Beef production notes (Compiled by Austine Mabika)

BEEF PRODUCTION NOTES. (Compiled by Austine Mabika) GENERAL USES OF FARM ANIMALS -Source of food -Source of income- local and forex -Companions -guarding -Guiding -for decoration purposes -Animals are pets -for ritual and spiritual uses -Store of value -for making payments -Medicinal uses -research works -Source of raw materials e.g. hooves, furthers, hide, pelts, skin, shells, horns e.t.c.

Beef production introduction Beef production- growing, rearing and/or fattening of cattle for meat production. The objective is to efficiently and cheaply produce beef to realise greater profits from veld with little of purchased feeds.

The production of beef is mainly dominated by exotic breeds although the communal sector has the highest number of indigenous breeds. These animals are mainly studs and commercial ones. Beef marketing in Zimbabwe was liberalized in 1990 giving birth to a number of private abattoirs. A department in the Ministry of Agriculture (Livestock Production and Development) was established in 1995 mainly to spearhead issues of livestock production and development. Livestock Identification Trust (LIT) was set up in 1999 to handle issues of livestock registration and traceability of meat and meat products both at national and international levels.

DEFINITION OF TERMS Calf refers to young cattle from birth to weaning.

Weaner is a young animal from weaning to about a year old.

Long weaner/yearling refers to young animal between 1year and 11/2 years old.

Young bull is an entire male that is still below the age of two years.

Bull is an entire male that is above the age of two years that can be used for breeding.

Heifer is a female animal above 18 months of age that has not calved.

Cow is a female animal that has calved before. Also define steer, oxen, in-calf etc SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION There are 2 options: buying-in of stock and breeding stock.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS The choice of the beef production system must be reviewed periodically to adapt to changing circumstances.

The initial choice to be made is between breeding and buying-in stock, or a combination of these options.

Within the breeding option, marketing may be at various stages from weaning to slaughter stock finished at various stages by various methods.

Within the buying-in option, stock may be bought and marketed at various ages.

The most important factors to consider in deciding on a production system are discussed below.

1. Profitability Take into account likely future market trends, rather than to base estimates entirely on the current market.

All of the following factors will influence the profitability of different systems.

2. Efficiency of production

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The profitability of beef production will be determined more by the efficiency of production than by the system of production followed.

A low weaning percentage will depress the profitability of weaner production to a greater degree than a system of marketing at an older age.

Unless a weaning percentage of at least 75% can be achieved, weaner production should not be contemplated.

Systems involving breeding make greater demands on management and require greater expertise than buying-in and growing-out.

3. Markets The young stock market has seen considerable fluctuations over the past years.

In considering young stock production it is essential that there is an assured market for the stock.

Slaughter stock production has been an attractive system of production in practically all areas, since it has been possible to achieve the highest slaughter grades profitably with only moderate levels of supplementary feed.

However the new grading system and price structure and future trends present unknown factors.

It may become necessary for the traditional producer of slaughter stock off the veld to reduce the age of slaughter or ultimately to produce young stock.

4. Natural Region In the most drought-prone areas it may be advisable to commit only, 75% of the normal carrying capacity to breeding and rearing of slaughter stock, the remaining capacity being used for finishing bought-in stock, depending on seasons.

In the remaining regions there is little restriction on the choice of system.

In some areas the veld may be such that satisfactory slaughter mass and grades cannot be achieved without considerable feeding.

In such cases if grain cannot be produced economically, the production of young stock is advisable.

5. Cropping On crop farms it may not be possible to devote sufficient time to a breeding herd during the normal breeding season.

Altering the breeding season could be considered or buying-in should be practised.

Also to be considered is the system in which crops and crop residues can be most efficiently used.

On grain producing farms fattening of slaughter stock is an obvious choice except when the beef: grain price ratio is such that fattening is uneconomic.

6. Farm carrying capacity and development Weaner production and systems of buying-in involve fewer herds less paddocking and water development is needed and overheads are reduced making them more attractive on small properties.

On very large holdings it is often more difficult to maintain very high weaning percentages, making weaner production less advisable.

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In the earliest stages of development of a property the number of paddocks may be so low that the breeding enterprise is not possible. In this case buying-in of stock is advisable.

7. Planted pastures Planted pastures serve primarily to increase the carrying capacity of a property.

In this way they may also widen the choice of systems of production that can be considered.

8. Predators In certain localities the prevalence of predators is such that calf losses are particularly high.

In these cases buying-in mature animals is advisable.

9. Personal inclination A person will generally operate most efficiently a system of production in which he is most interested.

MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE Management is the direction applied by the stockman to his livestock, either to promote or hinder their productivity.

The following are expected animal performance levels that should be achieved with good management: Production factor Calving rate Weaning rate of first calf cows Weaning rate second calvers Mature cows Weaning mass Replacement heifer mass at bulling about 2years Age at first calving of 36months Overall mortality of the herd Culling rate Replacement rate Bulling rate Calving interval

Level expected 90% 90% 75% 80% ±42 % mature mass ±67% of mature mass 85% of mature mass Less than 2 % 15 to 25 % 20 to 25 % 2 to 4 % or 1 bull to 50 cows to 1 bull to 25 cows 1

Profitability of beef enterprises

T

he profitability of a beef enterprise is mainly influenced by the fertility of the herd.

Factors reducing herd fertility will directly reduce profits. Some of the factors that negatively affect fertility are structural soundness, functional soundness, diseases, nutrition and stress.

Causes of stress are temperatures, lactation, humidity and management. Bull fertility is mainly influenced by breed, age, nutrition and frequency of breeding.

The following are measures of cow fertility. These however should be used in combination and generally indicate overall herd fertility.  Calving interval- period between 2 successive calvings.  Calving rate/percentage- number of live calves born expressed as percentage of the total number of cows exposed to the bull.  Conception rate- a.k.a pregnancy rate. Number of cows bred and conceived expresses as a percentage of total number of cows exposed to the bull.  Weaning percentage- number of calves weaned expressed as percentage of the total number of cows exposed to the bull.

Cattle routine operations 1.

Handling of cattle

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The first essential is good handling facilities. The following are important points with regard to the handling of cattle: a.

Minimum handling: Handling of cattle reduces grazing time and increase energy expenditure. This adds up to loss of performance. Handling operations should be planned to be combined with dipping. b.

Handling aids Sticks and stones are forbidden. A 1m long piece of old broad belting attached to a 30 cm handle is sufficient. An electric cattle prod is useful in freeing cattle jammed in a race. Nose tongs should be used when the head has to be restrained. Ropes and reims should be on hand if required to help free fallen animals, or for throwing and securing animals. Horses can be very useful in inspecting, collecting and moving cattle.

Dogs and cattle do not mix. c.

Animal psychology.

Cattle are nervous by nature and must be kept as calm as possible. Stockmen should move slowly amongst cattle. The last animals in a herd need particularly careful handling. Cattle are creatures of habit. Cattle will always move more willingly into a kraal, dip or race if they can see others ahead of them.

A manageable number of animals to collect into a forcing pen for dipping or for handling in a race is 20 to 30. d.

Training and supervision of stockmen.

Many stockmen have an unsympathetic approach to cattle and training is necessary.

2.

Casting cattle One of the commonest methods is that known as Reuff's method.

A running noose is made at one end of a 10m rope and passed round the base of the horns or around the neck.

A half-hitch is made next around the neck, a second around the chest immediately behind the elbows, and a third around the abdomen in front of the udder or scrotum.

Two assistants pull the rope, and the animal will sink to the ground.

When the animal sinks to the ground, one or two men must keep the head and neck down while the legs are secured separately by ropes.

In-calf cows should not be cast unless absolutely necessary.

Other methods of casting include use of immobilizers and cattle tilts.

3. Dehorning of Calves.

Dehorn as soon as the hornbud can be felt within a month after birth. The principle of dehorning is to cauterise the hornbud and the skin area surrounding it. If the skin is not properly cauterised, malformed horn growth or scars will be produced. Several methods of cautery may be applied.

The reasons for dehorning are to reduce injury to other animals, hides and carcass bruising.

Dehorning reduces space requirement e.g. in feedlot, transportation and trough space. This operation also allow for ease of handling animals.

Methods of dehorning are discussed below. a.

Hot-iron dehorning.

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Gas, electrically or fire-heated irons may be used. These are heated to a dull glow. Test on a wooden plank. The heated dehorning iron is placed over the hornbud and pressure is applied with a circular motion to ensure complete cauterisation of the surrounding skin. The iron should not be twisted. This will break the burnt skin and cause an open wound. Over-hot irons penetrate too deeply and can cause brain damage and subsequent mortality. The length of time that the iron should be held in position depends largely upon its heat.

Pressure should be applied for three to five seconds. b.

Chemical dehorning.

Chemicals such as caustic sticks or branding liquids give good results if used within two days of birth.

It is necessary to clip off the hair covering and surrounding the horn-bud. Problems with chemical dehorning are that the chemical rubs off onto other body parts before it is dry, the udder or runs off during rains. In both cases severe burns may result. c.

Dehorning with other instruments.

The use of dehorning spoons, gouges, scoops or tubes, or any knifelike instrument, is not recommended. Not only are these less effective, but open wounds are caused which can lead to further complications.

Older cattle Horn growth up to 50 mm in length may be removed close to the head with a sharp knife. Cautery of the wound and surrounding skin will prevent further growth. Where horn growth has developed to the stage where the base is too wide for hot-iron dehorning, the use of a guillotine dehorner or embryotic wire is recommended. The blades of this instrument are shaped so that not only is the horn base gouged out, but also about 5mm width of skin surrounding it. The wound should still be cauterised.

Fully-grown horns may be removed with a guillotine, saw or surgical wire close to the head, but the use of a local anaesthetic is necessary.

Swabbing the wound with hydrogen peroxide can reduce bleeding.

Pulling out exposed arteries with forceps also reduces bleeding. Protection against infection and insect worry using Stockholm tar is necessary until the wound has formed a hard crust or scab.

Elastrator rings or rubber tubing applied tightly to the horn base will cause horns to fall off.

As a certain amount of discomfort is caused to the animal, it may be difficult to keep the rubber ring in position.

Tetanus may be introduced by this method.

4.

Castration Intact male calves grow faster than castrates, but this advantage is offset by the greater shock animals experience when castrated at a later age. Animals are castrated to aid in management of the steer herd (docile cattle) and to prevent undesirable matings amongst the heifer herd. Castration also done to meet market specification. The age at which calves should be castrated should be determined by the stage at which the animal is most easily handled (birth to six months more recommended).

A handling device such as a calf tilt facilitates castration of older animals.

Several methods of performing this operation may be adopted using a knife, a Burdizzo or a rubber ring. a. Knife castration This is the only completely safe method of sterilisation because the testicles are removed completely.

This method may be used at any age, but it is illegal to castrate animals older than 12 months by knife without an anaesthetic. The animal is firmly restrained on the ground or in a calf tilt, and the scrotum is washed with a suitable disinfectant solution. Both testicles are then palpated because it is difficult to find under-developed or retracted testicles once the scrotum has been opened.

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The scrotum may be opened by either of two methods: i.

For very young animals with little testicle development the lower third of the scrotum is cut off.

Applying pressure at the point of attachment of the scrotum to the abdomen exposes the testicles. ii.

For animals with more development, a lateral incision is made through the scrotum to expose the testicles. Each testicle is removed individually as follows:  The membrane enclosing the testicle is carefully incised.  The exposed testicle is drawn out of the scrotum and the connective tissue severed allowing access to the spermatic cord and arteries.  The cord and blood vessels are severed with a scraping action, which will reduce bleeding.  Bleeding can also be reduced if an instrument such as a Burdizzo or emasculator is used to sever the cord. Treat the wound with suitable wound oil or powder. b. Elastrator castration

Must be done before the calf is a week old. Apply the rubber elastrator ring with care to ensure that both testicles are completely through the ring. The ring is placed very close to the body, thus constricting the spermatic cord. c. Burdizzo castration This method takes its name from the instrument used. Use when the testicles and spermatic cords have developed sufficiently to distinguish between the two. In calves when they are between two and three months of age. Each spermatic cord should be severed individually but with the pressure mark slightly offset in order to allow blood to circulate to the rest of the scrotum. After the jaws have been closed over the spermatic cord, the testicle is given a sharp jerk to ensure complete severance.

As further insurance the spermatic cord may be again severed, this time below the first position. A Burdizzo should not be stored with its jaws closed because this weakens the instrument. Burdizzos that do not work with complete efficiency are the commonest cause of stagging. The efficiency of a Burdizzo can be checked by closing the jaws of the instrument over a piece of string held between two pieces of writing paper.

If the string is not completely severed it will be advisable to have the bearing of the Burdizzo checked and re-set by the supplier of the instrument.

Other methods of castration that are not commonly used at the moment include the following: Short scrotum method.

Testes are pushed into the body cavity then a rubber ring is used around the scrotum to ensure the testes remain in the body cavity. Sperm production ceases but hormonal production still evident.

Found that growth rate and F.C.R with this method superior to steers.

Russian method.

Insert scalpel into body of testicle, twist and express contents. Performed from 1 - 5 months of age.

As in above method hormonal function is retained. Not a popular method.

Post castration management.

Closely monitor for up to 10 days especially with any open wound methods - blowfly/infections. If swelling and pain persists with a temperature, treat with a suitable antibiotic.

5.

Weaning

Objective of weaning is to prevent the cow from losing too much condition and allowing her an opportunity to regain sufficient condition after weaning to conceive for the following season.

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    

Condition of the cow should be the criteria used to decide when to wean.

Condition scoring of cattle is a useful tool to decide when to wean.

Calves must be weaned before condition score of the cow falls below 3.0.

Cow must be given time for her secretory tissues to recover before the birth of the next calf.

Six to eight weeks are required for this process to be completed.

a.

Weaning age It is normal practice to wean calves between seven and eight months of age.

Where it is practical, the weaning of calves at nine to ten months has the following advantages:  Calves heavier than early weaners due to high protein levels in milk.  Calves adapt more easily to separation.  Cows dry up more easily due to low milk flow. b.

Methods of weaning i. Stockade.

Calves penned alongside a paddock where their dams graze will reduce psychological stress.

The two-week period in pens can be well used to train weaners to eat concentrates; this benefits adjustment to supplementation and to pen feeding at a later stage. ii.

Complete separation.

Calves are moved to pens or paddocks that completely separate them from their dams. The cows remain in their own paddocks in order to reduce stress. Weaners are best herded with older heifers whose presence not only provides comfort but assists with the learning of feeding habits. iii.

Exchanging cow and calf herds.

Cows and calves of two different herds are exchanged. This does not always bring about total weaning since some cows willingly suckle strange calves. iv.

Nose-plate weaning.

Nose-plates prevent calves from sucking, yet allow cow and calf the comfort of each other's presence.

The subsequent separation of cow and calf is made easier, because both have adjusted to the cessation of sucking. Nose-plates are commercially available but can be easily home produced.

6. Routine dipping, inoculations and dosing Refer to modules dealing with these topics.

7. Pregnancy diagnosis The reasons for conducting P.D are: i.

Assist when culling ii.

Early detection and treatment of fertility problems iii.

Enables selective grazing iv.

Detection of abnormalities v.

Indicator of in-calf losses from birth to weaning vi.

Avoid slaughter of in-calf cows.

The methods of conducting P.D are as follows: i.

Palpation of the pregnant uterus-very accurate at day 40 and beyond ii.

Detection of hormone progesterone- determine it concentration around day 24 of pregnancy in milk. It is based on elevateted levels beyond the normal duration of oestrus cycle. Feasible where daily milk collections are conducted- dairy production iii.

Ultrasonography- for testing pregnancy (day 30+) and sex (day 90+). There sis use of an ultra sound scanner. iv.

Observational methods v.

X-rays 8. Weighing of cattle Weighing of the different classes of cattle at various stages is essential for the efficient management, supplementary feeding and selection of cattle.

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Weighing should be kept to a minimum.

Weighings of different classes of stock at the start of the growing season and at two to three week intervals towards the end of the growing season are advisable to measure summer gains and to indicate when supplementary feeding should commence.

During the dry season weighings at two to three week intervals will provide a guide to the required level of supplementary feeding.

It is also necessary to weigh heifers for their final selection for bulling.

A mid-bulling season weighing of all breeding stock can provide valuable information.

9. Identification of cattle Any method of marking animals for identification or recording must be permanent.

The marking should preferably be easily applied and clear enough to be read from a reasonable distance.

Identification is done with numbers and letters. Prefixes denote the year of birth. Herd or sire numbers are often included. For example, 98001 may denote the first calf of 1998. a.

Methods of marking cattle Many different methods and combinations are used to identify animals since no ideal method has yet been found. i.

Branding Branding is a time-consuming job that should be confined to animals expected to remain in the herd for a long time. Cauterisation of the skin is necessary to kill the hair follicles and so leave a visible scar.

The best time to brand is when the animal is still growing, at about six months old. As the animal grows so the numbers will expand.

 Hot-iron branding.

Good hot brands are permanent and can be read from a fair distance. The face of the branding head should be flat. If it has sharp edges it cuts through the skin and damages the subcutaneous tissue before the skin can be properly cauterised. As with dehorning, the branding iron should be heated to a dull glow. If uncertain, test on a wooden plank. Once the animal is properly restrained, the iron is applied very firmly. The length of time that the iron is held in position will vary according to its heat and the pressure applied. The steam produced and the burning hair causes a very slippery surface, a very steady application of the iron is thus required so as not to smudge the brand.  Chemical cautery.

This may produce a satisfactory brand, but is prone to smudging by rain, contact with poles or other animals. It is generally less permanent than a hot brand. For best results shave off excess hair.  Freeze branding.

This is a relatively humane method of branding but it is technically difficult to get good results. The object of this method of branding is to cause de-pigmentation of the hair. De-pigmentation of hair is successfully achieved when liquid nitrogen is used. Clip the hair as close as possible. Clean the area with methylated spirits. Cool the brand marker heads in the liquid nitrogen. Sufficient cooling is indicated by the cessation of bubbling of the coolant. For depigmentation, apply the cooled brand marker to the cleaned skin area for 45 seconds, never more than 90 seconds. Clean off the accumulated frosting on the brand marker before replacing it in the coolant. Branding this way on dark-skinned animals is very clear because the mark left is pure white. ii.

Ear-notching.

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A permanent means of identification. Notches are clipped in the ears to represent numbers as shown.

Ear notches are difficult to read from a distance. iii.

Ear tags The following types are the most common:  Self locking These are reliable cheap and easily applied using an applicator.  Large soft plastic tags These large tags are easily read and are applied with an applicator. The tag should be so positioned that it is secured in a firm part of the ear and is easily visible. iv.

Tattooing.

Tattoos are made using a specially spiked applicator and ink, applied to body parts such as the ears and, occasionally, the lips of animals. It provides a permanent record. It is awkward to read and, if not done skilfully, can be difficult to read. It is less suitable for black animals and tattooed calves cannot be identified without first catching them.

v.

Microchips The use of microchips for animal identification is used to make herd management easier by having a permanent unalterable identification of the animal. They provide a unique l. D. for each animal. The technology is safe simple and painless to install. This method of identification proves ownership of stolen stock a lot quicker than the conventional methods.

The microchip is encapsulated in glass with its own unique l. D. number and the method of tagging is subcutaneous. It is impossible to duplicate a particular code, as there are billions of combinations to choose from.

Portable scanners can be placed at the entrance to a crush or dip, these are linked to a computer so that each animal is recorded for accurate roll calling and it makes sure no animal is done twice.

Handheld scanners can also be used and these provide a simple, efficient means of portable identification and it can store information and transfer it to a computer in the office. These microchips as a means of identification could be the way to go with the problems of stock theft and as a way of improving management.

vi.

Nose print Same principle as a fingerprint. Animals are placed in a crush and secured in a neck clamp.

The nose is cleaned and ordinary stamp pad ink is applied to the nose. A thick sheet of white paper is used to obtain the print. It is advisable to make at least four prints and then to select the clearest. Research is being done to determine whether prints change with age.

It has been found that nose prints are individual and even identical twins do not have the same print.

10 Composition and size of herds Herds should be no larger than can be collected, handled and returned to their paddocks within 2½ hours.

The following provides some general guidelines: a.

Breeding herds The maximum number of breeding cows that can be run in one herd during the calving and bulling seasons is 200 to 300 head. Separate heifers for mating four to six weeks earlier than the cows to allow the use of virgin bulls, for disease control and to permit closer supervision during calving. When the bulling season is over, herds can be further consolidated.

When supplementary feeding starts sort the breeding herd into in-calf cows, in-calf heifers and empty cows and culls.

The ideal is to keep these different categories of breeding stock in different herds permanently.

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b.

Young stock Herds of up to 500 can be run if handling facilities permit. Smaller herds are preferable.

Age and sex groups should be separated during supplementary feeding to minimise dominance by older or heavier animals. c.

Bulls Bulls should preferably be run as a separate group in two or three small paddocks where they can be closely supervised.

11. Breeding season Mating or breeding beef animals can be controlled or un-controlled.

Controlled breeding season Controlled breeding season is recommended for a number of important reasons: a. In each area there is a period which is most favourable for calf growth. This period is also followed within three months by the period during which the highest reconception rates can be obtained. b. More even batches of animals are produced for sale. With calves born during a restricted period it is easier to keep a watch on calving difficulties.

Furthermore, routine calf operations such as dehorning, castration and inoculations can be attended to on a programmed basis. c. It is easier to detect and cull irregular calvers. Young stock can be selected on performance more effectively. Thus more rapid genetic improvement can be made. d. Supplementary feeding can be matched to the needs of different classes of stock more effectively.

Duration of breeding season The breeding season should be as short as possible without reducing calving percentage. High calving percentages can be achieved with a three-month calving season and in some cases as little as seven weeks.

It is advisable to restrict the length of the breeding season for heifers to a maximum of nine weeks, as the earlier calving heifers are generally the higher lifetime producers.

Optimum breeding season The breeding season should be adjusted so as to make optimum use of the cheapest source of high quality feed, the summer grazing. Calves only reach the stage when they can make use of large quantities of milk at six to eight weeks of age. The ideal calving time is six to eight weeks before adequate green grazing can be expected. The late calf is also more susceptible to scours, sweating sickness and parasites.

It is important that the cow should reconceive within approximately three months of calving. In order to reconceive the cow must reach a certain body mass and condition, that requires a period on green grass. The calving season should be two months before adequate green grazing can be expected. As a general guide the following is recommended: Highveld Lowveld

Bulling season Nov 15-Feb 13 Dec 15-March 16

Calving season Sept-Oct-Nov Oct-Nov-Dec

(Based on 290 days gestation period) Heifers should be bulled four to six weeks earlier than the rest of the breeding herd.

Double breeding season.

A winter breeding season in addition to a summer breeding season is used on a number of ranches.

The following comments are relevant: i.

An increase in calving percentages may be achieved under some conditions.

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ii. iii. iv.

v. vi.

Produces heavy weaners (older) for early weaner sales.

It reduces the number of bulls required.

Useful for heifers that are not quite heavy enough for breeding in the normal summer breeding season. These winter-bulled heifers, if returned to summer bulling a month earlier than the cows for their second conception, should achieve good reconception rates.

It requires exceptionally good grazing or extra supplementary feed.

It reduces selection pressure for fertility and weaning mass.

Where management is of a high order and adequate nutrition can be provided for winter lactating cows, a winter breeding season of approximately nine weeks in addition to the normal summer breeding season may have advantages.

Changing the breeding season.

To shorten or bring forward the calving season should be done gradually by no more than three weeks per year. When the conception rate is low at the end of the breeding season, bulling season can be extended. This results in late calves that seldom do well. The late calving cow normally fails to reconceive. It is doubtful whether anything is to be gained by extending the breeding season.

12. Bulling percentage and bull management The number of cows per bull can affect the calving percentage. A bulling percentage of approximately 4% is recommended for multiple sire herds. In single sire herds one bull for 30 to 50 cows is adequate, depending on the maturity and virility of the bull.

The proportion of bulls should be increased to 5% or more if: a. The bulls are young. b. There is a high proportion of dry cows or heifers in the herd. c. The breeding herd is very large. d. The paddocks are large or densely bushed with widely dispersed water.

Before the commencement of the breeding season, a veterinarian should check bulls for fertility.

The deployment of bulls needs careful consideration: a. Bulls put to light service at 18 to 24 months if well grown (approximately 66% of mature mass). b. Virgin bulls should be used with heifers. Prevents disease and stress. c. Keep these bulls with the same group thereafter to prevent the bulls coming onto their own daughters. d. To minimise social dominance, bulls of the same age should be worked together. e. Bulls running with heifers or predominantly dry cows are likely to be heavily worked.

2 to 4 kg of an energy supplement may be advisable.

Mature bulls generally do not require an energy supplement during the breeding season.

13. Management of bulls The objective is to keep bulls to achieve optimum performance in reproduction. When selection a bull, consider the following:  Choose desired genetics  Examine for breeding soundness  Bull performance records  Performance records of all known relatives  Information on all traits of economic importance.

Generally consider bulls with high growth rate, born from a fertile dam, and has siblings that are performing well and being retained in the herd for their performance.

Give bulls a good plane of nutrition particularly protein and energy. Deficiencies may delay onset of puberty and depress semen production and quality. Give a grower diet to growing bulls as at this stage there is more susceptibility to nutritional stress. Ensure that the diet has enough supply of protein, energy, vitamins and minerals. Bulls fed with a low-energy diet for prolonged periods, libido 11 | P a g e

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and testosterone are affected much earlier than semen characteristics. Obesity and overfeeding reduce libido and sexual activity especially during hot weather. Over-conditioned bulls have more chances of foot, leg and joint problems leading to reduced reproductive life.

Protein deficiency affects young bulls more than mature bulls. Deficiencies lead to decrease in libido and semen quality in young bulls. Mature bulls are not usually affected. Mature bulls should only be fed to meet maintenance requirements. There is no increase in libido, perm production and quality due to feeding above maintenance.

Use of teaser bulls The use of vasectomised teaser bulls might hasten the onset of oestrus resulting in earlier calving, a higher calving percentage and increased fertility. Running teaser bulls with heifers from one year onwards promotes growth and reduces the incidence of heifers being served by stray bulls. Teaser bulls can transmit diseases and precautions must be taken against this.

14.

Cow and heifer management The heifer is probably the animal most vulnerable to mismanagement. It is subject to the combined stresses of growth, pregnancy and lactation. The reconception rate of first calvers can be less than 20% but with suitable management and nutrition can exceed 75%.

This can increase the overall calving percentage of a herd by more than 10%. i.

Mass at bulling Mass rather than age at bulling is the important factor. Recommended that a minimum mass of 66% of the mature mass of cows for bulling at the beginning of summer.

Approximately 300 kg for medium-sized indigenous and exotic breeds. The aim is that heifers should achieve a minimum of 85% of their mature mass by the end of the summer (approximately 390kg for medium-sized breeds).

Heifers should reach the recommended minimum bulling mass by two years of age.

Heifers will conceive at lower masses than recommended but subsequent performance may be impaired.

ii.

Mass at calving After calving down the heifer mass should be 85% of mature mass (390 kg for medium-sized breeds). In a trial where heifers were supplemented the reconception rate was 83%, compared to 13% for non supplemented heifers.

iii

Time of bulling.

Heifers should be bulled approximately four to six weeks before the cows, for the following reasons: It gives a longer interval before the second bulling resulting in higher reconception rates.

It gives a more uniform calf crop.

It gives more time to cull the dams of poor calves before they go to the bull again.

Supervision can be concentrated on heifers at calving.

   

Management during breeding Good management will result in high conception rate and calving rate. The ability of the bull to detect oestrus and serving capacity are: site of mating, bull to cow ratio, bull combinations, culling policy and length of breeding season. *see handout on fertility features of an ideal cow.

Management of cows and heifers Fertile cows give 1calf every year. Calves should have high birth mass and high weaning weight.

Good management ensures that cows are well fed, early reconception and maintain pregnancy.

Heifers are more vulnerable to mismanagement as they are subjected to combined stresses of growth, pregnancy and lactation. When selecting heifers for breeding, consider the following:

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functional efficiency, capacity to produce milk, mass for age, temperament, conformation and adaptability to the environment.

Heifers should be fed for them to grow fast and calve early. Mass at bulling is more important than age. Breed heifers than have reached about 65% of mature body mass. The breeding time for heifers is 2years. Bulling heifers 4-6weeks before cows high re-conception. Conduct P.D 2-3months after bulling.

Feed cows to reduce loss of condition from lactation and heavy body demand. Proper feeding make cows return to oestrus quickly. Underfeeding will result in loss of bodymass, anoestrus, low oestrus intensity, silent heats and failure to conceive. It is therefore recommended to feed calvers to increase chances of reconception and supply nutrients for milk production. A diet with proper energy, protein, phosphorous and vitamin is ideal for calvers.

Vaccinate against diseases leading to embryo loss i.e. brucellosis and campylobacteriosis especially to cows which are bought-in.

Oestrus cycles Oaestrus cycle is 21 days in length. Some animals however have cycle lengths of between 1725days. Oaestrus is the time when a cow is sexually receptive to the bull. The cow will attract and accept the attention of the bull. This behaviour is exhibited a short period before ovulation. Ovulation is the release of an egg from the ovary to the fallopian tube. This whole process is hormonally controlled- gonadotropin-leasing hormone (GnRH), Luteining hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), progesterone, oestrogen, inhibin and prostaglandin F2-alpha.

Signs of oestrus/heat are:  Stands and bellows frequently  Smells other cows  Will ride other cows and stand to be mounted.  Vulva moist, red and swollen  Discharge of clear mucus from the vulva.  Nervous and excitable  Mud on the back, evidence of being mounted by other cows.

Most animals show signs of heat during the night and early hours of the morning. It is therefore encouraged to detect heat before daybreak, mid-day and midnight taking care not to disturb animals.

Besides these signs of heat, other methods of detecting heat are: 1. Pressure sensitive devices- placed on cow’s back and will change colour when cow is mounted i.e. Kamar heat mount detector 2. Chin-ball markers- a container with ink is placed on the chin of the bull and ink will get to the cow when mounted.

3. Radio- telemetry- measures temperature changes in the vagina.

4. Pedometers- record cow’s milage and milage increases near heat and oestrus.

Anoestrus- a state of incomplete sexual inactivity with no manifestation of oestrus. This is the complete absence of cyclical activity. It follows soon after parturition. In that case it is called post partum anoestrus.

Silent oestrus- ovulation without behavioral signs of oestrus.

Anovulatory oestrus- oestrus occurs but with no accompanying ovulation. It is less common than silent heat.

Management of pregnancy Gestation- the gestation length varies due to breed nutrition and other environmental factors but on average it is 280+/-5 days (9 months).

Time relationship in production For optimum production the cow should calve down every 365 days.

The time relation ship can be represented as below;

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Calving

Conception

85days

280+/-5days gestation length

Conception must occur within 85days after calving. Cows show post partum anoestrus and its length depends on body condition (must be 2.5 to 3.0 on 1 to 5 scale), which in turn depends on the plane of nutrition among other things. It is important that the cow starts to cycle as soon as or early as possible. You should avoid conception within 50 days to give time for uterine involution and recover from last calving stress.

Calving The calving process is triggered by the weight of the fetus and the interaction of hormonal activity, nervous system and mechanical factors. Close to calving, the foetus is subjected to stress due to inadequate space and nutritional demands which triggers the process of parturition. The stages of calving are as follows: 1. Dilation of the cervix These are the early days of labour. It last 2-6hours in heifers but cows become restless and showing signs of abdominal pain. The foetus progresses towards the cervix thereby rupturing the foetal sac releasing a urine-like fluid that marks end of first stage.

2. Expulsion of the foetus Last 30-60 minutes. There is combined uterine and abdominal contractions. The foetus enclosed in a sac, the amnion, is moved along the birth canal and appears at the vulva. The umbilical cord breaks and the calf is delivered head and chest first. Calves will stand within 1hour and suckle milk few hours later.

3. Expulsion of the placenta Rhythmic uterine contractions continue to about 4-6hours after birth leading the expulsion of the placenta (after birth).

Cattlemen should monitor calving for difficulties like dystocia, retained placenta and metritis.

Post-partum management The major reason to monitor the animals after birth is to make sure that they return to oestrus by at least day 60 and reconceive by day 80. Do not make them conceive before this time- need to rest animals. Post-partum management will nutritionally condition the animal (flashing) to return to oestrus. Introduction of bulls (teaser bulls) can also stimulate the occurrence of oestrus. *see handout on fertility features of an ideal cow.

15

Breeding herd management

Breeding herds should be regularly inspected to check for calving difficulties, after-birth retention and swollen udders and to ensure that the dams accept calves. Small paddocks (100 ha or less) must be set aside. These paddocks should be close to a dip and handling facilities so those animals needing attention can be easily dealt with.

Such paddocks also facilitate correct cow/calf identification for performance testing purposes, and can help in controlling losses from vermin. If calves are not separated into a calf pen during dipping, only small groups of about 10 cows and calves at a time should be moved through the dip.

Young calves may need to be guided through the dip. For this purpose a suitable implement can be made from an old hay fork (centre prong removed) or old bicycle forks on a long handle.

BREEDING SYSTEMS

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The way the selected animals are mated is called the breeding system or the mating method some people call it breeding plan. Others refer to it as the breeding policy. You will be saying which male is to mate which female based on what you want to achieve in the progeny/offspring.

1. Inbreeding Inbreeding is a system of mating animals whereby the mates are more closely related than the average members of the breed or population being mated. The degree of inbreeding of an individual animal is expressed in terms of the inbreeding coefficient (F). Inbreeding increases the proportion of gene pairs that are homozygous and reduces those that are heterozygous. However, it will not change the gene frequency. We have for a long time known that inbreeding depresses most of the economic traits and causes deterioration in vigour and health of animals. Inbreeding increases prepotency. The breeder will be able to produce animals of particular characteristics with some reliability. There will be lowered vitality and vigour. Some inbred lines have shown increased susceptibility to critical environmental conditions and disease susceptibility than non-inbred lines.

The explanation for the inbreeding depression could be that, with increasing homozygosity the proportion of homozygous recessive increases and thus depression occurs. The other possibility is that in some cases the heterozygotes may be better than either homozygotes. Yet inbreeding reduces the number of animals that will be heterozygous. It simply uncovers hidden tendencies. Detrimental effects of inbreeding are a result of and not caused by it.

Uses of Inbreeding  To concentrate desirable genes in a family of animals in the development of inbred lines.  For testing artificial insemination sires for undesirable genes.  To select against a recessive gene that is of economic importance.  Production of seed stock  Develop line for use in cross breeding.

2. Line Breeding Line breeding is a mild form of inbreeding in which the aim is to concentrate or maintain a high genetic relationship to an outstanding ancestor, or one line of ancestors. The outstanding ancestor is normally a male rather than a female, because males usually leave more progeny than females and therefore the estimation of their breeding value is more accurate than that of females.

A C B D

A

F A As you can see from the pedigree above C contains 50 percent of A’s genes and transmits 25 percent to D. A contributes 50 percent of his genes to D. Hence D contains 75 percent of A’s genes and transmits half of them to F. Thus F contains 50 + 37.5 = 87.5 percent of A’s genes. In this line breeding A is assumed to be the outstanding individual.

Advantages  Inbreeding removes undesirable recessive genes from the breeding stock  Inbreeding increases prepotency.  Line breeding makes it possible to develop distinct inbred lines or families from the foundation stock.  Selection over long time may develop new breeds of domestic animals.  used to produce inbred Laboratory animals that are used in genetic studies Disadvantages  undesirable characteristics appear with increasing frequency  reduces the growth rates of animals  reduces the reproductive efficiency of inbred animals.

3. Out breeding

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This is system of mating unrelated animals. It is divided into a number of methods, which include out crossing, top crossing, back crossing and cross breeding.

Out breeding Out breeding is the mating of unrelated animals within the same breed, i.e. mating of inbred lines and or strains or varieties. It results in less of undesirable genes being fixed in a homozygous from.

Top Crossing This is a system that involves bringing in new genetic material/variation from the original source of the breed. Basically it is mating distantly related inbred males animals to the females non-inbred of same breed that are separate both in time and space.

Back crossing Back crossing involves mating unrelated animals of at least two different breeders to produce the cross bred animals. The crossbred animals are then mated back to one of the pure parent breeds, which were used to produce it. It is commonly used in genetic studies. One advantage of this system is that both the dam and the progeny will possess hybrid vigour for the traits showing hybrid vigour.

Cross breeding Cross breeding is the mating of genetically unlike animals from different breeds. Technically it applies only to the first crosses of purebreds. Generally it applies to the mating of different inbred lines, strains or varieties. It utilizes both additive and non-additive genetic effects to increase productivity for the short term only. Generally there is better production from the crossbred progeny although sometimes the performance may be below that of the purebred parents.

Advantages  The end product may have higher or more suitable performance than any of the parental purebreds because of hybrid vigour.  It allows the combination in one animal of several important traits found separately in two or more parental breeds or strains.

Disadvantages of cross breeding  It requires discipline and careful attention to the pedigree of the animals produced.

4. Upgrading Upgrading or grading as it is referred to is the mating of purebred sires of a given superior breed to inferior, non descript females of another breed and their offspring for generation after generation.

This is done to improve the production of the inferior breed by increasing the proportion of the superior genes in the inferior breed.

Limitations to the use of upgrading  Whilst the inferior breed will be upgraded the superior breed will be downgraded.  The grade animals may not be adapted to the environment and then the animal will perform worse than the inferior breed.

TIME

INNOCULATIONS

JAN

FEB

DOSING

SUPPLEMENTING

Roundworms & flukes if worm egg count warrants it.

Quarter Evil yearlings

MAR

APR

BREEDIN G

Botulism (optional)

Roundworms and

Weaning

Supplement weaner calves

Bulls taken out 01/03/05

Supplement weaner calves Supplement

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GENERAL Bulls are weighed every month.

BEWARE THEILERIOSIS. Dipping every 5 days in summer(Nov. to April) and every 14 days in winter. Weigh calves at weaning

flukes

weaner calves

MAY JUNE

QE Rabies (Optional)

JULY

Rabies (optional)

AUG

Vibriosis (Bulls) Rift valley fever,

Winter supp feeding

SEPT

Lumpy skin disease Theileriosis, Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis CA (young)

Winter supp feeding

OCT

Roundworms and flukes if wet and worm egg counts warrant

Roundworms

NOV

Calving season starts

Bulls go in

Winter supp.

Feeding Winter supp feeding

Apply dehorning paste, put ear notches and weigh calves at birth Follow up unsuccessful dehornings with a hot iron disbudder. Apply LIT ear tags. Take hair samples from tail swish for DNA analysis and register all new calves with ZHB WATCH BROWN EAR TICK!

Winter supp feeding Winter supp feeding if rains are late.

DEC

Tick control Dip all cattle at weekly intervals between Nov and June and fortnightly the rest of the year. If dipping fortnightly with pyrethroids you need permission from provincial vet officer.

Essential vaccinations 1. Quarter evil (black leg) - vaccinate all young stock at weaning (6-8 mo), repeat at 12mo and a year later. Burn all animals dying from Q.E. 2. Contagious abortion- vaccinate all female stock between 9-10mo of age with strain-19 (S-19) brucellosis vaccine. For adult cows which have not been vaccinated before use S-20 vaccine annually.

3. Compylobacteriosis (vibriosis) - vaccinate cows 2weeks post calving or 6 weeks before bulling annually. Vaccinate bull 8 weeks and 4 weeks before onset of bulling.

Occasional vaccinations 1. Red water and gallsickness- vaccinate 6-9mo old stock and repeat a year later for pedigree bulls i.e. 2-3 mo before selling to protect buyer.

2. Paratyphoid- vaccinate 7-10 day old calves twice at a weekly interval on infected premises.

Repeat annually for 3 years but check with your vet officer.

3. Anthrax- vaccinate all animals in infected areas annually. Burn or burry infected carcasses.

Vaccination during epidemics 1. Lumpy skin disease- on infected herd or contagious premises, vaccinate all stock over 6 mo of age.

2. Rift valley fever- vaccinate all stock over 6 mo of age on infected or contagious premises in oct/nov annually.

3. FMD- specific disease control is a responsibility of a vet officer. Avoid all buffalo-cattle contact and notify the vet for all outbreaks.

Administration of vaccines

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Vaccines are administered subcutaneously although may be done anywhere on the body of an animal. Areas of loose skin are usually more accessible preferably the neck and shoulder areas. To avoid contamination, heat-sterilized equipment should be used and needles changed more frequently.

Internal parasites Roundworm, tapeworms and liver flukes can be controlled by proper dosing strategy with antihelminthies and proper management of animals to break life cycles.

1.   

management keep young animals away from wet areas provide clear drinking water avoid overstocking and practice rotational grazing to cut life cycle of parasites

2. drenching/dosing  Dose all calves at weaning and 2 weeks later against roundworms and flatworms.  Drench all animals before beginning of rainy season- 2 weeks before calving for cows and at the end of rain season.  Drench all animals before thy go or begin feedlot 16. FEEDING and FEEDLOTTING BEEF CATTLE Summer grazing will give relief and contentment to the farmer in terms of supplementary feeding. A lush of green grasses will usually provide enough nutrients for production. Green grasses however do not mean good nutrition. Farmers should be more careful with the increased unpalatable grass species due to uncontrolled grazing intensity. Also grasses may become unpalatable as they grow due to nutrients get bound within the Iligno-cellulosic bonds which limit availability of nutrients even after digestion.

Due to leaching in high rainfall areas, availability of phosphorous, salt, calcium and other trace elements becomes phenomenon. The disadvantages of these deficiencies and lack of supplements are:  Prolonged calving intervals as cows are in poor condition hence delayed onset of oestrus.  Loss of condition in cows due to suckling stress.  Poor weaning weights.  Poor condition of bulls thereby reducing sperm count and conception rates.  Poor carcass and meat quality thereby reducing profits.  Increased susceptibility to diseases. feedlotting It is based on confining cattle and feed them on high energy and protein diet = pen fattening. The objectives of fattening are:  Increase the degree of finish or fatness in order to achieve higher grades at young age.  Add extra weight to animals at a younger age and increase turnover.  To take advantage of seasonally higher prices Performance of animals in feedlot differ due to: age, sex, breed, adaptation to environment. The expected pre-fattening treatments are:  Drench against internal parasites  Adapt animals to feedlot diet  Vaccinations and disease control  Fly control Efficiency of a fattening enterprise can be improved by:  Whole grain feeding  Feed additives and hormonal implants- ionophores, antibiotics,  Feeding of young bulls and cryptochids 17. CARCASS CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING. Good and poor quality cuts results in retail cuts of different prices. The cuts depend on the species butchers, markets and countries.

BEEF CARCASS. 18 | P a g e

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Fore quarter.

Few good cuts, high % of bone.

Hind quarter.

Larger % good and expensive cuts.

Cuts grouped according to quality: 1.

Expensive cuts - loin, - rump, - topside, - thighs 2.

Less expensive - front rib, - thick flank, - prime rib, - withers 3.

Cheaper cuts - thick rib, - shoulder, - brisket 4.

Cheap cuts - thin flank, - flat rib, - shank, - neck Preferred carcass is one which has its higher % of mass in the expensive regions and lower % in poorer and cheaper cuts.

CARCASS COMPOSITION Bone : muscle : fat ratio affects meat quality.

Strive for the highest possible % muscle and minimum of subcutaneous and intermuscular fat. This ratio changes with age, as a very young animal contains more bone and less fat than an adult animal being finished off.

Nutrition plays a role in determining carcass composition as is seen in the sequence in which nutrients are made available for the development of tissues. Variation in the ratio, can be due to the amount of fat. Nutrition controls the rate of growth and hence rate of deposition of fat relative to growth of bone and muscle therefore it is possible to alter this ratio. Carcass of a lean or undernourished animal will have high % of bone. Kidney and pelvic fat should be kept to minimum.

This ratio is influenced by: Species, Breed, Sex, Age, Grading, Nutrition.

Muscle tissue is important and should form 46 - 65% of carcass in sheep, 49 - 68% of carcass in cattle, 36 - 64% of the carcass in pigs. Overall should have muscular tissue of 30 - 40% of live weight.

MEAT QUALITY A. Tenderness.

Most important single factor determining quality of beef, always prefer tender meat, not the case with mutton and pigs.

Factors affecting tenderness: 1.

Species - Pig and sheep more tender than cattle.

2.

Age - Increase in age results in less tender meat, due to increase in connective tissue (C.T).

Slight increase in C.T. up to 8 months, marked increase between 8 and 16 months, after 16 months no sign in change in tenderness.

3.

Sex - female more tender than male, as finer in texture, because slaughtered earlier age, less active and much fatter.

4.

Nutrition - Poorly fed animals have their body reserves used up which results in muscle fibre diameter decreasing with increase in collagen content. Reverse process in fat animals 5.

Meat cut - Different cuts grouped according to tenderness of muscles present, as different muscles differ according to the structure of the muscle.

6.

Exercise - Generally no noticeable effect. Animals plenty of exercise may be tougher.

7.

Storage - Up to 14 days in a cold room, enzymes and acids act upon C.T. and tenderise it.

Enzymes denatured with freezing.

8.

Cooking - Marbling (fat) when it melts during cooking softens C.T. as does cooking with moisture. Time and temperature is important for tender meat.

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9.

Artificial tenderises.

B. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Colour Species - Beef cherry red. Veal and pig pink appearance.

Age - Darker with age.

Sex - Male darker than female and castrated animal.

Nutrition - Meat of fatter animals tends to be a lighter colour.

Exercise - Exercise causes meat to have a darker colour. Grazing animals have a darker meat than feedlot animals due to increased blood flow.

Muscle differences - "Red" and "White"

6.

C. Taste Fat contributes to the taste as does age, species, sex and nutrition. Taste improves with age, meat of a male has stronger smell than females and castrates. Taste of pork determined by feeding. Pigs should not receive any fish meal a few days before slaughter.

D. Juiciness Determined by fat content, moisture content and method of preparation. With age moisture content decreases and fat increases. In an older animal moisture decreases, C.T and fat increases so there is an absence of juiciness in spite of ample fat.

E. Marbling.

Important role with beef but of less importance with mutton and not considered with pigs. Generally more marbling with an increase in subcutaneous fat. Exercise often decreases marbling.

F. pH (Acidity) Determined by pre-slaughter treatment. Starvation, fatigue, excitement, fear, handling, transport, environmental conditions result in stress!! Stress results in a release of adrenaline, which limits amount lactic acid, formed then pH does not drop to the desirable pH of 5,5.

G. Water binding capacity.

Fatigue and hunger results in moisture loss, a loss in mass and a loss of water holding capacity of muscle. Meat becomes unattractive. Higher quantity bonded water results in better refrigeration and freezing.

FAT QUALITY 1.

Colour White to light cream - cattle and sheep. Pigs white. Not true index of quality. Yellow fat -sick and old cattle or animals have eaten too much carotene from roughage. Dairy breeds are noted for high fat content and rich colour milk. Jersey very yellow fat and therefore gives more vitamin A to the diet (carotene changed to Vit A in the wall of the intestine).

2.

Firmness.

Firm brittle fat desired, not soft oily fat. Determined mainly by feeding and lesser extent heredity. Oily fat found in cattle but seen more in pigs fed too much maize. Hard fat important in baconers makes cutting easier and it does not go rancid quickly. Too much C.T. also disadvantage as in beef of old cattle.

Saturated fat has a high melting point, hard. Unsaturated fat has a low M.P.and is oily and greasy.

GRADING Producer paid for better quality meat to promote higher productivity. Consumers choose good quality meat according to price and needs.

Principles on which grading based.

Conformation should be profitable according to good and poor cuts. Ideal composition is little bone, plenty muscle and sufficient fat. Quality of meat and fat must comply to the needs of the consumer. The local selling grades are designed to categorise carcasses according to expected eating characteristics.

There are five grades: Description SUPER Beef

Roller mark “SUPER� in Purple

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CHOICE Beef COMMERCIAL Beef ECONOMY Beef MANUFACTURING Beef

“CHOICE” in Red “COMMERCIAL” in Brown “ECONOMY” in Brown.

“MANUFACTURING” in Brown

Characteristics on which grading is based.

Beef, mutton and goat – age, fat and conformation.

Pork - mass, conformation, fat thickness 1.

Age. Class 0 No permanent incisors erupted above the level of the gum 2 Not less than one and no more than two permanent incisors erupted above the level of the gum.

4 Not less than three and no more than four permanent incisors erupted above the level of the gum.

6 Not less than five and no more than six permanent incisors erupted above the level of the gum.

FM Not less than seven permanent incisors present and limited ossification of the dorsal spinal processes of the thoracic vertebra.

FA The dorsal spinal processes of the thoracic vertebra show marked or full ossification.

Distinguish meat according to tenderness associated with age.

2.

Fatness Backfat thickness measured on the lateral surface of the carcass 5 cm from the midline between the 10th and 11th rib.

Description

Fat thickness

Class

No fat

0 mm

0

Poor or no subcutaneous fat cover

1 – 2 mm

1

Light subcutaneous fat cover

3 – 6 mm

2

Optimum covering of subcutaneous fat

7 – 12 mm

3

Optimum + covering of subcutaneous fat.

13 – 18 mm

4

Heavy covering of subcutaneous fat

19 – 24 mm

5

Excessive covering of subcutaneous fat.

25 mm+

6

3.

Conformation: Determined from the mass of the heaviest side of the carcass and the length, measured between the interior edge of the pubic symphysis and the mid point between the last cervical and first thoracic vertebra. Carcasses allotted symbols: A+, A-, B+, B-, C+, C-, D+, D-, E+ and E- accoording to the mass /length relationship.

Conformation

Class

Very flat light

E

Flat

D

Medium

C

Round

B

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Very round heavy

A

USEFUL DATA FOR BEEF CATTLE 1. Suggested breeding age: Bulls: 18 – 24 months (66% of mature mass) Heifers: 14 – 22 months (66% of mature mass) 2. Onset of puberty heifers: 4 months – 2 years of age.

3. Oestrus cycle occurs every 21 days.

4. Bulling percentage: 4 – 5 % or 30 – 50 cows per bull in a single sire herd.

5. Length of oestrus: 18 hrs 6. Time of ovulation: 10 – 15 hrs after the end of oestrus.

7. Time of service: Middle to end of oestrus.

8. Pregnancy period average: 280 days. (274 – 291 days) 9. Dry period: 6 - 8 weeks.

10. Weaning age: 7 – 8 months of age.

11. Body temperature average: 38.8C (Calf 39.5C) 12. Teeth: Age Teeth 0 - 18m Milk teeth (deciduous teeth) 18m - 2yrs 2 permanent teeth 2yrs – 2½yrs 4 “ 3yrs 6 “ 3½ - 4yrs 8 “ CATTLE HANDLING FACILITIES Introduction Handling facilities must enable smoothness of flow and ease of operation. To achieve this the following points need to be considered: Site Sloping to ensure surface drainage, adequate shade, away from prevailing winds and have permanent water supply.

Location Each LU uses 0.45 kg TDN for every kilometre walked. The site should therefore be located equidistant to all areas served by them.

Design The design must include a dip, a race and a funnel shaped forcing area.

Specifications Sorting gates Fences Uprights

2m wide 1,7 m high 2,75 m apart

The following areas per head are recommended.

2 Holding pens: 2,5 m per head 2 Forcing pens: 1,7 m per head Calf pen: 0,6 m2 per head Materials Wooden poles should be solid, creosote treated.

The Race A race 10-12 m long holding 10-12 animals is recommended. Races may be either vertical sided or “V” shaped. Vertical sided races are cheaper but small animals are able to turn within them. Fallen animals are more easily raised than in “V” shaped races. “V” shaped races prevent turning. Must be 22 | P a g e

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boarded up for at least 370 mm from the bottom to prevent legs of fallen animals becoming wedged between the poles.

Construction: For a vertical sided race align the upright poles in holes at 1,8m intervals along the length of the race and 610mm wide. Cast the concrete pathway with a slight gradient down the length of the race. The surface must be rough to prevent hoof slip. The “V� sided race is the same as the above except the uprights are longer 3m and the lower width is 350mm opening up to a width of 910mm at the top.

Gates 3m wide consisting of either slip rails or steel swing gates. Blanking off the gate with wood or sheet metal will prevent animals from breaking through. Sorting gates should be 2m wide and also blanked off.

Veterinarian's gate This gate allows access into the race for pregnancy diagnosis of cows. It should be of solid construction to afford protection while doing the rectal palpation. The gate should be about 560 mm wide and positioned about 1,7 m before the bail. When open it should lock onto the far side of the race. A gate on either side of the race is useful since veterinarians are not all right handed!

Fencing Pole rail fencing is desirable at all points where cattle are closely confined and likely to bunch against the fence. The distance between uprights should not exceed 2,75 m. Wire or cable fences should be used only on the perimeter of handling facilities.

Loading ramp The ramp can serve as an entrance or exit for transported animals. A funnel leading from the forcing area to the ramp is necessary for smooth loading. The ramp should be 1.25 m high at the roadside and consist of a platform 1.9-2.5 m wide and 1.2 m long. The sloping ramp leading up to the platform should be on a 1:5 slope, slip proof, and about 6.25 m long.

Dip area layout a.

Dip forcing pen Animals are drafted from the holding pen in batches or continuously. Slip rails at either end can be used to halt the flow of animals as and when necessary. b.

Foot baths Two foot baths, each 3m long, before entry into the dip tank. c.

Dip tank A narrow cross passage 550 mm wide at the entrance to the tank enables quick movement from one side to the other to help animals in distress in the deep end of the tank. A splash reserve at least 3 m wide is necessary opposite the working side of the dip. This prevents animal access to pools of dip wash splashed out of the tank during dipping. d.

Draining pens Two draining pens are recommended to prevent those animals draining interfering with those emerging from the dip. After dipping the draining hole must be blocked off to prevent storm water from diluting the dip water in the dip tank. e.

Waste disposal The siting is of the utmost importance. Poor siting can lead to serious pollution of streams, vleis, dams and boreholes. Once a safe site has been selected a hole about 3m diameter and 4 m deep should be dug and filled with rocks. This will avoid open pools and have sufficient capacity to contain the entire 14 000 litres of dipwash. The area containing the store and disposal sump should be securely fenced.

Store Dip and veterinary supplies must be kept in a well constructed building which can be securely locked is necessary.

Feeding pens a. Site

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Near a reliable water supply and bulk feed storage. Avoid windy situations. Site the feed alley on the crest with pens on either side on a north to south axis that enables sunlight to reach the whole area during the day. b. Space Small breeds or young animals require about 9 m2 per head. Larger breeds or older animals require 11 m2 to 14 m2 per head. c. Feed troughs Polled steers require 680 mm and horned steers 900 mm trough space per head. Feed troughs are usually built of brick or masonry. The manger itself is finished with a 1:3 cement: sand mixture. Half-drums may be used provided metal edges are bent over. These require fairly frequent replacement. d. Shade A shade area keeps the water cool, encourages animals to move to and from water and feed.

Eliminates excessive accumulation of dung in particular areas. The structure should be sited in the centre of the pen in a north-south direction and be at least 3 m high. Trees seldom survive for more than a season or two.

Water supplies at handling points a. Requirements of cattle Animals in feed pens drink 35-45 litres each per day and a further 20 litres per day when on a dry diet during hot weather. Troughs should be located in the shade, be as small as is practicable and have the minimum water surface area. b. Metal water troughs Two 200-litre drums, each supplied by a 25 mm bore pipe and ball valve, are sufficient for 50 animals. c. Brick water troughs These are sited where they can serve two adjoining pens in the shade area. The surrounds to all water troughs should be paved or concrete to prevent hollowing and the formation of damp spots.

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