Communication And Technology: Resource Book

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by Jane Bourke

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Communication & Technology r o e t s Bo r e p o

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© ReadyEdPubl i cat i ons •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y•

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Photographer: Richard Bartz, Wikimedia Commons.

Library Activity Package: Communication and Technology Upper Primary Resource Book

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© 2004 Ready-Ed Publications, Revised © 2009 Printed in Australia ISBN: 9781863975858

Acknowledgements: i. Clip art has been obtained from Microsoft Design Gallery Live and is used under the terms of the End User License Agreement for Microsoft Word 2000. Please refer to www.microsoft.com/permission. ii. Wikimedia Commons. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License” iii. IMSI’s Masterclips/MasterPhotos collection, 1895 Francisco Blvd, East San Rafael, CA 94901-5506 USA, website: www.imsisoft.com iv. Corel Corporation, 1600 Carling Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1Z 8R7. v. © NASA, Great Images in NASA (GRIN) Sourced from: http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ vi. Image on page 6 used by permission of Dr Ellen K.Rudolph.

Photos from individuals and other sources are credited where applicable.

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Author: Jane Bourke Design & Typesetting: Shay Howard

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Published by: Ready-Ed Publications PO Box 276 Greenwood WA 6023 www.readyed.com.au info@readyed.com.au

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Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes

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The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act.

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For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact: Copyright Agency Limited Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street Sydney NSW 2000 Telephone: (02) 9394 7600 Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601 E-mail: info@copyright.com.au

Reproduction and Communication for other purposes

Except as permitted under the Act (for example a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review) no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above.

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Contents

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Communication Timeline 1 ......................................................................4 Communication Timeline 2 ......................................................................5 Communication: Comparisons Over Time ................................................6 The Development of Language ...............................................................7 Storytelling Through Time .......................................................................8 Ancient Communication Forms ................................................................9 The Printing Revolution .........................................................................10 The News About Newspapers ...............................................................11 Newspaper: Read All About It! .............................................................12 Origins of the Telegraph .......................................................................13 The Overland Telegraph ........................................................................14 A Photo Finish .......................................................................................15 Innovative Inventions in the 1800s ........................................................16 Electifying Electronics ...........................................................................17 Edison: Profile of an Ingenious Inventor ................................................18 The Telephone: A Triumph ....................................................................19 Telephone Technology Over Time .........................................................20 Making Things Mobile ............................................................................21 New Technology, New Words ................................................................22 Ready For Radio ...................................................................................23 Great Southern Inventions ....................................................................24 The Computer Age ................................................................................25 The Birth of the Internet ........................................................................26 Newsflash: Flash News ..........................................................................27 Satellites - Off the Planet! .....................................................................28 Universal Communication ......................................................................29 Useful Websites ....................................................................................30 References ............................................................................................30 Index .............................................................................................. 31-32

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Communication Timeline 1

Take a step back through time to relive some of the major advances in the field of communication.

BC

= Phoenicians develop the first alphabet, the Egyptians

3500

develop hieroglyphics and the Sumerians develop cuneiform writing.

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= The first encyclopedia is written in Syria. = The very first postal service is established in China.

900 776 = Homing pigeons are used as a means of communicating

news about the winners of the Ancient Olympic Games.

500-170 = The first use of papyrus rolls as a writing surface is

recorded.

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1270

= The first bound books start to appear.

305 = The first wooden printing press is used in China.

1049 = Movable type is invented in China.

1450 = Newspapers start circulating around Europe.

1455 = A printing press with a movable metal type is invented by

Johannes Gutenberg.

RObscura ead ydprimitive Puimages. bl i cat i ons 1560 = The© Camera is used toE create 1650 = The first daily newspapers start appearing in Europe. f o r e v i ewin p ur posesonl y• 1740 =• Henry Millr invents the typewriter England.

1826 = The first photographic image is produced by Joseph

Nicéphore Niépce in France.

1831 = Joseph Henry invents the first electric telegraph in America.

1835 = Morse code is invented by Samuel Morse. Soon after he

invents the first long distance electric telegraph line.

1843 = The first fax machine is used and Alexander Bain takes out

a patent for his invention.

1867 = The. first modern typewriter is used in America. tEdison invents the mimeograph - a primitive office 1876 = Thomase o

copying machine. c . ch e 1877 = Edison then patents the first phonograph (for recording sound)

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and Alexander Graham Bell invents the first electric telephone.

In the same year, high speed photography is developed by Eadweard Muybridge showing motion images.

= Emile Berliner invents the gramophone which allows recording.

1888 = The Kodak roll film camera is patented by George Eastman in

America.

1894 = Guglielmo Marconi modifies the wireless telegraphy system to

transmit radio signals.

1898 = The first telephone answering machines are used when Valdemar 1887

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Poulsen invents and patents the telegraphone, which is the first machine to use magnetic sound recording and reproduction.

Around this time, the first use of loud speakers is recorded.

1896 Swedish Telephone. Wikimedia Commons

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Communication Timeline 2 = Guglielmo Marconi is the first to transmit radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean. = The first talking motion picture is presented by Thomas Edison. = The first international telephone call is made. = The first radio tuner is invented, providing a range of different stations to choose from. = The first form of television is invented by Vladimir Kosma

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Zworykin in Russia. It is known as an iconoscope with a cathode-ray tube. Two years later John Logie Baird transmits the first television signal.

The first talking motion picture is released by Warner Brothers in America.

The “Golden Age of Radio” begins.

The first computers are used in government departments.

The “Age of Information” begins.

The long playing record (vinyl) is popular, playing at 33 rpm. The transistor radio is invented.

Network television begins in America. It is introduced in New South Wales and Victoria in Australia in 1956.

Other Australian states and New Zealand soon followed.

The first photocopier is invented (the Xerox) which leads to the invention of the first working fax machine.

The first version of the Internet (ARPAnet) is developed.

Floppy disks arrive on the scene along with microprocessors.

Cable television begins in America. It begins in Australia and New Zealand in 1992.

The Apple home computer is invented. National and international television programming using artificial satellites begins.

The first mobile phone network is developed in Japan.

Also in Japan, the SONY walkman is invented.

The first IBM Personal Computer (PC) is sold.

The Apple Macintosh is released as a personal computer for home use.

Compact discs and CD-ROMs become popular.

Compact discs start to replace vinyl records and cassette tapes for music albums.

The United States government opens up the Internet for world use and the World Wide Web (WWW) is born. It allows computers all over the world to talk to each other.

The Information Superhighway is opened up across the globe.

E-mail, SMS (text messages) and Internet Relay Chat (IRC) become very popular as a means of instant communication all around the world.

Video technology is incorporated in chatlines on the WWW as well as mobile Century phones. Camera mobile phones become popular.

Face to face mobile calls are offered by network carriers.

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1902

1906 1914 1916

1923

1927

1930 1944

1948

1949

1958

1969 1971

1972

1976

1979 1980 1981 1984

1985

1994

1999

21st 21st century

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Communication: Comparisons Over Time Communicating

Recording History

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Thousands of years ago when the first humans The people of inhabited the Earth, there ancient times had were no sophisticated no real means forms of communication of recording other than speaking history other face to face and leaving than through primitive drawings on storytelling. cave walls and in the While primitive dirt. During that time, artwork led to it is unlikely that early some ancient © 2005 Dr Ellen K. Rudolph, www.drellenrudolph.com human beings knew how events being big the world was and recorded, there was no formal written that there were other living things exisiting in communication means at that time, to allow far away areas. There was no major need for us to gain an insight into their daily lives.

We global communication and most living things know only what can be interpreted from the were happy to go about their business with images and stories handed down over the a minimum of fuss. Time wasn’t measured generations. in the way that it is measured today and no Today every waking (and sleeping) moment of a scientist is certain about the exact times that person can be recorded on video camera or even primitive humans began to roam the Earth. streamed down the Internet to a live audience.

Clues have been gathered by very ancient It has only been a couple of hundred years since drawings and so far archaeologists all agree photographic images have been developed, and that most recordings of history started around yet most human beings alive today have been 3500 BC. represented in hundreds of images. Children in Compare that to today’s world, where everything the 21st Century are able to view themselves is recorded in minute detail with hundreds of crawling as babies, with some children able to statistics to go with it. It is almost impossible for relive almost their entire life on video! Compared events to go unrecorded with current technology. to the amount of time the Earth has been in Even a solo sailor in the middle of the Pacific existence, it is only a tiny portion of history that Ocean is able to send email, as he or she has been able to be recorded in this way. circumnavigates the entire world. Your trip to the

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shop in the car with your parents is recorded in some form. Just look at the speedometer!

Today it is virtually impossible to avoid communication and technology. Both of these concepts play a major focus in our daily activities.

Most people spend at least half of their lives communicating and interacting with other people.

While much of this communication is not face to face, it is still meaningful. Technology has had a major impact on communication for ms over time.

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In ancient times, there was no great need for the global communication that exists today. The main reason for communicating in those times was to record useful information for other tribes such as the locations of good hunting grounds, to advise of bad weather, warn about predators and to allow groups to acknowledge their territory.

The records we have of early humans’ existence show us the types of tools they used, the kinds of clothing they wore and the exact locations of their early civilisations. Some of their artwork recorded events of the time, but no-one is quite certain if the drawings depicted real or imaginary events.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

The Development of Language In prehistoric times, humans communicated through a series of gestures and body language. No-one is quite sure when speech developed as we know it today, but researchers have come to the conclusion that early cave men and women started to make noises similar to the sounds that they heard in nature, such as noises made by animals as well as noises made by trees swaying and the howling of the wind. As humans began to work together to build tools and shelter, noises were used to communicate feelings, moods and ideas in their group.

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A primitive language gradually developed and this was the main form of communication at the time, with nearly all messages being verbal in nature. The language became more complex as the human brain and speech organs evolved over time. Certain people were given the job of ‘runners’ which meant that they conveyed spoken messages on foot, from one tribe to another. These messengers often covered great distances and were sometimes required to draw their messages in the dirt to explain an event for which no words had yet been invented.

Other forms of communication, particularly between groups who were some distance away, involved the use of smoke signals, fire and the beat of a drum. These early groups developed a code to communicate messages to people who were more than running distance away. The code was not unlike later codes that were developed, such as semaphore and the Morse code.

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r o e t s Bo r e p o u k Shakespeare: Shaping S the English Language Would you believe that many of the phrases and words that we use today were first written by Shakespeare? It wasn’t all just Ye Olde English back then, some of the most common phrases of our time, have their origins in Shakespeare’s work.

any of the phrases below and © ReadyEdPubl i cUse aaret i on s How you quoting Shakespeare! many do you recognise?

•f orr evi ew pur poses“All’s on y well l that ends• well”

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Today more than 6000 languages are spoken, with 23 of these languages having over 50 millions speakers. As ancient groups established civilisations and developed their own cultures, so too did they improve and modify their language into one which was unique to their region. When people travelled to other areas of the globe, they took their native language with them, which explains why some countries and regions are multilingual.

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“It’s Greek to me!”

“Vanished into thin air” “Refused to budge an inch”

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Different Languages Around the World

“A tower of strength” “Not slept a wink”

“Too much of a good thing”

o c . ch e Learn how to say “I LOVE YOU” in Esperanto! . .. r er o www.esperanto.net/veb/ t s supe r Communication in the Middle Ages

A universal language, known as Esperanto, was developed in 1887 with the aim of bringing countries and cultures together, however, only 2 million people are fluent in this language.

“It is early days” “Tongue-tied”

“Have seen better days” “It’s high time.”

Over time, humans developed into a more civilised species, and long distance communication became big business for many people of the times. Early businesses around the time of 500 BC employed messenger services with people travelling on foot or by horse to deliver spoken or written messages.

Reading and writing were not common pastimes and were largely left to the church leaders of the time. Most records of writing have a religious theme, with monks being reponsible for copying books by hand. The writing was decorated in ornate colours and it took many months to produce only a small quantity of books.

“My own flesh and blood” “Suspect foul play” “Good riddance!”

“Dead as a door nail” “A laughing stock” Source: Bernard Levin, © The Story of English

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Storytelling Through Time Aboriginal Mythology

A u s t r a l i a n Aborigines have a culture rich in stor ytelling that spans back to more than 40 000 years. Aboriginal stories, sometimes accompanied by dance movements, are a central element of Aboriginal culture and traditionally these stories were told around campfires.

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What is Mythology?

Myths are sacred stories from the past that often attempt to answer and explain the mysteries and origin of the universe. Many cultures have ancient mythology that explores the same concepts yet the details are slightly different. Myths are usually about gods, goddesses and supernatural beings. They are not to be confused with legends and folktales which are usually based on some element of truth.

Different stories of the Dreaming belonged to a particular Aborginal language group.

They outlined a group’s spiritual history, how they should treat each other and how to go about their daily life. These stories were passed down over hundreds of generations, usually through the tribal elder, whose role it was to teach the wisdom of their ancestors to the new generations.

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Much of what we know about the ancient world comes from mythology handed down to generations over time. Every ancient civilisation has a history rich in storytelling and mythology, with some ancient stories dating back thousands of years. The stories that we know today have changed from their originals as they were passed on through the generations and adapted to match changing conditions. At the foundation of most storytelling is the idea of explaining the creation of Earth, and how the natural elements of the land, sea, sun and air interact with living and non-living things.

Aboriginal stories have been kept alive for thousands of years.

© ReadyEdP ubMyths l i ca t i o ns Maori and Legends Like Aboriginal mythology, Maori myths •f orr evi ew pu r p os estoo nl y and legends attempt explain how• certain

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Mythological Characters

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features of the Earth came to be. One Maori creation story describes the world being formed when Ranginui, the Sky Father, and Papatuanuku, the Earth Mother, were separated by their children, bringing about a series of processes involving the land and the elements.

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Mythology is often religious and spiritual in nature and is the basis for the earliest forms of recorded history and philosophy. Myths often explore connections between the known world and the invisible world.

Most cultures have their own myths that are relevant to their particular culture’s environment.

Research these gods and goddesses: Roman: Egyptian: Greek: Jupiter Atum Zeus Minerva Ra Aphrodite Diana Osiris Apollo Venus Seth Hera Mars Isis Athena Ceres

Maori stories travelled to New Zealand with the immigrants from the original homelands in the Pacific, Hawaiki.

The myths were adapted slightly over time to make them more relevant to the land of Aotearoa (New Zealand).

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Ancient Communication Forms Early civilisations developed several primitive methods of written communication. There are examples still around today displayed in museums and galleries around the world.

Many of the written languages were used in ancient civilisations for over 3,000 years and were developed as record keepers of the time.

The Alphabet

Coming from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet (alpha and beta), the alphabet comprises of 26 letters that are arranged into words and sentences. The alphabet that you are reading right now is commonly known as the Roman alphabet and differs from the Greek alphabet in many ways. Each letter of the alphabet has its own origins - most of the letters originated in Greece or even Egypt as a hieroglyphic - however, it was the Romans who gave the letters the present form that we use today.

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Although the word hieroglyphics was actually formed from two Greek words meaning “sacred car ving”, the term generally refers to the early written language of ancient Egypt. Most hieroglyphs were phonograms - simple images that represented sounds rather than objects, making hieroglyphics a phonetic form of writing.

Some hieroglyphs, known as pictographs, were used to represent actual objects or places. Hieroglyphics were mainly used for religious purposes, for example, as carvings on monuments and memorials. The first records of hieroglyphic use date back to 3,000 BC and at that time there were over 800 symbols thought to be in use. By 300 BC the number of symbols had increased to 6,000 and hieroglyphics as a language had taken on a number of different forms. Some texts were read from left to right, while others were read from right to left.

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Around the time of 1500 BC, the Semites – an ancient people of Syria and Palestine, are believed to have been one of the first civilisations to develop an alphabet that could be arranged into words with syllables. Many of their letters were adapted from Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Phoenicians later developed a set of 22 signs around 1000 BC which resembled the Roman alphabet as we know it, yet it contained no vowels sounds. The ancient Greeks borrowed from the Phoenicians around 800 BC to create the Greek alphabet and were the first people to use symbols to represent the vowel sounds.

Capital letters were used initially with lower case being developed over time.

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As the use of hieroglyphics became more popular, the ancient Egyptians saw the need for proper writing materials. Up until this time, the symbols had been carved in stone and on wood, using a method that was both difficult and time consuming. This led to the development of papyrus, a paper-like material made from reeds which was much easier to write on and then transport. Writers, known as screeds, used special brushes to write on the papyrus. The brushes were also made from reeds and a tip was molded at the end which was then dipped into ink. This papyrus invention was the first ever form of paper. The use of hieroglyphics on papyrus soon led to the Egyptians developing a more civilised written form, as they started to link the hieroglyphics together in a cursive style.

This can be compared to the way our longhand writing today differs from printing.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

The Printing Revolution

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1000 AD - Asia

There is evidence that primitive printing machines with movable type were used in Asia at this time.

Not much is known about these machines, other than the fact that printing existed in Asia before it spread to Europe. The earliest known book is dated way back in 868 AD and was entitled Diamond Sutra (see image above). Movable clay type was used around 1089 AD.

The Miehle P.P. & Mfg. Co. 1905. Wikimedia Commons.

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A page from the Diamond Sutra. Wikimedia Commons.

Printing for the Masses

Gutenberg’s printing invention opened up a whole new world of communication. Suddenly, it was possible for printed materials to reach a much wider audience and the number of books that were hand-copied decreased. Initially, there was some confusion among people as to how the printing process worked, with some suggesting that printing was a form of black magic. People didn’t understand how so many copies could be made at one time and so to counter people’s fears Gutenberg concentrated his printing efforts around books with a religious theme.

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The demand for books increased as the Renaissance period started. Many great philophers and thinkers of the time were coming up with new theories about the universe, and the monks who had previously hand-copied everything were not able to meet this rising demand. The monks used ornate decorative work, which often involved gold and silver pigments. This hand-copying process was extremely time consuming.

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Mid 1400s - Germany

Gutenberg used separate pieces of metal to create each letter and also had an uppercase and lowercase version for each letter of the alphabet.

These pieces were then arranged in words and sentences and then lined up to form pages.

Gutenberg also invented a special ink which was developed from paint and dyes.

To make sure that the print was fairly consistent on the page, he converted a wine press to create an even pressure when he pressed the paper against the ink and metal typeface.

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After borrowing money and acquiring a new partner, the melter Peter Schoffer, Gutenberg began printing the famous “forty-four lines Bible”. For the first time, large numbers of people were able to read the scriptures of the bible. Non-religious books soon followed, mainly the works of early Greek and Roman philosophers including Joha nn Aristotle and Plato. es G People were easily able to study ideas straight from a book without having to travel great distances to get their hands on an old tattered handwritten copy.

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German metalsmith, Johannes Gutenberg, invented a “movable type” in Europe. He is credited with developing a whole new system of printing and his invention was the result of combining a number of inventions together. His experiment with printing started in 1438 using money that he had borrowed to fund his work.

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1450 - The First Book - Gutenberg’s Bible

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

The News About Newspapers The first known newspaper was published in approximately 60 BC in Rome. This paper was known as the Acta Diurna (Latin for “Daily Events”) and Julius Caesar was the ruler who first established this form of communication.

It is believed that this handwritten paper was published until around 330 AD. The news-sheet did not take the form of a newspaper as we know it, as at the time there was no printing press, so it was fairly basic in appearance and usually only one sheet long.

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In China around 700 AD, the world’s first printed newspaper was distributed using a basic printing system carved from wooden blocks and was called Dibao (Ti Pao).

Over a thousand years later, technological advances allowed a more substantial style of news media to be produced. This led to the first regularly published newspaper which was published in Germany in 1609.

Many modern newspapers started to appear in the 1600s. By this time, a large number of businesses were using the printing press and news-sheets started to circulate fairly frequently.

Usually, they were only a page long and more like a pamphlet, yet they contained important news of the time and were quite common in European regions such as the Netherlands and England.

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soon evolved into a newspaper format and extra information was added for entertainment.

The first noted regularly news-sheet is thought to have been The Weekly Newes of 1622. Four years later in England, the London Gazette was published and resembled the “modern” newspaper rather than a news pamplet. This publication was the first newspaper to be published in English.

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One of the first news-sheets to appear was the Corantos which mainly advised of shipping news and also advertised other businesses. Originally, news-sheets were only printed when something newsworthy took place. This style of news-sheet

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♦ Which countries read the most newspapers? Norway currently leads the way with over 63% of the population reading a daily newspaper.

Other big newspaper readers include Japan, Germany and Finland.

♦ The government controls the newspapers in most communist

countries. Some countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia are heavily censored and are not allowed to criticise the government in any form.

♦ There are laws to stop businesses from buying all the newspapers in one country.

♦ The newspaper with the highest circulation in the world is The New

York Times. In Australia, the Melbourne Herald Sun and the Sydney Sunday Telegraph each have a circulation of over 700,000. In New Zealand, the New Zealand Herald has a circulation of over 250,000.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Newspaper: Read All About It! What happened before newspapers were invented?

How Did News Spread to Other Regions?

News books, magazines and general newspapers were very popular towards the beginning of the 1700s and coincided with the beginnings of postal services in many regions. People would write with news from one country to people in other countries, and letters were exchanged by sea captains when they docked in foreign harbours. The ships would also take publications from one country to another.

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the same rate had improved the messages spread travel, mostly by horse

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Strangely, news in the 1700s was still being passed at virtually as it was in ancient times. Although communication methods and more people were able to read and write, getting over long distances still relied on the same forms of or ship.

The Newspaper’s Role in the Modern World

Traditionally, newspapers have covered more stories than any other news media including radio, wireless and television. However, with the ever increasing popularity of the Internet as a newscaster, newspapers may soon be “yesterday’s news”. Most newspapers have an official website which provides a taste of the news for that day, inspiring the user to go out and purchase the newspaper. Other newspapers have an online subscription service where the reader can pay to view a certain article, however, this is usually only concerned with archived news stories from earlier years.

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Today newspapers remain fairly popular. They expose people to all types of news, ranging from local to national to world news, as well as news about entertainment, technology, real estate, finance and sport. In today’s newspapers, there are usually a number of lift-out supplements which provide hours of reading entertainment. Cooking, motoring and boating are just a few of the subjects that are often covered in weekend newspapers.

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People often read the newspaper for more reasons than just to find out the news. They use this time as a way to relax and many people have incorporated reading the paper into their daily routines. Weekend newspapers are usually much more extensive, and people often spend hours reading them - not just at home but in parks, at cafes and maybe even at the beach. No matter how much the ‘computer news technology’ advances, people will still want to sit around reading the newspaper from time to time.

Not Just for the News!

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And when they are finished, there are a hundred things you can use old newspapers for!

Sometimes newspaper come in handy for a whole lot of other reasons:

♦Packing boxes of crockery ♦ Wrapping up fish’n’chips

♦ Cleaning car windows ♦ Making Papier-mâché The official website of The Age.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Origins of the Telegraph Samuel Morse

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As well as the telegraph, Morse invented a pump for fire-engines and a marble cutting machine to help him with his sculptures.

He had an interest in electricity but had a lack of financial assistance to help him with his work so the development of the telegraph was a very slow process. He used secondhand parts of old clocks and art equipment to build his first telegraph, eventually seeking assistance from scientist Leonard Gale.

Early Beginnings

In 1820, Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current could make a magnetized needle move. This was the basis of the telegraph and was the foundation for a number of basic telegraph devices that were developed by scientists in both America and England.

American physicist Joseph Henry began to study electromagnetism during the 1820s and set up a very primitive telegraph system that made it possible to send signals over a short distance. By 1837, he had invented a device to boost weak signals.

Around the same time, British physicists William Cooke and Sir Charles Wheatstone developed a telegraph that used five needles and five wires to transmit messages. They took out a patent on their work and continued to perfect their design.

In 1837, Samuel Morse developed the first practical telegraph, taking out a patent for his work in 1840. He teamed up with Leonard Gale, an American chemistry professor, and concentrated on sending a coded message made up out of a series of “dots and dashes”.

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Samuel Morse (1791-1872) was an American inventor who was also known for his work as a painter. Morse took out a patent for the telegraph and then developed the Morse code which was used for many years to send telegraphic messages.

The invention of the telegraph revolutionised human communication like nothing before it. It was the first instrument to be developed that allowed messages to be sent using electricity. Up until this development, messages could only reach their destination overland as fast as a horse or pigeon could carry it!

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Morse’s device worked by sending signals between telegraph operators. The flow of electricity down the wire was interrupted so as to create long and short bursts of electricity. The spaces in between the flow represented the start of a different letter in the message.

These signals that were used became known as the Morse code.

Originally the dots and dashes were to mean numbers but Morse started working with Alfred Vail who suggested that they represent letters instead, with the most common letters, such as “e” and “a”, being represented by just a single dot or dash.

A telegraph operator would receive the electrical signals and was then able to translate them into the letters of the alphabet forming the words of the message. Messages of this form were known as telegrams and were sent using the wires which went overland and also underwater to countries around the world. This form of communication became very popular because of its speed.

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In 1871, a statue was built in Central Park in New York City in honour of his work in developing the telegraph.

How Did the Telegraph Work?

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The Road to Global Communication

Ca. 1845, from: Daguerreotype collection (Library of Congress). Wikimedia Commons

Morse later formed the Magnetic Telegraph Company and by 1851 there were over 50 telegraph companies in the United States. This technology eventually spread to other parts of the world. By the late 1800s the telegraph was one of the most important parts of all industry and government procedures. The Atlantic telegraph cable that linked America with Great Britain was established underwater in 1866.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

The Overland Telegraph Australia was involved in one of the most significant telecommunications achievements of the 1800s when an overland telegraph wire was completed in 1872, a mere two years after it was started. This is quite a monumental effort when you consider that there was a lot less roads and cleared areas then.

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Already, the British government had an underground cable reaching from Britain to Java in Indonesia, and the early colonial government of Australia was keen to have this cable extended to Darwin.

However, an overland telegraph needed to be constructed in order to connect the other states to Darwin.

In 1870, work began on a telegraph which would reach from Port Augusta in South Australia to Darwin. This project was undertaken by the South Australian government and Sir Charles Todd, who was the Superintendent of Telegraphs at the time.

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In 1854, the first public telegraph was opened in Australia and linked Melbourne with the port of Williamstown. This event came ten years after Samuel Morse opened the first public telegraph in history, linking Washington to Baltimore, in the United States.

Planting the first pole of the North-South Transcontinental Telegraph Line, 1870. Image courtesy of National Archives of Australia.

been crossed a few times before and is still known today to be one of the most treacherous stretches of land. In August 1872, Sir Charles Todd sent the first message along the wire using the basic Morse code system.

Linking the Country

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Before the telegraph had been completed, Western Australia was usually the first to hear of any communication from Europe. Now, with Darwin being the first point of contact, the news went straight to the Eastern States. The governments of Western Australia and South Australia agreed to construct a telegraph line between Adelaide and Albany. Work began on this project in 1875 and was finished two years later. Again, the task was massive and the area of land almost as hostile as the stretch between Darwin and Adelaide. Workers had to cope with scorching temperatures, a lack of water and poor soil. Workers started from Albany in Western Australia as well as from Adelaide.

The two construction teams met at Eucla in December 1877.The Overland Telegraph not only linked Western Australia to the the other states, it connected the Australian colonies with the rest of the world.

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“WE HAVE THIS DAY, WITHIN TWO YEARS, COMPLETED A LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS TWO THOUSAND MILES LONG THROUGH THE VERY CENTRE OF AUSTRALIA, UNTIL A FEW YEARS AGO A TERRA INCOGNITA BELIEVED TO BE A DESERT” (August 1872)

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The First Mess

age

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o c . che e An Outstanding Achievement r o t r s supe r Telegraph Several obstacles had to be overcome in order to complete the massive task of constructing the telegraph. Firstly, it needed to extend thousands of kilometres over one of the harshest regions in the world. The arid desert conditions were one thing, but the tropical north was equally as challenging.

Construction was met with difficulties when the wood used for poles was damaged by white ants.

As a result, iron poles were required to be sent over from England. A number of lives were lost during the construction period due to the dry conditions and for a time it looked as thought the mission would never be completed. The route had only 14

Totals Date of completion: 22 August, 1872 Length of wire: 2,900 km Number of poles: 36,000 Cost: £300,000 Repeater stations: 11

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

A Photo Finish Have a good look at the picture to your right.

Doesn’t seem very special does it? In fact, it is hard to know what to make of it. The original print of this photograph is actually an old dented tin-coloured square, not much larger than a small book cover. If you look at the original print from the correct angle, it has a faint shadow imprint across it.

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Still not impressed? Well, you may be interested to know that this piece of art history is actually an image of the first ever photograph.

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The photographer, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, a Un-retouched copy of the Niépce photograph of 1827.

Frenchman, allegedly created the photo in 1827, although some records have this date set at 1826.

Using some of the theories that British, French and American scientists were already working on, Niépce made the first permanent photograph using a process he termed heliography - which involved exposing a metal plate to light for at least eight hours. Later on this technique was improved so that the process only took a few minutes.

Shortly after this discovery, William Fox Talbot, a British inventor, devised a method for using paper negatives instead of metal plates. This technique - which was known at the time as a “talbotype” did not have the positive results that were hoped for, as the pictures it produced were not as clear as those that were taken using a metal plate. This experiment paved the way for using the flexible negative, the type that we still see today. Fox Talbot’s method allowed film to move through a camera, slide after slide, rather than having to be reloaded each time.

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The brown negative as we know it, is slowly starting to disappear from sight, now that digital photography has become popular. Many digital cameras are on the market, allowing people to take photographs and delete them if they are not to their satisfaction. These photographs are then downloaded straight onto a computer.

Take the photograph on your right for example.

It was taken right as these words were being typed using a mobile phone. The image was then e-mailed to an e-mail address on the computer, and added to this book all in the space of 30 seconds! The photographic quality will continue to improve as new technology is developed.

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In today’s modern world, virtually anyone can be a photographer. Even mobile phones are capable of taking photographs which can be sent via email to a computer or to another person’s mobile. This process takes seconds, a far cry from the days of Nicéphore Niépce and his eight hour exposure.

© Jane Bourke, 2003

Photography Today

Photography will always be popular, particularly with traditional black and white photos remaining a major artform and being exhibited in art galleries around the world. However, ‘still’ photography is slowly being dominated by the world of video. Where once people had only photo albums to hold all their memories, people now have extensive libraries of video cassette tapes and digital versatile disks (DVDs) which contain complete motion pictures of their special events.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Innovative Inventions in the 1800s During the 1800s, an assortment of amazing machines and inventions were developed.

Many of the inventions helped improve the speed and ease of communication.

Printing Advances

Transport on the Move

Faster methods of transport allowed news to reach destinations across most parts of the western world quickly. Steam trains and locomotives improved the situation greatly, however, news was still taking at least a day or two to reach some of the more distant areas and was still nowhere near as fast as the nanosecond speed at which news travels today.

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r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S Inventive

In 1814, printers still had to set the typeface by hand but with the idea of using a steam engine as a power source, the printing process itself became considerably faster. The first paper to use this steam-powered press was The Times in London. This invention made printing very economical and allowed newspapers to print thousands of copies at a time. Most newspapers of the day were printing up to 30,000 copies which were sold for one or two cents, which was worth much more in those times.

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worked on with Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule. Early typewriters had an alphabetically organised keyboard layout. This represented a problem as the key bars would often jam when letters next to each other were pressed one after the other. Sholes developed a new layout which put the bars for letters that most often appear in combination as far apart as possible. This layout is known as the QWERTY layout and is the standard layout for all keyboards.

Innovators

Find out what each of these inventors created: ♦ Samuel Morse ♦ Alfred Vail ♦ J.M. Daguerre ♦ William Henry Fox Talbot ♦ Galileo Galilei ♦ George Eastman ♦ Alexander Graham Bell ♦ Thomas A. Edison

♦ Ottmar Mergenthaler ♦ Hannibal W. Goodwin ♦ Guglielmo Marconi ♦ John Logie Baird ♦ Vladimir K. Zworykin ♦ Valdemar Poulsen ♦ The Lumiere Brothers

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Another brilliant inventor of the time was American, Thomas A. Edison. In 1877, he was responsible for experimenting with the first machine that was able to record sound, the phonograph. Using a simple cylinder covered with foil he recorded a number of sounds and his model was improved upon a decade later

by Emile Berliner of Germany, who used disks instead of cylinders to record sounds.

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Sounds of Success

. t e o Types of Typewriters c . che e r o t r sTimeline supTyping er

By the 1800s, things had steadily progressed in the printed type arena. Already, Gutenberg had invented the first printing press and the first typewriter had been developed by Henry Mill in England around 1740.

The Linotype, a machine that had a keyboard that moved and that set type mechanically, was invented by a German mechanic called Ottmar Mergenthaler. This invention greatly reduced the time it took to set the type for a page.

In 1867, Christopher Latham Sholes, an American inventor patented a design he had 16

• 1870 - QWERTY keyboard developed by Sholes; • Early 1900s - First portable typewriter used,

• 1920s - First electric typewriters on the market; • 1960s - First simple word processors used (automatic typewriters); • 1970s - First electronic typewriters sold; Typewriters are rarely used these days with most people using personal computers to create documents.

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Electrifying Electronics In the early 1800s the basic telegraph was developed by Samuel Morse. By 1840, news was able to travel as fast as the speed at which electricity could travel down a wire cable. The invention of the telegraph lay the foundation for electronic communication and in 1876, a patent was taken out by a Scottish born inventor by the name of Alexander Graham Bell. The patent was for one of the most significant inventions to date, and it had a huge impact on the future of communication.

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Suddenly, businesses were able to have instant communication with other businesses in other cities and states. This invention can be compared to the way e-mail communication has allowed people to send letters and information to people thousands of kilometres away, all in the blink of an eye. Technology had certainly improved since the days of the visual telegraph and carrier pigeon!

Samuel Morse, circa 1900 - 1920. Image courtesy of the Detroit Publishing Company at the Library of Congress, USA.

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Bell is the man credited with the invention of the first ever telephone. Soon after, the first telephone network was established in America, and using Bell’s design it quickly spread to most cities.

The Visual Telegraph - An Ancient Form of Chinese Whispers?

A primitive telegraph was devised that allowed messages to be relayed between cities using a series of towers and crossbars which would be moved to spell out a message. Each tower had an observer who viewed the person in the tower before using a telescope.

The observer would carefully interpret the message that they received and would then pass on the message to the next tower’s observer until the message reached its final destination. This visual or optical telegraph was like a giant game of Chinese Whispers.

This system had been developed by the Ancient Greeks hundreds of years before.

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Electronics was not invented by any one person.

Several great scientists and physicists contributed to this field which resulted in the development of the television, radio, record player and tape recorder.

One of the most important discoveries was that electromagnetic waves could travel through space at the speed of light. This theory was proved in the 1880s by another German physicist, Heinrich Hertz. Hertz’s ideas allowed other inventors to develop machines that used these sound waves as a means of communication.

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One of the most important achievements in the field of electronic communication was the proof that electromagnetic waves existed. This concept was first put forward by British physicist James Clark Maxwell, who in 1864 first suggested that electric and magnetic fields act together to produce energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

He believed that light was an electromagenetic wave that was visible and that there were other “invisble” waves. It wasn’t until the late 1880s that Maxwell’s theories were proved to be true. Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, proved that these waves existed and that they were longer than light waves.

The electromagnetic waves are the result of the movement of electric charges in space. These sound waves travel faster than the speed of light and move in straight lines. Scientists continue to make new discoveries about electromagnetic waves. In the 1960s short waves were developed using a laser which allowed ultraviolet and infrared rays to transmit voices and images.

James Clark Maxwell

Wikimedia Commons

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Heinrich Hertz

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assistants and received funding from Western Union, the main provider of long distance communication. He earned himself the nickname of “The Wizard of Menlo Park” following his invention of the phonograph. After presenting his invention to the United States president, he was deemed a wizard, as his recording device seemed to work like magic and of course, no-one quite understood how. For a long time no-one actually knew what to do with this device, however, Edison found it was good for reproducing sounds for toy dolls and musical instruments. Eventually Edison began making his own recordings. If it weren’t for Edison, we may still be waiting around for the invention of records and compact disks!

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Edison: Profile of an Ingenious Inventor

Edison’s Contributions ♦ Edison patented 1093 inventions in his

career. He holds the record for the highest number of patents. ♦ Invented the incandescent lightbulb. ♦ Invented the phonograph. ♦ Invented the kinetoscope for viewing motion pictures. ♦ Improved the telegraph. ♦ Improved the telephone. ♦ Improved motion pictures. ♦ Created the first modern research laboratory. ♦Developed the first central power station in the United States.

When someone mentions “famous inventor”, Thomas Alva Edison’s name usually springs to mind. Not only was he one of the greatest inventors in history, he also became an industrial leader and pioneered the way for electricity, especially at a time when many people thought that electricity would turn out to be a passing fad.

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Early Life

Edison was born in 1847, in Ohio in the United States. He stumbled into the world of the telegraph quite by accident. As a teenager, Edison rescued the son of a telegraph operator who offered a reward of telegraph lessons. This event was to set Edison on a career path of science and discovery.

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Visit: www.thomasedison.com

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His first job was as a telegraph operator, where he learned the mechanical, electrical and chemical elements of communicating via a telegraph. Edison’s work involved receiving news via telegraph, and he developed a thirst for political and business news both in America and overseas.

The Wizard of Menlo Park

Edison set up the first research laboratory at Menlo Park in the state of New Jersey in the United States. He gathered together a team of 18

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© ReadyEdPubl i cat i ons •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• Thomas Alva Edison, 1922. Wikimedia Commons

What a Bright Idea!

One of Edison’s most famous inventions is the lightbulb. The image of the lightbulb has come to symbolise bright ideas and is considered to be one of the most important inventions in history.

Edison the Problem Solver

Edison was a remarkable achiever, whose many inventions were developed as a result of him seeking a solution to a problem. He developed a variety of designs for each invention, carefully evaluating each design and adapting them where necessary in his quest for perfection.

Edison was honoured internationally for his remarkable contributions to the field of industry and communication.

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

The Telephone: A Triumph

Along with the telegraph, the telephone is one of the most significant inventions in history. This unique device, which was originally known as the “speaking telegraph”, quickly became one of the most valuable forms of communication.

Imagine how different life would be without this means of instant communication?

First of all a line must be available to handle the call. The caller can check this by first listening to a dial tone. Once the caller dials a number it connects to another phone. The caller then speaks into the mouthpiece and sounds waves of the person’s voice are converted into an electric current. The network then converts the sound waves using a number of devices and transmits the current into sounds waves for the receiver.

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How Does a Telephone Work?

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touch pad, which contains the digits 0-9 as well as a star (*) and hash (#) key. Each key sends a different signal by generating an electric pulse.

Older phones had a rotary dialling system with holes for the index finger to select a number.

•Transmitter - Sometimes referred to as the microphone, this is the part of the phone that converts the voice sound waves into electric currents. Loud sounds make strong vibrations on the diaphragm inside the telephone transmitter, and an electric ‘copy’ of the person’s voice is made.

• Receiver - Contains a number of magnets and an electromagnet which receive the currents and causes a ‘magnetic pull’.This pull then causes the diaphragm to vibrate at the same rate. The motion creates sound waves almost identical to the sound waves that the speaker’s voice made and the receiver hears the speaker’s voice as the sound waves travel to the receiver’s ear 

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• Dialling system - Most phones have a twelve key

1896 Swedish Telephone. Wikimedia Commons

The Invention of the Telephone: Controversy

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All telephones have three major parts:

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Only a matter of hours determined who the patent holder of the telephone would be. Alexander Graham Bell took out a patent for the telephone on 14 February 1876. Only a few hours earlier, another American inventor, Elisha Gray, had applied for a caveat stating that he intended to take out a patent on the telephone once his design was perfected.

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The United States Patent Office, awarded the patent to Bell, and he is the man honoured today as the inventor of this significant piece of technology, even though Bell used ideas set out by Gray in his patent. Bell had not mentioned these ideas anywhere in his own patent. In the years following the dual patent applications, much controversy occurred and a famous legal battle between Bell and Gray dragged on. Gray went on to invent a musical instrument, which was known at the time as the “Musical Telegraph”.

Ring, Ring.

Alexander Graham Bell went on to establish the Bell Telephone Company and its success gave him the power and money to devote his time to more inventing. During this time he developed a “photophone” which was a device that allowed sound to be transmitted Hmm, That must be on a beam of light. Bell regarded this A. Bell I hear photophone invention as the greatest ringing!! he had ever made, even better than the Circa 1895, Alexander Graham Bell. Wikimedia Commons telephone.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Telephone Technology Over Time The telephones of today barely resemble the first telephones that Bell and the Bell Telephone Company first developed. In fact, even the telephones of the early 20th century were very different visually to the original telephones of the late 1800s.

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Wikimedia Commons

The telephone has been a major source of instant communication ever since Alexander Graham Bell first uttered the sentence below down the line in 1876. “Mr Watson, come here, I want you.”

Bell’s invention looked like this contraption:

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Inventions are most often born out of necessity and so many changes occurred to develop the telephone into the models that we are more familiar with.

The first telephone call: Alexander Graham Bell on the telephone in New York (calling Chicago) in 1892. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress, USA.

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uncontactable by phone as networks are set up almost everywhere. A phone network is even available on Antarctica.

The invention of the telephone was a necessary component for the developement of the Internet.

Without it computers would be unable to “talk” to each other.

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Alexander Graham Bell speaking into a prototype telephone.

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If only Bell was around now to see how telephones have evolved - for example, some mobile phones on the market are tiny credit card sized contraptions with an assortment of ringing tones and plastic coloured covers. They can be used almost anywhere in the world and even allow the caller to view the receiver via a video link-up.

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Necessity is the Mother of Invention

It’s an old saying but it is still ver y true.

The recent developments and modifications to telecommunications such as receiving broadband Internet access, have again seen an improvement on an invention bought about by necessity. Many people found they were missing important calls by having their phone line tied up and in addition, were tired of waiting for the websites to download when using a slower speed modem. The cycle shows that new ideas will continue to improve telecommunications, even though you may think that it is satisfactory at the moment, in say fifteen years time, you may look back and think “Hmm, how did we ever manage with just the mobile phone?”

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Telephone technology has developed at a furious pace, especially in the last decade.

Telecommunications is now a massive global industr y that continues to make advances in many fields. It is virtually impossible to be

Read about the fascinating history of the telephone: http://atcaonline.com/phone/

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Making Things Mobile It is becoming extremely difficult these days to meet someone who doesn’t own a mobile phone. The mobile phone is suddenly everywhere, with some people even owning more than one mobile. Gone are the days when a mobile telephone meant lugging a brick around. The phones of today are so tiny that retailers are making a fortune from people who misplace their phone and need to purchase another!

r o e t s Bo r e p o u k The Language of SMS S

Mobile History

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Not only has mobile technology changed the way people communicate orally, it has changed the way we use the written English language in the form of the short message system (SMS).

Text messaging has opened up a whole new way of writing.

Much of the text language has come about as a way of saving time while “texting”. For example, it is much easier to write LOL instead of “laughing out loud”.

How many of these SMS words and abbreviations have you used?

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Commercial mobile phones were first thought of in the late 1940s. Mobile radios (transistors) had been in use since the 1920s, although they were mainly used for police and defence force work rather than by the general public. Other industries such as taxi services, tow truck and trucking businesses soon saw the advantage of mobile radio usage.

Government restrictions and a lack of technology were to blame for the time it took for mobile phones to become available to the public. It took more than 37 years of development for mobile phones to become commercially available.

The first modern portable phone is believed to have been designed by Dr Martin Cooper, who was a former general manager at the mobile phone company, Motorola. He made the first call on his mobile handset in April 1973, ringing his main rival, Joel Engel who was the head of research at Bell Labs (a division of the Bell Telephone Company formed by Alexander Graham Bell). Bell Labs had originally thought of the mobile phone and “cellular” communication in 1947, and were responsible for devising the police car communication technology, however, Motorola first came up with the idea of using a mobile phone device outside of a motor vehicle.

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Fone Facts Mobile phones were first known as “cellular” phones and they are still referred to as cell phones in some countries. The term “cellular” refers to the wireless communication system which uses a service area divided into cells. Cellular calls are transferred from one cell to the next.

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KIT - Keep in touch BRB - Be right back B4 - Before

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BTW - By the way QL - Cool 1977 - The first cellular phone system was developed by Bell Labs.

Fone - Phone

It involved a trial in the United States with 2,000 customers.

GR8 - Great 1979 -The first cellular telpehone system began in Tokyo.

1981 - Motorola and American Radio started a second telephone NE1 - Anyone network. Also that year, Telstra introduced the first mobile L8R - Later OIC - Oh I see! system in Australia.

1987 - Telstra introduced MobileNet – an analogue network.

PLZ - Please 1993 -Global System for Mobile Telecommunications (GSM) was THX - Thanks introduced. The digital system replaced the analogue system.

CYA - See you 1993 -Vodafone set up a GSM system in Australia.

2NITE - Tonight 1996 -Optus begins operating as a mobile phone service provider.

WKND - Weekend 1998 -Vodafone started operating in New Zealand. It now boasts over PPL - People

3.5 million customers in Australia, New Zealand and Fiji.

2009 -There are more mobile phones than people in Australia.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

New Technology, New Words Our written and spoken language is constantly changing. Most new words evolve as a result of new inventions and the technology associated with them. Each new invention may bring with it a whole new set of words which are sometimes referred to as jargon or lingo.

Most of the spelling changes with common words have come about as people think of shortcuts when writing text messages or emails. Many people leave letters out of words, hoping that the reader will guess what they mean...

At least 3,000 new entries were added to the last revised edition of the Oxford Dictionary of English. While some of the words are either foreign or slang words, a good proportion of the new entries come from the world of science and high-technology.

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Take computers for example. Suddenly the words “windows” and “mouse” have a whole new meaning. And fifteen years ago, most people would have had no idea what was meant by the words “website”, “homepage” or “megabyte”.

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Terms such as “websurfing” have crept into the English language in recent years along with new acronyms such as URL and WWW.

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Website and E-mail Addresses

On many occasions, people use inventive spelling for the names of their website domain names, especially if the original name they wanted was already in use. It is not uncommon to see strange spelling combinations that would have made yesterday’s English teachers grimace in horror.

In a way, the English language is evolving to allow easier spelling with less exceptions to the rule.

© ReadyEdPubl i cat i ons Hi how u? hpe allz wel, wat u •f orr evi ew pur poseso nl yshud • doin? we

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Several new words have made it into the most respected dictionaries, and each year, much fuss is made about the new words that will be listed for the first time. In recent years computer jargon has dominated the list of new entries, but the English language is added to in other areas. For example, the word muppet, meaning “a foolish person” was added in 2003.

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Nu Wordz created for Ye Olde English Language

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The use of words such as “tonite”, “lite” and “nu” have become very common in written language, so much so that we often forget that they are not the true spellings of the words.

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The Oxford English Dictionary has been the main dictionary for keeping a record of the English language.

The first edition of the dictionary was published by the Oxford University Press in 1884, and publication continued regularly until the whole text of the First Edition was completed in 1928. It is constantly updated, with as many as 3,000 new entries added to each edition.

Some recent entries include:

blog - short for Web Log, an online journal; egosurfing - searching the Internet for references to yourself; doh! - Homer Simpson’s catchphrase - Yes, this is an actual entry!; googling - looking up somone using the Google search engine on the WWW; mouse potato - A person who spends a lot of time surfing the Internet; spammer - one who sends unwanted bulk junk e-mail.

GEEK SPEAK: Check out what these words mean:

de-bugging, user interface, output error, backup, cache, bot, peripherals, byte, pixel, mainframe, floppy.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Ready for Radio

Wireless Communication

The invention of the radio (or wireless as it was first called) was a milestone in communication fields. However, this invention may never have come about, had it not been for the earlier inventions of the telegraph and the telephone.

Each of these inventions are closely linked using the principles of electronics and sound waves.

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The man responsible for achieving the first ever radio transmission was an Italian electrical engineer by the name of Guglielmo Marconi.

Using the ideas and principles already established by physicists before him, he devised a machine that would transmit signals through space using electromagnetic waves. The first transmission of sound through air occurred in 1895.

How Did the Wireless Work?

Interestingly, Heinrich Hertz, the man who proved that radio waves existed, was unable to see the advantage of this discovery or how these radio waves could be used to communicate. Instead, Marconi arrived on the scene, and developed the ideas further. Marconi studied Hertz’s ideas about electromagnetic waves.

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Guglielmo Marconi. Wikimedia Commons

Did You Know?

Marconi was awarded a Nobel Prize for his extraordinary achievements in the field of communication. In 1899, four years after his amazing invention, three British naval ships put his radio communication system into action. His system was used with success and played an important factor in bringing rescue ships to the ill-fated Titanic liner in 1912, saving many lives in the process. Soon after, laws were passed to ensure that all ships carried Marconi’s wireless system.

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The first type of electronic signals, known as telegraph signals, occurred when signals were sent through electric wires. Marconi’s invention sent electronic signals but did so through the air using electromagnetic waves, without the need for a wire. His invention was known as the wireless but was more commonly known as radio communication.

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The Golden Age of Radio

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A very early radio, 1922. Image courtesy of theNational Photo Company Collection, Library of Congress, USA.

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Long before the popularity of television, families used to gather in their lounge rooms and listen to the wireless together. The wireless was the premier entertainment source for many people as well as being a news broadcaster. Several radio programs existed and were known as serials. The production of these shows was quite complex, involving scriptwriters, actors, actresses, and even a director.

Sound effects and music played a big part and many of the shows were often recorded in front of live audiences in theatre studios.

Today radio programs are far less complicated having been overtaken by television and cinema.

The most popular radio stations of today feature “talkback”, current music and sports commentary.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Great Southern Inventions While Australia and New Zealand have relied heavily on communication technology developed in other countries such as the United States and Japan, some ingenious inventions were developed in the land down under.n

An Aussie Achievement

The Black Box flight recorder was invented by young Australian chemist, David Warren, in 1953. Dr Warren was an aircraft fuels specialist at the Aeronautical Research Laboratories (ARL) in Melbourne when he came up with the idea of a flight recorder following the first jet airline crash in India. With no survivors or witnesses to the crash and no warnings or clues, it was impossible for people to find out what had caused the tragedy.

Two other crashes occurred that year leading Dr Warren to suspect that the crashes were the result of fuel explosions. Over the next four years he explored different designs that would create a simple flight recorder that would be able to survive crashes and fires.

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In 1960, an unexplained crash occurred in Queensland and a judge who had been informed of the new flight recorders, ordered that all Australian airliners should carr y recorders for pilot speech from January 1963.

An American company was responsible for developing a cockpit voice recorder to meet the new Australian requirement. Australia became the first country to make both flight data and cockpit voice recording an essential requirement on every airliner.

One of the first versions of the black box flight recorder. © Defence Science and Technology Organisation

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Did You Know?

• Originally many pilots were against the idea of a flight recorder in the cockpit, with at least one pilot suggesting it would be like having a “spy flying alongside”.

• The Australian aviation authorities were not

intetested in providing any sort of financial assistance. Australia had not suffered any major air crashes for many years and was known as having the world’s best safety standard at the time. The authorities felt it was a waste of time selling crash recorders.

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Wide Web (WWW), a “geek” by the name of Steve Outtrim decided to use the WWW to advertise a new accounting software package that he had created. He used the language of the Web HTML - and found that it was quite difficult and time consuming to make basic pages. In the process he decided to create a software package that would act as a Web editor. He called his program HOTDOG and quickly sent it off to an Internet newsgroup to see if anyone would volunteer as a free trial user. He was inundated with replies and set the respondents to work to test his program. Not only had he enlisted the help of FREE users, he had also created a lot of interest in his new product. News of the program spread through word of mouth and, of course via e-mail.

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voices and instrument readings in the cockpit.

Initially his design was not approved by the Australian aviation authorities but was taken to Britain where the design was further developed, after a member of the UK Registration Board visited Australia and saw Warren’s device at the ARL in 1958.

Three months later, Outtrim launched his product which proved to be an intant success. His business went from making $3,000 in the first week to making $3 million in the first year. Selling the product via the Internet kept costs down and following this venture, Outtrim went on to form the successful Sausage Software in Australia.

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

The Computer Age The computer is easily one of the most intriguing and most useful machines ever invented. Computers are now used in almost every industry across the globe, handling vasts amounts of information and saving time. The amount of tasks that computers are capable of is ever increasing and the accuracy rate of calculations is quite astounding.

r o e t Computer s B r e o Digital Computingp Jargon o u k S

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Do you remember when a mouse was a live animal and windows were glass panes that you looked out of?

A bookmark was something that went inside a book to hold your place and a web was where spiders trapped flies?

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Today, the most common type of computer is digital. There are still analog and hybrid computers in existence, however, the digital computer is able to perform at a higher capacity. Like their name suggests, digital computers operate by converting sets of numbers into other sets of numbers. All data found on the computer is translated into numbers inside the computer and in fact, the whole functioning of the computer is based on how it can change numbers, pictures, sounds, symbols and words into numbers. The computer uses number operations such as adding and subtracting to perform simple processes. Digital computers exist in all forms.

The largest digital computer might fill an entire science laboratory while the smallest computers are found in wristwatches and calculators.

The two main features of digital computers are the memory and a processor.

The memory is made up of a large number of switches. The processor converts the data in the memory into different numbers, performs caluclations and then adds the answers back into the memory. These parts are electronic and operate through electrical signals which are sent through wires. Some smaller computers are made up entirely of a memory and a processor while other larger computers have other components such as output and input devices.

An input device is used to add information to the computer. A keyboard is the most common example of an input device but microphones and scanners are also known as input features. An output device involves the way we read the information that the computer translates through the processor. Typical output devices include the monitor (with screen) and a printer.

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Unlike people, computers are unable to think. They can only calculate what they have been programmed to do and humans are responsible for the programs. A computer program contains a list of detailed instructions which tell the computer what to do. It is then able to perform complicated calculations in a fraction of the time it would take people to work out the calculations on paper. In this way the computer has become an extremely valuable tool in the modern world. It is responsible for organising massive amounts of information and its value lies in the fact that it is able to carry out such tasks both quickly and efficiently. Computer systems are a necessary component in industries such as telecommunications, transport, medical research, defence systems and education.

It is almost impossible to avoid computer technology in modern daily life. Computers of all shapes and sizes are included in everyday objects such as mobile phones, modern cars, DVD players and cash registers. They are becoming increasingly more common in schools, universities, hospitals and other work places. 

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Computer Intelligence

The age of computers has seen some everyday words hijacked and given similar meanings but in a computing context. Read the words below for a giggle and then explain what they really refer to:

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Backup: Reversing your computer out of the driveway Warm boot: Shoe left out in the sun Cold boot: A shoe left out in the snow Hard drive: A long journey with your brothers and sisters in the family car Search engine: What you do when the car breaks down

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The Birth of the Internet

The development of the Internet is possibly the most significant event in the history of communication. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer have all paved the way for this massive revolution in information technology, each linking together to create a global network of information.

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The Internet - What Is It?

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Basically the Internet is an “interlinking network” which links thousands of computers together to transmit and receive information in the form of data. The data may be words, images or sounds and may concern any topic imaginable. Computers are linked via a modem and a telephone line. A modem connects computers through telephone lines and fibre-optic cables. This type of cable is made up of very thin strands of glass that are able to carry data as pulses of light. The glass strands are no thicker than the average strand of human hair. Fibre-optic cables are able to transmit data at a much faster rate than copper wire, which is what normal phone lines usually consist of.

The World Wide Web Connecting the Globe

In 1989, computer science graduate Tim Berners-Lee developed the World Wide Web (WWW). Basically his idea was an internetbased multi-media project for global information sharing. In 1990, he wrote a program which allowed browsers to “view” websites. From 1991 to 1993, Berners-Lee continued working on the design of the Web, coordinating feedback from users across the Internet by using e-mail. His initial ideas about the use of HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and Universal Resource Locators (URLs) were discussed and modified by several computer programmers until a functional and relatively easy-to-use system was established. Today the Web has evolved at an alarming rate, however, webpages are still viewed through a browser and hyperlinks are still a main feature.

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The Internet had its origins in the 1960s when it was developed by the Advanced Research Project Ageny (ARPA) which was part of the United States Department of Defence. The ARPAnet was developed as an internal communication system, connecting military computers with other government systems. Its main purpose was to make things secure in the event of a world war or major disaster. This computer connection system appealed to the major universities at the time who were keen to start their own “Internet” system.

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It’s hard to believe that before the early 1990s, none of the words and phrases below had any special meaning for everyday computer users!

♦ The Net ♦ The Web ♦ WWW or W3 ♦ Hyperlink ♦ Click of a mouse

♦ The Information Superhighway ♦ Surfing the Net ♦ Downloading a website

While 1990 doesn’t seem that long ago, it is like centuries in the computer world when you measure how far technology has advanced.

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The Internet had been in existence for many years before the WWW was developed. Some of the main uses of the Internet involve research, retrieving the news, playing electronic games, purchasing goods online, and sending messages to other users via e-mail or news systems.

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Newsflash: Flash News!

Daily news has always been a hot topic of conversation and it is almost impossible to avoid being exposed to the news in some form or other.

News blares out of radios, it screams from the news stands and it shows up on televsion in full technicolour.

We l l , i t ’ s q u i t e simple. On television you have little choice about what news you want to see, apart from channel surfing between stories.

The news is usually presented for an hour each night and the general format is that local news comes on first, followed by world news, which is then supplemented with sections on sport, weather and perhaps the sharemarket. Occasionally, segments are devoted to entertainment news, technology news and of course the favourite quirky news stories which always pop up.

Today’s technology has made world news readily available in a number of different mediums. It is possible to download news onto mobile phones, have it e-mailed direct to any e-mail address, and there are now computer-generated virtual newsreaders to bring the latest stories to you.

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News programs are generally good ratings winners for networks and newscasters. Now, with the invention of cable television, there are news channels that televise the news 24 hours a day. The most well-known station is CNN, an American cable news station which strongly made its presence felt during the 1991 Gulf War.

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How is Internet News Different to Watching the News on Television?

The World Wide Web contains thousands of websites with all sorts of news stories on offer, and the viewer has the option of selecting which news they want to hear or read. If they are not interested in sports news, they simply don’t click on it.

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Newsgroups are dedicated to topics of all descriptions. Anyone is able to start their own newsgroup should there not be one already available on their topic of interest. Health, hobbies, sports, science, celebrities, and cultural events are just a sample of the varied subjects of newsgroups. Participants in a newsgroup conduct discussions by posting messages for others to read, and responding to the messages posted by others by e-mail.

In the early days, newsgroups were dominated by “geeks” but today all sorts of people contribute to newsgroups.

All major newspapers of the world now have extensive websites that contain many of their printed stories online. People still buy newspapers though and it is unlikely that the Internet news sites will replace the black and white print, in a hurry.

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Newsgroups are basically discussion groups on the Internet. They are usually separate to the World Wide Web although some newsgroups do have their own website with a forum or “bulletin board”. Newsgroups have been around a lot longer than the WWW, originating with student research groups at universites, particularly in the field of Computer Science.

News Services

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Before television, people watched newsreels at cinemas. These were motion pictures about the news of the day. Once television became popular, newsreels were slowly phased out although they did continue to be shown at cinemas for some time. The news service of the day would produce newsreels that covered a wide range of events. In the 1930s and 1940s, around the time of major aviation achievements, the aviators of the day were depicted in several newsreels and became as famous as the movie stars of today.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Satellites - Off the Planet!

Satellites have allowed television stations to beam news around the world as it happens. The satellite acts as a relay channel and receives messages via radio signals which it then beams to another location. These satellites are usually placed at a very high altitude in what is termed a geosynchrononous orbit which means that it is about 35,000 kilometres above Earth’s equator. Cleverly, this type of satellite travels around Earth’s axis in almost the same time that the Earth spins around on its axis. It also moves in the same direction as Earth’s rotation and thus always appears to be in the same place in the atmosphere. Such a satellite requires a massive launch into space, usually via a rocket or space shuttle.

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Hubble Space Telescope, © NASA.

Satellites are revolving celestial bodies in space.

There are two types of satellites; natural and artificial. The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite, however literally thousands of artificial satellites orbit Earth as well as other planets. The artificial satellites placed around the other planets in the solar system are generally focused on finding out information about that planet. The artificial satellites that revolve around Earth can have a variety of functions. One of the more famous satellites is the Hubble Space Telescope which provides a window to the universe.

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Satellites and Communication

Once the satellite is in position, it receives and transmits signals over a ground station which contains a large satellite dish.

Many countries rely on satellite communication for both television presentations and telephone networks.

Communication satellites are used constantly, yet are usually controlled by a station positioned on Earth. Once a satellite has been positioned in space, it can remain there untouched until it is no longer needed or requires maintenance.

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Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite to enter Earth’s atmosphere. It was sent into orbit by the Soviet Union in 1957 and in doing so, heralded the beginning of the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States. More than 3,000 satellites now orbit the planet and these have been placed into orbit by several countries including Australia.

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Satellites are strategically positioned to stay in orbit relying on the forces of gravity and velocity.

A delicate balance occurs between these forces to ensure that the satellite stays in position. The satellite’s velocity (speed at which it can travel in a straight line) would pull it into space if it were not for the laws of gravity. However, if the velocity of the satellite decreases, the force of gravity will pull it down and it will re-enter the upper atmosphere, at which time it will burn up due to the air pressure and temperature.

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The First Satellite

Can a Satellite Fall Out of the Sky?

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Satellites vary in shape and form and can include: • Manned spacecraft in orbit; • Space junk; • Space shuttle orbiters; • Space capsules; • Space stations.

Satellites are used for: • Studying the universe; • Forecasting the weather; 28

• Transferring overseas telephone calls; • Assisting ships and aircraft in navigation; • Monitoring crops and minerals; • Observing the movements of foreign military equipment; • Sending news around the planet.

Following the success of their first artificial satellite in 1957, the Soviets then launched Sputnik 2 one month later, carrying on-board a dog named Laika. This animal became the first living thing to orbit Earth in space.

Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication

Universal Communication

all research of this nature. This organisation is a non-profit, self-funded, educational and scientific body. Originally NASA was responsible for its administration, however its funding was cut in 1993 and it is now funded by private organisations.

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Photographer: Richard Bartz, Wikimedia Commons.

In this modern age, it is possible to use artificial satellites as a means of global communication, and trips to the Moon and Mars have demonstrated that radio communication is possible in space.

However, at this point there has been no communication with any life forms within our solar system or indeed the Milky Way Galaxy.

SETI is constantly searching for a signal from outside of the solar system using advanced technology and huge research laboratories. It is widely thought that the only way other life forms could be detected would be through radio wave signals. Researchers, through the use of large radio telescopes, have concentrated their efforts on stars that are similar to our Sun.

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Research Technology

One of the first SETI projects took place in 1960 when two stars were examined at a single radio frequency. Several more projects soon followed and the entire sky was scanned for weak microwave signals. A recent project involves the Allen Telescope Array. This is basically a field with at least 350 Gregorian dishes reaching up to six metres tall, lined up at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory site in the United States.

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Scientists and astronomers believe that the best way to find out about other life forms is to search for technology that they may have developed.

They believe that if an intelligent extraterrestrial life form exists, it must be in a very, very distant galaxy which is too distant for us to travel to using today’s spacecraft technology. Such a life form could be a billion light years away, yet they may have more advanced technology than we have on Earth.

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The quest to find life is known as the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) and the SETI Institute is the organisation concer ned with

Project Phoenix is another extensive research project and aims to detect signals that are either deliberately beamed our way or are merely being transmitted from another planet. Sometimes radio interference disrupts scientific searches. This interference can come from natural sources of radio waves such as exploding stars (supernova) or from Earth’s artificial satellite communication system.

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There are billions of stars in the universe that are similar to our Sun. There is a strong chance that one of the stars will have planets orbiting it, just as Earth orbits the Sun in our solar system.

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find out more about this institute: www.seti-inst.edu/

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Useful Websites

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www.edu.meisei-u.ac.jp/~paul/myths.html - Maori Myths and Legends www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/hieroglyphics/heiroglyphics.html - Ancient Egyptian Culture http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bltelephone.htm - The Path to the Telephone sln.fi.edu/franklin/inventor/bell.html - Alexander Graham Bell and His Telephone http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html - The First Typewriter www.mytypewriter.com/ - Typewriter History www.howstuffworks.com/ - How Stuff Works www.att.com/history/inventing.html - Inventing the Telephone public.web.cern.ch/public/ - CERN - The World’s Largest Physics Laboratory www.computer.org/history/development/index.html - History of Computers octopus.gma.org/surfing/satellites/ - How Satellites Work imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/980202e.html - Artificial Satellites in Orbit space.nasda.go.jp/db/kensaku_html/type21_e.html - Space Encyclopedia- Artificial Satellites www.aba.gov.au - Television FAQs

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The Story of English - Robert McCrum, William Cran and Robert MacNeil. © Viking: 1986 www.dreamtime.net.au - Indigenous Australia, © Australian Museum Online.

www.maori.org.nz/tikanga/purakau/creation3.htm - © Maori.org.nz www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/Longer.html - Biography ©Tim Berners-Lee. The World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1996 - World Book, Inc, Chicago, USA. ISBN 0-71668520-5.

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Library Activity Package: Technology & Communication INDEX Diamond Sutra........................................ 10 Dibao 700............................................... 11 Digital Cameras....................................... 15 Dreaming, Stories...................................... 8 E-mail...................................................... 22 Eastman, George....................................... 5 Edison, Thomas Alva...................... 5, 16, 18 Electronics............................................... 17 Electromagnetic waves....................... 17, 23 E-mail............................................ 5, 22, 26 English....................................................... 7 written language................................... 9 words.................................................... 9 Esperanto.................................................. 7 Encyclopedia.............................................. 4 Engel, Joel............................................... 21 Europe....................................................... 4 Fax machine.............................................. 5 Fibre-optic cable...................................... 26 Folktales.................................................... 8 Gale, Leonard.......................................... 13 Geosynchronous orbit............................... 28 Glidden, Carlos........................................ 16 Golden Age of Radio............................ 5, 23 Gray, Elisha.............................................. 19 Gravity..................................................... 28 Greek Alphabet.......................................... 9 Greek Mythology........................................ 8 Gutenberg, Johanes............................. 4, 10 Heliography............................................. 15 Henry, Joseph............................................ 4 Hertz, Heinrich........................................ 17 Hieroglyphics......................................... 4, 9 Homing Pigeons......................................... 4 HOTDOG (Web Editor)............................ 24 Hyperlinks................................................ 26 HyperText Markup Language (HTML).24, 26 Information Superhighway......................... 5 Internet................................................ 5, 26 hyperlinks............................................ 26 World Wide Web (WWW)................ 26, 27 Kodak........................................................ 5 Language.................................................. 7 jargon........................................... 22, 25 SMS.................................................... 21 Legends................................................ 8 Lightbulb................................................. 18 Linotype................................................... 16 Lingo....................................................... 22 London Gazette....................................... 11 Magnetic sound recording.......................... 5 Maori Mythology........................................ 8 Marconi, Guglielmo............................. 5, 23 Maxwell, James Clark............................... 17 Mergenthaler, Ottmar.............................. 16 Messengers................................................ 7

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Aboriginal Mythology................................. 8 Acta Diurna............................................. 11 Age of Information..................................... 5 Alphabet................................................ 4, 9 Greek.................................................... 9 Roman.................................................. 9 Phoenician............................................ 9 Semites................................................. 9 Ananova News Service............................. 27 Ancient people........................................... 7 Answering machine.................................... 5 Ancient Olympic Games............................. 4 Apple Computer......................................... 5 ARPAnet.................................................... 5 Aristotle................................................... 10 Artificial satellites..................................... 28 Bain, Alexander......................................... 5 Baird, John Logie....................................... 5 Bell, Alexander Graham....................... 5, 17 Bell Telephone Company.................... 19, 20 Berliner, Emile...................................... 5, 16 Berners-Lee, Tim...................................... 26 Black box................................................. 24 Books Aristotle.............................................. 10 Bible.................................................... 10 first books........................................... 10 handwritten......................................... 10 Plato................................................... 10 religious.............................................. 10 Camera Obscura........................................ 5 CD-ROM.................................................... 5 Cellular phones........................................ 21 China......................................................... 4 Clay typeface........................................... 10 CNN........................................................ 27 Compact Discs........................................... 5 Communication body language....................................... 6 global.................................................. 13 long distance......................................... 7 Middle Ages.......................................... 7 written................................................... 9 Computers........................................... 5, 25 analogue............................................. 25 digital ................................................ 25 intelligence.......................................... 25 input device......................................... 25 Internet............................................... 26 jargon................................................. 25 memory............................................... 25 output device....................................... 25 processing........................................... 25 software.............................................. 24 Cooper, Dr Martin.................................... 21 Cuneiform writing...................................... 4

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Soule, Samuel W...................................... 16 Speech....................................................... 7 Sputnik ................................................... 28 Storytelling................................................ 8 Sumerians.................................................. 4 Talbot, William Fox................................... 15 talbotype............................................. 15 Technology............................................... 22 computer technology........................... 25 Internet............................................... 26 Telegraph............................................ 4, 13 Atlantic telegraph cable........................... 13 first public telegraph............................ 14 Overland telegraph.............................. 14 telegraph signals................................. 23 visual telegraph................................... 17 Telegraphone............................................. 4 Telephone............................................ 5, 19 mobile phones ................................ 5, 21 Television................................................... 5 network television.................................. 5 cable television................................ 5, 27 The Times................................................ 16 Todd, Sir Charles...................................... 14 Transistor radio.......................................... 5 Typewriter............................................ 4, 16 keys..................................................... 16 URL................................................... 22, 26 Usenet..................................................... 27 Vail, Alfred............................................... 13 Velocity.................................................... 28 Video......................................................... 5 Visual Telegraph...................................... 17 Warren, David.......................................... 24 Web Editor............................................... 24 Websites............................................ 22, 26 Weekly Newes.......................................... 11 Wheatstone, Sir Charles........................... 13 Wireless..................................................... 5 Marconi............................................... 23 wireless communication....................... 23 Wizard of Menlo Park............................... 18 Wooden Printing Press................................ 4 World Wide Web (WWW).................. 5, 2, 27 Xerox......................................................... 5 Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma.......................... 5

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Middle Ages............................................... 7 Mill, Henry................................................. 4 Mimeograph.............................................. 5 Mobile phones..................................... 5, 21 camera phone..................................... 15 Modem.................................................... 26 Motion pictures.......................................... 5 Morse code................................................ 4 Morse, Samuel..................................... 4, 13 Movable Type............................................. 4 Muybridge, Eadweard................................ 4 News................................................. 12, 27 Newscaster.............................................. 27 Newsgroups............................................. 27 Newspapers....................................... 11, 12 Newsreels................................................ 27 New York Times....................................... 11 Nicéphore Niépce, Joseph.......................... 4 Oersted, Hans Christian........................... 13 Outtrim, Steve......................................... 24 Overland Telegragh.................................. 14 Papyrus...................................................... 4 Patents.................................................... 19 Phoenicians............................................ 4,9 Phonograms.............................................. 9 Phonograph......................................... 5, 16 Photocopier............................................... 5 Photographs............................................ 15 Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.................... 15 modern photography........................... 15 Pictographs................................................ 9 Postal Service ........................................... 4 Prehistoric humans..................................... 6 Printing Revolution................................... 10 movable typeface................................ 10 printing machines................................ 10 wine press........................................... 10 QWERTY keyboard.................................. 16 Radio . ................................................ 5, 23 invention............................................. 23 signals................................................... 5 programs............................................. 23 transistor............................................... 4 waves.................................................. 23 wireless................................................. 5 Roman Mythology...................................... 8 Runners..................................................... 7 Satellites.................................................. 28 communication.................................... 28 Sausage Software.................................... 24 Schoffer, Peter......................................... 10 Semaphore................................................ 7 Shakespeare.............................................. 7 Sholes, Christopher Latham...................... 16 Short Message Service (SMS)............... 7, 22

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Answers (Page 25) Backup: Duplicate copies of data on different storage media for emergency purposes.

Warm boot: Restarting the computer by performing a reset operation (pressing reset, Ctrl-Alt-Del, etc.) after a problem or when a program freezes.

Cold boot: Starting the computer by turning power on.

Hard drive: Primary storage device that computer uses to store data, generally not removed from the computer and can store large amounts of information; normally drive C on computer.

Search engine: Software that searches for data based on criteria you specify.