Lived Through

Lived Through

An Everyday Architecture Experience

Elizabeth Jewell Summer 2009 Undergraduate Research University of Tennessee, Knoxville

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

SITE

Addressing the Street and the People

Crazy Neighbor Syndrome

4 5-6 7-14 15-22

PLACE

The Cookie Cutter

Lack of Hierarchy

23-24

LIGHT

Natural Light and Life

Drama in an Environment

41-42

References

59-60

25-32 33-40

43-50 51-58

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Introduction

Projects that are average or common are rarely studied in architecture.

However, it is these everyday environments that impact our lives the most. The general public experiences this common architecture on a grandiose scale. The time spent navigating unexceptional space might take up to 90% of a person’s life. Unfortunately, only a small percentage of architecture projects, landscapes, or spaces are ever recognized for their exceptional design qualities. For one reason or another the real everyday experiences that people have with architecture are forgotten or dismissed. Ultimately it is the lived through architecture that holds the most power to positively effect a person, a society, or transform a way of life.

In order to begin to solve a problem, one must first know of the problem.

Professionals use case studies to learn about design solutions. Common architecture is often overlooked as a study tool because it may be poorly designed or includes mistakes and inefficiencies. These everyday architecture projects are critical for information regarding issues about what we are doing wrong, what is not working, and what types of environments are having a negative impact on people. Only after we study these issues can we begin to make our landscapes, communities, and buildings better.

When studying the perception of this type of architecture it was important to ask the public as well as professionals for opinions regarding the built environment. Many architects might argue that the majority of buildings in our every day lives should not even be considered architecture. Often, issues pertaining to architectural theory and design are not common knowledge. Therefore, this project attempts to unite the public and professionals on common ground. In order to address the impact that everyday spaces have on people the two must work together. More importantly the public and professionals must learn from each other to make more informed decisions that positively impact the environments around us.

The most common complaints concerning an everyday architecture experience fall into three broad categories: site, place, and light. These oversights and difficulties were noted as the most common occurrences in the built environment around us. Architectural references, candid public commentary, interviews, and case studies have been compiled to begin to understand and address these issues. Ultimately this guide is only the beginning of understanding the vast impact our environment has on our everyday lives and the lived through architectural experience.

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SITE

“ Landscapes are formed by landscape tastes. People in any country see their terrain through preferred and accustomed spectacles, and tend to make it over as they see it.�

Fig. 1

- David Lowenthal and Hugh C. Prince

Ibirapuera Park Project, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Roberto Burle Marx

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Addressing the Street and the People Crazy Neighbor Syndrome

Think of any timeless piece of architecture and you are more than likely to link it in your mind to a specific place and time. Architecture has a way of imprinting itself onto our memories as we navigate our lives through it. The landscape grounds architecture and starts to define the true nature of a building. The site is what connects the built environment with the people that use it. Architecture is ultimately nothing without it.

Site has always been one of the most fundamental issues of architecture. Think back to any historical place. The response of architecture to its site has made the difference between real architecture and the inconsequential built environment around it. Unfortunately in today’s bustling world these first lessons are the ones most quickly forgotten. We see more and more buildings that could go anywhere, that don’t react to a site, a culture, a place, or time. They just merely sit there.

There are many ways that site is overlooked when designing. The first and most often oversight is the connection of the architecture to the street and those who are engaging it. Many buildings have under developed street facades, or do not face the street at all. Often this type of built environment is unsettling, as people simply cannot begin to engage the buildings. Reactions to the street are often too simple or overlooked completely. Yet it is this part of the site that is experienced the most by the community and can have the biggest impact.

The second issue of a site that is often overlooked is the adjacent properties and buildings surrounding it. Professionals forget to look beyond a single plot of land to the neighborhoods and architecture that have already been established. People do not experience architecture in isolation so why does it often get built in isolation? The larger context of a site can deeply root a project into its culture and place. Forgetting to address this aspect of the site causes a disconnect between the built environment and the community, ultimately leading to resentment and discontinued use.

Addressing the site can have great impacts on inhabitants and those using the architecture. This factor is the real link in making architecture inhabitable and personal. Ultimately the connection to the site of a project is the fundamental element that can define the architecture as more than just a building, and begin to speak to the public about their place within it.

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Addressing the Street ... and the People

“The street, which is the public realm of America, is now a barrier to community life.�

- Andres Duany

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Site

Addressing the street as part of a site can be difficult. There is a circular relationship between architecture and its site. If the architecture is poorly designed, the landscape around it is negatively affected, and if the site is barren the architecture often follows. This is particularly relevant when talking about the street aspect of a site because it is what people see the most. Generally there is a neglect of designing the street realm because it is already uninspired or desolate. However, when ignoring this part of the site, there becomes absolutely no way for the architecture to become any different.

Generally, people can think of at least one ugly street in their neighborhood. Somewhere there is a street that is pot holed, surrounded by broken parking lots and run down buildings, that has no sidewalks or vegetation. We avoid walking and driving down ugly streets because of the way they make us feel. The buildings on these streets get lost in the jumble; ignored and consequently run down themselves. Or the buildings are at the root of the problem because they dismissed the street to begin with. Either way there is no mistake that ugly streets are everywhere, and they add to this architectural problem.

The streetscape of an architecture project is often overlooked because it is city property or it is out of the designer’s realm of control. Certain regulations may inhibit addressing the street such: zoning laws on set backs, construction methods, and property lines. Public property cannot be altered without jumping through large legal hoops. Therefore the street can become a headache for designers who try to improve existing conditions. For this reason, it is easier to think of architecture in isolation, focusing on what can be controlled. However, by doing this, an important opportunity is often lost.

The street is the first place someone is introduced to a building. A beautiful street can do wonders for businesses and neighborhoods. They can set the stage for random chance meetings, entertainment, and an exciting purchase while seeking shelter from the rain. As the saying goes, first impressions last a lifetime. This is just as relevant to the world of architecture as it is to people because there is a fundamental relationship between the two. A building needs to reach out and greet the street and sidewalk so that people can reach back to the architecture in the same fashion.

One of the most common site mistakes occurs when buildings have been removed from the street. This often occurs with the construction of strip malls shops and restaurants. They are not able to address the street because they are surrounded by a large paved condition. Their removal from the street is expected to widen the cone of vision for passersby who might see the shops and decide to stop. However, this is rarely the case because people associate cars, Addressing the People

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and paving with stress and traffic. It is more difficult to distinguish the signage from the larger distance. Ultimately these stores do nothing to address the street and consequently fall short of their potential.

“Our architecture reflects truly as a mirror.�

- Louis Henry Sullivan

Generally analyzing the site is done from a plan view. The mass of a building is blocked out on the site and the design progresses from there. It is easier to apply an awning over the front door at the conclusion of a project than to design a beautiful sequence of approach from the street at the beginning of the design process. This afterthought approach leaves behind architecture that does nothing to address the street and the person because both are removed from it.

It is important to begin to zoom out of the plan and look at the site from a onlooker’s perspective in order to design architecture that is appropriate for people.

The street is an important gateway that must be addressed because it starts the dialogue between the architecture and its inhabitants.

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Site

THE STREET AND THE CAR There have been many changes in architectural practice based on historical events and eras. Architecture has always become a reflection of the values of a time period. The automobile became an important product of the industrial revolution. Slowly this revolutionary machine needed to be incorporated into architecture design. Parking lots began to appear in front of buildings for ease of entry, and garages started to face forward in the many suburbs being developed. The vehicle became the link between people and their landscapes.

Unfortunately these “odes� to the car are not pleasing to the eye. The mass paving that has occurred across the country and the consequential environmental harm destroy existing sites. A building cannot respond to a site if the landscape has been paved over to celebrate the car.

If architecture indeed does respond to the street, it often responds to the car instead of the people interacting with the architecture. One of the consequences is that we are left with mass parking solutions that overshadow the buildings behind them. Garages face forward, paving is used more than vegetation and entry sequence is under developed. Instead of using the front doors to a project we generally enter a building from the garage.

Ultimately glorifying the car is detrimental to addressing the street and community development because it lacks a response to site on the human scale.

Case Study

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A great site includes streets with a tree belts, sidewalks, and nice views to other architecture and vegetation. However, this condition is difficult to achieve and relatively rare in most American towns and cities. Without these conditions the architect will have to work twice as hard to connect the architecture to the street in a positive way. One of the largest mistakes a professional can make when trying to address the street is failing to incorporate enough vegetation and greenery into the design. Surveys have consistently shown people prefer architecture, streetscapes, and public spaces that include vegetation. Many buildings have some greenery, such as a few bushes or some grass, but most fall short of what would improve the connection to their site. Trees are used the least, when in reality they offer the greatest benefits to people because of the shade and visual protection they provide. When given an opportunity to improve a street, renewing the natural landscape of the site may be dismissed, when it could offer the greatest benefits for strengthening the architectural connection to the site.

The streetscape can affect architecture in ways people are too busy to notice. This is because people avoid paying attention to architecture that they do not care for. Individuals readily notice the places that make them happy and comfortable, and ignore all of the other stuff. Buildings that doesn’t address the street are ghosted out of our memories and our minds. If architecture doesn’t address the people on the street it may even negatively impact the users and the community around it.

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Site

PORTLAND STREETSCAPE VISUAL PREFERENCE COMPARISON

“Two streets in downtown Portland of equal width illustrate the difference that street trees can make in even the most built-up urban settings. The absence of tress on Alder Street (left) makes buildings seem to crowd the sidewalk, and pedestrians are neither protected from the elements, nor buffered from the nearby traffic. One block south, on Morrison Street, the construction of light rail also brought a tree canopy that create a sense of human scale, shades the street, buffers sidewalks from traffic and intercepts stormwater.� (Metro-Green Streets, pg.11) Addressing the People

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Best Practices VEGETATION, VEGETATION, VEGETATION!

Always try to incorporate greenery along the street,

it not only provides a buffer zone for traffic, it is

visually preferred, and good for the environment.

DESIGN AN ENTRY SEQUENCE

Welcome people into the building by providing them this first gateway connection between the site and the interior of the project.

ADDRESS THE PEOPLE BEFORE THE CAR

Try to make the design ‘people friendly’ and remove parked vehicles from sight.

THINK OF YOUR BUILDING AS ANOTHER PERSON

Is the architecture welcoming or harsh? Use street perspectives to analyze the condition. Empathy is always a good thing.

PROVIDE SOME TYPE OF SHELTER

There is nothing worse than getting stuck in the rain.

DEVELOP THE PRIMARY ELEVATION FACING THE STREET

This is the first glimpse of the building people will see.

Make a lasting impression.

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Site

Addressing the People

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“Crazy Neighbor” Syndrome

“I guess mom won’t be inviting the new neighbors over for dinner this time, will she dad?”

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Site

Site is generally thought of in isolation because architects only control change occurring on the project’s single plot of land. This inward focus of design leads to what is known as “crazy neighbor” syndrome. In many neighborhoods there is just one building that doesn’t fit. This type of project is readily noticed by both locals and visitors. A building might seem really out of place or in discord with its surroundings. Examples might be landscapes where there are bold artistic statues facing the street, or a gravel lawn has been designed to show off a personal heritage. Other, more architectural, design oversights might lend themselves to a completely different building style or scale compared to the rest of an area. Generally these projects seem to break all the rules and they stand out like sore thumbs. Ultimately the underlying culprit is that this architecture does not respond to the surrounding context of a site.

Trying to fit in went out of style in middle school. This mentality has affected the projects of artists and architects alike as they strive to provide unique solutions to design problems. The problem with this drive for originality is that many projects overlook certain factors pertaining to site and its larger implications of style, scale, and material. These surrounding elements on a site might be difficult to accept if they are below par or executed poorly. However they do offer a larger opportunity for the architecture to be truly interconnected to its community.

Over time architects may have even been perceived as egotistical because of this type of architecture. There is a fine line between architecture that is a personal artistic expression and architecture that embodies an artistic expression of a place. Many of these general misconceptions of the public stem from looking at architecture, and not from a specific encounter with an architect. When a building stands out, it may say to the general community that it is better than all of its surrounding projects. This headstrong type of thought process leads to architecture in isolation, not connected to anything other than the intentions of the architect and client.

Architecture is often primarily defined by its style because it is the most readily identified element of a project. Hence you hear people make comments such as, “Oh, I just love contemporary architecture!” or, “I don’t really like modern architecture because it seems impersonal.” A site therefore probably has a specific style of surrounding buildings that should be thoroughly considered before design development begins. This context should influence the design of the façade and how a building will be seen in relationship to its surroundings. When a building dismisses this site context it begins to look out of place. People passing by a building cannot visually see its relationship to the architecture around it, hence the overall disconnect between the project and its site.

“Crazy Neighbor” Syndrome

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This doesn’t mean that the architecture is limited to the style that surrounds it. There are many beautiful projects in a different style than their surroundings that do not appear out of place. They do however relate to their neighbors through the overall rhythm and pattern of the area. They integrate stylistic elements together to form a comprehensive piece of work that fits the site appropriately without being overbearing or offensive. When buildings do not do this they take away from the coherency of the place and are often despised by the community regardless of how well they were designed in isolation.

Fig. 2

Parliament Building

The Parliament Building (lower right) is built in a different style than its surrounding site (upper left). It is this contrast that makes the architecture seem disconnected from the existing heritage of the historic surroundings.

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Site

THE PARLIAMENT BUILDING When asking the general public for examples of architecture they disliked, an interesting project was named; the Scottish Parliament building in Edinburgh. A non-architecture student had visited the area recently and was somewhat disturbed by this new addition to the royal mile. The project is contemporary in style, a stark contrast from the surrounding historic area, and has been a controversy since its completion in 2004.

There has been much criticism of the new Parliament building because of its contrast to the immediate site. Ultimately the majority of protest to this project has been from the local community. Political issues of money aside, the project uses different materials, an alternate stylistic effect, and has a presence within the area that is abrupt and disproportionate to all of the surrounding buildings. It might or might not be a brilliant work of architecture, but it fits the “crazy neighbor� syndrome mold perfectly.

A combination of factors can influence the ultimate integration of a project into the overall fabric of a site. This project chose to stand on its own and attempted to portray a new vision of contemporary architecture to the community. Ultimately it has been met with both acceptance and resistance as it created its own site and dismissed the one that existed before.

Case Study

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When analyzing the context of a site, the choice and expression of materials within the surrounding area establish the neighborhood’s identity and should be thoroughly noted. Local traditions and available resources often determine these material choices making them precious to the coherency of a community.

A site can offer many clues to what works in an area and what does not. For instance steel is great for urban architecture because of its structural properties.

Brick and wood are often used in rural areas because they are readily available as resources. People are perceptive to changes in material that differ from the more familiar natural alternatives. A building that strays too far from the existing material pallet will alarm residents. It will seem foreign because of the intrinsic relationship people have with their natural surroundings.

One of the larger dangers of overlooking site materials and customs has to do with building integrity. Naturally occurring materials and methods of construction are geographically specific, and ignoring them can lead to leaks, quick material decay, and inefficiency. Not addressing a site’s predisposition to have a certain climate can destroy a piece of architecture faster than any resistance of the public to said architecture for being different. This mistake is one of the few catch 22’s of poor design. However, it is fairly common. This type of error causes loss to not only the client, community, and landscape, as materials are wasted to produce something that will quickly become unstable, but also to the architect who is legally responsible for the mistake.

Respecting the scale of a site can do wonders for developing community and a public face for visitors. Many zoning laws are in place to prevent projects that are out of scale from being built. Unfortunately there may be loopholes in the system that allow buildings to form that are disproportionate to the surrounding community. Often footprint requirements are determined by client needs and wants and can be difficult to modify. Architecture that is out of scale from its site can become overbearing and uncomfortable. It is important for the site’s sense of scale to be maintained so that people can relate to their environments.

A site generally has an intrinsic rhythm surrounding it of similar sized forms and patterns. For example, houses in a neighborhood are often set back a similar distance from the street, have comparable window sizes, floor heights, and building footprints. These patterns are often studied on an urban design scale and may offer many opportunities for integrating local architecture. A working knowledge of this type of site analysis is important for addressing a project’s more immediate context. Architecture that ignores the overall rhythm of an area consequently is in discord within the community.

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Site

An example of this discord occurred in a small neighborhood where there were zoning laws regulating how many structures could sit on a lot. The lots were fairly modest and the houses of similar scale. A developer saw the potential in this up and coming area and decided to purchase many of the lots and build newer homes for a profit. He was able to double his profit by building two McMansions on each lot simply by connecting them with a single small wall. Unfortunately these new houses were so out of scale with the rest of the neighborhood that they destroyed the existing community and became an eyesore for passers by. Traffic in the area has increased and people are concerned about safety issues.

Architecture has an effect on a larger area than its plot of land. Therefore it should also respond to this area in its totality through integration of style, materials, and scale. Designing in isolation only creates isolated buildings. People cannot begin to appreciate a project’s subtle idiosyncrasies when they are so put off by its discord with the surrounding area. Architecture is not about competing with existing buildings or about making people feel uncomfortable to feed an ego.

Designing architecture that responds to site enables it to become a part of something larger than itself.

“Crazy Neighbor� Syndrome

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Best Practices

ANALYZE A LARGER CONTEXT

Zoom out from a project as far as possible and really get a feel for what is important in the area.

DIAGRAM LOCAL CONDITIONS

Adjacent elevations, movement patterns, and formal qualities among others should be visually diagramed so that a project can respond to these site conditions.

BLEND NEW CONDITIONS WITH EXISTING ONES

Try to integrate existing local style, materials, and scale into the language of the architecture.

LEARN FROM HISTORY

Learn from the mistakes and triumphs of the

architecture in the area. They can speak volumes about

what works.

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Site

“Crazy Neighbor” Syndrome

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PLACE “Architecture is the art of how to waste space”

Fig. 3

- Phillip Johnson

Minimal Dwelling Project, Albrecht Heubner

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The Cookie Cutter A General Lack of Hierarchy

The technical difference between a place and a space is fairly small, yet the two have very different associations. A space is void of meaning and is merely a means to an end. “I need more space to put my stuff.” A place has a purpose, an intention, and an identity. “Would you like to join me at my place for a fun evening of dinner and games?” Within the last century the amount of spaces being developed far outweigh the amount of places being developed. This has caused a landscape ridden with meaningless buildings and waste.

One of the causes of this over abundance of space has come from the ease in which standard buildings can be made. The lack of design in these spaces makes them cheap to construct with a quick turn around. Many begin to look similar as a product is used repeatedly to save time and money. The overall effect is monotonous and uninspiring. A cookie cutter has become the mold for architecture instead of ideas. Consequently people are losing a respect for architects and for the buildings that they inhabit.

Lack of hierarchy has also caused this disconnect between people and their environments. It is difficult to attribute value to a space that looks like every other space within a project. Defining places takes time, thought, and a good amount of insight about what people want and need. Using hierarchy is ultimately one of the few ways to distinguish these values. It is necessary to make a work of architecture important to its inhabitants and develop this sense of place

Just as it is harmful to make buildings that are completely different from their surroundings, it is also harmful to make buildings that all start to look the same. The one distracts and disrupts a landscape. The other becomes a confusing maze of repetition. Balance and poetry are necessary in order to avoid both mistakes. After all, it is places, not spaces, that begin to tell a story, to impact people, and work their way into the lives of their occupants.

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The Cookie Cutter

“We look at the present through a rear-view mirror. We march backwards into the future. Suburbia lives imaginatively in Bonanza-land.�

- Marshall McLuhan

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Place

Architecture in America has become plagued with a stamping effect.

Buildings are being mass-produced in order to meet all the needs of society. This type of production has led to a general lack of place and overall homogeneity in areas across the country. The amount of design time put into these spaces is decreasing as certain archetypes can easily be manipulated and used over and over again. The most common culprits are chain stores and suburban housing. These buildings serve a distinct purpose but lack an architectural element that defines them as places.

In every part of the country there are chain stores and housing archetypes that are readily recognizable by locals and visitors alike. When these spaces start to outnumber the unique places within an area the community begins to suffer. Visitors are less likely to return to a region that lacks a unique expression and local flare. This hurts the local economy and impedes growth. Many communities don’t understand why people don’t visit. The locals can tell you all about the unique things to do and see, yet commerce and travel numbers are very low. Often this comes down to the fact that the amount of spaces in an area far out weighs the number of places. The scale has been tipped toward the less favorable of the two. The instinctive question is: “Why travel if you can see the same things at home?”

Morale diminishes as this type of homogenous environment begins to feel more like a prison camp than a thriving and energetic community. Driving or walking past similar spaces becomes monotonous. Visitors have a harder time navigating because everything looks the same. These types of cookie cutter spaces leave people with negative experiences and memories. One surveyor commented on an experience he had visiting one such area. “It was like I was in a bad dream and everybody was walking around like zombies. I kept having de jà vu trying to navigate out of the city because it all looked the same and everybody seemed dead. The whole place just gave me the creeps.” Another surveyor commented on a different area, “I went to visit a friend and her family for the weekend but they lived in this suburb where all the houses looked exactly the same. I spent almost thirty minutes trying to find their house because I had forgotten the street name and couldn’t distinguish the small flower bed they had described to locate their place.”

The problem with cookie cutter buildings is that they become a means to an end rather than a unique expression of a place. Chain stores always look the same because they are designed to be easily recognizable. They provide their corporate clientele with the peace of mind that people can find their stores and that these buildings represent the specific identity being marketed to the populace using them. A chain restaurant looks the same everywhere because that The Cookie Cutter

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TWO DIFFERENT APARTMENT COMPLEXES WITH SIMILAR FLOOR PLANS FOR EACH UNIT

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Place

is what the client wants. It would be too expensive and exhaustive to design a unique solution for every place that restaurant was to be located across the country. The client for this type of architecture needs an extensive number of the buildings. The only way to design them is therefore to use a simple repetitive approach.

Suburbia fills the need for housing using a similar methodology. Affordable housing has such a large demand because shelter is one of the most basic needs of the human condition. Unfortunately good design has not been associated with affordability. To offer people the low costs of housing under the guise of good design, architects and developers have to cut corners. The suburbs generally rely on a small variety of plans used in alternating fashion to develop the appearance of a housing complex. They attempt to mimic more developed systems of community. These suburban areas often lack a hierarchy, a public space, or efficient layout component. They more importantly lack a sense of place as they look so similar to one another and offer none of the elements of a realistic community within the complex. The cookie cutter suburbs are responding to the basic needs of people yet they are using an inefficient method.

These simple solutions are used repeatedly because of the appeal they have to potential clients. If people didn’t like suburbia, they wouldn’t live there.

If chain stores didn’t continue to make a profit from the repetitive sprawl, they would stop making more stores. Ultimately these cookie cutter projects have become the norm. They consume a visual landscape with their clutter often leaving more architectural places unnoticed. When places are overshadowed by these masses, people don’t have the opportunity to experience a better type of architecture. People “like” suburbia because they have never experienced something better. The cookie cutter has been used repeatedly because it overshadows all other architecture alternatives. Developing architecture that responds to a specific culture and topology is the only way to re-balance the scale, to bring people a place with spirit and intention.

This overuse of cookie cutter effect diminishes an architect’s capacity to make places because of the herd mentality it sets into motion. These safe, yet overused, solutions are being pushed from all sides. Clients prefer their low costs, contractors prefer their ease of construction, and developers prefer their profitability, as a sound investment that has proven tried and true. Instead of focusing on developing a unique structure that serves a purpose architects have again and again been corned into using these standard methods for design.

The Cookie Cutter

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WHAT ABOUT PREFAB? The industrial era produced an architectural building technique called prefabrication. It used all of the efficiencies of the manufacturing process to cut construction costs and time. Individual components of an architecture project were built in a warehouse facility with an assembly line process, similar to how cars, planes, and boats are produced. The smaller components were later assembled on site to form the completed piece of architecture.

Prefabrication took a lot of criticism in its early years for not offering site specific solutions. After all, it was a literal cookie cutter building technique, something not yet embraced by the masses. Many of the early prefab buildings looked exactly the same. This is why quickly after its introduction the concept was dismissed for its shortcomings.

Since then prefabrication has made great strides in offering site specific and unique solutions to common architecture problems. It continues to maintain the efficiencies of the manufacturing process and has even incorporated advancing technology to make more environmentally friendly architecture. Innovators have made this new type of prefab a solution for effective place making.

It uses the cookie cutter idea as a tool for the building process instead of using it as the end product. Prefab solutions today are far more advanced than the original conceptual model allowed.

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Case Study

On the most routine days people need a visual and mental break from their surroundings to create renewed energy. Architecture has shown that it can give people this energy if it breaks the mold and offers a place of retreat for its inhabitants. Architecture is meant to be an art form, not a baking stamp. A place can become something that starts to tell a story, or inspire its occupants. A cookie cutter building can do neither of these things. It is merely serving its purpose and contributing to the overall problem of monotony and wasted space in an area.

When architects begin to rethink conventional solutions and push for a better type of architecture, the balance of space to place will become more favorable.

Comparison of Two Similar Concepts Prefab With Varying Results

Cookie Cutter

1. Opportunity to define a place

Often

Slim to None

2. Efficient Manufacturing Process

Yes

No

3. New Construction Appeal

Yes

Yes

4. Quality of Construction

Very Good

Fair

5. Similar Components Used

Many

Many

6. LEED Certified

Often

Slim to None

7. Original Iterations

Endless

One

8. Cost Comparison

Inexpensive

Average

9. Site Specific

Yes

No

The Cookie Cutter

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Best Practices

MAKE IMPROVEMENTS TO EXISTING SOLUTIONS

Use innovation to make existing solutions better.

DESIGN A PLACE

Develop a gathering place, an iconic place, a quiet and comfy place. Have an intent for the type of place and the design will follow.

AVOID THE HERD MENTALITY

Resist pressure to use cookie cutter solutions.

New technologies, practices, and ideas can inspire fresh architecture.

STAY CURRENT

THINK COMMUNITY

When developing a project think about what type of

purpose does it serve within the broader context

of community. How could it be improved.

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Place

The Cookie Cutter

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A General Lack of Hierarchy

“Sometimes you gotta create what you want to be a part of”

- Geri Waitzman

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Place

The other problem with the lack of place associated with American architecture may be linked to an overwhelming lack of hierarchy within buildings. Spatial hierarchy is often experienced by the public on a subconscious level. The size of a room might distinguish it from other rooms within a project. A vaulted ceiling might draw people to a certain area for gathering. Even a change in materials or lighting may establish a spatial hierarchy that effects a person’s interaction with their environment. Ultimately developing these hierarchies is one of the most basic principles of architectural design and yet, it is too often overlooked.

Using techniques to make space more three dimensional and varied brings about a shift in identity that begins to define them as places. Without this emphasis in hierarchy rooms and other indoor spaces become dull and standard.

Even outdoor landscapes may become boring, doing nothing special to accentuate themselves as places for people to inhabit and enjoy.

One of the best ways to define a place is to bring out what makes a space unique and special. This technique involves playing up the fact that a place ultimately did not happen by chance, but rather with specific intention. The standard house or office block lacks this type development. Generally all of the ceilings are the same height, and all of the walls use the same material. The floors might be the only hint of transition as they begin to describe differences between living and utility spaces. Ultimately these minute changes are not enough to define a place. These spaces need hierarchy of material and section to define them.

Think of the standard home. The light fixture that is supposed to hang over the dining room table might be the only factor that defines that room. If it were removed that space could be used for something entirely different. The living room might have a mantle and fireplace but the architecture does nothing else to indicate that a happy family always gathers there. Even the bedroom is common, with the same windows and connection to the corridor as the other rooms in the house. These spaces in homes are fine, but ultimately they could be places that drastically impact an inhabitant’s notion of home, family, and friends.

People tend to spend a great deal of time and effort trying to change an environment that is spatially lacking. They often do this before any other in-house project. Large quantities of money are spent by both the private and public sectors on furniture, decorations, and interior improvements. The average room is painted at least two times within the time span of one owner. Even television broadcast ratings have demonstrated that there is a new preoccupation with design and remodeling shows. “Trading Spaces” , a popular design show has already trademarked books and other publications that teach individuals about A General Lack of Hierarchy

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COMMON INDIVIDUAL EFFORTS TO IMPROVE HIERARCHY IN A LIVING ROOM SPACE

“My living room feels entirely different! I wish I had painted the fireplace sooner. This simple change has made a huge difference in the space. Now I just can’t wait for winter!”

One of the primary reasons the owner chose this place of residency was the addition of a fireplace to the living room area. She was excited about the hierarchical implications a fireplace could offer the room. However, shortly after moving in, she noticed that the space was not what she had romanticized. She waited an entire year before finally deciding to paint the fireplace in an attempt to make it the focal point of the room. Before, the fireplace was the same material and color as the surrounding walls. The red accent paint has established a sense of hierarchy within the living room. The owner has been pleasantly surprised by the energy and character that this simple change has made to her living space.

The language of the architecture could have established this type of hierarchy prior, and saved this resident a year of a lifeless living room.

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Interview

alternate “do it yourself” design solutions. This fascination may be because people are becoming desperate to learn how to change the environments that do not meet their needs. Often when people do remodel, the changes are less than ideal. It is ultimately not an inhabitant’s responsibility to try to fix an interior environment and fail because the design was lacking in the first place.

Working environments are often similar. Many office plates are single story and unexceptional. Cubicles are used to define personal territories and desks are interlocked into quadrant type pods. The few higher up corporate offices or common area conference rooms get the windows but lack defining elements other than the wall that separates them from the rest of the office plate. These space-maximizing techniques may offer greater square footage for a working environment, but they come with a spatial price. Noise factors, idiosyncrasies in furniture, misalignments, and homogeneity play a role in work performance. Environmental monotony affects people’s working habits and enthusiasm levels. The lack of hierarchy in an office often results in lower production rates and levels of critical thinking.

Some simple changes in section, even if by using different materials could begin to define distinctive areas within these larger types of spaces. This variety is physically and visually interactive, allowing people to make positive and personal associations with specific architectural places. The section is the easiest tool for developing places in architecture because it completes the third dimension of space that defines an area. Really good architecture is spatially diverse, bringing certain and definite levels of hierarchy to the individual components of the project.

It always has a thoroughly developed section. A plan can have beautiful spatial qualities, but a section defines the space that people inhabit.

Even outdoor spaces need more hierarchy. Neighborhoods tend to lack hierarchical public places that help to establish a strong community. In many gardens and exterior spaces all of the plants begin to grow together and there is a lack of clear edge to define one area from the next. When walking through these landscapes there is rarely a place to stop and pause to enjoy the atmosphere of a specific area. This is because people are generally walking through monotonous outdoor spaces and not through a series of exterior places. Architects need to address the problem of developing public places just as much as they need to diversify their interiors.

This lack of hierarchy applies to any space people inhabit on a daily basis.

Think of all the boring public spaces with no hierarchical element, or all of the warehouses where men and women work day in and day out. Their break room most certainly didn’t get the development it needed to help define how valuable these people are to the working process. Ultimately architecture needs to A General Lack of Hierarchy

36

take a stance on what is really important about these places. Developing a hierarchy will positively effect the people using them.

Making changes in section and materials can have a huge impact on an environment. Even changing one wall of a room to a different material can make vast differences in defining that room as unique. Using changes in section to define an atmosphere is very effective in showing the character of architecture, and bringing diversity to an otherwise monotonous environment. These places become central aspects of people’s everyday lives and have a large impact on a person’s character development.

Fig. 4

Red River Flood, 1952

Photo taken of woman as part of news story exhibiting an inhabitant’s connection to place. (Wells, Pg. 303) 37

Place

ARCHITECTURE HAS A STRONG HOLD There is a weird connection between people and their homes. This connection has the power to influence people in ways that are not totally rational. In countless natural disasters citizens have refused to leave their place of residency even when they are physically threatened by the possibility of death. This hold that architecture has on its inhabitants is proven through documented disaster relief efforts and psychological studies.

One such study found that individuals often develop a sociopathic relationship with their dwelling places after an extended period of time. The elderly are the most common citizen type to develop this behavior, especially after the death of a spouse or close friend. In many cases families plead with their loved ones to leave an unsafe or unhealthy environment only to be met with resistance and resentment.

Memories and experiences define a person’s development. The architecture that houses these life changing events becomes a part of this development and begins to be ingrained into a person’s associated identity. There is a subconscious connection between a person and their environment because at all times the one is directly impacting the other.

The effect this significant relationship has cannot be underestimated as it is a powerful force that needs to be thoroughly developed. A place can impact a person in defining ways. It should be designed to offer the best type of experiences.

Case Study

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Best Practices

DESIGN A PURPOSE FOR DIFFERENT SPACES

Diagram each space and the intent for it.

USE MATERIALS TO PROVIDE HIERARCHY

Change materials as part of a design expression.

DEVELOP THE SECTION

Design visually interesting sections. Spatial hierarchy is very powerful and a critical component of good design.

DON’T FORGET LANDSCAPING

It is still the architect’s job to provide landscaping solutions for exterior public places.

GO BACK TO YOUR ROOTS

Refer to your first design portfolio and school texts.

They are the foundation of your profession.

ASK A COLLEAGUE

Just like in school, design critiques still offer much needed insight into design flaws and better solutions.

An opinion from a respected colleague can vastly improve a project.

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Place

A General Lack of Hierarchy

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LIGHT “Who is more foolish, the child afraid of the dark or the man afraid of the light?�

- Maurice Freehill

Fig. 5

Orange Sound Project, Lauretta Vinciarelli

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Natural Light and Life Drama in an Environment

One of the most common architectural design mistakes involves lighting design. Architecture is firstly perceived through the eye, yet architects may not design how their architecture uses light to enhance this perception. The lighting design of a project has a large impact on an inhabitant’s perception, yet it is the least understood and most overlooked component of design work.

One of these oversights is under utilizing day lighting techniques to bring life to a space. The sun drives life, yet many architectural spaces have no natural light. Day lighting provides the best type of light for people because of its natural health qualities and visual association with thriving environments. Even personal performance factors are far greater when more natural light is present in an environment compared to artificial light. Efficient day lighting can have a large impact on an inhabitant’s physical and psychological well being and can change a dull lifeless space to one that is thriving.

The other oversight is simply overlooking the impact well designed artificial lighting can have on an environment. Much of a place’s character is developed through the type of lighting effect it utilizes and how it is used to set a mood or highlight a specific element. Good lighting design can make the difference between a dark and dangerous space at night or an active lively streetscape.

Lighting design is more about creating drama in an environment than meeting lumen requirements by putting fixtures on a grid. This key aspect of design is one of the most powerful tools architects have to make great places.

Unfortunately, when it comes to architecture, lighting design usually may be an afterthought, or not considered at all. Poor lighting design or lack of it has the power to change the character of an architecture project. When lighting is under utilized or forgotten it leaves behind lifeless and uninspiring projects. Many buildings do not incorporate developed lighting design into the final product.

People benefit from a healthily lit environment and deserve the best light qualities possible. This one element has the power to change a space and connect people to their architecture.

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Natural Light and Life

“Honestly, I don’t know if I have ever seen a beautiful office.”

43

Light

Natural lighting is a design technique that provides better interiors. People have a primal association with beauty and the natural world, yet the majority of lighting used is artificial. Day lighting gives an interior the same beauty associated with the natural world and links people to their exterior environments. The sun should be utilized as a lighting solution in all architecture, but too often this is not the case. Day lighting is not only an ecological method of lighting design, but it also offers people increased performance and health benefits. Natural light ultimately has the ability to bring life to a space and to transform an architectural environment.

The average building uses day lighting for less than half of its lighting needs. Many projects are lit using fluorescents or halogen bulbs, which drain energy and have to be replaced often. Buildings that do not utilize daylighting often have higher energy costs and lower retail values than those with an abundance of natural light. The overuse of artificial lighting causes energy waste and is not an efficient architectural solution. Integrating better daylighting into a project saves time and money. It can be a flexible alternative to artificial light . A project has the potential to meet the majority of its lighting needs during the day with use of the sun.

Day lighting should be a priority in design because of the effect that it has on a building’s inhabitants. It not only links them to the natural site of a project, but it also stimulates their visual perception of a space and time. Having a bedroom that utilizes natural lighting in the morning can rejuvenate an inhabitant’s mood and provide a better start to the day as compared to one where a person wakes in the dark and spends their morning getting ready by artificial light. People associate light levels to time. Movement patterns and activity levels are often dependant on the presence or absence of the sun in the sky. The more closed off an architectural project is from this natural type of light the more dejected its occupants may become.

Natural light is associated with higher performance and satisfaction ratings in every type of built environment. Offices that utilize day lighting show better employee satisfaction, work ethic, and higher production rates than offices whose main source of light comes from artificial lights. Patients in hospitals and continued care facilities heal faster when they have natural light in their rooms and a view to the world outside. Even shoppers buy more and feel better when the lighting in a store comes from an exterior source. Often these effects take place on a subconscious level. But post occupancy studies consistently show that the effects of lighting are ten fold for increased performance.

Natural Light and Life

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People associate beautiful places with natural light. The most valued real estate properties have large amounts of daylight streaming through their interiors. This type of lighting design often transforms an otherwise drab space into something spatially rich. Every one of New York’s most luxurious apartment buildings incorporates a vast amount of daylighting into their interiors. Even bathrooms, hallways, and closets are lit naturally for a visually lush experience in every space. The real estate market has demonstrated that people value natural light, yet its power to transform a space has been vastly underutilized.

Lighting design is both a science and an art. Daylighting is not easily put into scientific terms. Changes in season, time of day, and weather all impact the amount of natural light omitted into a space. Therefore, when trying to design lighting that meets specified lumen requirements, daylighting becomes an extemporaneous factor. The problem with daylighting is that it weights heavily on the artistic side of lighting design. It gets pushed to the back along with other artistic flares of design, such as decoration, and is consequently less popular as a solution for lighting issues.

Relying too heavily on artificial lights to meet the specified lumen requirements for an area can be harmful to inhabitants. Mistakenly putting in too many or too little light fixtures into a space can cause headaches, glare, eyestrain, and overall physical discomfort. Fixtures that can be seen directly provide higher levels of light to the eye causing blotchy vision, and delayed focus rates. This concept is similar to the harm caused by looking directly at the sun, yet less severe. A lighting designer in Europe commented on the difference in quality of light between Europe and America. He said that even though the anatomy of the eye is the same in both cases, American lumen requirements are much higher.

Ultimately America is whitewashing spaces instead of providing comfortable and beneficial levels of light. Natural light is neither harmful or harsh. Utilizing it only benefits people and their vision health.

Natural light can make the difference between a beautiful and bright architecture expression and a drab and dark experience. Ecologically sound alternatives can be used that benefit everyone. Using natural light expresses qualities of a space in a way that no other light can, thus making it an uplifting and inspiring environment to inhabit. Daylighting techniques not only provide light to a space but they activate an interior, bringing life to its inhabitants.

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Light

TWO HIGH VALUE NEW YORK APARTMENTS THAT UTILIZE MASS AMOUNTS OF DAYLIGHT

Fig. 6

In the 100 plus documented apartments of New York known for their luxury and architectural appeal, every single apartment utilizes ample amounts of natural light. The two examples above show daylighting in almost every space including bathrooms and an occasional closet. These represent the market appeal that good architecture with above average light qualities has on the public sector.

Natural Light and Life

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LIGHT IN THE CLASSROOM Architects began designing school classrooms without windows in the late 1950’s. With the baby boom, the need for better learning facilities skyrocketed.

The general opinion from teachers and administrators were that windows provided distraction from learning among students, and that they were a nuisance because of the solar gain and glare associated with them. The introduction of natural ventilation and fluorescent lights also made windows in classrooms obsolete.

Since then the problems associated with these classrooms have been experienced by teachers and students alike. Shortcoming in performance and energy levels were recognized almost immediately.

These classrooms proved to be a fire hazard to students as well as poor learning environments regardless of efforts taken by teachers to improve conditions.

William Caudill, an expert on school design has set forth criteria for education facilities. These guidelines provide innovative solutions showing ways to include natural lighting and ventilation into projects that minimize glare and encourage a variety of learning environments within a space. The U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED for Schools program and several publications put out by the Collaborative for High Performance School include daylight as an important factor for education facility design. The benefits of natural lighting have been wisely noted by the education sector. Architects should use this information to benefit other types of projects.

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Case Study

MIDDLE SCHOOL CLASSROOM WITHOUT WINDOWS BUILT IN 1977

“ Sometimes I think I have more problems with the lack of windows than my students do. They are young and still have a lot of energy. It is hard to get excited about learning in this type of environment. ”

“The connection to the temporal qualities of daylight improves our psychological well being and productivity. In studies of classrooms, windows, daylight, and performance, researchers found that students with more daylighting in their classrooms progressed faster on math and reading tests than students with less daylighting.” (Stein, pg. 581) Natural Light and Life

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Best Practices

DESIGN SPACES WITH WINDOWS

A window is not only a source of natural light, it is a

view to the outside world.

MODEL DIFFERENT DAYLIGHT QUALITIES

Use a rendering program to view how a space will look

through out the day, rain or shine, morning through after

noon.

USE A DAYLIGHT EQUATION

Knowing the depth of light entering a space will lead to decisions that maximize the daylight effect and minimize artificial lighting.

EXPLORE ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF NATURAL LIGHT

A sky light, a varied section with overlap, even a clear story all provide interesting light qualities to those spaces that do not lend themselves to typical lighting solutions.

HAVE FUN WITH THE SUN

Use daylight to enhance a project’s spatial qualities. If you are not excited about it, no one else will be.

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Light

Natural Light and Life

50

Drama in an Environment

“I would never stay here. Somebody would jump out from behind those creepy plants and snatch me!�

51

Light

Unfortunately architecture under utilizes light as a design element that can bring interest and expression to a space. Using light to activate a public area or to elicit a specific emotion can make a space that much more important and unique for those experiencing it. A lack of intent is the primary cause of poor lighting design and dull space. Not developing how a place will be perceived through light leads to an unexpressive and unseen architecture.

Lighting design is the first aspect of architecture to be overlooked, because it is one of the aspects of design that architects understand the least. For the untrained professional the technical aspect of lighting design with calculations, lumens, and numbers does not always directly correspond to the effect it can have in an environment. Light is also more difficult to portray visually because it deals with shade and shadow more than lines and forms. Consequently, it is difficult to accurately express a lighting design to clients without time-consuming models. In general, it is much easier to design lights on a grid that meet a project’s lumen requirements than to dive into a complex mass of data crunching. Therefore, lighting continues to remain one of those hit or miss mysteries of designing a space.

Think of your favorite city at night. The city is probably energized, well lit, and exciting. The lighting in an urban setting often shows you where to go and where not to go. Some buildings fade into the background as dark desolate crime areas, while others come alive for entertainment and energy. Often the lighting of a building at night can set the stage for how it is perceived as an architectural expression. A hip bar and restaurant will have bright lights and many colorful signs. A historic building will be lit in a way that expresses its grandeur or more classical features. A premier will have spotlights and blinking bulbs, while a park might have a romantic promenade of lanterns. All of these examples are part of an architectural identity of the place. Now, think of all the buildings that don’t have this lighting identity. These buildings lack a sense of developed character. Light and identity go hand in hand as the light qualities of a space begin to define what type of place it is.

In general, the darker the space the less likely people are to gravitate towards it. Streetscapes that lack light often become dangerous crime areas for this reason. Entrances that don’t incorporate an active lighting design become unwelcoming and unpleasant. These exterior spaces are usually void of people.

Many projects use standard exterior light to thwart these issues, yet they do nothing to distinguish themselves as architectural places. Many businesses stay open into the nighttime hours and would benefit from the extra activity and safety appropriate lighting design would offer. At night, a little light goes a long way.

Drama in an Environment

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Public spaces need light to energize people. A well lit area may thrive because it will be used for longer hours by the public and have a multitude of functions. A courtyard that implements an energetic lighting design functions well for mixed use projects, offices, and residences. Parks become safe and charming streetscapes when they are well lit. Public venues also experience greater turnout when they have developed lighting schemes. Ultimately people like being able to experience their surroundings. They are unlikely to gather in places they cannot see.

“The windows of my soul I throw wide open to the sun.�

- John Greenleaf Whittier

Fig. 7

The Resurrection Chapel, Turku

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Light

LIGHT DESIGN AND THE DIVINE Secular buildings may have the most developed lighting design schemes because of the association people make between light and the divine. In every religion light has been used as a symbol that connects the devout with the spiritual world. These places of worship sometimes function as the physical connection between people and their ethereal lives. Throughout history, light has been a primary factor in the design of sacred spaces. The impact these buildings have had on the lives of the faithful is nothing short of a miracle.

The light qualities in most of these projects are both dramatic and provocative. Secular architecture uses light to help tell a story, illicit an emotion, and bring people closer to understanding the divine and the nature of their religion. “A beautiful building could reinforce our resolve to be good... to understand God through beauty, for it was He who had created every beautiful thing in the world: the eastern sky at dawn ,the forests, the animals, and even more domestic items like a graceful armchair, a bowl of lemons and a ray of afternoon sun shining through a cotton window blind...� (Botton, pg.118) Light is indeed an element of most beautiful sacred places. They may be able to inspire the devout with their astonishing qualities. Light has the ability to transform a space and is a powerful force. It should be developed in projects beyond the realm of the divine, to make other architecture projects more beautiful.

Case Study

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Two of the most underdeveloped spaces in interiors are bathrooms and hallways. These two types of service spaces are often overlooked because of their low hierarchical value. Development within these spaces seems to be wanting as they usually have poor lighting conditions and lack a sense of expression.

Designing appropriate light for these spaces may enhance their spatial qualities and make them more appealing to inhabitants. An interesting bath area or a well lit circulation space can begin to have multiple functions, making these rooms more efficient and enjoyable.

People generally have specific preferences on lighting. Some prefer brighter spaces and others are more comfortable with dimmed lights. Some individuals are more sensitive to overhead lights because of eyestrain and glare.

Most inhabitants are even physically impacted by specific light tones because of the associations people make between color and temperature. Consideration for these preferences should be given when designing the lighting for a space.

Often lumen requirements are developed with these preferences and needs in mind. For example, an office requires more task lighting than a dance hall. Matching these quantities of light to the intent for a space may be difficult.

Too often that very office space might utilize too much light causing a white washing effect, or not enough light causing a dimmed and inefficient work area.

These effects are more uncomfortable than helpful. Preserving an architectural expression while meeting the requirements for a space is a difficult task. Using a balancing approach to give interest to a space while preserving an environment’s lighting needs is an effective way to solve both problems.

When designing light for interiors and exteriors thinking about a spatial expression and the needs of people will make a huge difference in a built environment. Lighting can be exciting and interesting for both the designer and the observer. Architects can create dynamic and interesting spaces using light as a primary design tool. Lighting design may be utilized to bring out certain spatial qualities of a place, to emphasize architectural elements, or to provide visual interest and drama to an environment. It is key in defining architectural places.

“ The long range question is not so much what sort of environment we want, but what sort of man we want.�

- Robert Sommer

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Light

LACK OF LIGHTING DESIGN WITHIN COMMON SERVICE SPACES

This type of typical bathroom environment may not appear safe or sanitary because of its lack of appropriate lighting.

Lighting design was not a priority for this common hallway.

Many service spaces lack developed and interesting lighting strategies.

Drama in an Environment

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Best Practices GET EXCITED

Light and energy go hand in hand. Developed lighting

takes an enthusiastic designer.

LOOK AT LIGHTING PRECEDENTS

Beautiful places often include beautiful lighting

conditions. If a project is inspiring, learn from its lighting.

SKETCH WITH SHADE AND SHADOW

Develop light in a space through simple shade and shadow sketches. Without typical lines and forms, the lighting qualities and intent for a space become more clear.

DON’T FORGET THE SERVICE SPACES

Pay special attention to those spaces most often over looked.

MAKE EXTERIORS SAFE

Night lighting activates pubic spaces and deters crime.

DEFINE THE PROJECT’S CHARACTER

Light is an integral part of the identity of a building.

Specify a character, quality, or mood the architecture should express. Design the lighting to portray this intent.

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Light

Drama in an Environment

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Images Cited Fig. 1: Ibirapuera Park Project, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Roberto Burle Marx (McQuaid, pg. 107) FIg. 2: The Parliament Building, Edinburgh Scotland. (Jodidio, pg. 167) Fig. 3: Minimal Dwelling Project, Albrecht Heubner (McQuaid, pg. 59) Fig. 4: Red River Flood News Article (Wells, Pg. 303) Fig. 5:Orange Sound Project, Lauretta Vinciarelli, (McQuaid, pg. 249) Fig. 6: Two New York Apartment Plans, (Alpern, pg. 5) Fig. 7: The Resurrection Chapel, Turku (Jetsonnen, pg. 23)

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Resources Alpern, Andrew. New York’s Fabulous Luxury Apartments. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.,1975.

Botton, Alain de. The Architecture of Happiness. New York: First Vintage International Edition, April 2008.

Calthorpe, Peter. The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993.

Jetsonen, Jari and Sirkkaliisa. Sacral Space: Modern Finnish Churches. Finland: Building Information Ltd., 2003.

Jodidio, Philip. Architecture Now! 4. Italy: Tashen, 2006. 166 -173.

Linn, Charles. “A History Lesson”. Architectural Record: Schools of the 21st Century. McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008. <http://archrecord.construction.com/ schools/08_History_Lesson.asp> Lewis, Roger K., A Candid Guide to the Profession. Massachusetts: MIT Press.

1998.

McQuaid, Matilda. Envisioning Architecture: Drawings from The Museum of Modern Art. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2002.

Metro. Creating Livable Streets: Street Design Guidelines. Portland: Metro, 2002.

Metro. Green Streets: Innovative Solutions for Stormwater and Stream Crossings. Portland: Metro, 2002.

Saarinen, Thomas F., Environmental Planning, Perception and Behavior. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. 1984.

Stein, Benjamin, and John S. Reynolds, and Walter T. Grondzik, and Alison G Kwok. “Part III: Illumination”. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings.

New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2006.

Wells, J. V. B. “Floods of 1952 in the basins of the upper Mississippi River and Red River of the North”. Water Supply Paper. 1955. 303-529. < http://www.infomercantile.com/blog/labels/1950s.html>

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