413*/(
"35'03 " 41&$*"- &%*5*0/ $"5"-0(
1
2
ARTFOR a special edition moma catalog
curated by stuart comer in conjunction with the metropolitan museum of art
The Museum of Modern Art 11 W 53rd St, New York, NY 10019 1 (212) 708-9400 3
4
table of contents 06 08 10 12
concept bauhaus and de stijl gestalt theory moma and bauhaus
14 continuity piet zwart artwork and principle continuity in context jan tschichold artwork and principle continuity in context
44 figure ground josef albers artwork and principle figure ground in context 52 symmetry w. a. dwiggins artwork and principle symmetry in context
28 closure herbert bayer artwork and principle closure in context
60 similarity theo van doesburg artwork and principle similarity in context kurt schwitters artwork and principle similarity in context
36 proximity lรกszlรณ moholy-nagy artwork and principle proximity in context
74 75 76 78
backlist ordering credits resources
5
concept Art is a term that is fairly hard to define. It covers a broad spectrum of mediums and ideas. Especially for those who are not actively working in the field, art can be full of ambiguity, leading to a lack of understanding, and subsequently, a lack of appreciation. How can this problem be solved? One can come to a museum like the Museum of Modern Art to view works considered to be of importance by the art history community. But how can one gain a deeper understanding of the pieces? The exhibition within this catalog aims to help people understand not only the importance of an artistic visual language, but also how to begin understanding such a language. Through the exploration of gestalt principles, one can experience the effects these elements have on the “feeling� or overall message of a piece of artwork or design.
6
This catalog is a new way for an audience to find understanding by breaking the gestalt principles of perception down into simple definitions. The principles can then be applied to the artwork in this exhibition, as well as art and design in everyday life. This exhibition features artists from the Bauhaus and De Stijl design movements. Those artists have been paired with a gestalt principle that is represented in their artworks. These combined influences translate to a collection of designs that represent the six gestalt principles in real life applications.
7
the bauhaus and de stijl The Bauhaus was a school whose approach to design and the combination of fine art and arts and crafts proved to be a major influence on the development of graphic design as well as much of 20th century modern art. It was founded by architect Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany in 1919. The school moved to Dessau in 1924 and then was forced to close its doors in 1933, under pressure from the Nazi political party. The school favored simplified forms, rationality, functionality and the idea that mass production could live in harmony with the artistic spirit of individuality. Along with Gropius, and many other artists and teachers, both Lรกszlรณ Moholy-Nagy and Herbert Bayer made significant contributions to the development of graphic design. Among its many contributions to the development of design, the Bauhaus taught typography as part of its curriculum and was instrumental in the development of sansserif typography, which they favored for its simplified geometric forms and as an alternative to the heavily ornate German standard of blackletter typography.
8
Dutch for The Style, De Stijl was founded in 1917. The artists most recognized with the movement were the painters Theo van Doesburg, who was also a writer and a critic, and Piet Mondrian, along with the architect Gerrit Reitveld. The movement proposed ultimate simplicity and abstraction through which they could express a Utopian idea of harmony and order. The harmony and order was established through a reduction of elements to pure geometric forms and primary colors. De Stijl was also the name of a publication discussing the groups theories which was published by van Doesburg. The publication De Stijl represents the most significant work of graphic design from the movement, but the ideas of reduction of form and color are major influences on the development of graphic design as well.
9
gestalt theory and principles The gestalt principles of perception explain how whole images are often perceived as more than simply the sum of their parts. Using gestalt theory in communication can help ensure that visual messages will be understood and that designs will be dynamic and visually engaging. These principles also aim to show how complex scenes can be reduced to more simple shapes. They explain how the human eye perceives multiple shapes as a single, united form rather than the separate simpler elements involved. Discovered by German psychologists, the principles show how people unconsciously connect design elements and how those relationships influence how an image is perceived. Generally, the following six principles are applied to art and design. They provide a deeper insight to how people perceive the visual languages being communicated in the art and design world today.
10
Continuity states that the human eye follows paths, lines, and curves of a design even when they are not physically connected. The eye prefers to see a continuous flow of visual elements rather than separated objects. This flow can be represented by actual lines, implied lines, or direction in a piece. Continuity allows the designer to move the viewer’s eye throughout the design. In the principle of closure, it is known that the human eye prefers to see complete shapes. If the visual elements are not complete, the user can perceive a whole shape by filling in missing visual information. Through proximity, shapes placed near each other are visually grouped together when compared to elements placed farther away. Proximity deals with distance between elements, subsequently influencing how the viewer sees and groups the piece’s elements.
According to figure ground, the human eye isolates shapes (figures) from backgrounds (ground). Using this principle, the viewer cannot discern what is figure and what is background. A typical example of figure ground are optical illusions. Typically, symmetry means exactly similar parts facing each other or around an axis. However according to gestalt, a design does not have to be perfectly mirrored, but it must be balanced in weight. This will make the mirrored design feel more complete. Otherwise, the composition will not seem resolved. Similarity can be achieved using alike basic characteristics such as shapes, colors, and sizes to create distinct groupings within a piece of art. The viewer would be able to perceive an artwork comprised of yellow triangles, red circles, and blue squares as containing three separate groups, even if the shapes were evenly spaced from one another.
11
moma and the bauhaus Two men, Alfred H. Barr Jr. and Philip Johnson, collaborated to make the Museum of Modern Art an influential platform for modernism. Both men were particularly influenced by the work of the Bauhaus, both in exhibition design and functional design. They shared an interest in machinemade design of everyday objects that expanded through both their professional and personal lives. Their close connection during MoMA’s first years in the two realms of the professional and personal helped make that design interest a central principle of the museum. New York City from 1929 and 1934 was changing fast, with new skyscrapers, industrialization, and a contiuously increasing population. By having design and architecture a central part of its programming from the start, MoMA became an essential voice in contextualizing the changing aesthetics of the 20th century.
12
Art critic Robert Hughes is quoted in Partners in Design: Alfred H. Barr Jr. and Philip Johnson as stating that “MoMA set out to change the visual culture of America radically and permanently. It wanted to teach Americans to look at everything around them, not only paintings and sculpture (which did not surround them) but auto hubcaps, film, magazine layout, and buildings (which did), and see that such things were the products of a culture and not mere accidents of commerce.”
13
14
01 continuity
01 principle continuity
The human eye follows the paths, lines, and curves of a design, and prefers to see a continuous flow of visual elements rather than separated objects.
15
16
01 continuity
piet zwart A pioneer of modern typography, designer Piet Zwart was influenced by Constructivism and De Stijl. His influence shows in his work and in this quote: “...to make beautiful creations for the sake of their aesthetic value will have no social significance tomorrow...” Zwart worked as a designer, typographer, photographer and industrial designer in the Netherlands in the 1920s and 30s. Primarily working for the NKF Company, he created many works of graphic design before retiring from the company to spend the rest of his days as an interior and furniture designer.
to a halt when he was arrested by German soldiers in 1942. He was eventually released after the war, but the experience affected him drastically. He spent the rest of his life primarily working in interior design. His excellent use of color, typography, composition, and photography are reminiscent of the Bauhaus and his influence on the future generations of graphic designers lives on through the Piet Zwart Institute at the William de Kooning Academy.
“Ponder this question and know that to make beautiful creations for the sake of their aesthetic value will have no social significance tomorrow, will be nonsensical self-gratification. Every era contains the conditions for providing a rebel.” Piet Zwart
Also influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, Zwart began his education at the School of the Applied Arts in 1902. He spent most of his career moonlighting as an architect and photographer, as well as a designer and for several years he was very successful. His design career came
17
18
01 continuity
continuity Continuity compels the eye to move through one object to another, guiding the viewer throughout a work of art or design. By directing the eye throughout a piece, the designer has the capability to inform the viewer of information in a particular order. The mind perceives visual and kinetic patterns through the order the designer creates, often through actual and implied lines. If a line stops, the viewer is able to continue to follow its direction and understand the flow of information in the piece. By dictating the order of information perceived, the designer has a key role in helping the viewer understand sequential information.
Een Kleine Keuze Uit Onze Lettercollectie has a downward direction from the top right to the bottom left of the piece made up of minuscule and majuscule letters. Since the letters go in the same direction in close proximity to one another, the eyes are able to perceive and understand the direction of the line of continuity. The use of continuity within the piece draws the eye down the piece, leading the eye through the entire work in one glance. Thus, the eyes are primed for a more thorough investigation looking through the piece again, since the line of continuity has already briefly led the eye through the piece once.
Een Kleine Keuze Uit Onze Lettercollectie (A Small Choice From Our Letter Collection) Piet Zwart 1932
19
20
01 continuity
application In order to share Elvis Presley’s greatest hits with the world, a deluxe package including a CD and vinyl has been produced for the premium price of $55. Rather than just showing Elvis Presley on the covers, continuity has been used by the designer to create visual direction. The diagonal black lines lead the eyes through the letters spaced throughout the cover, helping the viewer to read the letters as the title “Rock.” Since the lines also continue off of the front plane of the cover, the viewer is also compelled to flip over the album or open the cover, to read the songs that are in the vinyl and CD.
The principle of continuity, in the context of the cover designs, can also imply motion. The lines’ diagonal direction helps create dynamic motion, especially in conjunction with the placement of the title’s letters. Through continuity, both direction and motion are implied, creating a visually interesting design for an iconic musical figure.
21
22
01 continuity
jan tschichold Tschichold claimed that he was one of the most powerful influences on 20th century typography. There are few who would attempt to deny that statement. The son of a sign painter and trained in calligraphy, Tschichold began working with typography at a very early age. Raised in Germany, he worked closely with Paul Renner (who designed Futura) and fled to Switzerland during the rise of the Nazi party. His emphasis on new typography and sans-serif typefaces was deemed a threat to the cultural heritage of Germany, which traditionally used Blackletter Typography and the Nazis seized much of his work before he was able to flee the country. When Tschichold wrote Die Neue Typographie he set forth rules for standardization of practices relating to modern type usage. He condemned all
typefaces except for sans-serif types, advocated standardized sizes of paper and set forth guidelines for establishing a typographic hierarchy when using type in design. While the text still has many relative uses today, Tschichold eventually returned to a classicist theory in which centered designs and roman typefaces were favored for blocks of copy.
“White space is to be regarded as an active element, not a passive background.� Jan Tschichold
He spent part of his career with Penguin Books and while he was there he developed a standardized practice for creating the covers for all of the books produced by Penguin. He personally oversaw the development of more than 500 books between the years 1947-49. Every period of his career has left a lasting impression on how designers think about and use typography, and it will continue to affect them into the future.
23
24
01 continuity
continuity To recap, continuity compels the eye to move through one object to another, continuing throughout a work of art or design. By directing the eye throughout a piece, the designer has the capability to inform the viewer of information in a particular order. The mind perceives visual, auditory and kinetic patterns through the order the designer creates, often through drawn and implied lines. Even if a line stops, the viewer is able to continue to follow its direction and understand the flow of information. Thus, by dictating the order of information perceived, the designer has
a key role in helping the viewer understand sequential information. Part of Tschichold’s book The New Typography, Die Frau ohne Namen also exemplifies continuity through the use of diagonal and horizontal lines. In doing so, Tschichold leads the viewer to look at the images in the poster in a particular order. One can start with the train in the foreground and end with the small picture of a woman or vice versa. Either way, the eyes are compelled to follow one path or the other, due to the surrounding lines.
Die Frau ohne Namen (The Woman Without a Name) Jan Tschichold 1927
25
26
01 continuity
application The complete collection of Edgar Allan Poe’s works was recently released by publisher Fall River Press to rekindle interest and appreciation for his works. Continuity is employed in the book’s cover design. Creating diagonal lines through thick black lines and excerpts from Poe’s “The Raven,” the downward direction leads the viewer’s eyes toward information about the author and title, written in red. This line direction of the black lines also foreshadows Poe’s work, which is often considered to be macabre, or darker in nature. Since an upward diagonal would
produce a positive image, using downward diagonals help to contribute to a darker, more sinister feel to the overall cover design. The color palette also contributes to a more sinister interpretation of the cover. The direction of the book cover’s design, as well as the color palette, helps represent the wonderfully macabre writings of Edgar Allan Poe.
27
28
02 closure
02 principle closure
The human eye has a tendency to see complete shapes. If the visual elements are not complete, the user can perceive a complete shape by filling in missing visual information.
29
30
02 closure
herbert bayer Bayer was both a student and a teacher at the Bauhaus and worked in a wide range of fields including painting, sculpture, typography, advertising and architecture. In his early years as a student he studied painting with Kandinsky, but in just a short while he was teaching one of the Bauhaus’ first classes on typography. The amount of work that he created before he was 28 was more notable than most designers entire careers of work. He spent time teaching at the Bauhaus, working as an Art Director for the Container Corporation and as an architect in both Germany and America. In between his time at the Bauhaus and his career in America he spent time as the Art Director of Vogue magazine’s Berlin office. His contributions to the fields of graphic design, typography and advertising were many. One that should be noted was his design for a typeface that consisted of
entirely lowercase letters. The German blackletter types were overly ornate for his taste and their use of capital letter for every proper noun was annoying. Logically, Bayer developed a sans-serif alphabet of lowercase letters titled “Universal.”
“But the facts show that if even the humblest product is designed, manufactured, and distributed with a sense of human values and with a taste for quality, the world will recognize the presence of a creative force.” Herbert Bayer
In 1946 Bayer moved to Aspen, Colorado where he spent much of his time designing local architecture and posters for the local community. In 1959 he designed another sans-serif typeface. Again it was all in lower case, but he called it “fonetik alfabet” and it contained special characters for the endings -ed, -ion, -ory and -ing. He is one of the most recognized designers to come from the Bauhaus institution and his theories of design are still taught in many schools today.
31
32
02 closure
closure Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is implied, people percieve the whole by filling in the missing information. Even if the shape or element is not complete, enough is present for the eye to complete the shape. By completing the shape, regularity is increased within a piece, allowing the eye to resolve the potential visual problem.
shape was not intentionally formed by Bayer, by enclosing the yellow background with the different bars of color, the eyes perceive enough visual information to finish the rectangle shape. A little amount of visual information goes a long way to form shapes from space, as shown by this piece.
In Bayer’s Chromatic Gate, the center rectangle is implied with closure. While the
Chromatic Gate Herbert Bayer 1969
33
34
02 closure
application The 60th anniversary of Alfred Hitchcock’s Vertigo release is being celebrated at the Castro Theatre in San Francisco, CA, where the film first premiered in 1958. Being an iconic film, the design for the film is crucial in conveying the visual identity of the film. Using the face of James Stewart, one of the leading actors in the film, helps to connect the designs to the film. The shapes themselves display the principle of closure, especially in how they end around Stewart’s eye. Their ends imply the shape of a circle; thus the eye interprets the negative space as a circle, even though
a circle is not explicitly drawn. The implied circle then becomes the focal point of the promotional design, leading the viewer’s eye to confront James Stewart’s astonished face on the cover of the DVD, for example. What is he reacting to? Only watching the film will answer that question.
35
36
03 proximity
03 principle proximity
Simple shapes arranged together can create a more complex image. Shapes that are placed near one another are grouped together, regardless if they are different in color, form, or size.
37
38
03 proximity
lászló moholy-nagy Known for his versatility and the fundamentals of design which he taught his students, László replaced Johannes Itten as director of the Bauhaus in 1923. He experimented in many different fields including photography, typography, sculpture, painting, industrial design and printmaking. His experimentation across multiple mediums led to graphic design work characterized by bold typography in combination with striking photography.
Berlin as a film and stage designer. In 1937, he moved to Chicago and formed the New Bauhaus, which is now the Illinois Institute of Technology. The school shared the same philosophy as the original Bauhaus and caught on quickly. He chronicled his efforts to establish the curriculum of the school in his book Vision in Motion.
“We must learn to seek not the picture, not the aesthetic of tradition, but the ideal instrument of expression, the selfsufficient vehicle for education.” László Moholy-Nagy
After he resigned from his position at the Bauhaus in 1928, he spent time working in
39
40
03 proximity
proximity Proximity occurs when elements, such as shapes, are placed close together. Due to the elements’ positions within a piece, elements placed closer together tend to be perceived as a group rather than individual elements. Elements could be visually different, however, when placed near one another, the same elements are perceived as part of the same group.
visually unique itself, by placing each element in proximity with one another, this piece is perceived as one unified whole rather than three separate elements.
The Olly and Dolly Sisters is made up of three basic elements: the largest circle, the small circle, and the circle with a woman’s body. Though each element is
The Olly and Dolly Sisters László Moholy-Nagy 1925
41
42
03 proximity
application The Phantom of the Opera is showing at Her Majesty’s Theatre in London April 28th through June 23rd from 2:30 to 7:30 pm every day. In order to spread this important information about the show to the general public, promotional material has been placed in heavily traveled areas, like the London Underground. Using the gestalt principle of proximity, the elements within the promotional designs are grouped together due to their close location to one another. The eyes naturally group the black semicircles together and differentiate the people, or red dot, found in different places within the designs as a separate group.
Even though the elements are visually disparate, because they are close to one another, the eyes easily create groups within the designs. Proximity contributes to the overall effectiveness of the design.
43
44
04 figure ground
04 principle figure ground
Given competing visual elements, the human eye isolates shapes from backgrounds, often referred to as figures and grounds. Grounds recede to the background whereas figures advance towards the front.
45
46
04 figure ground
josef albers Albers was a student of the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany and was a practicing artist in the fields of design, typography, photographer, painter, printmaker and poet. His most influential work was created in the field of abstract painting and it showed an influence in both the Bauhaus and the Constructivists with its simplified geometric shapes. However, he also proved to be very influential to many other graphic designers and artists as a teacher at the Black Mountain College in North Carolina from 1933-49 and at Yale University in Connecticut from 1950-58.
end of his career he and his wife established the Joseph and Anni Albers foundation in an effort to continue sharing and promoting the theory that he had established during his career. His style and work represent a bridge between the European art of the Bauhaus and Constructivists and the new American Art that emerged in the 1950s and 60s. He was a teacher and an artist his entire career, until his death in 1976 at the age of 88.
“To design is to plan and to organize, to order, to relate and to control. In short it embraces all means of opposing disorder and accident. Therefore it signifies a human need and qualifies man’s thinking and doing.� Josef Albers
His series Homage to the Square is an example of his disciplined approach to composition and color theory. Towards the
47
48
04 figure ground
figure ground The eye differentiates between an element’s form from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is naturally perceived as figure (element), while the surrounding area is perceived as ground (background). Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image more clear. Using unusual figure/ground relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image. Gestalt does not exactly explain how figure ground images flip between perceptions, only that they do indeed flip.
In Albers’ piece Interlocked, the background is not obvious at all. Though one might perceive the black rectangles and shapes to be the background, the eyes quickly shift to the lighter greys in the piece. Could the black shapes be in the foreground and the lighter grey shapes be in the background? The game then begins within the mind through the eyes, as one continues to decipher whether or not they are perceiving the artist’s intended figure and ground.
Interlocked Josef Albers 1927
49
50
04 figure ground
application Promoting the performance of Romeo and Juliet at the Public Theater, which will be showing from August 18 – September 20 every night at 7pm. Through the use of the principle of figure ground, the design of the promotional pieces for the performance are given more visual intrigue. The red, blue, black, and white lines and rectangles all compete to be at the forefront of the design. Thus, the viewer’s eyes must decide who wins that competition. Since the eye must look at and process such a design typically for a longer period of time in order to distinguish figures from grounds, the viewer
will also be spending more time absorbing the information presented about the play. Therefore, the likelihood of the viewer going to the performance increases due to the fact that they have spent a greater amount of time processing the promotional material.
51
52
05 symmetry
05 principle symmetry
The eye tends to rest in an artwork when it is equally balanced across an axis which is typically vertical. Though often defined as an exact mirroring of one side to the other, a design does not have to be an exact reflection, but rather be equally weighted on both sides of the axis.
53
54
05 symmetry
william addison dwiggins Dwiggins is probably most noted for coining the term ‘Graphic Designer’ in 1922 which he used in reference to himself. His work encompassed book design, lettering, typography and calligraphy. He created several typefaces including two that are still used often today for the Linotype corporation Electra and Caledonia. Dwiggins was one of the most influential book designers of the 1920s and 30s, and his work re-kindled public interest in book design. Dwiggins was a man of many skills and did not limit himself to one trade, although he said that he would like to most be remembered for his type design. In 1928 he wrote and published the book ‘Layout in Advertising’ which, at the time, was considered to be the reference text for the field. He used his time away from work to construct a set of 12” marionettes and a marionette theater, all carved by hand out of wood.
The company with which he spent the most time was Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., which was acquired by Random House in 1960. There he designed a total of 329 books, seventeen of which were chosen as AIGA selections. He worked up until the last two years of his life. Always a man who took lightly of himself, he remained jovial until his death on Christmas day in 1956.
“In the matter of layout, forget art and use horse-sense. The printer-designer’s whole duty is to make a clear presentation of the message. This calls for an exercise of common sense and faculty of analysis rather than for art.” William Addison Dwiggins
55
56
05 symmetry
symmetry This principle says that a composition should provide a sense of order or balance. If it is not balanced, the viewer will spend time tr ying to locate the missing element or fix the problem rather than focusing on the message or instruction. Symmetry can be achieved by providing an equal balance or sense of equal weight in your design elements. This provides the viewer with a feeling of harmony. Symmetrical images are perceived collectively, despite distance. The eye prefers visual explanations with greater symmetry rather than chaotic, asymmetrical ones.
Dwiggins’ book cover design for Layout in Advertising exemplifies symmetry in structure and in balance, as well as reflecting visual information across the vertical axis of the page’s design. Dwiggins’ text fills most of the pages space, having equal margins on both sides, contributing to equal visual weights and balance. Dwiggins also utilizes a green graphic image that horizontally fills the page. Within this graphic, another aspect of symmetry is exemplified: exact reflection across a vertical axis. Combining the imagery and text on the page, the eyes do not seek to resolve any part of Dwiggins’ book design. The design exists for viewing pleasure, due to its use of symmetry
Layout in Advertising book cover William Addison Dwiggins 1928
57
58
05 symmetry
application The promotional material for the upcoming performance of the Charlotte Ballet’s The Nutcracker helps represent symmetry through balance, instead of exactly reflecting a design over a vertical axis. Though the dancer leaping across can not be exactly symmetrical on both sides, where he is placed allows for the design to remain equally weighted on both sides. The production team for the Charlotte Ballet has decided to not only produce promotional products for the upcoming performances of The Nutcracker, but also to make thank you gifts for the cast.
In the gift box design, symmetry is evident in balance, weight, and visual similarity. Christmas cards have also been produced, since the ballet will be showing from December 9 through December 23. The design of the Christmas cards closely resembles symmetry that is visually defined by reflecting across the middle vertical axis of the design.
59
60
06 similarity
06 principle similarity
The human eye tends to build a relationship between similar elements within a design. Similarity can be achieved using basic elements such as shapes, colors, and size.
61
62
06 similarity
theo van doesburg Highly influenced by Wassily Kandinsky, van Doesburg shifted his style of painting from one that emphasized less of a direct reflection of everyday life and one that placed more importance on a conceptual style that favored a simplistic geometric style. A Dutch artist, van Doesburg, led the artistic style movement “De Stijl” into popularity and influenced graphic designers for many years to come with his theories, which conveyed the idea that there was a collective experience of reality that could be tapped as a medium of communication. Van Doesburg moved to Weimar, Germany in hopes of impressing the directer of the Bauhaus, Walter Gropius. Gropius did not directly oppose his ideas, but did not accept him onto the faculty of the Bauhaus.
promoted, most of which were developed out of the ideas of Constructivism, Dadaism, and De Stijl.
“Each superfluous line, each wrongly placed line, any color placed without veneration or care, can spoil everything, that is, the spiritual.”
It was during these times that Van Doesburg formed a tight bond with the artist Piet Mondrian. And, in 1923, Van Doesburg moved to Paris so that he could then communicate directly with Mondrian. However, the two were very much polar opposites in character and it resulted in the dissolution of their friendship. It has been speculated that the breakdown came as a result of a disagreement about the directions of lines in their paintings. Van Doesburg moved to Switzerland in 1931, due to his declining health, and it was there that he died, on March 7th.
Theo van Doesburg
In reaction to this, Van Doesburg positioned his studio directly next to the Bahaus and attracted many students with the ideas he
63
64
06 similarity
similarity Similarity occurs when objects or elements within an artwork resemble one another in form, color, size, or brightness. People often perceive visually similar elements as a group or pattern due to this principle. By using similarity, organization of visual information is inherently applied to elements within an artwork. Through similarity, a designer can group information in a way that is easy for a viewer to understand and digest.
triangles. Since Van Doesburg uses the similar element of triangles within this piece, the eyes are primed to perceive and create relationships between the triangles of the composition. Thus, the eyes group similarly colored triangles together. The white triangles and light grey triangles in particular are grouped together since both colors are the most numerous within the work.
In Van Doesburg’s work CounterComposition XIII, the entire piece is created through the orientation of colored
Counter Composition XIII Theo van Doesburg 1925-26
65
66
06 similarity
application Jay and the Gatsbys, an indie rock band from Long Island, NY, has booked the 89 North Music Venue on July 21st for one of their first concerts. In order to promote their brand, the band has decided to get some promotional material produced to sell at their concert, such as hoodies, beanies, and exclusive VIP passes. Through the use of similarity, the band’s design is easily perceived as a cohesive unit. Since triangles are the only shapes utilized within the design, despite the fact that they are different colors, the design itself is seen as a single unit. However, since the design
utilizes different colors, the design can also be grouped by colors. For example, the two yellow triangles in Jay and the Gatsbys’ band design are automatically grouped by the eye, where as the red, blue, and grey triangle are seen as different.
67
68
06 similarity
kurt schwitters Kur t Schwit ters is most commonly associated with the Dada movement, but also was an integral participant in the C onstructivist and Surrealist m ove m e n t s . He worked in many mediums including painting, poetry, installation art, sculpture, graphic design and typography. His influence in the art world and the popularity of his collage style of artwork were far reaching both in Europe and the US. After World War I society in Germany began to become somewhat more stable and Schwitters became less active in the Constructivist and Surrealist movements and joined the German Dada group. During this time he published a periodical titled Merz, which was perhaps his most influential graphic design work.
things were in terrible turmoil. What I had learned at the academy was of no use to me and the useful new ideas were still unready.... Everything had broken down and new things had to be made out of the fragments; and this is Merz. It was like a revolution within me, not as it was, but as it should have been.” The periodical featured a new topic for each issue including, artist features, children stories and poetry. Collaborators included El Lissitzky, van Doesburg and Jan Tschichold.
“The medium is as unimportant as I myself. Essential is only the forming.” Kurt Schwitters
Merz was a term that Schwitters often used in his work, describing it as “In the war,
69
70
06 similarity
similarity As previously stated, similarity occurs when objects or elements within an artwork look alike to one another. Similarity also depends on the relationships of form, color, brightness, or size of elements within a piece. People often perceive visually similar elements as a group or pattern. By using the gestalt principle, organization of visual information is inherently applied to elements within an artwork. A designer is able to group information in a way that is easy for the viewer to understand and digest through the use of similarity.
element of color. Though the piece contains multiple colors, the eye groups shapes of similar colors together, regardless of their placement within the work. For example, the lighter blue square and rectangle shapes are grouped together by the eye, whereas the surrounding black, navy blue, grey, and beige pieces immediately around the lighter blue shapes are ignored by the eye. Since these similar shapes do not share the same color, the eye is not compelled to group them together, despite proximity to one another.
In this piece, elikan, Schwitters’ use of similarity is immediately apparent in the
elikan Kurt Schwitters 1925
71
72
06 similarity
application Special edition items have been created for the Empire State Building’s gift shop, such as postcards, mugs, and tote bags. The visual of the Empire State Building has been created through similarity. The lighter blue shapes are grouped together to form the main shape of the Empire State Building. The white shapes provide windows and top highlights to the building, as well as part of the building’s spire. The dark blue shapes also provide some windows and create the iconic “T” shape that goes down the center of the skyscraper. Combining all of these
elements together creates the whole image of the Empire State Building. Similarity helps the viewer to perceive layered elements of the building’s design.
73
backlist
limited edition artfor sweatshirt
limited edition artfor coaster
limited edition artfor mug
$65
$20 for set of 4
$35
limited edition artfor iphone case
limited edition artfor stationery
limited edition artfor tote bag
$22
$4
$24
74
ordering information trade orders
individual orders
Bookstores, book distributors, and libraries
Titles can be purchased or ordered by individual customers in several ways.
Unless otherwise noted, MoMA publications are distributed in the United States and Canada by ARTBOOK | D.A.P. and outside the United States and Canada by Thames & Hudson, Ltd. Please direct all orders, invoice questions, and title, price, and availability inquiries to: ARTBOOK|D.A.P. 155 Sixth Avenue, 2nd Floor New York, NY 10013-1507 Tel.: 800 338 2665 Fax: 800 478 3128 Artbook.com Thames & Hudson Distributors, Ltd. Littlehampton Book Services Faraday Close, Durnington, Worthing West Sussex, BN13 2RB Tel.: +44 (0) 1903 828501 Please verify availability with the distributor for your geographic area. Contact the distributors regarding their discounts and returns policy.
moma online The MoMA Online Store offers most MoMA titles for sale in its expanded bookstore, including digital editions. MoMAStore.org
moma mail order Tel.: (toll-free): 800 447 6662 Fax: 212 333 1127 Order anytime.
the moma design and book store 11 West 53 Street, New York, NY 10019 Tel.: 212 708 9400
the moma design store, soho 81 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012 Tel.: 646 613 1367
moma books The Museum of Modern Art, 2nd Floor Independent, chain, and online bookstores offer MoMA titles worldwide. Contact your favorite bookstore to inquire about new and recent MoMA titles. If the title you are seeking is unavailable, please inform your bookstore that MoMA titles can be ordered from our trade distributors.
75
credits
76
logan chapman
martha coleman
concepting illustration director mockups page 20-72 type setting
concepting cover design type editing layout
research and imagery for herbert bayer and jan tschichold
research and imagery for theo von doesburg and lรกszlรณ moholy-nagy
maddy clement
taylor wood
concepting copy writer image editor
concepting layout and grid master type editing and setting hyperlinks mockups page 7, 13, 74
research and imagery for kurt schwitters and william addison dwiggins
research and imagery for piet zwart and josef albers
77
resources content 08
10-73
12
17 23
31
78
introduction http://designishistory.com/1920/ the-bauhaus/ http://designishistory.com/1920/ de-stijl/ https://www.interaction-design. org/literature/topics/ http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls. edu/tutorials/process/ gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm https://www.sanjuan.edu/cms/ lib/CA01902727/Centricity/ Domain/3981/gestalttheory.pdf
39
03 proximity http://designishistory.com/1920/ laszlo-moholy-nagy/
47
04 figure ground http://designishistory.com/1940/ joseph-albers/
55 57
https://hyperallergic.com/255892/ the-men-behind-momas-taste-formodernist-design/ 01 continuity http://designishistory.com/1920/ piet-zwart/ http://designishistory.com/1920/ jan-tschichold/
63
02 closure http://designishistory.com/1920/ herbert-bayer/
75
69
05 symmetry http://designishistory. com/1850/wa-dwiggins/ https://www.sanjuan.edu/cms/ lib/CA01902727/Centricity/ Domain/3981/gestalttheory.pdf http://www.creativebloq. com/graphic-design/gestalttheory-10134960 06 similarity http://designishistory.com/1920/ theo-van-doesberg/ http://designishistory.com/1920/ kurt-schwitters/ conclusion https://www.moma.org/momaorg/ shared/pdfs/docs/explore/ MoMABooks_Fall15.pdf
images front and back covers https://i.pinimg.com/ 09 11 16 18 22 24 30 32
34
introduction Oswalt, Philipp. “The Bauhaus at Home in Dessau.” Bauhaus: Art as Life, Koenig Books, 2012, p. 138. http://sites.psu.edu/ 01 continuity http://retours.eu/nl/ https://www.moma.org https://pmcinto5.files.wordpress. com https://www.moma.org 02 closure https://the189.com/ Cohen, Arthur A. “Painting: 1919-1982.” Herbert Bayer: The Complete Work, The MIT Press, 1984, p. 103. http://www. theimaginativeconservative.org/
38 40 42
03 proximity https://i.pinimg.com https://www.picsofcelebrities.com https://tfl.gov.uk/ https://upload.wikimedia.org/
48
04 figure ground Diament de Sujo, Clara, et al. “Josef Albers.” Josef Albers, Dessain and Tolra, 1972, p. 6. https://www.guggenheim.org
54 56 58
05 symmetry https://letterformarchive.org http://www.paulshawletterdesign.com http://charlotteballet.org/
46
62 64 68 70
06 similarity https://upload.wikimedia.org https://www.guggenheim.org https://merzbarnlangdale.files.wordpress. com/ Elderfield, John. “Kurt Schwitters.” Kurt Schwitters, Thames and Hudson Inc., 1984, p. XX.
79
80
5)& .64&6. 0' .0%&3/ "35 $"5"-0( %&1"35.&/5 8&45 453&&5 /&8 :03, /: