Synapse Science Magazine#4

SYNAPSE THE SCIENCE MAGAZINE WRITTEN BY STUDENTS FOR STUDENTS

ISSUE 4 - March 2013- FREE

The role of Melanosomes in Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers Cloning to Save Endangered Species The ‘Twelth Man’ Effect The Merry Goji Berry

EDITORIAL

The Synapse Team Tom Stubbs

Editor In Chief

Alicja Jedrzejewska

Senior Editor and Vice President

Felicity Russell

Senior Editor and Secretary

Oliver Ford

Senior Editor and Treasurer

CONTENTS A Message from the Editor In Chief

Hello! Welcome to the fourth issue of Synapse Science Magazine. In this issue our writers cover many exciting topics including colours of dinosaurs, cloning endangered species and the science behind mind reading. Be sure to check out our blog and radio show on Burst, both are packed with lots of awesome science! If you have any comments or wish to join our magazine please contact synapse.scimag@gmail.com.

On the cover

Articles

14. The role of Melanosomes in

4. Catalytic Clothing 5. Will Carbon Change the

Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers 8. Cloning to Save Endangered Species 12. The ‘Twelth Man’ Effect 20. The Merry Goji Berry

World?

10. Learning and Memory 12. The ‘Twelth Man’ Effect 16. Science Behind Mind Reading 17. Infectious Mononucleosis 18. US Meningitis Outbreak 22. The Bramble: A Climate Indicator?

23. Influential People

Features

Daniel Ward

Senior Editor and Graphic Designer

Molly Hawes

8. Cloning to Save

Managing Editor

Gemma Hallam Senior Editor and Events Manager

Louisa Cockbill Senior Editor and Publicity Officer

Mary Melville Senior Editor and Fundraising Officer

Felix Kennedy Katherine MacInnes Saraansh Dave Alex Pavlides Senior Editors

2 | SYNAPSE

Article Editors

Hannah Bruce Macdonald Juliette Curtis Hayward Rachel Greenwood Frances Cartwright Georgina Winney Jacob Hutchings Alfred Omachar Erik Müürsepp Shakir Misbah Ryan Hamnett Natalie Parker Matthew Cole Naomi Farren Ione Bingley Cher Bachar Tom Ridler Jo Sadler

Profiles

Endangered Species 6. The Parasitic Jewel Wasp 20. The Merry Goji Berry

Opinions

24. Let’s Get to the Roots of the Problem

14.The role of Melanosomes Marvels 26. Glowing Lakes and the in Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers

Amazonian water lily

Join us online!

www.synapsebristol.co.uk @synapsebristol

SYNAPSE | 3

EDITORIAL

The Synapse Team Tom Stubbs

Editor In Chief

Alicja Jedrzejewska

Senior Editor and Vice President

Felicity Russell

Senior Editor and Secretary

Oliver Ford

Senior Editor and Treasurer

CONTENTS A Message from the Editor In Chief

Hello! Welcome to the fourth issue of Synapse Science Magazine. In this issue our writers cover many exciting topics including colours of dinosaurs, cloning endangered species and the science behind mind reading. Be sure to check out our blog and radio show on Burst, both are packed with lots of awesome science! If you have any comments or wish to join our magazine please contact synapse.scimag@gmail.com.

On the cover

Articles

14. The role of Melanosomes in

4. Catalytic Clothing 5. Will Carbon Change the

Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers 8. Cloning to Save Endangered Species 12. The ‘Twelth Man’ Effect 20. The Merry Goji Berry

World?

10. Learning and Memory 12. The ‘Twelth Man’ Effect 16. Science Behind Mind Reading 17. Infectious Mononucleosis 18. US Meningitis Outbreak 22. The Bramble: A Climate Indicator?

23. Influential People

Features

Daniel Ward

Senior Editor and Graphic Designer

Molly Hawes

8. Cloning to Save

Managing Editor

Gemma Hallam Senior Editor and Events Manager

Louisa Cockbill Senior Editor and Publicity Officer

Mary Melville Senior Editor and Fundraising Officer

Felix Kennedy Katherine MacInnes Saraansh Dave Alex Pavlides Senior Editors

2 | SYNAPSE

Article Editors

Hannah Bruce Macdonald Juliette Curtis Hayward Rachel Greenwood Frances Cartwright Georgina Winney Jacob Hutchings Alfred Omachar Erik Müürsepp Shakir Misbah Ryan Hamnett Natalie Parker Matthew Cole Naomi Farren Ione Bingley Cher Bachar Tom Ridler Jo Sadler

Profiles

Endangered Species 6. The Parasitic Jewel Wasp 20. The Merry Goji Berry

Opinions

24. Let’s Get to the Roots of the Problem

14.The role of Melanosomes Marvels 26. Glowing Lakes and the in Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers

Amazonian water lily

Join us online!

www.synapsebristol.co.uk @synapsebristol

SYNAPSE | 3

ARTICLES

C C

atalytic lothing

Emilie Bergström

C

hemistry and fashion may seem, at first glance, to have little in common, but this is all about to change thanks to an exciting collaboration between polymer chemist Professor Tony Ryan OBE, from the University of Sheffield, and fashion designer Professor Helen Storey MBE, from the London College of Fashion. The pair have embarked on a revolutionary project, Catalytic Clothing, which explores how clothing and textiles can act as a catalytic surface to break down air-borne pollutants into harmless chemicals.

The UK frequently falls short of meeting EU air pollution emission targets, and it is estimated that air pollution is responsible for 50,000 deaths in the UK each year. Nitrogen oxides, NOx, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), both produced in massive quantities from motor vehicles and industry, are two of the most prominent classes of pollutants. NOx are known to cause and worsen respiratory diseases, such as asthma and emphysema, and some VOCs are known carcinogens.

It has been known for some

4 | SYNAPSE

time that the harmful NOx and VOCs can be removed from the atmosphere via a catalytic conversion. Nanosized particles of titanium dioxide, TiO2 or nanotitania, are powerful photocatalysts that use sunlight and oxygen to speed up the oxidation of NOx into water soluble nitric acid that can be washed away with the rain, while also converting VOCs into fatty acids and soaps.

Up until recently, nanotitania catalysts have only been placed on hard surfaces such as the walls of buildings. Helen Storey and Tony Ryan wanted to explore new applications of this technology. They contacted Cristal Global, the second largest supplier of nano-titania, to suggest collaborating on an initiative involving textiles. It was discovered that the efficacy of the catalyst when applied to textiles, particularly denim, was far higher than anticipated.

They have now partnered with the ecological cleaning brand, Ecover, to create a fabric softener able to deliver the photocatalyst to the surface of any piece of clothing during washing. The active agent is packaged within a

shell that is attracted towards, and binds to, the surface of the clothing during the wash. Daily wear and washing create no problem for the catalyst particles, and they do not fall off until the cotton fibres of the jeans eventually break.

The key to catalysis, and increasing the rate of removal of NOx, is a high surface area. Nanoparticles have an extremely high ratio of surface area to volume and a pair of jeans has a surface area greater than 195 square feet. It has been estimated that if one person wears Catalytic Clothing for one day, they could remove the same amount of NOx as is produced by the average family in one day.

A common misconception is that Catalytic Clothing will be a ‘dirt magnet’, putting people at greater risk of exposure to pollutants. This is not the case – the technology won’t actively attract any pollutants, but will break down anything that comes within very close proximity of the catalyst’s surface.

This revolutionary product could appear on our supermarket shelves in 2013, so get washing your jeans and help save the planet!

T

Will carbon change the world?

he last few years have seen a surge in research into new forms of carbon and their potential applications.

This was kick-started in 2010, when Andre Geim was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the isolation of graphene.

Graphene is a two dimensional sheet of carbon, just one atom thick. Everyday graphite (such as pencil “lead”) is made of multiple layers of graphene, with just one millimetre of graphite containing over three million layers of graphene. A carbon nanotube can be thought of as a sheet of carbon atoms (a graphene sheet) rolled into a cylindrical tube. Although long nanotubes are notoriously difficult to produce, the longest ever created is an impressive 18.5cm.

The excitement over carbon nanotubes has extended to many different fields, with the number of publications on carbon nanotubes totalling over 80,000 (over 12,000 of which were published in 2012 alone!).

A promising potential use

of carbon is as a replacement for silicon as a semiconductor in transistors for electronic devices.

We are approaching the limits of our ability to scale down silicon based electronics, which means that computer chips might soon become as small as we can get them. New forms of carbon have extremely promising electrical properties and could be used to make computer chips smaller and faster than ever before.

Carbon nanotechnology could also drastically improve medical diagnostic techniques. By adding biological receptor molecules to the carbon nanotube’s outer wall and then using the modified nanotubes as semiconductors in transistors, much more sensitive devices could be made.

These would have a multitude of uses, such as detecting cancer in its earliest stages. Furthermore, carbon nanotubes have even been trialled as treatment for cancer in mice. By injection of the nanotubes into the affected area and subsequent laser irradiation,

tumours in up to 80% of the mice completely disappeared.

Carbon nanotubes may even be useful in solving the world’s energy crisis. Hydrogen is fast becoming one of the most viable alternative energy sources, yet the use of large-scale production of hydrogen fuel cells is currently being held back by the high cost of the platinum catalyst. Current research, however, suggests that the catalysts used in fuel cells could eventually be replaced by more affordable carbon nanotubes.

Unsurprisingly, there are drawbacks to the use of carbon nanotubes. They are difficult to purify and are thought to be toxic when inhaled, which prevents their immediate incorporation into electronics and medicine.

Whether carbon nanotubes will live up to their expectations remains to be seen, but if even a fraction of the technologies currently being trialled prove successful then we will all benefit.

Emma Kastrisianaki-Guyton

SYNAPSE | 5

ARTICLES

C C

atalytic lothing

Emilie Bergström

C

hemistry and fashion may seem, at first glance, to have little in common, but this is all about to change thanks to an exciting collaboration between polymer chemist Professor Tony Ryan OBE, from the University of Sheffield, and fashion designer Professor Helen Storey MBE, from the London College of Fashion. The pair have embarked on a revolutionary project, Catalytic Clothing, which explores how clothing and textiles can act as a catalytic surface to break down air-borne pollutants into harmless chemicals.

The UK frequently falls short of meeting EU air pollution emission targets, and it is estimated that air pollution is responsible for 50,000 deaths in the UK each year. Nitrogen oxides, NOx, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), both produced in massive quantities from motor vehicles and industry, are two of the most prominent classes of pollutants. NOx are known to cause and worsen respiratory diseases, such as asthma and emphysema, and some VOCs are known carcinogens.

It has been known for some

4 | SYNAPSE

time that the harmful NOx and VOCs can be removed from the atmosphere via a catalytic conversion. Nanosized particles of titanium dioxide, TiO2 or nanotitania, are powerful photocatalysts that use sunlight and oxygen to speed up the oxidation of NOx into water soluble nitric acid that can be washed away with the rain, while also converting VOCs into fatty acids and soaps.

Up until recently, nanotitania catalysts have only been placed on hard surfaces such as the walls of buildings. Helen Storey and Tony Ryan wanted to explore new applications of this technology. They contacted Cristal Global, the second largest supplier of nano-titania, to suggest collaborating on an initiative involving textiles. It was discovered that the efficacy of the catalyst when applied to textiles, particularly denim, was far higher than anticipated.

They have now partnered with the ecological cleaning brand, Ecover, to create a fabric softener able to deliver the photocatalyst to the surface of any piece of clothing during washing. The active agent is packaged within a

shell that is attracted towards, and binds to, the surface of the clothing during the wash. Daily wear and washing create no problem for the catalyst particles, and they do not fall off until the cotton fibres of the jeans eventually break.

The key to catalysis, and increasing the rate of removal of NOx, is a high surface area. Nanoparticles have an extremely high ratio of surface area to volume and a pair of jeans has a surface area greater than 195 square feet. It has been estimated that if one person wears Catalytic Clothing for one day, they could remove the same amount of NOx as is produced by the average family in one day.

A common misconception is that Catalytic Clothing will be a ‘dirt magnet’, putting people at greater risk of exposure to pollutants. This is not the case – the technology won’t actively attract any pollutants, but will break down anything that comes within very close proximity of the catalyst’s surface.

This revolutionary product could appear on our supermarket shelves in 2013, so get washing your jeans and help save the planet!

T

Will carbon change the world?

he last few years have seen a surge in research into new forms of carbon and their potential applications.

This was kick-started in 2010, when Andre Geim was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the isolation of graphene.

Graphene is a two dimensional sheet of carbon, just one atom thick. Everyday graphite (such as pencil “lead”) is made of multiple layers of graphene, with just one millimetre of graphite containing over three million layers of graphene. A carbon nanotube can be thought of as a sheet of carbon atoms (a graphene sheet) rolled into a cylindrical tube. Although long nanotubes are notoriously difficult to produce, the longest ever created is an impressive 18.5cm.

The excitement over carbon nanotubes has extended to many different fields, with the number of publications on carbon nanotubes totalling over 80,000 (over 12,000 of which were published in 2012 alone!).

A promising potential use

of carbon is as a replacement for silicon as a semiconductor in transistors for electronic devices.

We are approaching the limits of our ability to scale down silicon based electronics, which means that computer chips might soon become as small as we can get them. New forms of carbon have extremely promising electrical properties and could be used to make computer chips smaller and faster than ever before.

Carbon nanotechnology could also drastically improve medical diagnostic techniques. By adding biological receptor molecules to the carbon nanotube’s outer wall and then using the modified nanotubes as semiconductors in transistors, much more sensitive devices could be made.

These would have a multitude of uses, such as detecting cancer in its earliest stages. Furthermore, carbon nanotubes have even been trialled as treatment for cancer in mice. By injection of the nanotubes into the affected area and subsequent laser irradiation,

tumours in up to 80% of the mice completely disappeared.

Carbon nanotubes may even be useful in solving the world’s energy crisis. Hydrogen is fast becoming one of the most viable alternative energy sources, yet the use of large-scale production of hydrogen fuel cells is currently being held back by the high cost of the platinum catalyst. Current research, however, suggests that the catalysts used in fuel cells could eventually be replaced by more affordable carbon nanotubes.

Unsurprisingly, there are drawbacks to the use of carbon nanotubes. They are difficult to purify and are thought to be toxic when inhaled, which prevents their immediate incorporation into electronics and medicine.

Whether carbon nanotubes will live up to their expectations remains to be seen, but if even a fraction of the technologies currently being trialled prove successful then we will all benefit.

Emma Kastrisianaki-Guyton

SYNAPSE | 5

PROFILE

W

hen watching the iconic John Hurt laboratory scene in ‘70s sci-fi classic Alien (no spoilers!), it is comforting to know that such creatures exist only in the terrifying realms of science fiction. A cockroach watching the same scene, however, may not have the same reassurance if he has a resident jewel wasp in his neighbourhood.

Parasitism is an astonishingly common strategy in nature, insects and the order Hymenoptera to which the jewel wasp (Ampulex compressa) belongs. Famous examples of parasites include birds of the cuckoo family, who trick other host bird species into raising the young cuckoos, species of mistletoe, which derive much of their required water and nutrients from their host tree, and, of course, the vast variety of bacteria and viruses which infect virtually every living organism on the planet. In contrast to these examples, however, the jewel wasp has a reliance which has reliably disastrous consequences for its host.

The

Parasitic Jewel Wasp Tim Smith

The jewel wasp, in fact, is not technically a true parasite but a ‘parasitoid’, due to the fact that it eventually kills its host. But this fact alone does not tell the whole, fascinating story. When an adult female jewel wasp is ready to lay her egg, she finds an unsuspecting cockroach and administers two stings. The first is made in the general thorax area, causing temporary paralysis of the cockroach’s limbs and allowing the wasp to make a second, more precise, sting to the protocerebrum in the brain. This second shot of venom has been shown to target specific neurons releasing the neurotransmitter octopamine, effectively shutting down the systems required for movement. Although the cockroach is perfectly capable of moving, the venom strips the insect of its will to escape. Through manipulation of the cockroach’s antennae, the wasp then leads its victim back to a previously prepared burrow, which will become its final resting place. After finally laying its egg in the abdomen, the wasp abandons and seals the cockroach in its earthy tomb.

Once the larva has hatched, it systematically consumes the cockroach from the inside out, taking special care to eat the non-vital organs first, so as to keep its food source alive and fresh for as long as possible. The whole process from hatching to a fully developed adult wasp takes about a month, after which the individual digs itself out of the burrow to restart the whole process.

Of course, however gruesome this series of events seems to us, the life-cycle of the jewel wasp should not be considered cruel. To label it with such human qualities would be textbook anthropomorphism. Rather, it should be admired as one of the thousands of ingenious life-history strategies adopted by organisms to ensure their own evolutionary success.

6| SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 7

PROFILE

W

hen watching the iconic John Hurt laboratory scene in ‘70s sci-fi classic Alien (no spoilers!), it is comforting to know that such creatures exist only in the terrifying realms of science fiction. A cockroach watching the same scene, however, may not have the same reassurance if he has a resident jewel wasp in his neighbourhood.

Parasitism is an astonishingly common strategy in nature, insects and the order Hymenoptera to which the jewel wasp (Ampulex compressa) belongs. Famous examples of parasites include birds of the cuckoo family, who trick other host bird species into raising the young cuckoos, species of mistletoe, which derive much of their required water and nutrients from their host tree, and, of course, the vast variety of bacteria and viruses which infect virtually every living organism on the planet. In contrast to these examples, however, the jewel wasp has a reliance which has reliably disastrous consequences for its host.

The

Parasitic Jewel Wasp Tim Smith

The jewel wasp, in fact, is not technically a true parasite but a ‘parasitoid’, due to the fact that it eventually kills its host. But this fact alone does not tell the whole, fascinating story. When an adult female jewel wasp is ready to lay her egg, she finds an unsuspecting cockroach and administers two stings. The first is made in the general thorax area, causing temporary paralysis of the cockroach’s limbs and allowing the wasp to make a second, more precise, sting to the protocerebrum in the brain. This second shot of venom has been shown to target specific neurons releasing the neurotransmitter octopamine, effectively shutting down the systems required for movement. Although the cockroach is perfectly capable of moving, the venom strips the insect of its will to escape. Through manipulation of the cockroach’s antennae, the wasp then leads its victim back to a previously prepared burrow, which will become its final resting place. After finally laying its egg in the abdomen, the wasp abandons and seals the cockroach in its earthy tomb.

Once the larva has hatched, it systematically consumes the cockroach from the inside out, taking special care to eat the non-vital organs first, so as to keep its food source alive and fresh for as long as possible. The whole process from hatching to a fully developed adult wasp takes about a month, after which the individual digs itself out of the burrow to restart the whole process.

Of course, however gruesome this series of events seems to us, the life-cycle of the jewel wasp should not be considered cruel. To label it with such human qualities would be textbook anthropomorphism. Rather, it should be admired as one of the thousands of ingenious life-history strategies adopted by organisms to ensure their own evolutionary success.

6| SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 7

FEATURE

I

Cloning to save endangered species

n its history, the Earth has gone through five mass extinctions: events where more than three quarters of all species are lost in a short span of geologic time. Scientists suggest we are now in the middle of a sixth such occasion, which has been wrought by anthropogenic habitat destruction, pollution and climate change.

Researchers are hoping to resurrect some species by using a process called interspecies cloning. Through combining the cellular material of an endangered and a common species it allows the non-endangered animal to carry to term and give birth to an animal which may already be, or be close to becoming, extinct.

Dolly the sheep was the first mammal to be cloned using the

8 | SYNAPSE

somatic cell nuclear transfer technique in 1996. This same technique forms the basis of interspecies cloning. An egg cell has its DNA-harbouring nucleus removed and in its place is injected a nucleus extracted from a different cell in the body. An applied short pulse of electricity starts the egg dividing, which is then implanted into a surrogate uterus where it continues to develop into a mature embryo.

In the case of Dolly, both cells came from the same sheep, but interspecies cloning relies on using the egg of a non-endangered creature and the nucleus from an endangered one. This means we only need the nucleus extracted from one cell, with the surrogate mother used being of the

months of gestation. Another attempt, in 2009, using 439 hybrid embryos managed only one live birth, which died soon after.

Refinements to current methods hope to overcome the dreadfully low success rates of getting hybrid embryos to come to term.

However, there is another approach interspecies cloning could take which uses mature cells that are reprogrammed into stem cells, and can subsequently develop into a normal embryo. In order to make interspecies cloning financially feasible on a large scale this appears to be the only viable option. In the field of species conservation, this scientific approach has its fair share of experts in opposition, as they believe interspecies cloning only distracts from the real problem of habitat

destruction. They fear the technology will reduce the impetus for protecting the environment when extinct species can be revived at a whim. The critics also highlight problems caused by generating an entire population from a few specimens; namely, the lack of genetic diversity would make species more susceptible to disease and environmental variations.

These negative aspects haven’t detracted scientists at Brazil’s Embrapa agricultural research agency who are carrying out a large-scale project to clone eight of the nation’s endangered species. Genetic samples have been collected from animals such as the collared anteater and the Brazilian bush dog, but any resulting individuals will be kept in zoos, not released into the wild. The

Brazilian scientists have taken the aforementioned issue of genetic diversity to heart and are aiming to benefit zoos by boosting the populations of animals that have difficulty breeding in captivity.

Interspecies cloning is an impressive example of what human ingenuity and modern biology can accomplish together. For it to make a real positive impact, though, a lot of research into improving current methods needs to be undertaken and plenty of cell samples need to be collected to ensure sufficient genetic diversity. It may not prove to be the miraculous solution some hope for, but the threat of disastrous losses to biodiversity means no solution should be left unexplored.

Erik Müürsepp

same common species as the egg donor. This theory has been put into practice with a variety of different animals. The first live birth from an interspecies cloning experiment occurred in 2001 when a cow gave birth to a gaur, an endangered wild ox from Southeast Asia. However, the calf, suffering from dysentery, died within 48 hours. A Spanish wild goat, the bucardo, has been a particular favourite of scientists, who have tried to clone it on two separate occasions. The last bucardo died in 2000 but researchers have used previously removed skin cells in attempts to resurrect the perished species. From the 285 embryos created in 2003, only two pregnancies resulted, neither of which survived past two

SYNAPSE | 9

FEATURE

I

Cloning to save endangered species

n its history, the Earth has gone through five mass extinctions: events where more than three quarters of all species are lost in a short span of geologic time. Scientists suggest we are now in the middle of a sixth such occasion, which has been wrought by anthropogenic habitat destruction, pollution and climate change.

Researchers are hoping to resurrect some species by using a process called interspecies cloning. Through combining the cellular material of an endangered and a common species it allows the non-endangered animal to carry to term and give birth to an animal which may already be, or be close to becoming, extinct.

Dolly the sheep was the first mammal to be cloned using the

8 | SYNAPSE

somatic cell nuclear transfer technique in 1996. This same technique forms the basis of interspecies cloning. An egg cell has its DNA-harbouring nucleus removed and in its place is injected a nucleus extracted from a different cell in the body. An applied short pulse of electricity starts the egg dividing, which is then implanted into a surrogate uterus where it continues to develop into a mature embryo.

In the case of Dolly, both cells came from the same sheep, but interspecies cloning relies on using the egg of a non-endangered creature and the nucleus from an endangered one. This means we only need the nucleus extracted from one cell, with the surrogate mother used being of the

months of gestation. Another attempt, in 2009, using 439 hybrid embryos managed only one live birth, which died soon after.

Refinements to current methods hope to overcome the dreadfully low success rates of getting hybrid embryos to come to term.

However, there is another approach interspecies cloning could take which uses mature cells that are reprogrammed into stem cells, and can subsequently develop into a normal embryo. In order to make interspecies cloning financially feasible on a large scale this appears to be the only viable option. In the field of species conservation, this scientific approach has its fair share of experts in opposition, as they believe interspecies cloning only distracts from the real problem of habitat

destruction. They fear the technology will reduce the impetus for protecting the environment when extinct species can be revived at a whim. The critics also highlight problems caused by generating an entire population from a few specimens; namely, the lack of genetic diversity would make species more susceptible to disease and environmental variations.

These negative aspects haven’t detracted scientists at Brazil’s Embrapa agricultural research agency who are carrying out a large-scale project to clone eight of the nation’s endangered species. Genetic samples have been collected from animals such as the collared anteater and the Brazilian bush dog, but any resulting individuals will be kept in zoos, not released into the wild. The

Brazilian scientists have taken the aforementioned issue of genetic diversity to heart and are aiming to benefit zoos by boosting the populations of animals that have difficulty breeding in captivity.

Interspecies cloning is an impressive example of what human ingenuity and modern biology can accomplish together. For it to make a real positive impact, though, a lot of research into improving current methods needs to be undertaken and plenty of cell samples need to be collected to ensure sufficient genetic diversity. It may not prove to be the miraculous solution some hope for, but the threat of disastrous losses to biodiversity means no solution should be left unexplored.

Erik Müürsepp

same common species as the egg donor. This theory has been put into practice with a variety of different animals. The first live birth from an interspecies cloning experiment occurred in 2001 when a cow gave birth to a gaur, an endangered wild ox from Southeast Asia. However, the calf, suffering from dysentery, died within 48 hours. A Spanish wild goat, the bucardo, has been a particular favourite of scientists, who have tried to clone it on two separate occasions. The last bucardo died in 2000 but researchers have used previously removed skin cells in attempts to resurrect the perished species. From the 285 embryos created in 2003, only two pregnancies resulted, neither of which survived past two

SYNAPSE | 9

ARTICLES

Learning and Memory

O

ur brains are able to process an impressive amount of information. This can include remembering the colour of your favourite Tshirt, new skills such as playing an instrument or simply learning how memories work!

After decades of research, there is mounting evidence that a large proportion of learning is due to activity patterns of neurons, the basic working units of your brain and the consequent changes to synapses (20 nm gaps between two linking neurons) known as synaptic plasticity.

Whilst there are many forms of synaptic plasticity that can last for durations ranging from a few milliseconds to many years, the most studied to date is Long Term Potentiation (LTP). LTP, put simply, is the event where a synapse increases its firing ability after being altered in some way, be it a strong electrical stimulus or the application of a drug. This increased efficiency can last for hours in isolated neuronal tissue but may last for years in living organisms.

LTP has been associated

with many functions aside from memory such as pain sensitisation, neuromuscular function and brain development. In accordance with this, LTP has been found in many parts of the nervous system including the cortex, brainstem and spinal cord.

However, the majority of LTP studies have been in a brain region called the Hippocampus, an area strongly associated with forming and retaining memories in humans as well as other mammals.

One common way to detect LTP is by using hippocampal

slice electrophysiology. This technique involves preparing a rodent hippocampal slice and perfusing it in artificial cerebrospinal fluid that enables it to stay functional for up to 24 hours. To collect data one set of neurons is stimulated with an electrode, this consequently inputs into a connected set of neurones promoting a voltage change in them which is measured using a corresponding recording electrode. Once ‘baseline’ response is secure, you can then induce LTP in a variety of ways, one of which is delivering a 1-2 second ‘train’ of highfrequency electrical stimulation, also known as a tetanus.

The large amount of excitation produced by the tetanic stimulation serves to activate

cellular mechanisms which alter the synaptic properties so as to strengthen the connection. One of the earliest reports of LTP in this setup was by Terje Lømo and Tim Bliss in 1973 when they found that the delivery of a tetanus resulted in a long lasting persistent increase in synaptic efficacy (i.e. LTP) in the hippocampus of a rabbit!

So what makes us think that LTP might play a role in learning and memory? There has been evidence from many animal studies suggesting that blocking components of LTP identified in hippocampal slices can prevent learning tasks. For instance, one study in 1992 used a Morris Water Maze to measure how quickly rats learned to locate

a shallow, hidden platform in a pool of water. Blocking certain receptors involved in LTP prevented the rats from learning where the platform was hidden. Strikingly, another study in 2006 found that blocking components of the maintenance of LTP actually reversed it and caused rats to forget memories formed the day before!

These studies have only touched on one small aspect of synaptic plasticity. The true scope of complex processing involved in forming and retaining new memories is still being researched and is staggering to consider. So the next time you are trying to revise for your exams, spare a thought for the truly shocking events taking place in your brain!

Jonathan Smith

Did you know?

“Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me” Well actually words can, at least as far as the brain is concerned. Brain scans have shown that when people experience social rejection, a part of the brain (namely the anterior cingulate cortex or ACC) that is normally associated with physical pain becomes active. Fortunately, whilst one part of the brain causes this unpleasant sensation another part becomes active, the right ventral prefrontal cortex (RVPFC), which is thought to reduce the intensity of pain.’’

Joseph Daly

10 | SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 11

ARTICLES

Learning and Memory

O

ur brains are able to process an impressive amount of information. This can include remembering the colour of your favourite Tshirt, new skills such as playing an instrument or simply learning how memories work!

After decades of research, there is mounting evidence that a large proportion of learning is due to activity patterns of neurons, the basic working units of your brain and the consequent changes to synapses (20 nm gaps between two linking neurons) known as synaptic plasticity.

Whilst there are many forms of synaptic plasticity that can last for durations ranging from a few milliseconds to many years, the most studied to date is Long Term Potentiation (LTP). LTP, put simply, is the event where a synapse increases its firing ability after being altered in some way, be it a strong electrical stimulus or the application of a drug. This increased efficiency can last for hours in isolated neuronal tissue but may last for years in living organisms.

LTP has been associated

with many functions aside from memory such as pain sensitisation, neuromuscular function and brain development. In accordance with this, LTP has been found in many parts of the nervous system including the cortex, brainstem and spinal cord.

However, the majority of LTP studies have been in a brain region called the Hippocampus, an area strongly associated with forming and retaining memories in humans as well as other mammals.

One common way to detect LTP is by using hippocampal

slice electrophysiology. This technique involves preparing a rodent hippocampal slice and perfusing it in artificial cerebrospinal fluid that enables it to stay functional for up to 24 hours. To collect data one set of neurons is stimulated with an electrode, this consequently inputs into a connected set of neurones promoting a voltage change in them which is measured using a corresponding recording electrode. Once ‘baseline’ response is secure, you can then induce LTP in a variety of ways, one of which is delivering a 1-2 second ‘train’ of highfrequency electrical stimulation, also known as a tetanus.

The large amount of excitation produced by the tetanic stimulation serves to activate

cellular mechanisms which alter the synaptic properties so as to strengthen the connection. One of the earliest reports of LTP in this setup was by Terje Lømo and Tim Bliss in 1973 when they found that the delivery of a tetanus resulted in a long lasting persistent increase in synaptic efficacy (i.e. LTP) in the hippocampus of a rabbit!

So what makes us think that LTP might play a role in learning and memory? There has been evidence from many animal studies suggesting that blocking components of LTP identified in hippocampal slices can prevent learning tasks. For instance, one study in 1992 used a Morris Water Maze to measure how quickly rats learned to locate

a shallow, hidden platform in a pool of water. Blocking certain receptors involved in LTP prevented the rats from learning where the platform was hidden. Strikingly, another study in 2006 found that blocking components of the maintenance of LTP actually reversed it and caused rats to forget memories formed the day before!

These studies have only touched on one small aspect of synaptic plasticity. The true scope of complex processing involved in forming and retaining new memories is still being researched and is staggering to consider. So the next time you are trying to revise for your exams, spare a thought for the truly shocking events taking place in your brain!

Jonathan Smith

Did you know?

“Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me” Well actually words can, at least as far as the brain is concerned. Brain scans have shown that when people experience social rejection, a part of the brain (namely the anterior cingulate cortex or ACC) that is normally associated with physical pain becomes active. Fortunately, whilst one part of the brain causes this unpleasant sensation another part becomes active, the right ventral prefrontal cortex (RVPFC), which is thought to reduce the intensity of pain.’’

Joseph Daly

10 | SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 11

ARTICLES

The ‘Twelfth Man’ Effect

T

he need for social acceptance has accompanied us since evolutionary times, when our hunter-gatherer predecessors would have needed to co-operate with one another to survive harsh conditions and serious dangers.

This motivation to be accepted still persists today as we strive to be part of an ‘in-group’ for fear of being alienated and experiencing low self-esteem. Therefore, it is no surprise that a recent study from researchers in Japan found that praise given to participants directly following training of a motor skill improved how well the skill was learned.

Participants were trained on a sequential finger-tapping task, after which they immediately received either praise for their own performance, praise for another participant’s performance or no praise. Those receiving the former showed significant improvement on a surprise recall test of the learned sequence than the other groups. There was no difference between genders – both men and women benefit from compliments when skill-learning.

This is the first study to indicate that praise-related improvements in motor skill memory involve direct effects on the offline consolidation process – essentially, how memories are translated from short-term to long-term.

It has been hypothesised that, in skill learning, praise functions to provide feedback about participants’ levels of competence, serving as an incentive to enhance

12 | SYNAPSE

practice efforts – a salient motivation tool. Without motivation the depletion of physical and mental resources would seem unnecessary and we would stop the learning process. Importantly, learning a motor skill doesn’t just stop at the training phase; the consolidation process continues this learning while training is ‘offline’, which is essential for skill formation and long-term retention.

“complimenting

someone after they’ve attempted to learn a new motor skill can help to improve their performance for that task” The authors believe praise is a reward in the same way that receiving money is – both induce feelings of happiness and promote motivation. Another recent study demonstrated that praise activates reward-related areas of the brain, namely the ventral striatum, increasing activity of neurochemical dopamine there. A process called long-term potentiation, which is dopamine-driven and has longlasting effects, typically occurs in the midbrain and the striatum and is critical for memory consolidation, including that of motor skills. The idea that praise

can influence this consolidation process could have wide implications in a variety of settings.

The title uses the ‘12th man’ analogy – the well-known notion that a crowd watching and cheering on a team can influence their performance. While it is not exactly the same concept, it is still relevant in that new or inexperienced players commended for their skills by the crowd during a match, or in training by their peers, could then go on to provide better future performances.

It would be interesting to see whether these results can be emulated in different settings using various skill-sets; for example, whether children learning to read and write can be motivated to increase their performance and pick up the skills quicker; or whether attaining other skills such as riding a bike, driving a car, or learning a musical instrument can be guided by social rewards. Also, whether the timing of the reward affects how well the skill is consolidated into memory and whether there is an age-effect in this whole process.

In summary, complimenting someone after they’ve attempted to learn a new motor skill can help to improve their performance for that task in subsequent unplanned tests. Praise acts as a motivation for memory consolidation and increased skill retention.

Adam Scott

Praise activates reward-related areas of the brain, namely the ventral striatum

Did you know?

“Sticks ‘‘Road gritting and stones prevents may break ice from my bones forming butonwords the roads will never due tohurt entropy. me” Well The entropy actually words of a solution can, at least of water as far(containing as the braingrit) is concerned. is greater than Brain that scans of pure havewater. shownTherefore, that when the people entropy experience difference social is increased rejection relative a part oftothe thebrain solid(namely (ice) form the(which anterior remains cingulate the cortex same).or This ACC) means thatthe is normally driving force associated to meltwith any physical ice is increased, pain becomes so a lower active. temperaFortunately, ture is whilst needed.one The part result of the is that brain thecauses freezing thispoint unpleasant of water sensation is depressed another andpart ice will becomes active, onlythe form right several ventral degrees prefrontal below cortex 0°C instead (RVPFC), of the which normal is thought 0°C.’’ to reduce the intensity of pain. ’ ’ Toby Benham

Joseph Daly

SYNAPSE | 13

ARTICLES

The ‘Twelfth Man’ Effect

T

he need for social acceptance has accompanied us since evolutionary times, when our hunter-gatherer predecessors would have needed to co-operate with one another to survive harsh conditions and serious dangers.

This motivation to be accepted still persists today as we strive to be part of an ‘in-group’ for fear of being alienated and experiencing low self-esteem. Therefore, it is no surprise that a recent study from researchers in Japan found that praise given to participants directly following training of a motor skill improved how well the skill was learned.

Participants were trained on a sequential finger-tapping task, after which they immediately received either praise for their own performance, praise for another participant’s performance or no praise. Those receiving the former showed significant improvement on a surprise recall test of the learned sequence than the other groups. There was no difference between genders – both men and women benefit from compliments when skill-learning.

This is the first study to indicate that praise-related improvements in motor skill memory involve direct effects on the offline consolidation process – essentially, how memories are translated from short-term to long-term.

It has been hypothesised that, in skill learning, praise functions to provide feedback about participants’ levels of competence, serving as an incentive to enhance

12 | SYNAPSE

practice efforts – a salient motivation tool. Without motivation the depletion of physical and mental resources would seem unnecessary and we would stop the learning process. Importantly, learning a motor skill doesn’t just stop at the training phase; the consolidation process continues this learning while training is ‘offline’, which is essential for skill formation and long-term retention.

“complimenting

someone after they’ve attempted to learn a new motor skill can help to improve their performance for that task” The authors believe praise is a reward in the same way that receiving money is – both induce feelings of happiness and promote motivation. Another recent study demonstrated that praise activates reward-related areas of the brain, namely the ventral striatum, increasing activity of neurochemical dopamine there. A process called long-term potentiation, which is dopamine-driven and has longlasting effects, typically occurs in the midbrain and the striatum and is critical for memory consolidation, including that of motor skills. The idea that praise

can influence this consolidation process could have wide implications in a variety of settings.

The title uses the ‘12th man’ analogy – the well-known notion that a crowd watching and cheering on a team can influence their performance. While it is not exactly the same concept, it is still relevant in that new or inexperienced players commended for their skills by the crowd during a match, or in training by their peers, could then go on to provide better future performances.

It would be interesting to see whether these results can be emulated in different settings using various skill-sets; for example, whether children learning to read and write can be motivated to increase their performance and pick up the skills quicker; or whether attaining other skills such as riding a bike, driving a car, or learning a musical instrument can be guided by social rewards. Also, whether the timing of the reward affects how well the skill is consolidated into memory and whether there is an age-effect in this whole process.

In summary, complimenting someone after they’ve attempted to learn a new motor skill can help to improve their performance for that task in subsequent unplanned tests. Praise acts as a motivation for memory consolidation and increased skill retention.

Adam Scott

Praise activates reward-related areas of the brain, namely the ventral striatum

Did you know?

“Sticks ‘‘Road gritting and stones prevents may break ice from my bones forming butonwords the roads will never due tohurt entropy. me” Well The entropy actually words of a solution can, at least of water as far(containing as the braingrit) is concerned. is greater than Brain that scans of pure havewater. shownTherefore, that when the people entropy experience difference social is increased rejection relative a part oftothe thebrain solid(namely (ice) form the(which anterior remains cingulate the cortex same).or This ACC) means thatthe is normally driving force associated to meltwith any physical ice is increased, pain becomes so a lower active. temperaFortunately, ture is whilst needed.one The part result of the is that brain thecauses freezing thispoint unpleasant of water sensation is depressed another andpart ice will becomes active, onlythe form right several ventral degrees prefrontal below cortex 0°C instead (RVPFC), of the which normal is thought 0°C.’’ to reduce the intensity of pain. ’ ’ Toby Benham

Joseph Daly

SYNAPSE | 13

FEATURE

C

The role of Melanosomes in Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers

Molly Hawes

14 | SYNAPSE

ertain things were once thought inscrutable about extinct animals - the noises they made in life, for example, or the function of certain crests in dinosaurs. Or, indeed, the colour of the feathers found in dinosaurs as old as Sinosauropteryx, found in the early cretaceous rocks of northern China.

In early 2010, however, Bristol’s very own Mike Benton was part of a team of British and Chinese palaeontologists who published a ground-breaking article examining evidence of colourinducing melanosomes in the keratin feather structures of Sinosauropteryx. Previously critics had speculated that these structures were shed skin tissues, but the presence of melanosomes within the structure proved that they were primitive, bristle-like feathers. Melanin is found not just in feathers but in the hair, skin and internal organs of extant mammals and the living descendant of dinosaurs, birds. Its presence in these two long-separated groups suggests convergent evolution, where the same biological traits evolve independently of each other. There are two types of melanin, eumelanin and pheomelanin, found in extant birds and mammals corresponding to black-brown and ginger or red pigmentation respectively. Remarkably, Benton and his colleagues were able to distinguish between the two in fossilised dinosaur feathers, proving that dinosaurs (and thus birds) and mammals independently evolved to incorporate the same two colour-producing amino acids.

When a fossilised feather is uncovered, the palaeontologist dates the surrounding rock and, given the form, location, and age of the fossil, assigns it to a known species of animal. The substances that lend colour to feathers are smaller than the wavelength of visible light and are thus invisible to the naked eye. Under an electron microscope, however, a range of previously unseen features come to light: sections of the structure that, in life, displayed colour contain a dense network of melanosomes deep within the feather barbs. Furthermore, the two proteins can be identified and so a colour map of the feather can be built up. In modern animals we see iridescence, colour change with movement of the object relative to a light source, as on the tail feathers of peacocks. This is enabled by the careful arrangement of eumelanosomes. This arrangement was discovered in 2009 by researchers at Yale University using an extinct animal as the first fossil evidence of iridescence.

The discovery of colouration within early feathers provides us with an important clue in establishing their primary purpose. Feathers were intended for display as well as insulation and we can speculate, therefore, that they only later developed their aerodynamic function. With a greater understanding of feather colouration, scientists can assign a visual purpose such as attracting a mate or hiding from predators, and with this comes a better understanding of the behaviour and lifestyle of these long-dead animals.

SYNAPSE | 15

FEATURE

C

The role of Melanosomes in Colouring of Dinosaur Feathers

Molly Hawes

14 | SYNAPSE

ertain things were once thought inscrutable about extinct animals - the noises they made in life, for example, or the function of certain crests in dinosaurs. Or, indeed, the colour of the feathers found in dinosaurs as old as Sinosauropteryx, found in the early cretaceous rocks of northern China.

In early 2010, however, Bristol’s very own Mike Benton was part of a team of British and Chinese palaeontologists who published a ground-breaking article examining evidence of colourinducing melanosomes in the keratin feather structures of Sinosauropteryx. Previously critics had speculated that these structures were shed skin tissues, but the presence of melanosomes within the structure proved that they were primitive, bristle-like feathers. Melanin is found not just in feathers but in the hair, skin and internal organs of extant mammals and the living descendant of dinosaurs, birds. Its presence in these two long-separated groups suggests convergent evolution, where the same biological traits evolve independently of each other. There are two types of melanin, eumelanin and pheomelanin, found in extant birds and mammals corresponding to black-brown and ginger or red pigmentation respectively. Remarkably, Benton and his colleagues were able to distinguish between the two in fossilised dinosaur feathers, proving that dinosaurs (and thus birds) and mammals independently evolved to incorporate the same two colour-producing amino acids.

When a fossilised feather is uncovered, the palaeontologist dates the surrounding rock and, given the form, location, and age of the fossil, assigns it to a known species of animal. The substances that lend colour to feathers are smaller than the wavelength of visible light and are thus invisible to the naked eye. Under an electron microscope, however, a range of previously unseen features come to light: sections of the structure that, in life, displayed colour contain a dense network of melanosomes deep within the feather barbs. Furthermore, the two proteins can be identified and so a colour map of the feather can be built up. In modern animals we see iridescence, colour change with movement of the object relative to a light source, as on the tail feathers of peacocks. This is enabled by the careful arrangement of eumelanosomes. This arrangement was discovered in 2009 by researchers at Yale University using an extinct animal as the first fossil evidence of iridescence.

The discovery of colouration within early feathers provides us with an important clue in establishing their primary purpose. Feathers were intended for display as well as insulation and we can speculate, therefore, that they only later developed their aerodynamic function. With a greater understanding of feather colouration, scientists can assign a visual purpose such as attracting a mate or hiding from predators, and with this comes a better understanding of the behaviour and lifestyle of these long-dead animals.

SYNAPSE | 15

ARTICLES

EEG:

The Science of Mind Reading The idea of someone being able to tell exactly what we are thinking is no doubt a scary one but, don’t worry, we’re not there yet. This said, the electroencephalogram, or EEG, has been used for some time to measure brain activity in human patients and there is a great deal of information to be obtained from all those wiggly lines.

H

ow does EEG work?

Our brains are made up of billions of neurons, communicating with each other all of the time.

Brain cells “talk” through synapses, creating tiny electrical signals. With so many cells in the brain, this produces masses of electrical activity which can be measured by placing sensors on the surface of the skull. This is usually done with the familiar EEG cap, containing a great number of sensors, meaning that different areas of the brain can be measured simultaneously.

W

hat can you see?

What we find when we record this brain activity is that the signals within the brain oscillate in a wave-like manner. These brain waves may originally seem confusing and random, but analysis has shown that they can be isolated into discrete frequency bands. You can think of the brain like an orchestra, with all the individual instruments creating different sounds that all come together into one complex piece of music.

W

hat does it all mean?

These common frequencies may represent differences in brain states. For example, when you are in deep sleep slow oscillations are seen (called delta waves) or, during high levels of concentration, fast waves (such as beta or gamma oscillations) may occur, signifying intense thought processing. How about some meditation? Well you won’t be doing that without plenty of alpha waves, associated with relaxation and reflection.

H

ow can it be used?

Measuring brain activity

EEG can be used in a great number of ways. We can diagnose some conditions such as epilepsy by recognising seizure activity. There is also potential to help sufferers of locked in syndrome (a condition where sufferers, while totally conscious, cannot move or communicate). On a lighter note, many people have been working on ways in which we can control objects with our minds. Just imagine, a brain-machine interface would be able to control a robot, unlock a car or turn on a home appliance just through the power of thought. This isn’t so far off; your own portable (and affordable) EEG machines are available to buy, allowing you to play games and even control the plot of a film through changes in your brain waves.

Tom Ridler 16 | SYNAPSE

Lip locking, tonsil tennis and infectious mononucleosis:

Should We Stop Smooching?

I

nfectious mononucleosis (IM), more commonly known as glandular fever or ‘the kissing disease’ is an extremely contagious, viral disease predominantly caused by the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). Sprunt and Evans in the Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first described IM in 1920, however the association between glandular fever and EBV was not defined until the late 1960’s.

EBV is a type of Herpes virus (Human Herpes Virus-4) containing double-stranded DNA, an icosahedral capsid and a lipid envelope embedded with glycoproteins. IM is spread via saliva, and just like all Herpes viruses they can become a life companion. The virus has an incubation period of 4-8 weeks, therefore an individual is likely to be unaware that they are infected for some time. By this point, however, you can be sure

that your oropharangeal epithelial cells and B-lymphocytes have taken a massive beating.

IM mainly affects teenagers and young adults between the ages of 15-25, possibly because school and university are saliva-swapping playgrounds (unless you do a science degree in which case you probably don’t get out as much). Initially the infection is asymptomatic but as it progresses characteristic symptoms arise including a sore throat, prolonged fatigue, swollen lymph nodes, vomiting, muscle ache, headache, high fever, and a loss of appetite. Diagnosis may be clear from the symptoms but should be confirmed by a blood test.

Despite low mortality rates, infection is widespread. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) serological tests have shown that approximately 95% of adults in the U.S.

Chloe Palmer

have been infected with EBV. There is no available treatment for this viral infection; however an EBV vaccine targeting the envelope glycoproteins gp350/220 is currently undergoing clinical trials. Not only will this be a break-through in preventing IM but it will also decrease the risk of other conditions associated with EBV infections such as Burkitt’s lymphoma and nasopharangeal carcinoma. For now pain relief pills (yes, the same ibuprofen that matron gave you at school) may be prescribed to alleviate symptoms. However, as any G.C.S.E science student could inform you, antibiotics will not cure the virus since it is not a bacterial disease. The question still remains whether to vaccinate pre-infection or therapeutically and is made more difficult due to antigenic variation during the lytic phase.

“IM mainly affects teenagers

and young adults between the ages of 15-25, possibly because school and university are saliva-swapping playgrounds

” SYNAPSE | 17

ARTICLES

EEG:

The Science of Mind Reading The idea of someone being able to tell exactly what we are thinking is no doubt a scary one but, don’t worry, we’re not there yet. This said, the electroencephalogram, or EEG, has been used for some time to measure brain activity in human patients and there is a great deal of information to be obtained from all those wiggly lines.

H

ow does EEG work?

Our brains are made up of billions of neurons, communicating with each other all of the time.

Brain cells “talk” through synapses, creating tiny electrical signals. With so many cells in the brain, this produces masses of electrical activity which can be measured by placing sensors on the surface of the skull. This is usually done with the familiar EEG cap, containing a great number of sensors, meaning that different areas of the brain can be measured simultaneously.

W

hat can you see?

What we find when we record this brain activity is that the signals within the brain oscillate in a wave-like manner. These brain waves may originally seem confusing and random, but analysis has shown that they can be isolated into discrete frequency bands. You can think of the brain like an orchestra, with all the individual instruments creating different sounds that all come together into one complex piece of music.

W

hat does it all mean?

These common frequencies may represent differences in brain states. For example, when you are in deep sleep slow oscillations are seen (called delta waves) or, during high levels of concentration, fast waves (such as beta or gamma oscillations) may occur, signifying intense thought processing. How about some meditation? Well you won’t be doing that without plenty of alpha waves, associated with relaxation and reflection.

H

ow can it be used?

Measuring brain activity

EEG can be used in a great number of ways. We can diagnose some conditions such as epilepsy by recognising seizure activity. There is also potential to help sufferers of locked in syndrome (a condition where sufferers, while totally conscious, cannot move or communicate). On a lighter note, many people have been working on ways in which we can control objects with our minds. Just imagine, a brain-machine interface would be able to control a robot, unlock a car or turn on a home appliance just through the power of thought. This isn’t so far off; your own portable (and affordable) EEG machines are available to buy, allowing you to play games and even control the plot of a film through changes in your brain waves.

Tom Ridler 16 | SYNAPSE

Lip locking, tonsil tennis and infectious mononucleosis:

Should We Stop Smooching?

I

nfectious mononucleosis (IM), more commonly known as glandular fever or ‘the kissing disease’ is an extremely contagious, viral disease predominantly caused by the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). Sprunt and Evans in the Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first described IM in 1920, however the association between glandular fever and EBV was not defined until the late 1960’s.

EBV is a type of Herpes virus (Human Herpes Virus-4) containing double-stranded DNA, an icosahedral capsid and a lipid envelope embedded with glycoproteins. IM is spread via saliva, and just like all Herpes viruses they can become a life companion. The virus has an incubation period of 4-8 weeks, therefore an individual is likely to be unaware that they are infected for some time. By this point, however, you can be sure

that your oropharangeal epithelial cells and B-lymphocytes have taken a massive beating.

IM mainly affects teenagers and young adults between the ages of 15-25, possibly because school and university are saliva-swapping playgrounds (unless you do a science degree in which case you probably don’t get out as much). Initially the infection is asymptomatic but as it progresses characteristic symptoms arise including a sore throat, prolonged fatigue, swollen lymph nodes, vomiting, muscle ache, headache, high fever, and a loss of appetite. Diagnosis may be clear from the symptoms but should be confirmed by a blood test.

Despite low mortality rates, infection is widespread. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) serological tests have shown that approximately 95% of adults in the U.S.

Chloe Palmer

have been infected with EBV. There is no available treatment for this viral infection; however an EBV vaccine targeting the envelope glycoproteins gp350/220 is currently undergoing clinical trials. Not only will this be a break-through in preventing IM but it will also decrease the risk of other conditions associated with EBV infections such as Burkitt’s lymphoma and nasopharangeal carcinoma. For now pain relief pills (yes, the same ibuprofen that matron gave you at school) may be prescribed to alleviate symptoms. However, as any G.C.S.E science student could inform you, antibiotics will not cure the virus since it is not a bacterial disease. The question still remains whether to vaccinate pre-infection or therapeutically and is made more difficult due to antigenic variation during the lytic phase.

“IM mainly affects teenagers

and young adults between the ages of 15-25, possibly because school and university are saliva-swapping playgrounds

” SYNAPSE | 17

ARTICLES

US Meningitis Outbreak T

he recent outbreak of fungal meningitis in the United States was first reported on October 4th 2012, after being the cause of five deaths in Tennessee, Virginia and Maryland, while 35 cases of illness were noted from six states. At the time of writing, these figures have elevated to 337 cases and 25 deaths over 18 states, along with several related non-meningitis infections.

The source of the infection has been established as three lots of contaminated methylprednisolene acetate - used in epidural steroid injections as an anti-inflammatory e.g. for back pain or arthritis - manufactured by the New England Compounding Centre (NECC).

The drug, which can be injected into joints, such as the shoulder, elbow or knee, had been shipped to approximately 75 health care facilities in 23

Neisseria meningitidis

states. Following reports of the outbreak, both the NECC and the Massachusetts Department of Public Health (MDPH) ordered recalls of NECC products, while the NECC shelved their operations and voluntarily renounced their licenses.

Following this, investigations at the NECC found unsanitary working environments, with fungus being found in steroid solutions, along with records of the frequent neglection of staff to follow standard procedures of maintaining hygiene and sterility of work settings and products. Evidence was also found of the NECC shipping orders of the contaminated drug before receiving final results of the sterility tests.

The fungi detected in the contaminated medication were derived from mould species, specifically the genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium and

Exserohilum, all of which meningitis has seldom been associated with, if ever (a more common fungal genera associated with fungal meningitis is Cryptococcus, which comprises 20-25% of AIDS-related deaths in Africa). In normal cases, victims of fungal meningitis are individuals whose immune systems have become compromised or weakened – a condition that is the result of an immuno-compromising disease, such as AIDS, or immunocompromising medical treatment, such as chemotherapy or post-transplant medication.

Meningitis is the infection, and subsequent inflammation, of the meninges - a layer of tissue covering the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. It can be caused by other microorganisms other than fungi, such as bacteria (e.g. Escherichia coli

Aspergillus fumigatus and Neisseria meningitides), viruses (e.g. Herpes simplex virus type 2 and mumps virus) and parasites (e.g. Schistosoma). The symptoms reported in the recent outbreak included headache, fever, nausea, photophobia (intolerance to bright light) and stroke. These symptoms can appear within 42 days of receiving a contaminated injection, although in some cases they can take up to 3 months to occur. Although bacterial and viral meningitis can be spread via droplets in respiratory secretions during

close contact, it is thought that fungal meningitis cannot spread between people. Treatment of fungal meningitis consists of high doses of antifungals, such as flucytosine and amphotericin B, which work by disrupting fungal RNA and DNA synthesis (and therefore protein production) and permeating the fungal cell membrane, respectively.

On October 15th, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released warnings that an additional two drugs, both from the NECC, may also have been contaminated and, if injected

epidurally, have the potential to cause fungal meningitis or at least infection. Meanwhile, the NECC has continued to cooperate with investigations carried out by the Centre of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the FDA, while also being the subject of several individually filed lawsuits. Complaints have been made concerning the products of NECC as early as 1999, less than one year after it had been founded.

Sophia Ho

Did you know?

‘‘Moderate caffeine many Drinking two cups coffee a “Sticks and stonesconsumption may break can my have bones but health wordsbenefits. will never hurt me” Well of actually day can make you 80% less likely to develop Parkinson’s disease and cirrhosis and cut the risk words can, at least as far as the brain is concerned. Brain scans have shown that when ofpeople developing gallstones by half.

However coffee has not always had such a good reputation. experience social rejection a part of the brain (namely the anterior cingulateIn 1511 it was temporarily banned in Mecca as it was believed to be an intoxicant that stimulated cortex or ACC) that is normally associated with physical pain becomes active. Forturadical thinking and in 1746 the Swedish government banned coffee and coffee paraphernalia nately, whilst one part of the brain causes this unpleasant sensation another part bewith coffee cups being confiscated. There are still several Christian denominations that don’t comes active, the right prefrontal which is thought to reduce consume caffeine today.ventral But even green tea cortex contains(RVPFC), caffeine although less than black tea.’’

the intensity of pain.’’

Natalie Parker Joseph Daly

18| SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 19

ARTICLES

US Meningitis Outbreak T

he recent outbreak of fungal meningitis in the United States was first reported on October 4th 2012, after being the cause of five deaths in Tennessee, Virginia and Maryland, while 35 cases of illness were noted from six states. At the time of writing, these figures have elevated to 337 cases and 25 deaths over 18 states, along with several related non-meningitis infections.

The source of the infection has been established as three lots of contaminated methylprednisolene acetate - used in epidural steroid injections as an anti-inflammatory e.g. for back pain or arthritis - manufactured by the New England Compounding Centre (NECC).

The drug, which can be injected into joints, such as the shoulder, elbow or knee, had been shipped to approximately 75 health care facilities in 23

Neisseria meningitidis

states. Following reports of the outbreak, both the NECC and the Massachusetts Department of Public Health (MDPH) ordered recalls of NECC products, while the NECC shelved their operations and voluntarily renounced their licenses.

Following this, investigations at the NECC found unsanitary working environments, with fungus being found in steroid solutions, along with records of the frequent neglection of staff to follow standard procedures of maintaining hygiene and sterility of work settings and products. Evidence was also found of the NECC shipping orders of the contaminated drug before receiving final results of the sterility tests.

The fungi detected in the contaminated medication were derived from mould species, specifically the genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium and

Exserohilum, all of which meningitis has seldom been associated with, if ever (a more common fungal genera associated with fungal meningitis is Cryptococcus, which comprises 20-25% of AIDS-related deaths in Africa). In normal cases, victims of fungal meningitis are individuals whose immune systems have become compromised or weakened – a condition that is the result of an immuno-compromising disease, such as AIDS, or immunocompromising medical treatment, such as chemotherapy or post-transplant medication.

Meningitis is the infection, and subsequent inflammation, of the meninges - a layer of tissue covering the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. It can be caused by other microorganisms other than fungi, such as bacteria (e.g. Escherichia coli

Aspergillus fumigatus and Neisseria meningitides), viruses (e.g. Herpes simplex virus type 2 and mumps virus) and parasites (e.g. Schistosoma). The symptoms reported in the recent outbreak included headache, fever, nausea, photophobia (intolerance to bright light) and stroke. These symptoms can appear within 42 days of receiving a contaminated injection, although in some cases they can take up to 3 months to occur. Although bacterial and viral meningitis can be spread via droplets in respiratory secretions during

close contact, it is thought that fungal meningitis cannot spread between people. Treatment of fungal meningitis consists of high doses of antifungals, such as flucytosine and amphotericin B, which work by disrupting fungal RNA and DNA synthesis (and therefore protein production) and permeating the fungal cell membrane, respectively.

On October 15th, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released warnings that an additional two drugs, both from the NECC, may also have been contaminated and, if injected

epidurally, have the potential to cause fungal meningitis or at least infection. Meanwhile, the NECC has continued to cooperate with investigations carried out by the Centre of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the FDA, while also being the subject of several individually filed lawsuits. Complaints have been made concerning the products of NECC as early as 1999, less than one year after it had been founded.

Sophia Ho

Did you know?

‘‘Moderate caffeine many Drinking two cups coffee a “Sticks and stonesconsumption may break can my have bones but health wordsbenefits. will never hurt me” Well of actually day can make you 80% less likely to develop Parkinson’s disease and cirrhosis and cut the risk words can, at least as far as the brain is concerned. Brain scans have shown that when ofpeople developing gallstones by half.

However coffee has not always had such a good reputation. experience social rejection a part of the brain (namely the anterior cingulateIn 1511 it was temporarily banned in Mecca as it was believed to be an intoxicant that stimulated cortex or ACC) that is normally associated with physical pain becomes active. Forturadical thinking and in 1746 the Swedish government banned coffee and coffee paraphernalia nately, whilst one part of the brain causes this unpleasant sensation another part bewith coffee cups being confiscated. There are still several Christian denominations that don’t comes active, the right prefrontal which is thought to reduce consume caffeine today.ventral But even green tea cortex contains(RVPFC), caffeine although less than black tea.’’

the intensity of pain.’’

Natalie Parker Joseph Daly

18| SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 19

PROFILE

The Merry Goji Berry

There is much debate as to whether it really is worth buying “Superfoods”, and the supposed health benefits are under close scrutiny. Is it worth paying extra for a small packet of dried Goji berries or can the same health benefits be gained from a more conventional and cheaper orange?

W

hat is a Goji Berry?

Lycium barbarum known as the Goji Berry, or Wolfberry is a relative of tomatoes and peppers.

They come from the family Solanaceae. Native to China, Mongolia and Tibet, it is a red shiny berry, about 2cm in diameter, produced by a deciduous woody shrub-like perennial that is relatively easy to grow.

The main questions that need to be considered are: should we be eating these berries and can the health benefits justify the cost of purchasing the berries or growing the plant on the tiny windowsills of our student houses?

Goji berries are classed as a “superfood” because of potential health benefits arising from the high proportions of minerals, essential amino acids and anti-oxidants they contain. Amino acids- the basis of proteins, and minerals, are vital for many of the day to day processes going on in our bodies and we can obtain them from our daily diet. But what are anti-oxidants and why are they important for our health?

“These berries are unlikely to be the

end to winter colds, wrinkles, or even contact lenses, but they may add a different and unusual flavour on top of your muesli in the morning”

H

ealth Benefits

T

he Science behind Anti-Oxidants

Lycium barbarum is a relative of tomatoes and peppers.

Normal metabolic activity requires oxidation reactions which can produce free-radicals as a bi-product. Free radicals are small, highly reactive molecules that can trigger chain reactions of oxidation in cells which may have damaging effects. Anti-oxidants neutralise free radicals by reacting with them, thus stopping the damaging chain reactions. The effects of these oxidising molecules can be varied, but they are particularly damaging to sensitive compounds such as DNA which, if damaged, can cause cells to grow abnormally, leading to all sorts of diseases including cancers.

The body has many natural defence mechanisms to protect against these harmful oxidation products such as metal chelation to prevent DNA fragmentation, the synthesis of specialised pigments in the skin such as melanin to neutralise UV radiation and the action of anti-oxidants, examples of which include flavonoids, glucosinolate and phytoestrogens.

20 | SYNAPSE

Many health foods sellers state that Goji berries have hundreds of health benefits from not just the anti-oxidant properties, but the vitamins C and A that it contains slow down aging, improve immunity, help vision in dim light and maintain cell growth. Current researchers are considering their potential for treating cancer, cataracts, HIV, Alzheimer’s – the list goes on. However, it is possible to get sufficient quantities of all the nutrients contained within these berries from existing parts of our diet. Does this eliminate the need for supplementing our diet with these berries?

Many of these studies are purely based on the effects of isolating particular nutrients and studying them closely- not looking at the fruit as a whole. Furthermore, they have only been carried out on mice and it is not yet known how the nutritional benefits of Goji compare to your average blackberry or blueberry, which also contain similar nutrients but are far cheaper to buy.

Conversely, research has been done on the possible risks of overloading our bodies with too many nutrients – with an excess, the body is unable to store them and they will end up going to waste. If the body can’t remove them from the system, they could potentially have negative effects such as damaging cells. They may also interact with several drugs such as warfarin and may not be compatible with people who suffer from pollen allergies. Despite much of the controversy surrounding these berries, there is some scientific evidence to support their potential benefits. The Chinese have been using them as part of their traditional medicine practices for centuries (mostly the leaves, roots and bark) for making tea, in which specific compounds are isolated for their anti-pathogenic and anti-aging properties.

So overall, there is not a huge amount of evidence for the well-marketed product’s health benefits- they may not be as outstanding as the packets frequently claim. The berries do contain lots of vitamins, minerals and good nutrients, but it may just be the excellent marketing by companies that has fuelled such huge health-food hype.

These berries are unlikely to be the end to winter colds, wrinkles, or even contact lenses, but they may add a different and unusual flavour on top of your muesli in the morning – although if you are like me, I can’t imagine I would enjoy tea-raisin-and-liquorice flavoured dried berries on my brekkie very much!

Jessica Fennell SYNAPSE | 21

PROFILE

The Merry Goji Berry

There is much debate as to whether it really is worth buying “Superfoods”, and the supposed health benefits are under close scrutiny. Is it worth paying extra for a small packet of dried Goji berries or can the same health benefits be gained from a more conventional and cheaper orange?

W

hat is a Goji Berry?

Lycium barbarum known as the Goji Berry, or Wolfberry is a relative of tomatoes and peppers.

They come from the family Solanaceae. Native to China, Mongolia and Tibet, it is a red shiny berry, about 2cm in diameter, produced by a deciduous woody shrub-like perennial that is relatively easy to grow.

The main questions that need to be considered are: should we be eating these berries and can the health benefits justify the cost of purchasing the berries or growing the plant on the tiny windowsills of our student houses?

Goji berries are classed as a “superfood” because of potential health benefits arising from the high proportions of minerals, essential amino acids and anti-oxidants they contain. Amino acids- the basis of proteins, and minerals, are vital for many of the day to day processes going on in our bodies and we can obtain them from our daily diet. But what are anti-oxidants and why are they important for our health?

“These berries are unlikely to be the

end to winter colds, wrinkles, or even contact lenses, but they may add a different and unusual flavour on top of your muesli in the morning”

H

ealth Benefits

T

he Science behind Anti-Oxidants

Lycium barbarum is a relative of tomatoes and peppers.

Normal metabolic activity requires oxidation reactions which can produce free-radicals as a bi-product. Free radicals are small, highly reactive molecules that can trigger chain reactions of oxidation in cells which may have damaging effects. Anti-oxidants neutralise free radicals by reacting with them, thus stopping the damaging chain reactions. The effects of these oxidising molecules can be varied, but they are particularly damaging to sensitive compounds such as DNA which, if damaged, can cause cells to grow abnormally, leading to all sorts of diseases including cancers.

The body has many natural defence mechanisms to protect against these harmful oxidation products such as metal chelation to prevent DNA fragmentation, the synthesis of specialised pigments in the skin such as melanin to neutralise UV radiation and the action of anti-oxidants, examples of which include flavonoids, glucosinolate and phytoestrogens.

20 | SYNAPSE

Many health foods sellers state that Goji berries have hundreds of health benefits from not just the anti-oxidant properties, but the vitamins C and A that it contains slow down aging, improve immunity, help vision in dim light and maintain cell growth. Current researchers are considering their potential for treating cancer, cataracts, HIV, Alzheimer’s – the list goes on. However, it is possible to get sufficient quantities of all the nutrients contained within these berries from existing parts of our diet. Does this eliminate the need for supplementing our diet with these berries?

Many of these studies are purely based on the effects of isolating particular nutrients and studying them closely- not looking at the fruit as a whole. Furthermore, they have only been carried out on mice and it is not yet known how the nutritional benefits of Goji compare to your average blackberry or blueberry, which also contain similar nutrients but are far cheaper to buy.

Conversely, research has been done on the possible risks of overloading our bodies with too many nutrients – with an excess, the body is unable to store them and they will end up going to waste. If the body can’t remove them from the system, they could potentially have negative effects such as damaging cells. They may also interact with several drugs such as warfarin and may not be compatible with people who suffer from pollen allergies. Despite much of the controversy surrounding these berries, there is some scientific evidence to support their potential benefits. The Chinese have been using them as part of their traditional medicine practices for centuries (mostly the leaves, roots and bark) for making tea, in which specific compounds are isolated for their anti-pathogenic and anti-aging properties.

So overall, there is not a huge amount of evidence for the well-marketed product’s health benefits- they may not be as outstanding as the packets frequently claim. The berries do contain lots of vitamins, minerals and good nutrients, but it may just be the excellent marketing by companies that has fuelled such huge health-food hype.

These berries are unlikely to be the end to winter colds, wrinkles, or even contact lenses, but they may add a different and unusual flavour on top of your muesli in the morning – although if you are like me, I can’t imagine I would enjoy tea-raisin-and-liquorice flavoured dried berries on my brekkie very much!

Jessica Fennell SYNAPSE | 21

ARTICLES

The bramble: a climate change indicator?

B

rambles can be stumbled upon almost anywhere across the UK, but what makes these everyday species so interesting? According to botanist Ray Woods, they are an excellent marker of climate change over the past few centuries.

The secret lies in the stomata, which are the small pores found on the underside of the bramble leaves. Stomata facilitate gaseous exchange allowing carbon dioxide (CO2) to enter the leaf for the synthesis of glucose when open, aided by sunlight. A study of stomata density over the past few decades has revealed a strong correlation between increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration and decreasing stomata density on bramble leaves. This is likely to be because CO2 is now more readily available in the atmosphere, so fewer stomata are needed to take in the amount

22 | SYNAPSE

the plant requires. Alongside this, stomata also allow water and oxygen to escape, so if there are fewer stomata, then less water can escape. Ray Woods and other batologists (a term used for bramble specialists) have noted that they commonly see brambles of up to 30 feet long on a regular basis, something of a rarity in the past. It is thought that brambles can now grow even more efficiently due to reduced water losses, and the ability to cope better in periods of dry weather.

Brambles are actually complex ecosystems supporting hundreds of different species. They provide a nesting site for birds and a shelter for small animals away from the harsh elements.

The flowers provide essential nectar for moths and butterflies. In addition, insects such as waspsmay pierce holes in the berries of the bramble whilst feeding, lead

ing to fermenting berries. The alcohol produced is consumed by butterflies, and many spiders will feed on the fungi from the decaying fruits. The sub-erecta group of brambles, are a group of around six species which can live at over 1000 feet above sea level and are found in Scotland, upland Ireland and upland Wales.

They are likely to be the first type of brambles that grew after the ice retreated some 10,000 years ago and have stubby dark maroon stems, with no leaves or berries.

There are many delicate ecosystems being disturbed by climate change but interestingly, even the humble bramble can provide us with knowledge about how our planet is changing and the way in which wildlife species are striving to adapt to the constant changes.

Naomi Farren

W

Influential People

hen asked who the most influential people in history are, first thoughts might go to Augustus the first Roman emperor, the monk Martin Luther who initiated the Roman Catholic Church reformations and the British wartime leader Winston Churchill. They have all had an immeasurable effect on our world, but maybe we are too quick to forget the impact scientific discoveries have made.

The mind might then skip to famous scientists such as Einstein, Newton and Pasteur, but many less known scientists have also caused massive global impact.

Thomas Midgley Jr., an American mechanical engineer and chemist, was granted over a hundred patents in his lifetime. He discovered that adding tetraethyllead (TEL) to gasoline prevented engine ‘knocking’, for which he received the Nichols Medal from the American Chemical Society.

However this was not without controversy as lead causes many health problems. This was not unknown to Midgley as in January 1923 he had to take a prolonged vacation to recover from lead poisoning. 10 other members of staff died at TEL manufacturing plants in Ohio and New Jersey, followed quickly by 5 more deaths at the next plant location. Nevertheless, in an attempt to prove the safety of TEL at a press conference Midgley poured it over his hands and inhaled the fumes for a minute. However the TEL plant was swiftly closed down by the government and Midgley took nearly a year to recover.

Midgley also worked as part of

the team which developed CFCs, a safer alternative to the dangerous gases used in refrigerators and air conditioners at the time.

The applications of CFCs spread, but it was only 30 years after his death that the ozone depleting qualities of the CFCs were discovered. With the combination of CFCs damaging the atmosphere and lead damaging health, Thomas Midgley’s discoveries have caused arguably the greatest atmospheric impact in history.

In addition, Gertrude Elion may not be a household name, but she is among the 44 women to have received a Nobel Prize, winning it jointly in 1988 for Medicine or Physiology. She is the inventor of many drugs including Pyrimethamine for malaria, Purinethol the first leukaemia treatment and Zovirax for viral herpes. Her discoveries saved and improved many people’s lives, but she did not have an easy research career. When

Thomas Midgley Jr

Gertrude began applying for jobs in her field she was rejected based on her sex, being told that she would be a distraction to the male staff. She worked as a science teacher whilst doing her Masters research work at night and weekends. During World War II the need for men to fight opened research positions up to women and she began work at what is now GlaxoSmithKline.

She exploited the differences between pathogenic and human cells when designing drugs, avoiding the typical trial-anderror techniques. The diversity of her drugs and their widespread benefits is remarkable, and she has been recognised by several honorary degrees and accolades.

These are only two examples of the many scientists which have shaped the world, both for better and for worse. Nevertheless they remind us of the impact scientific developments have had and how they may influence our future.

Gertrude Elion

Hannah Bruce Macdonald SYNAPSE | 23

ARTICLES

The bramble: a climate change indicator?

B

rambles can be stumbled upon almost anywhere across the UK, but what makes these everyday species so interesting? According to botanist Ray Woods, they are an excellent marker of climate change over the past few centuries.

The secret lies in the stomata, which are the small pores found on the underside of the bramble leaves. Stomata facilitate gaseous exchange allowing carbon dioxide (CO2) to enter the leaf for the synthesis of glucose when open, aided by sunlight. A study of stomata density over the past few decades has revealed a strong correlation between increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration and decreasing stomata density on bramble leaves. This is likely to be because CO2 is now more readily available in the atmosphere, so fewer stomata are needed to take in the amount

22 | SYNAPSE

the plant requires. Alongside this, stomata also allow water and oxygen to escape, so if there are fewer stomata, then less water can escape. Ray Woods and other batologists (a term used for bramble specialists) have noted that they commonly see brambles of up to 30 feet long on a regular basis, something of a rarity in the past. It is thought that brambles can now grow even more efficiently due to reduced water losses, and the ability to cope better in periods of dry weather.

Brambles are actually complex ecosystems supporting hundreds of different species. They provide a nesting site for birds and a shelter for small animals away from the harsh elements.

The flowers provide essential nectar for moths and butterflies. In addition, insects such as waspsmay pierce holes in the berries of the bramble whilst feeding, lead

ing to fermenting berries. The alcohol produced is consumed by butterflies, and many spiders will feed on the fungi from the decaying fruits. The sub-erecta group of brambles, are a group of around six species which can live at over 1000 feet above sea level and are found in Scotland, upland Ireland and upland Wales.

They are likely to be the first type of brambles that grew after the ice retreated some 10,000 years ago and have stubby dark maroon stems, with no leaves or berries.

There are many delicate ecosystems being disturbed by climate change but interestingly, even the humble bramble can provide us with knowledge about how our planet is changing and the way in which wildlife species are striving to adapt to the constant changes.

Naomi Farren

W

Influential People

hen asked who the most influential people in history are, first thoughts might go to Augustus the first Roman emperor, the monk Martin Luther who initiated the Roman Catholic Church reformations and the British wartime leader Winston Churchill. They have all had an immeasurable effect on our world, but maybe we are too quick to forget the impact scientific discoveries have made.

The mind might then skip to famous scientists such as Einstein, Newton and Pasteur, but many less known scientists have also caused massive global impact.

Thomas Midgley Jr., an American mechanical engineer and chemist, was granted over a hundred patents in his lifetime. He discovered that adding tetraethyllead (TEL) to gasoline prevented engine ‘knocking’, for which he received the Nichols Medal from the American Chemical Society.

However this was not without controversy as lead causes many health problems. This was not unknown to Midgley as in January 1923 he had to take a prolonged vacation to recover from lead poisoning. 10 other members of staff died at TEL manufacturing plants in Ohio and New Jersey, followed quickly by 5 more deaths at the next plant location. Nevertheless, in an attempt to prove the safety of TEL at a press conference Midgley poured it over his hands and inhaled the fumes for a minute. However the TEL plant was swiftly closed down by the government and Midgley took nearly a year to recover.

Midgley also worked as part of

the team which developed CFCs, a safer alternative to the dangerous gases used in refrigerators and air conditioners at the time.

The applications of CFCs spread, but it was only 30 years after his death that the ozone depleting qualities of the CFCs were discovered. With the combination of CFCs damaging the atmosphere and lead damaging health, Thomas Midgley’s discoveries have caused arguably the greatest atmospheric impact in history.

In addition, Gertrude Elion may not be a household name, but she is among the 44 women to have received a Nobel Prize, winning it jointly in 1988 for Medicine or Physiology. She is the inventor of many drugs including Pyrimethamine for malaria, Purinethol the first leukaemia treatment and Zovirax for viral herpes. Her discoveries saved and improved many people’s lives, but she did not have an easy research career. When

Thomas Midgley Jr

Gertrude began applying for jobs in her field she was rejected based on her sex, being told that she would be a distraction to the male staff. She worked as a science teacher whilst doing her Masters research work at night and weekends. During World War II the need for men to fight opened research positions up to women and she began work at what is now GlaxoSmithKline.

She exploited the differences between pathogenic and human cells when designing drugs, avoiding the typical trial-anderror techniques. The diversity of her drugs and their widespread benefits is remarkable, and she has been recognised by several honorary degrees and accolades.

These are only two examples of the many scientists which have shaped the world, both for better and for worse. Nevertheless they remind us of the impact scientific developments have had and how they may influence our future.

Gertrude Elion

Hannah Bruce Macdonald SYNAPSE | 23

OPINIONS

Let’s get to the Roots of the Problem W

ith the global population predicted to hit 9 billion by 2050, agronomists and farmers alike must reunite to cultivate “The Green Revolution: Round Two”. Round one saw the storming success of dwarf crop varieties allowing an increased yield without the risk of weak stems breaking or lodging. In round 2 we face new, wilier opponents.

Food production must be doubled to satisfy the exponential rise of grumbling stomachs. Development of crop cultivars and farming techniques better suited to our changing climate is paramount. With stores of fossil fuels depleting and the risk of drought looming, increased output must be achieved with decreased input. Put simply, we need more food production from less fertilizer, less pesticides and less water. It’s not going to be easy, but there may be a solution, perhaps we need to dig a little deeper The age of increasing pro-

24 | SYNAPSE

ductivity through the selective breeding of higher yielding plants is past. More precise techniques are needed to create new lines of crops that can cope with drought, flooding

and poor quality soils. These are traits that must be selected for and where better to begin than underground? After all, it is the soil that provides nourishment to our hungry

plants and it is their sprawling roots that, not only provide anchorage and support, but also mediate the movement of life-giving nutrients from earth to ear.

The idea of fresh water being in short supply due to climate change is a real worry for the first time. Restrictions on watering and irrigation are becoming more and more common across European countries due to drought and yield is suffering as a result. However, farm-

ers simply will not buy into drought-resistant lines if yield is compromised. Their argument is understandable, buying drought-resistant varieties in a good year means they lose out to farmers that didn’t. Research must be directed into creating cultivars with plasticity, that maintain high yields with droughtresistant traits that kick-in when the going gets tough.

The same goes for the development of crop lines able to cope with poor quality

Agronomists and farmers alike must reunite to cultivate “The Green Revolution: Round Two”

soils. More people means less space for agriculture and the forced usage of poor soil in less habitable areas, farmers need tailor-made plants armed with an arsenal of stress-resistant traits to battle coming challenges.

If this paints a rather bleak future, a post-apocalyptic world crawling with famished individuals, do not be alarmed; a light shines at the end of the tunnel. Research is underway and has already some very promising results. Unfortunately, the sheer logistics of studying roots is difficult; they are underground and hard to remove without damage. New screening methods, however, are rapidly being developed that produce 3D images of the root system architecture like an x-ray. The software is also able to analyze composition and cell organization of the roots scanned. Using this, agronomists have been better able to observe the effect of reduced soil quality and water-stress conditions on the roots of crop plants. Those that cope best can be selected and used to pinpoint the exact genes responsible. The future is rapidly becoming the present, but we have the tools to tackle new challenges, and remember, it’s what’s underneath that counts.

Ione Bingley SYNAPSE | 25

OPINIONS

Let’s get to the Roots of the Problem W

ith the global population predicted to hit 9 billion by 2050, agronomists and farmers alike must reunite to cultivate “The Green Revolution: Round Two”. Round one saw the storming success of dwarf crop varieties allowing an increased yield without the risk of weak stems breaking or lodging. In round 2 we face new, wilier opponents.

Food production must be doubled to satisfy the exponential rise of grumbling stomachs. Development of crop cultivars and farming techniques better suited to our changing climate is paramount. With stores of fossil fuels depleting and the risk of drought looming, increased output must be achieved with decreased input. Put simply, we need more food production from less fertilizer, less pesticides and less water. It’s not going to be easy, but there may be a solution, perhaps we need to dig a little deeper The age of increasing pro-

24 | SYNAPSE

ductivity through the selective breeding of higher yielding plants is past. More precise techniques are needed to create new lines of crops that can cope with drought, flooding

and poor quality soils. These are traits that must be selected for and where better to begin than underground? After all, it is the soil that provides nourishment to our hungry

plants and it is their sprawling roots that, not only provide anchorage and support, but also mediate the movement of life-giving nutrients from earth to ear.

The idea of fresh water being in short supply due to climate change is a real worry for the first time. Restrictions on watering and irrigation are becoming more and more common across European countries due to drought and yield is suffering as a result. However, farm-

ers simply will not buy into drought-resistant lines if yield is compromised. Their argument is understandable, buying drought-resistant varieties in a good year means they lose out to farmers that didn’t. Research must be directed into creating cultivars with plasticity, that maintain high yields with droughtresistant traits that kick-in when the going gets tough.

The same goes for the development of crop lines able to cope with poor quality

Agronomists and farmers alike must reunite to cultivate “The Green Revolution: Round Two”

soils. More people means less space for agriculture and the forced usage of poor soil in less habitable areas, farmers need tailor-made plants armed with an arsenal of stress-resistant traits to battle coming challenges.

If this paints a rather bleak future, a post-apocalyptic world crawling with famished individuals, do not be alarmed; a light shines at the end of the tunnel. Research is underway and has already some very promising results. Unfortunately, the sheer logistics of studying roots is difficult; they are underground and hard to remove without damage. New screening methods, however, are rapidly being developed that produce 3D images of the root system architecture like an x-ray. The software is also able to analyze composition and cell organization of the roots scanned. Using this, agronomists have been better able to observe the effect of reduced soil quality and water-stress conditions on the roots of crop plants. Those that cope best can be selected and used to pinpoint the exact genes responsible. The future is rapidly becoming the present, but we have the tools to tackle new challenges, and remember, it’s what’s underneath that counts.

Ione Bingley SYNAPSE | 25

Marvels

The Amazonian Water Lily The Amazonian water Frances Cartwright

lily, Victoria amazonica, has leaves up to 2.6m across that can grow nearly a foot in a day!

It is highly adapted to its aquatic environment with sharp spines on the undersides of the giant lily pads to stop it becoming fish food and a network of large air-filled veins within the leaf to provide buoyancy that could support the weight of a well-balanced adult human! It also has a sophisticated system for ensuring efficient pollination. The ‘female’ white lily flower releases a pineapple-like aroma to attract scarab beetles carrying pollen. The beetles are unwittingly trapped within the flower which closes to ensure pollination. During the day that the beetles are confined, the flower undergoes a sex change to become male and produces pollen that rubs off on the beetle inhabitants. When evening arrives, the pink flower opens, releasing the pollen carrying beetles which are free go in search of the more appealing sweet smelling white flowers.

MARVELS

A lake in Australia glows in the dark! The Gippsland Lakes in Victoria, Australia were seen to give off an unusual bright blue glow after a large forest fire and heavy rainfall over the past few years.

This disruption caused an increase in the lake’s concentration of microorganisms called Noctiluca scintillans (also known as ‘sea sparkle’). The ghostly blue glowing effect was actually caused by the bioluminescent characteristic of ‘sea sparkles’they produce natural light due to a chemical reaction between luciferin and oxygen. Apart from looking pretty, this natural glow also helps organisms to reel in prey and ward of predators!

Continue the fun with Synapse online! Visit our blog.

--- synapsebristol.blogspot.co.uk --Special features

Recent highlights

Tachyglossus - The Real Easter Bunny Why do we die?

Earth’s close call Louisiana pancake batfish

Reema Joshi

A Glow in the Dark Lake 26 | SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 27

Marvels

The Amazonian Water Lily The Amazonian water Frances Cartwright

lily, Victoria amazonica, has leaves up to 2.6m across that can grow nearly a foot in a day!

It is highly adapted to its aquatic environment with sharp spines on the undersides of the giant lily pads to stop it becoming fish food and a network of large air-filled veins within the leaf to provide buoyancy that could support the weight of a well-balanced adult human! It also has a sophisticated system for ensuring efficient pollination. The ‘female’ white lily flower releases a pineapple-like aroma to attract scarab beetles carrying pollen. The beetles are unwittingly trapped within the flower which closes to ensure pollination. During the day that the beetles are confined, the flower undergoes a sex change to become male and produces pollen that rubs off on the beetle inhabitants. When evening arrives, the pink flower opens, releasing the pollen carrying beetles which are free go in search of the more appealing sweet smelling white flowers.

MARVELS

A lake in Australia glows in the dark! The Gippsland Lakes in Victoria, Australia were seen to give off an unusual bright blue glow after a large forest fire and heavy rainfall over the past few years.

This disruption caused an increase in the lake’s concentration of microorganisms called Noctiluca scintillans (also known as ‘sea sparkle’). The ghostly blue glowing effect was actually caused by the bioluminescent characteristic of ‘sea sparkles’they produce natural light due to a chemical reaction between luciferin and oxygen. Apart from looking pretty, this natural glow also helps organisms to reel in prey and ward of predators!

Continue the fun with Synapse online! Visit our blog.

--- synapsebristol.blogspot.co.uk --Special features

Recent highlights

Tachyglossus - The Real Easter Bunny Why do we die?

Earth’s close call Louisiana pancake batfish

Reema Joshi

A Glow in the Dark Lake 26 | SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE | 27