they have the same shape. Haber & Schindler (1981) and Monk & Hulme (1983) found that misspellings consistent with word shape were twice as likely to be missed as misspellings inconsistent with word shape.

The fourth piece of evidence supporting the word shape model is that it is difficult to read text in alternating case. AlTeRnAtInG case is where the letters of a word change from uppercase to lowercase multiple times within a word. The word shape model predicts that this is difficult because it gives a pattern of ascending, descending, and neutral characters that is different than exists in a word in its natural all lowercase form. Alternating case has been shown to be more difficult than either lowercase or uppercase text in a variety of studies. Smith (1969) showed that it slowed the reading speed of a passage of text, Mason (1978) showed that the time to name a word was slowed, Pollatsek, Well, & Schin- dler (1975) showed that same-difference matching was hindered, and Meyer & Gutschera (1975) showed that category decision times were decreased. Much of the evidence for the parallel letter recognition model comes from the eye movement literature. A great deal has been learned about how we read with the advent of fast eye trackers and computers. We now have the ability to make changes to text in real time while people read, which has provided insights into reading processes that weren’t previ- ously possible. It has been known for over 100 years that when we read, our eyes don’t move smoothly across the page, but rather make discrete jumps from word to word. We fixate on a word for a period of time, roughly 200-250ms, then make a ballistic movement to another word. These movements are called saccades and usually take 20-35ms. Most saccades are forward movements from 7 to 9 letters, but 10-15% of all saccades are regressive or back- wards movements. Most readers are completely unaware of the frequency of regressive saccades while reading. The location of the fixation is not random. Fixations never occur between words, and usually occur just to the left of the middle of a word. Not all words are fixated; short words and particularly function words are frequently skipped. During a single fixation, there is a limit to the amount of information that can be recognized. The fovea, which is the clear center point of our vision, can only see three to four letters to the left and right of fixation at normal reading distances. Visual acuity decreases quickly in the parafovea, which extends out as far as 15 to 20 letters to the left and right of the fixation point. Eye movement studies that I will discuss shortly indicate that there are three zones of visual identification. Readers collect information from all three zones during the span of a fixation. Closest to the fixation point is where word recognition takes place. This zone is usually large enough to capture the word being fixated, and often includes smaller function words directly to the right of the fixated word. The next zone extends a few letters past the word recognition zone, and readers gather preliminary information about the next letters in this zone. The final zone extends out to 15 letters past the fixation point. Information gathered out this far is used to identify the length of upcoming words and to identify the best location for the next fixation point. Given that all the reading research psychologists I know support some version of the parallel letter recognition model of reading, how is it that all the typographers I know say that we read by matching whole word shapes? It appears to be a grand misunderstanding. The paper by Bouma that is most frequently cited does not support a word shape model of reading. Bouma (1973) presented words and unpronounceable letter strings to subjects away from the fixation point and measured their ability to name the first and last letters. He found that: A) Subjects are more successful at naming letters to the right of fixation than to the left of fixation. B) When distance to the right of the fixation point is controlled, subjects are better able to recognize the last letter of a word than the first letter of word. This data explains why it is that we tend to fixate just to the left of the middle of a word. Bouwhuis & Bouma (1979) extended the Bouma (1973) paper by not only finding the probability of recognizing the first and last letters of a word, but also the middle letters. They used this data to develop a model of word recognition based on the probability of recognizing each of the letters within a word. They conclude that ‘word shape ... might be satisfactorily described in terms of the letters in their positions.’ This model of word recognition clearly influenced the McClelland & Rumelhart neural network model discussed earlier which also used letters in their positions to probabilistically recognize words.

L Spacing between words and lines matters too. Words must have adequate space around them to allow the word shape to be easily recognized, but too much space interferes with the regular rhythm of reading. Similarly, adequate line spacing is necessary to make word shapes recognizable in a vertical dimension, but too much line spacing makes it harder for the eye to track back to the start of the next line.

Line spacing is also called leading (pro- nounced like “ledding”); technically speaking, the leading is the distance between base- lines of adjacent lines. Both font size and leading are important. Print designers say, for example, “12 point type on 14 points of leading” (or “12/14”) to indicate that the font size is 12 points (typically ascent + descent) with 2 points of space between the descent of one line and the ascent of the next.120% of the font size is a good rule of thumb for leading.

TEXTS_LEADING

Leading also strongly affects the overall value of the body text (which type designers somewhat confusingly call the “color” of the text; historically print is mainly blackand- white, of course, but it’s confusing when talking about modern printing and modern computer displays). Tight spacing looks much darker than loose spacing.

Light 6/7.5 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process.

Light 7/8.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to

Light 8/9.6 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necesLight 10/12 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Light 12/14.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily Light 21/25.2 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to int-

Light Italics 6/7.5 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process.

Light Italics 7/8.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to

Light Italics 8/9.6 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Light Italics 12/14.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily Light Italics 21/25.2 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to int-

Regular 6/7.5 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process.

Regular 7/8.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to Regular 8/9.6 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Regular 12/14.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily Regular 21/25.2 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that

Regular Italics 6/7.5 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process.

Regular Italics 7/8.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to Regular Italics 8/9.6 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Regular Italics 12/14.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily

Regular Italics 21/25.2 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that

Bold 6/7.5 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process.

Bold 7/8.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability Bold 8/9.6 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Bold 12/14.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not Bold 21/25.2 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that

Bold Italics 6/7.5 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability of a display of text. Note that legibility concerns how easy it is to recognize and distinguish individual letter shapes, and readability concerns the effective- ness of the whole reading process.

Bold Italics 7/8.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the shape of an entire word, not necessarily its individual letters. Readability can be measured by several metrics, including speed, comprehension, error rate, and subjective preference. Readability is essentially the usability Bold 8/9.6 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not move steadily along a line of text; it proceeds in fits and starts, called fixations (stopping and focusing on one place to recognize a word or several words at a time) and saccades (an abrupt jump to the next fixation point). At the end of a line, the eye must saccade back to the beginning of the next line. A single fixation can consume whole words or multiple words, so fluent readers recognize the Bold Italics 10/12 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Bold Italics 12/14.4 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that way to introspection. The eye does not

Bold Italics 21/25.2 pt | Tracking 0 | Kerning: Optical

Reading is not a smoothly linear process, even though it may feel that

P U N C T U AT I O N

- hyphen (minus) – en dash (option + minus) — em dash (option + shift + minus) En dash The en dash (–) is slightly wider than the hyphen (-) but narrower than the em dash (—). The typical computer keyboard lacks a dedicated key for the en dash, though most word processors provide a means for its insertion. Span or range of numbers The en dash is used to represent a span or range of numbers, dates, or time. There should be no space between the en dash and the adjacent material. Depending on the context, the en dash is read as “to” or “through.” The 2010–2011 season was our best yet. You will find this material in chapters 8–12. The professor holds office hours every Wednesday, 11:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m. If you introduce a span or range with words such as from or between, do not use the en dash. Correct: She served as secretary of state from 1996 to 1999. Incorrect: She served as secretary of state from 1996–1999.

Correct: The regime’s most oppressive treatment occurred between 1965 and 1970. Incorrect: The regime’s most oppressive treatment occurred between 1965–1970. Scores The en dash is used to report scores or results of contests. The president’s nominee was confirmed by the Senate, which voted 62–38 along party lines. UCLA beat USC 28–14 in the final game of the regular season. Conflict or connection The en dash can also be used between words to represent conflict, connection, or direction. The liberal–conservative debate. The Los Angeles–London flight. There is a north–south railway in the same area as the highway that runs east–west. Compound adjectives When a compound adjective is formed with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some writers replace the customary hyphen with an en dash. Hyphen: She is an award-winning novelist. En dash: She is a National Book Award–winning novelist.

Hyphen: They were a bunch of college-educated snobs. En dash: They were a bunch of prep school–educated snobs. Em dash The em dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the context, the em dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to slightly different effect. Notwithstanding its versatility, the em dash is best limited to two appearances per sentence. Otherwise, confusion rather than clarity is likely to result. Do not mistake the em dash (—) for the slightly narrower en dash (–) or the even narrower hyphen (-). Those marks serve different purposes and are further explained in other sections. Em dashes in place of commas A pair of em dashes can be used in place of commas to enhance readability. Note, however, that dashes are always more emphatic than commas. And yet, when the car was finally delivered—nearly three months after it was ordered—she decided she no longer wanted it, leaving the dealer with an oddly equipped car that would be difficult to sell. Em dashes in place of parentheses A pair of em dashes can replace a pair of parentheses. Dashes are considered less formal than

Upon discovering the errors (all 124 of them), the publisher immediately recalled the books. Upon discovering the errors—all 124 of them—the publisher immediately recalled the books. When used in place of parentheses at the end of a sentence, only a single dash is used. After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction (or, rather, lack of direction). After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction—or, rather, lack of direction. The em dash in place of a colon The em dash can be used in place of a colon when you want to emphasize the conclusion of your sentence. The dash is less formal than the colon. After months of deliberation, the jurors reached a unanimous verdict— guilty. The white sand, the warm water, the sparkling sun—this is what brought them to Hawaii.

Multiple em dashes Two em dashes can be used to indicate missing portions of a word, whether unknown or intentionally omitted. Mr. J—— testified that the defendant yelled, “Die, a——,” before pulling the trigger. When an entire word is missing, either two or three em dashes can be used. Whichever length you choose, use it consistently throughout your document. Surrounding punctuation should be placed as usual. Spaces with the em dash The em dash is typically used without spaces on either side, and that is the style used in this guide. Most newspapers, however, set the em dash off with a single space on each side. Most newspapers — and all that follow AP style — insert a space before and after the em dash. Producing the em dash Many modern word processors will automatically insert an em dash when you type a pair of hyphens. Otherwise, look for an “insert symbol” command. (option + shift + minus) http://www.thepunctuationguide.com/ em-dash.html

Max Miedinger Sydney Elle Gray Typography I Fall 2019 The Corcoran School of Art and Design

COLOPHON

parentheses; they are also more intrusive. If you want to draw attention to the parenthetical content, use dashes. If you want to include the parenthetical content more subtly, use parentheses.Note that when dashes are used in place of parentheses, surrounding punctuation should be omitted. Compare the following examples.