FINAL ESSAY by Tatiana Aldana

to what extent do females feel pressured to adhere to social and archetypal expectations of body image presented in fashion imagery?

BA (HONS) FASHION COMMUNICATION 2014 TATIANA COCKBURN-ALDANA H00105235

TABLE OF CONTENTS 5. 6. 8.

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

THE WESTERN BODY IDEAL

15. 18. 23.

THE PERFECT WOMAN VS THE REAL WOMAN

CASE STUDY: THE VOGUE COVER GIRL

THE CHANGING FACE OF FASHION

26. 29. 30. 31. 33. 34.

CASE STUDY: i-D MAGAZINE

THE 21ST CENTURY WOMAN

CONCLUSION

REFERENCE LIST

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ABSTRACT This paper will investigate the extent to which fashion imagery takes part in the involvement of the idealised body image and how its pressures may contribute to female insecurity for women in the West, with particular attention to the UK and the US. While a brief overview on the past century affords a valuable insight into the Western fluctuating ideal, the study thus stresses emphasis on contemporary fashion photography and fashion magazines as major components of creating the ideal woman. Two case studies exemplify fashion magazines, Vogue and i-D, as publications with disparate philosophies who cater for different audiences, and additionally reveal that fashion imagery is indeed divided into commercial and alternative market sectors and hence, a commercial and alternative fashion woman. These findings are placed against findings from ethnographical research found in attending the Feminism in London Conference 2014, as well as qualitative results from survey analysis on British women and an all-female focus group carried out in Scotland. A combination of extensive primary and secondary research enables this essay to effectively dispute the extent to which commercial fashion does indeed play a significant role in pressuring the woman to adhere to social and archetypal expectations presented in its imagery. Accordingly, this argument conducts a review of recent literature as well as a variety of reliable online resources, while visual documentation is used to further illustrate its hypothesis. Finally, this paper closes with a reflection on the information collected, concluding that while a variety of external factors - such as cultural expectations, trends and social media - contribute to the body image pressures faced by women today, fashion imagery affects females to a substantial level.

INTRODUCTION As Hancock et al. (2013) suggests, we live in a world that, since the nineteenth century, has become increasingly saturated with imagery; where one image speaks a thousand words and where consumers are faced with thousands of them on a daily basis that we have had to program ourselves to “read” pictures at a glance. In a digital and heavy media-concentrated age, from magazines to online, picture-based content dominates our everyday lives; with various sources highlighting this is as an increasing concern for the female self-esteem. In the UK, evidence from a 2011 inquiry by the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Body Image shows that appearance is a growing concern for the general public, and increasingly so for females. Statistics showed that almost 50% of girls and young women felt pressured to look attractive, while 70% of the adult women admitted to feeling pressured by fashion magazines to have a perfect body (p.10). In an age where girls as young as five are worrying about their body image, and one in four 7 year old girls have attempted losing weight at least once (p.12), it is with importance that we consider what factors have come to influence these results, and to what extent fashion plays a part in this dilemma. Five years prior, over two thousand school children participated in a survey conducted in the US. Results¬ began to reveal a pattern whereby girls would describe the intense pressure to be an all-rounder: intellectual, social, sentimental, and good-looking – or, in other words, “perfect” (Orenstein 2011 p.17). As cited by Benn (2013 p.55), the psychologist Carol Gilligan views “perfectionism” as a real pressure for young girls, because it means “suppression of a true self”, consequently making them go inwards.

A self-conducted survey of 100 people, 90 of which were women, affords a surprising overview of the extent in which insecurities can affect Britain's young educated female. Stereotypes are closely linked with the idea of perfection and archetypal women presented in fashion imagery, with this particular survey focusing on the female stereotype to act as the foundation of my research. Hence, the purpose of this investigation strived to analyse the proportion of women affected by social preconceptions and thus felt a pressure to achieve these ideologies presented in fashion imagery. Analysis revealed some interesting results. Unsurprisingly, 81% of respondents felt they could not relate to fashion imagery. Meanwhile, an almost-identical portion of candidates (82%) admitted aspiring to look a certain way and would consider beauty products, dieting and cosmetic procedures to achieve their desired look. Further evidence showed that 49% of participants first experienced low self-esteem in their early teens, followed by 25% of who reported their first encounter during childhood. These results provided me with an accurate snapshot of the matter, revealing to some extent the pressures British women feel they are under to adhere to ideals presented by the Western media. Indeed, as someone who has faced severe insecurities about their own appearance for the majority of my childhood and teenage years, be that from comparing myself to my peers or fashion imagery, this initial study proves that a significant number of females have or are still going through the same issue.

1. Results from a self-conducted survey

2. Results from a self-conducted survey

3. Results from a self-conducted survey

4. Celine AW14 campaign

5. Gucci AW14 campaign

6. Chanel AW14 campaign

THE WESTERN BODY IDEAL Changes in the modeling profession have a considerable input in creating new ideas of femininity and ideals of the female body, placing a premium on specific body shapes and structures of beauty (Walters and Lillethun 2011). The fashion industry has a tendency to create a utopian world in its imagery, using fantasy lifestyles and the female archetype to sell dreams as a way of convincing the consumer to buy into the brand. Barthes (1990 p.261) echoes this, agreeing that the woman in fashion embodies, both, what the consumer is and dreams of being. The issue arises when women cannot draw the line between reality and fantasy, creating a bigger problem with regards to the way body image and ideals are represented in fashion media.

But how do we define the archetypal woman? Co-founder and Director of British modeling agency, Elite Premier, Chris Owen disputes

that despite ethnic trends in the fashion industry, “in every country, blonde hair and blue eyes sell” (Rudolph 1991 cited in Walters and Lillethun p.404). In the Autumn/Winter campaigns of 2014, the blonde and blue-eyed female appeared in Gucci, Celine, and Chanel to name a few. Indeed, some of today’s most mainstream fashion models, such as Cara Delevingne, Gisele Bundchen, and Rosie Huntington-Whiteley inherit these Caucasian ideals. This representation is perhaps one of the problems with the Westernised body image, where women seem to concern themselves with fitting into a particular ideal so as to identify themselves with the archetypal female represented in their society.

8. Kate Moss in the 90s

7. Cara Delevingne fashions strong brows Barthes (1990 p.259) proposes one way fashion deals with the body, that is, by annually setting the verdict for certain ideals that are and aren’t in fashion: “Do you have this year’s face? You do if your face is small, if your features are fine, if your hat size is less than 55cm…”. Intriguingly, Barthe’s views have not yet been out-dated and this concept remains relevant when applied to the fashion industry of today. The industry revolves around seasonal trends, in clothing, silhouette and image. Cara Delevingne, for example, had a huge influence in making the strong, thick eyebrow stylish and desirable again. Prior to that, the 1990s and early millennium saw the fad for barely-there, thin eyebrows, as worn by the likes of many famous supermodels, including Kate Moss and Linda Evangelista.

9. Linda Evangelista in the 90s

10. 1920s fashion

11. 1930-1940s fashion

In this respect, it is hard to argue that fashion has not played a major role in the perception of good and bad ideals. Over the twentieth century, fashion was very much fundamental to shaping the female silhouette, and body image ideal fluctuated significantly over this period (Rehabs n.d). The early 1900s, for example, saw the tall, curvaceous woman at the height of fashion: fuller busts were popular at the time, with corsets being ritual to cinch in at the waist, creating the appearance of a wider hip and enhanced derrière. On the contrary, the flapper look of the 1920s seemed to reject all of those ideals, instead favouring a slim, shapeless silhouette so as to flatten the chest and hide the female curves. During the Second World War, a feminine, curvaceous figure was once again prized as the waistline made a subtle comeback and tailoring made an appearance in utility wear. The hourglass trend remained a popular body ideal amongst women in the 1950s, a look most familiar with Hollywood’s pin-up girl, Marilyn Monroe. Wolf (1990 p.64) claims that is was during this time that women’s magazines began to expect their readers to “make contact with the ideal self” and strive for perfection. But the perfect body changed

12. 1950s fashion

once again going into the swinging sixties; fashion photography really began to kick off on both sides of the Atlantic and supermodels Twiggy and Edie Sedgewick made way for the newly prized skinny ideal. Moreover, heavy eye make-up was pivotal to creating the desired ‘mod’ look, and many young women idolised supermodels around this time, often mimicking their style in the hope of becoming fashion models themselves. The thin body ideal has more of less remained ever since; the fashion of the 1970s focused on accentuating a slim waist with the help of high-waisted flared trousers. While natural beauty made a return in fashion, the Studio 54 movement heavily influenced the glamour of this decade with supermodel, Jerry Hall, fronting the pages of Vogue in heavy make-up. The success of fitness videos in the following decade popularised toned bodies, as seen on models, Claudia Schiffer and Cindy Crawford. Nonetheless, the idealised appearance in fashion of the 1990s became much more about extreme thinness, that is, the “waif look” and “heroin chic”, as epitomised by Kate Moss in the Calvin Klein advertising campaigns.

13. 1960s fashion model, Twiggy

14. 1970s fashion

15. 1980s fashion model, Cindy Crawford

16. 1990s fashion model, Kate Moss

17. Supermodels, Linda Evangelista, Cindy Crawford, Naomi Campbell, and Christy Turlington

But while the women consuming these fashion movements feel pressured to follow to these standards, it’s vital that we also consider the female who embodies these ideals, that is, the models themselves. These women are likewise under extreme pressure from their agencies to maintain the industry ideal, which without could jeopardise their career; models with the right industry look are more likely to be regularly called for castings and thus have a higher chance of securing bookings and contracts with fashion and beauty brands.

At the height of her modelling career, Naomi Campbell expressed her views on body image as a main component of her profession, stating, “When you have a very visual job your appearance is the most important thing about you” (Walters and Lillethun 2011 p.403). In addition to this, Campbell acknowledged the pressure models are under to maintain the body ideal, claiming that since the job requires judgement on appearance, “the body becomes and all-consuming obsession”. Furthermore, Cindy Crawford confessed to experiencing low self-esteem during catwalk shows, where she would notice and compare her flaws against the seemingly perfect bodies of the other models surrounding her (p.404). Jean Shrimpton equally admitted to having been extremely insecure about her appearance during her time as a model, putting vanity down as the main cause of the problem (p.405).

Of course, just as standards and expectations fluctuate from era to era, they also differ depending on the culture. While this brief overview explored the Western culture and its ideas of beauty, it does not necessarily apply for Eastern societies, or indeed, third-world countries. According to Roach and Bulbolz (1965 p.34), bigger body sizes are considered a status symbol signifying good health and affluence in some African cultures, compared to America, where slender sizing is prized. Additionally, while studies also show a significant number of people in the UK and US dedicating their time to sunbeds and fake tanning their skin (Medical Daily 2014), bleaching the skin is a popular method to lighten complexion across women in Nigeria, with figures exposing skin-lightening products as being consumed by 77% of females (The World Health Organisation 2011).

18. Adriana Lima was described as an example of the perfect woman by a member of my focus group

T H E P E R F E C T W O MA N V S T H E R E A L W O M A N I recently gathered information from a focus group of five young women ranging between the ages of 18-23. Answers showed most of them had similar views on certain topics, often agreeing with one another on similar subjects. After being asked to rate their own appearance on a scale of 1 to 10, participants were followed up by questions on their self-esteem and the concept of perfection. One of the biggest debates across fashion media is the lack of the “real” woman being represented in magazines and fashion photography in comparison to the “perfect” woman, therefore, participants were asked to define the “perfect woman” against the “real woman”.

A member of the group voiced, “I suppose society’s perceptions of the perfect woman would make me believe she is tall, skinny, white, blonde and not that smart”, while another added that although her idea of the perfect woman was Victoria’s Secret Angel, Adriana Lima, there is perfection in each ethnicity that it was a concept hard to define. The entire focus group had similar views on the “real woman”, often describing her as “every woman”, coming in all shapes, race and sizes. One contributor, however, did suggest that the media’s definition of the “real woman” was designed to skinny-shame, and often portrayed her as an “overweight, UK size 16, 5ft5 woman”.

It seems that the way woman are designed and sold back to females can be quite intimidating, and has been intimidating for some time. American fashion photographer, Collier Schorr, recently said in an interview that she used to spent a lot of time trying to represent the androgynous, anti-fashion woman in the 1990s because she also felt there was a concern for the way females were being packaged at the time (Dazed Digital 2014).

19. A self-portrait of Collier Schorr

The advancements in technology also contribute to packaging perfection, as digital enhancement started becoming an increasingly popular way to edit pictures. In October 2009, Ralph Lauren made French model, Filippa Hamilton, the face of their Blue Jean campaign. The image was heavily criticised for undergoing some serious digital airbrushing, altering the size 8 modelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body proportions so as to appear thinner, to the point where her head was bigger than her waist. The picture shows a worryingly skinny female posing for the American brandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new range of jeans. While the fashion house did release a formal apology for the campaign (Daily Mail 2009), it was an image that seemed to be promoting an unrealistic figure and glamorising an unhealthy body shape in fashion. According to Wolf (1990), the reason women respond to the imagery in fashion magazines is because embellishing oneself makes up such a natural yet important part of female culture. To echo Gilligan, my focus group suggested that the idea of perfection can indeed make a woman go inwards, making them strive for change in their appearance. These findings come to me with no surprise, as we live in a culture where the book is often judged by the cover and most women appear to feel they fall short of the body ideal. Bruzzi and Gibson (2013) state that women commonly get cosmetic surgery on their body based on the justification that garments will fit them better. This reasoning is clearly based on comparison, be that of her peers or the woman in fashion imagery.

20. Ralph Laurenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2009 photoshopped advertising campaign

CASE STUDY: THE VOGUE COVER GIRL

21. Helena Bonham-Carter on the cover of British Vogue

Toni Johnson-Woods proposes that itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the cover girl that can have an impact on women, as she is the reflection of the current trends and ideals of the times (Hancock et al. 2013). Certainly, as we have explored, the cover girl or fashion icons of a specific time can have an impact in the way women wish to look or dress. One magazine that has been around as long as fashion itself is Vogue, and since itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s birth in 1892, has placed hundreds of these fashion girls on their covers.

But Alexandra Shulman, editor of the magazine’s British edition, has always been vocal about the way women are represented across the publication claiming that, as an editor, her job is to maintain high sales, and she sees the cover as merely “packaging” to promote the brand, if you like. In an interview with Lou Stoppard on ShowStudio’s website (2012), she expresses how the Vogue cover has changed dramatically over the decades, and archived covers from the 1960’s would not be able to be recreated now, for the fact that they simply would not sell. Shulman explains that whenever they have tried to be creative or experimental with their British covers, the issue has always sold “very badly”. Having interned with British Vogue myself, I understood how much of a business it is over any other publication I had previously worked for. It caters for a very specific reader, and it really places a huge importance on their advertisers, whom with they have very close relationships, liaising with certain fashion brands to make sure they are used on specific covers and editorials. Their cover girl reflects not only the relevancy of the time of publication, but also the reader and her interests. However, Vogue has previously come under fire by readers for their lack of representing the “real woman”. While both Hilary Clinton and Lena Dunham have graced the covers of American Vogue under the reign of it’s editor, Anna Wintour, Shulman respects that these do not work so well for the British audience, however much they may protest, and argues that she has previously placed women like Nigella Lawson, Adele and Helena Bonham-Carter to represent the “real woman”. According to Today (2014), Shulman said in a recent BBC Radio 2 interview, “people don’t want to buy a magazine like Vogue to see what they see when they look in the mirror. They can do that for free… Vogue is a magazine that’s about fantasy to some extent… and an escape from real life.”

22. Nigella Lawson on the cover of British Vogue

The problem with the cover girl representing the “real woman” is that the real woman, just like the perfect woman, is a social construct, and is consequently hard to define. Bonham-Carter’s cover for Vogue’s July 2013 issue, for instance, aimed to show her as a “real woman”, because Vogue’s real woman is their reader: a successful, and affluent, working female. While their cover girl might be justified, the cover itself does have some glitches. As an issue that seems to be celebrating beauty in age, the taglines sound as if a woman should be worrying about her age as opposed to celebrating it; “Does my wardrobe show my age?” and “Facing the years… a beauty solution”. The 48 year-old Hollywood actress also appears to have been heavily retouched, as her skin shows no signs of ageing. Wolf (1990) says it’s these type of “list-your-good-points articles” in fashion magazines that contribute to our insecurities as they create the fantasy perfect woman (p.59).

23. Adele on the cover of British Vogue

While I do empathise with the women who make these accusations against the Vogue cover girl, Shulman does speak a lot of sense. She makes it very clear that editorials and imagery in the fashion magazine are “a construct” and, as discussed at the beginning of the paper, a fictional world the reader can escape to (The Guardian 2013). Fortunately, my focus group seemed to understand this concept, claiming they take every fashion image “with a pinch of salt”.

24. Beth Ditto on the cover of LOVE

THE CHANGING FACE OF FASHION According to Bruzzi and Gibson (2013 p.325) anti-ageing tactics are common practice amongst the infamous beauty pages of the fashion glossy, and further conclude that “airbrushing in fashion, publicity and advertising” means that young women are finding it increasingly difficult to recognise the real human face. Nevertheless, Leite and Roxo (Dazed 2014) blame the media for stereotyping the female, claiming that it portrays women “only as perfect, cute, skinny, young, sexualised beings”. They thank celebrities like Tina Fey and Lena Dunham for having “opened the gates for women…to be accepted…with different types of bodies”. And while both have a point, it’s also important to consider how fashion magazines play a role in the acceptance of the woman, no matter how she looks. After all, Lena Dunham did star on the cover of American Vogue earlier that same year. But fashion is trying to change, and there are designer labels, magazines and creatives that are focusing on diversifying the fashion body as it is today. In 2009, world-renowned fashion stylist, and editor-in-chief of LOVE magazine, Katie Grand, placed a nude 15-stone Beth Ditto on the cover of the launch issue of LOVE. Consequently, the fashion magazine won The Maggie’s Best Fashion Cover of the Year (The Maggies n.d), a ground-breaking achievement for a start-up magazine.

25. Plus-size model, Myla Dalbesio featured in a 2014 Calvin Klein underwear campaign More recently, System magazine commissioned fashion photographer, Juergen Teller, to photograph supermodel, Lara Stone, for their AW14/15 issue. Teller is known for creating provocative imagery in fashion, and has a client-list that includes Marc Jacobs, Celine and Louis Vuitton amongst many others. The final published images push the boundaries of the ideal body, stripping the mother-of-one supermodel down to her underwear, and then to nothing at all in a completely un-retouched fashion spread. When presented with the image, members of my focus group agreed in unison that this fashion shoot was “positive”, “empowering” and “refreshing” to see a realistic picture of a model in a magazine. One young woman voiced her admiration for the supermodel as a mother, unafraid to bare her imperfections, “She looks normal which is refreshing to see in an industry which promotes being thin to

the point of illness… It sends a good image to normal women who look good as they are.” Another participant approved, adding that the pictures made the “fashion world more relatable”. Around the same time, Calvin Klein released their new underwear campaign, featuring plus-sized model, Myla Dalbesio. Photographed in portrait, as well as in profile to reveal a small amount of stomach fat, the images showcase a bigger size in comparison to that of her slimmer model peers who also feature in the campaign. As a UK size 14, Dalbesio argued that she is considered a plus-sized model against the standard size 6 sample size, admitting that while she was not the “biggest girl on the market, [she] was certainly the biggest Calvin Klein had ever worked with” (The Guardian 2014). These pictures caused divided views among the

26. Lara Stone for System magazine focus group as controversy was placed on her size, many agreeing Calving Klein should have used a bigger model. A member of the group described the advert as “harmful” to curvy women, leaving them to feel “abnormal”. I found this response surprising; bearing in mind Dalbesio is only one size slimmer than the average UK female. Although these examples are nothing new to the industry, it does demonstrate an effort to change the high fashion ideal, from some of the field’s most acclaimed creatives. But while we have dissected some of the most mainstream imagery, we have still to cover alternative fashion magazines, and how they tackle the industry ideal.

CASE STUDY: I-D MAGAZINE The industry saw some serious rebellion from various punk movements in the 1970s, and through to the 1990s. Fashion designers like Vivienne Westwood, John Galliano and Alexander McQueen were causing anarchy in fashion at the peak of their careers, creating exciting trends that were inspiring a new perspective on the mode of the time. Magazines like The Face, Blitz, Sleezenation, and Dazed and Confused were all born during this time, and they were known as underground or independent publications creating a new wave in fashion.

27. 1980s i-D editorial spread Terry Jones, former Art Director of British Vogue in the 1970s, left his position at the commercial magazine to endeavor upon a completely new punk project: i-D (The Independent 2013). He too, noticed, that Vogue was such an establishment restrained by the seasonal catwalk that it couldn’t identify with what was going on in the streets (ShowStudio 2014). As the founder and editor-in-chief of i-D, which originally started up as a fanzine, Jones took it upon himself to capture the fashion happening on the streets as a result of the rebellious do-it-yourself personal style defining British identity at the time. Surpassing the existence of likewise game-changing competitors, The Face and Blitz, to this day i-D prides itself in blossoming being a market leader in alternative fashion magazines (i-D n.d). Responsible for giving Madonna her first cover, part of what made i-D such a success was perhaps its ambitions to discover and launch the careers of creative talents across fashion, music, and the arts (i-D n.d). Another fragment that remains integral to the publication’s ethos is promoting the “ordinary person” in its content, so as to identify with its young fashion reader, ready to break the rules of the fashion ideal. What made the launch of this publication particularly exciting, never

mind popular, was the extent of which the “real person” played a role in its editorials and features. Indeed, more than three decades later and i-D has stayed true to its philosophy; 2014’s November issue was based around the theme of beauty, challenging beauty ideals and celebrating the good, bad and the ugly in everybody, so to speak. Women only need to look to niche magazines to find an abundance of body image diversity - and while editorials may still be a construct, this type of publication gives females the opportunity to identify with the woman of fashion. Consequently, this reinforces my findings that show the pressures of body ideals only seem to come from commercial fashion imagery.

28. Nicki Minaj fully styled on the cover of Wonderland

29. Nicki Minaj posted a picture of herself without make-up on social media site, Instagram

THE 21ST CENTURY WOMAN Despite certain aspects of fashion imagery sharing divided views on the feminine body ideal, the popular blogger and feminist, Karley Sciortino, echoes the view of many other feminists who believe that many of the images women see in mainstream media are still being created by men, in turn contributing to this one-dimensional ideal female created in fashion photography (i-D 2014). While previous figures have revealed that only a third of senior roles in the fashion industry are assigned to women (The Independent 2009), Sciortino does make a valid point. However, as weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve discovered, the fashion woman isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t always necessarily one-dimensional, and can equally be used to not only relate to the reader, but also empower and encourage females to heighten their self-esteem.

Furthermore, the conference discussed the way in which other factors, such as social media and celebrity culture, play an equally crucial part in the forming of the 21st Century female mindset - something which my focus group reinforced, with participants feeling like it made up a sizeable influence in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception of body image. As Weinstock writes in an article about the relationship between body image, social media and feminism (i-D 2014), the advantage that social media platforms have on women is the empowerment of having complete control over the portrayal of their own body image, without anyone else misrepresenting them.

Having attended the annual Feminism in London Conference in October 2014 I was able to consider just how important the Fourth Wave of Feminism is as a social and political movement, and thus how it has contributed to the way in which women are perceiving and appreciating their body image. Many women I spoke to at the conference gave me an overview into the confidence and empowerment feminism has allowed them to have, rejecting the body ideal and simply being content with their own appearance for what it is. This investigation showed a different type of woman who was being affected by the images in fashion but not in such a way that they felt pressured to adhere to its ideals.

CONCLUSION This paper has analysed various examples that show evidence of fashion imagery affecting the female self-esteem in both positive and negative lights. In agreement with Bruzzi and Gibson (2013), and to touch on a point previously made, its crucial to take into account that, since its beginning, fashion photography has been creating a visual portal to which the consumer can aspire, and it is something that it will continue to pursue, not because it wishes to misinterpret the woman, but because fashion is a business, just like any other. Women of varying ages in Britain have shown in self-conducted studies that they do deem the women presented in fashion media to be a major component of their perception of body image. On reflection, they also assess that it does indeed contribute to pressuring them adhere to social and archetypal expectations, but respectively discuss the influences other external factors have on these ideals. Nonetheless, while fashion may not be the only contributor to female body pressures, extensive research has proved it to be a major component. A wide range of texts have reinforced the discoveries and conclusions gathered from primary research, allowing me to further determine that fashionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s representation of the woman has put pressure on females since the start of the 20th Century. But that generality has narrowed itself down throughout this essay, informing us that it is in fact commercial fashion that seems to be pressurising women to adhere to archetypal expectations.

REFERENCE LIST

Adams, T. (2013) ‘Alexandra Shulman: ‘I Want To Do Things Right, But I’m Not A Total Perfectionist’’, The Guardian [online], (16 February), available: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2013/feb/16/alexandra-shulman-fashion-media-changes [accessed 24 November 2014]. Barthes, R. (1990) The Fashion System, London: University of California Press

Benn, M. (2013) What Should We Tell Our Daughters?: The Pleasures and Pressures of Growing Up Female, London: Hodder Bruzzi, S. and Church Gibson, P., ed. (2013) Fashion Cultures Revisited, 2nd ed., New York: Routledge

Caba, J. (2014) ‘Skin Cancer Rates In US And UK Still Rising Dramatically: Time To Put Off Tanning Salons For Good?’, Medical Daily [online], (22 April), available: http://www.medicaldaily.com/skin-cancer-rates-us-and-uk-still-rising-dramatically-time-put-tanning-salons-good-278076 [accessed 13 October 2014] Daily Mail (2009) ‘Ralph Lauren Apologises For Digitally Retouching Slender Model To Make Her Head Look Thinner Than Her Waist’, Daily Mail [online], (10 October), available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1219046/Ralph-Lauren-digitally-retouches-slender-model-make-look-THINNER.html#ixzz0TTZ3Y4V2 [accessed 24 November 2014] Ellen Roach, M. and Bulbolz Eicher, J., ed. (1965) Dress, Adornment and the Social Order, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Gavin, F. (2014) ‘Collier Schorr: Still Chasing the First High’, Dazed Digital [online], available: http://www.dazeddigital. com/fashion/article/18446/1/collier-schorrs-androgynous-youth [accessed 13 October 2014] Hancock, J H., Johnson-Woods, T and Karaminas, V. (2013) Fashion in Popular Culture, Bristol: Intellect i-D (n.d) ‘About’ [online], available: https://i-d.vice.com/en_gb/about [accessed 24 November 2014] Jones, D. (2013) ‘Terry and Tricia Jones: The Couple Who Put Punk Into Print By Creating i-D Magazine’, The Independent [online], (1 December), available: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/terry-and-triciajones-the-couple-who-put-punk-into-print-by-creating-id-magazine-8976036.html [accessed 24 November 2014] Kyung Kim, E. (2014) ‘UK Vogue Editor: Nobody Wants A ‘Real’ Person On The Cover’, Today [online], (19 March), available: http://www.today.com/style/uk-vogue-editor-nobody-wants-real-person-cover-2D79403074 [accessed 13 October 2014] Leite, N. and Roxo, A. (2014) ‘How to Demolish the Media Stereotype’, Dazed Digital [online], available: http://www. dazeddigital.com/artsandculture/article/18912/1/how-to-demolish-the-media-stereotype [accessed 13 October 2014] Orenstein, P. (2011) Cinderella Ate My Daughter, New York: HarperCollins Rehabs (n.d) ‘Women’s Body Image and BMI: 100 Years In The US’ [online], available: http://www.rehabs.com/explore/ womens-body-image-and-bmi/ [accessed 27 October 2014] Shields, R. (2009) ‘Women Occupy Just a Third of The Top Jobs in Fashion’, The Independent [online], (31 May), available: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/news/women-occupy-just-a-third-of-the-top-jobs-in-fashion-1693510.html [accessed 24 November 2014] Showstudio (2012) ‘In Fashion: Alexandra Shulman’, ShowStudio [online], (19 November), available: http://showstudio. com/project/in_fashion/alexandra_shulman [accessed 24 November 2014]. Swash, R. (2014) ‘Calvin Klein Ads Featuring ‘Plus Size’ Model Myla Dalbesio Ignite Online Debate’, The Guardian [online], (11 November), available: http://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2014/nov/11/-sp-myla-dalbesio-calvin-kleinsnew-model-size-10-plus-size [accessed 24 November 2014] The All-Party Parliamentary Group on Body Image (2011) ‘Reflections on Body Image’ [online]. London: YMCA, available: http://www.ncb.org.uk/media/861233/appg_body_image_final.pdf [accessed 27 October 2014] The Maggies (n.d) ‘2009 Winners’ [online], available: http://www.themaggies.co.uk/2009-winners/# [accessed 24 November 2014] The World Health Organisation (2011) ‘Mercury in Skin Lightening Products’ [online], available: http://www.who.int/ipcs/ assessment/public_health/mercury_flyer.pdf [accessed 27 October 2014]

Weinstock, T. (2014) ‘Feminism 2.0 – The Women Who Rule The Web’, i-D [online], (21 July), available: http://i-d.vice. com/en_au/read/think-pieces/3759/feminism-20---the-women-who-rule-the-web [accessed 13 October 2014] Welters, L., and Lillethun A., ed. (2011) The Fashioned Reader, 2nd ed., Oxford: Berg Wolf, N. (1990) The Beauty Myth, London: Vintage

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alter, C. (2014) ‘In Defense of Barbie: Why She Might Be The Most Feminist Doll Around’, Time [online], (5 February), available: http://time.com/4597/in-defense-of-barbie-why-she-might-be-a-feminist-doll-after-all/ [accessed 27 October 2014] Attwood, F., Campbell, V., Hunter, I. Q., and Lockyer, S., ed. (2013) Controversial Images, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Barbie Collector (2014) ‘Barbie: “Why Posing for Sports Illustrated Suits Me”’ [online], (17 February), available: http:// www.barbiecollector.com/news/barbie-swimsuit-barbie-oped [accessed 27 October 2014] De Beauvoir, S. (1949) The Second Sex, translated by H.M Parshley, London: Vintage

Do Something (n.d) ’11 Facts About Body Image’, Do Something [online], available: https://www.dosomething.org/ facts/11-facts-about-body-image [accessed 13 October 2014] Do Something (n.d) ’11 Facts About Cyber Bullying’, Do Something [online], available: https://www.dosomething.org/ facts/11-facts-about-cyber-bullying [accessed 13 October 2014] Entwistle, J. (2000) The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress And Modern Social Theory, Cambridge: Polity Jobling, P. (1999) Fashion Spreads: Word and Image in Fashion Photography Since 1980, Oxford: Berg Keenan, W J. F., Ed. (2001) Dressed To Impress, Oxford: Berg

Kinsella, A. (2013) ‘The Feminine Complex’, ShowStudio [online], (22 October), available: http://showstudio.com/project/ behind_the_seams/the_feminine_complex [accessed 13 October 2014] Kretowicz, S. (2014) ‘How to Sell Shit to Women’, Dazed Digital [online], available: http://www.dazeddigital.com/ artsandculture/article/18694/1/how-to-sell-shit-to-women [accessed 13 October 2014] Mand Lewin, A. (2014) ‘Bald Fashion Founder Resigns Femininity Starting With Herself’, Today [online], (16 April), available: http://www.today.com/style/bald-fashion-founder-redesigns-femininity-starting-herself-2D79536356 [accessed 13 October 2014] Peers, J. (2004) The Fashion Doll: From Bebe Jumeau to Barbie, Oxford: Berg Roxby, P. (2014) ‘Does Social Media Impact on Body Image’, BBC [online], (13 October), available: http://www.bbc. co.uk/news/health-29569473 [accessed 13 October 2014] Stump, S. (2013) ‘‘Normal’ Barbie Uses Real Women’s Measurements’, Today [online], (3 July), available: http://www. today.com/news/normal-barbie-uses-real-womens-measurements-6C10533511 [accessed 27 October 2014] Turk, V. (2012) ‘Dolls’, ShowStudio [online], (6 December), available: http://showstudio.com/project/fashion_fetish/ essay_dolls [accessed 13 October 2014] Wang, C. (2012) ‘Women Only Hold 1.7% of CEO Jobs In Fashion (Even Lower Than Average)’, Refinery 29 [online], (29 October), available: http://www.refinery29.com/fashion-ceo [accessed 24 November 2014]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Tatiana Cockburn-Aldana, (2014). See appendix. 2. Tatiana Cockburn-Aldana, (2014). See appendix. 3. Tatiana Cockburn-Aldana, (2014). See appendix.

4. Celine, (2014). Example of Celine AW14 Advertising Campaign. [image] Available at: https://www.celine.com/sites/ default/files/styles/collection__campaign/public/assets/images/campaign_winter14_1080x773_6.jpg?itok=t1fOpYBM [Accessed 27 Nov. 2014]. 5. Gucci, (2014). Example of Gucci AW14 Advertising Campaign. [image] Available at: http://www.afashionfriend.co.za/ sites/default/files/images/posts/Gucci5_0.jpg [Accessed 27 Nov. 2014]. 6. Chanel, (2014). Example of Chanel AW14 Advertising Campaign. [image] Available at: http://www.fashionmention. com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/25/Cara-Delevingne-Binx-Walton-Chanel-Fall-Winter-2014-Campaign-04.jpg [Accessed 27 Nov. 2014]. 7. La Perla, (2014). Cara Delivingne Modelling Her Signature Thick Brows In Advertising Campaign for La Perla, [image] Available at: http://www.hawtcelebs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/cara-delevingne-la-perla-spring-summer-2014collection_5.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 8. Hanson, P. (1992). A Young Kate Moss Modelling Thin Eyebrows. [image] Available at: https://static.squarespace. com/static/51cc9e1ee4b09a1cb6e7da57/51cca161e4b0ad2a93ccab28/51cca176e4b0ad2a93cd0963/1365615270267 /1000w/92-KateMoss_Paris2012-04-16-14-31-19.jpg [Accessed 27 Nov. 2014]. 9. Meisel, S. (1992). Linda Evangelista Modelling Thin Eyebrows, [image]. Available at: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-e7_ HeOIp8yo/UFn4zDkSIsI/AAAAAAAAJfQ/h7MP3fJBSMI/s1600/Linda+Evangelista+1992+FW+Kenar+Ph+Steven+Meisel+005.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 10. Wikimedia (1926). Example Of The Classic Flapper Look In The 1920s As Modelled By Alice Joyce, [image]. Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Alicejoyce1926full_crop.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 11. Glamour Daze (1934). Janet Gaynor Modelling The Popular Look During The Second World War, [image]. Available at: http://image.glamourdaze.com/2013/10/4-Janet-Gaynor-models-two-1930s-suits-Rene-Hubert-designer.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 12. De Dienes, A. (1949). Hollywood Actress Marilyn Monroe Modelling The Desired Hourglass Figure Of the 1950s [image]. Available at: http://www.dailyhiit.com/hiit-blog/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Marilyn_Monroe_10.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 13. De Villeneveuve, J. (1967) Twiggy Embodies The Skinny Ideal Of The 1960s, [image]. Available at: http://matrixworldhr. files.wordpress.com/2013/03/1-twiggy.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 14. Media Cache (n.d). Example of 1970s Fashion, [image]. Available at: http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/736x/ee/ f5/a2/eef5a2a9da2cdb00355a3cf50658fef6.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 15. Global Yuppie Style (2014) Cindy Crawford Modelling The Desired Athletic Body Of The 1980s, [image]. Available at: http://www.globalyuppiestyle.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Cindy-Crawford.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 16. Calvin Klein (1993) Kate Moss Modelling The Waif Look In 1990s Calvin Klein Advertising Campaign, [image]. Available at: http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/50983e1decad045e7a000006-1200/1993-the-waif-look-wascontroversial-it-inspired-a-debate-about-heroin-chic-and-whether-mosss-size-zero-body-was-a-healthy-role-model-forgirls-its-hard-to-believe-now-but-at-the-time-moss-was-considered-an-alternative-model-with-a-radically-non-glamorous-look-compared-with-big-haired-all-american-models-like-cindy-crawford.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 17. Lindbergh, P. (1991) Supermodels, Linda Evangelista, Cindy Crawford, Naomi Campbell, and Christy Turlington On The Versace Catwalk in Milan, [image]. Available at: http://assets-archive.harpersbazaar.co.uk/cm/harpersbazaaruk/ images/7g/19-supermodels.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 18. Victoria’s Secret (2014) Victoria’s Secret Angel Adriana Lima, [image] http://justfabzz.com/wp-content/ uploads/2014/01/ADRIANA-LIMA-Victorias-Secret-January-2014-10.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 19. Schorr, C. (1996) Self Portrait “Mimic”, [image]. Available at: http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/gallery/17490/4/ collier-schorrs-8-women [Accessed 27 November 2014].

20. Ralph Lauren (2009) Airbrushed Advertising Campaign Featuring Model Filippa Hamilton, [image]. Available at: http://timtyler.org/on_memetics/ralph-lauren-comparison.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 21. Vogue (2013) Helena Bonham Carter On The Cover Of British Vogue, [image]. Available at: http://dekohomedesign. ro/home%20_%20ICEBERG%20WATER_files/Vogue_July_Cover.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 22. Vogue (2014) Nigella Lawson On The Cover Of British Vogue, [image]. Available at: http://www.shishiwuzhe.co/ wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Nigella-Vogue.png [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 23. Vogue (2012) Adele On The Cover Of British Vogue, [image]. Available at: http://media.columbian.com/img/ photos/2012/12/29/YE-Entertainer_of_the_Yea6.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 24. LOVE (2009) Beth Ditto On The Cover Of Love Magazine, [image]. Available at: http://m.niusnews.com/upload/imgs/ default/13NovW/thegossipband/4.jpeg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 25. Calvin Klein (2014) Myla Dalbesio Featuring As A Plus-Size Model In Calvin Klein Advertising Campaign, [image]. Available at: [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 26. System (2014) Example Of Untouched Editorial Of Lara Stone By Jeurgen Teller, [image]. Available at: [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 27. i-D (1980) Example of Editorial Spread Featured In Launch Issue of i-D Magazine, [image]. Available at: http://www. worn.cz/public/files/012/18515-i-d-magazine-1.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 28. Wonderland (2012) Nicki Minaj Stylised On The Cover Of Wonderland Magazine, [image]. Available at: http://ftape. com/media/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Wonderland-NickiMinaj-Matt-Irwin.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014]. 29. Instagram (2014) Nicki Minaj Posts A Picture Of Herself Without Makeup On Instagram, [image]. Available at: http:// i6.cdnds.net/14/10/450x450/nicki_minaj_shower_selfie_naked_pic_celebrtiy_instagram_handbag.jpg [Accessed 27 November 2014].