Astronomy: Ages 11 by Teacher Superstore

Astronomy (Ages 11+)

This master may only be reproduced by the original purchaser for use with their class(es). The publisher prohibits the loaning or onselling of this master for the purposes of reproduction.

Published by R.I.C. Publications® (2008) ISBN 978-1-74126-778-5 RIC–6477

Titles available in this series:

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Astronomy (Ages 5–7) Astronomy (Ages 8–10) Astronomy (Ages 11+)

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Signature of Purchaser:

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School Order# (if applicable):

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Internet websites

In some cases, websites or specific URLs may be recommended. While these are checked and rechecked at the time of publication, the publisher has no control over any subsequent changes which may be made to webpages. It is strongly recommended that the class teacher checks all URLs before allowing students to access them.

View all pages online PO Box 332 Greenwood Western Australia 6924

Website: www.ricpublications.com.au Email: mail@ricgroup.com.au

ASTRONOMY Foreword Astronomy is a three-book series written to introduce primary school students to astronomy. The books include information about what astronomy is, the solar system, the sun, the planets, the moon, galaxies, stars, constellations, comets, meteors, asteroids, meteorites, telescopes, different ways of observing space, astronomers, the calendar, astronomy and culture, light pollution and dark skies, and astrology and the zodiac. Titles in this series are: ✶✶ Astronomy (Ages 5–7) ✶✶ Astronomy (Ages 8–10) ✶✶ Astronomy (Ages 11+)

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Contents

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Mythological words...................................... 47

Curriculum links...............................................v

The moon..............................................48–50

What is astronomy?....................................2–3

The phases of the moon.............................. 51

The solar system ........................................4–6

The Milky Way galaxy.............................52–54

Beyond the solar system................................ 7

Stellar dwarfs............................................... 55

The sun....................................................8–10

Stars and constellations...........................56–58

The sun worshippers..................................... 11

Constellation clues....................................... 59

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Teachers notes..........................................iv – v

Mercury..................................................12–14

Other objects in space............................60–62

Exploring the winged messenger.................. 15

Chances are … ........................................ 63

Venus: Earth’s sister in space....................16–18

The telescope.........................................64–66

And now for the weather forecast … ......... 19

The right telescope...................................... 67

Earth......................................................20–22

Observing the universe...........................68–70

How much do you know about your planet?................................................ 23

What are they looking for?........................... 71

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Astronomers...........................................72–74

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Mars: The Red Planet..............................24–26

An extraordinary astronomer........................ 75

Mission to Mars............................................ 27

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Famous astronomers...............................76–78

Jupiter...................................................28–30

Cinderella and the Queen of Science........... 79

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Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9........................... 31

The seasons............................................80–82

Saturn....................................................32–34

Origins of the names of the months.............. 83

Stanzas about Saturn................................... 35

Astronomy and culture............................84–86

Uranus...................................................36–38

Astronomy and fiction.................................. 87

Uranus on a string........................................ 39

Light pollution........................................88–90

Neptune................................................40–42

Light pollution exposition............................. 91

The moons of Neptune................................ 43

The development of astrology................92–94

Pluto and the other dwarf planets............44–46

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Different types of astrology........................... 95

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Astronomy Astronomy

Teachers notes This book covers many aspects of astronomy including how astronomy contributes to society and culture, background information about the solar system, knowledge about the effect light pollution has on dark skies and the ability to observe bodies in space, and knowledge about telescopes and astronomers. The twenty-four sections in the book follow a similar format. All sections, apart from Section 1, consist of a four-page set-up of one teachers page followed by three student pages. ✶✶ Page 1 — Teachers page ✶✶ Page 2 — Student page of information ✶✶ Page 3 — Student page to gauge comprehension of student information page ✶✶ Page 4 — Student page, usually a cross-curricular activity relating to the section

Teachers page

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One or more indicators are given for each activity, providing the teacher with the focus of the activity and the behaviours students should demonstrate by completing the activity.

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The teachers page has the following information:

The title of the text is given.

Answers are given for all activities, where applicable. Some open-ended activities require the teacher to check the answers.

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Background information details any extra information required by the teacher or presents specific details regarding the use of the worksheets.

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Additional activities suggest further activities to develop the topic in the same, or another, learning area.

o c . che e r o t r s super Publisher’s note

Astronomical facts change at a rapid rate as a result of advances in technology and continuing research. While the facts presented in this series were checked and found to be correct at time of publication, the publisher acknowledges that these may change over time. Teachers with concerns in this regard are strongly advised to check for themselves using a contemporary reference.

Astronomy Astronomy

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Teachers notes Student pages The student pages have the following information.

Student page 2 Comprehension activities are provided to gauge student understanding.

Student page 3 The title reflects the type of activity to be completed. Answers are provided on the teachers page, if needed.

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Student page 1 A text provides information about the particular topic. Art or diagrams that assist in explaining the topic are included, if relevant.

Curriculum links

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NSW

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RS3.6, WS3.9

ESS3.6, LTS3.3,

Science

Qld

RS3.5,

PPS3.4,

Refer to curriculum documents <http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au>

3.4, 4.4,

Vic.

ENRE0401,

R 4.1,

ENRE0404,

R 4.4,

ENWR0401

W 4.1

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INVS3.7

3.8, 4.8

Science and Society – 4.1, 4.3 Earth and Beyond – 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

DMS3.8

Society and Environment

SA 3.3, 4.3,

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4.2

SCES0402

3.2, 4.4,

–

3.5, 4.5,

ENS3.6

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SCES0401

Life and Living – 4.3

CUS3.4, SSS3.7

3.2,

3.7, 4.11

EB 4, EC 4, LL 4 ICP 4.3, PS 4.1,

–

C 4.1, C 4.2, TCC 4.3, NSS 4.1

Astronomy Astronomy

What is astronomy? Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the origins, history and development of astronomy. ✶✶ Debates and researches further information about the impact of astronomy on humankind.

Answers

✶✶ The study of astronomy can be credited with initiating many major developments within the history and culture of the human race. Various ancient civilisations are credited with incorporating celestial discoveries in their day-to-day lives, which in turn have developed the knowledge we have today. If not for our desire to know more about the sky, one can only imagine where we, as a civilisation, would be today. ✶✶ Modern astronomy differs greatly from ancient astronomy. However, modern astronomy would not exist without the knowledge gathered by ancient astronomers. ✶✶ Archaeoastronomy is the study of ancient astronomy and how it impacted on ancient peoples' day-today lives and cultures.

Page 3 1. Teacher check 2. The main idea of paragraph one is to provide a brief overview of ancient astronomy and to identify the ancient civilisations which looked to the sky and used the information they gathered to assist them with their daily lives. 3. Teacher check 4. Answers will vary

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Background information

✶✶ Students can research to find out information about the various sub-disciplines of astronomy. Use this information to create a class reference listing each discipline and its main focus. Also include detailed information of what the study involves and why it is useful. ✶✶ Find out more about the development and use of the telescope.

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Astronomy Astronomy

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What is astronomy?

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For thousands of years, humankind has looked toward the sky in awe—astronomy (from the Greek words ‘astro’ meaning ‘star’ and ‘nomos’ meaning ‘law’) is one of the oldest natural sciences. The Chaldeans and Mesopotamians are credited with creating the science of astronomy (around 5000 BCE). These ancient peoples discovered that the celestial bodies followed particular patterns which could be identified and monitored. Archaeologists have discovered detailed maps of the constellations compiled by ancient civilisations such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, Mayans and Chinese. The Egyptians are thought to have used the stars to guide them with their pyramid placement and construction. The British used giant stones to construct a circle (Stonehenge) perfectly aligned to the position of the sun and the moon. Such ancient civilisations are credited with various discoveries and for incorporating unique aspects of the moon, stars and planets into their everyday lives and cultures. The patterns of the celestial bodies were used to organise agricultural cycles, and religious or ritual calendars. Some are still in use today, in one form or another.

El Caracol, the ancient observatory built by the Maya people at Chichen Itza, Mexico, around 900 AD.

of early computers.

The study of the stars and planets provided early explorers with navigational techniques which aided the exploration of our world and, later, space. With each development, humankind has further developed knowledge and competencies which have led to other important developments.

In ancient times, observations of the sky were limited by what could be seen by the unaided eye from available vantage points such as tall trees, high ground and any tall buildings. It wasn’t until Hans Lippershey invented the first telescope in 1608, and Galileo used it to observe the sky in 1609, that astronomy began to develop into the science we know today.

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meteorology and motion of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets and galaxies), as well as that of the formation and development of the universe. Many difficult mathematical concepts which are still in use today—trigonometry, logarithms and calculus—were all developed to aid with celestial calculations. Also, the need to solve difficult calculations led to the development

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1. Highlight keywords and phrases in the text which explore the concept of human development as a result of the study of astronomy. 2. What is the main idea of the first paragraph? 3. Debate: Astronomy has played a vital role in the history and development of humankind. 4. Select one named structure on this page. Research to find out how the study of astronomy directly influenced its creation. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

The solar system Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the origin, history and development of our solar system. ✶✶ Researches further information about three major constellations in our sky.

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Background information

Orion

Answers

Crux

Brightest star Visible from which hemisphere?

Rigel Both, but more obvious in Northern

Acrux Mostly in the Southern

Interesting facts

✶✶ Because of size, one of easiest to find

✶✶ Commonly known as the Southern Cross

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(Answers may ✶✶ Has many bright stars ✶✶ Most easily recognised vary) and nebules constellation ✶✶ Named after a mighty hunter in Greek mythology

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✶✶ View the websites: <http://www.mnh.si.edu/earth/ main_frames.html?5_1_2_0> and <http://science. nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solarsystem>. ✶✶ There are many theories as to the origin and future of our solar system. The one provided in this section is one such theory. The concept of ‘billions of years’ may be difficult for the students to conceive of and they may be concerned that some of the events written about will take place in their lifetime. It is important to allay their fears and to explain and clarify this with the students. ✶✶ There are many websites that can be used to help facilitate students’ understanding of the solar system, its development, sheer size and history. ✶✶ A visit to your local observatory or inviting a mobile observatory to your school will be helpful in giving students background information about our solar system.

✶✶ One of the smallest constellations

✶✶ Orion's bright and distinctive pattern of stars has been recognised by many ancient civilisations ✶✶ Commonly known as the ‘pot’ in Australasia, because the stars on the belt and sword resemble these from the southern latitudes

✶✶ Appears on several flags and insignia around the world

✶✶ Its brightest star is really a double-star system; two stars orbiting each other but appearing as one.

✶✶ Explorers in the Southern Hemisphere used Crux to help with navigation

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Astronomy Astronomy

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Page 6 1. (a) to form an idea or thought the Hunter cross Symbol Map of (b) to fall or cave in constellation (c) materials or objects (d) to swallow up 2. (a) evolving (b) distant (c) middle (d) began (e) support (f) observing (g) constant (h) release 3. (a) older (b) enormous; big; giant (c) igniting (d) die (e) created (f) attracted (g) hotter (h) distant Additional activities 4. (a) true (b) false (c) true ✶✶ View and complete a space quest: <http://www. (d) false (e) false anderson.sh/INST6031/WebQuest/1.htm>. 5. (a) the theory of how our solar system was ✶✶ Design experiments which demonstrate the ‘spinning formed cloud’ which spun and developed enough force of gravity to form the sun and the planets. (b) the planets fall into two main groups (c) the future of our solar system 6. Teacher check

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The solar system – 1 We all know that our solar system, part of the Milky Way galaxy, consists of the sun (a giant star), eight planets (complete with their moons), at least five dwarf planets, and thousands of smaller solar system objects such as asteroids and comets. But how did it come to be? Formation

Our solar system

It is believed that it took somewhere between 10 and 100 million years for our solar system to be created about 4.7 to 4.5 billion years ago.

The sun accounts for around 99.8 per cent of our solar system’s total mass and is at its centre. Its enormous size is responsible for controlling all of the objects within our solar system. The sun’s powerful gravity pulls everything in our solar system towards it; while everything tries to move away from the sun and towards the freedom of outer space. This constant battle traps the planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids and comets within their orbits around the sun.

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The planets within our solar system fall into two groups: the terrestrial planets which are made of rock; and the Jovian planets which are made of gas. The four terrestrial planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. All are considered small compared to the giant Jovian planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

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Scientists theorise that our solar system was born from a giant cloud of dust and gas. It is thought that this cloud began to collapse under the weight of its own gravity. As this happened, the matter within it began moving as a giant circle (a bit like a tornado). A small star began to form in the middle of the giant spinning cloud. Over millions of years, the tiny star attracted more dust and gas and grew larger and hotter—finally igniting to form our sun. While this happened, smaller clusters of dust, debris and gas gathered to form the planets, moons, dwarf planets, asteroids and comets.

The dwarf planets, including Ceres, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea and Eris, fall into their own category. A dwarf planet is large enough to have enough gravity to form a round shape, but is not big enough to have cleared all the debris from its orbit. It is believed that, over time, scientists will discover more than 2000 dwarf planets in our solar system.

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Scientists are able to support this theory by observing other neighbouring systems at their different stages of development. Because the process takes millions of years to happen, it is impossible for scientists to observe any one process from start to finish. However, they have gathered data and information from a number of nearby systems in different stages of development and have ordered the information in a kind of time line to establish a theory of how a system is born and develops.

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o c . che e r o t r s super Our solar system

What about in the future?

Our solar system is constantly evolving and will continue to change as the sun ages. In the very distant future (around five billion years from now), as the sun grows older, it will begin to run out of fuel and start the process of dying. By looking at the way other stars in the universe die, scientists believe that the sun will expand to engulf the terrestrial planets and, as it dies and loses its gravitational pull, it will release the distant Jovian planets out into space.

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Astronomy

The solar system – 2 1. These words were used in the text. What do they mean?

(a) theorise

(b) collapse

(d) engulf

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(a) changing

(a) younger

(b) far away

(b) tiny

(d) started

(d) born

(e) back up

(e) destroyed

(f) watching

(f) repelled

(g) continual

(g) cooler

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3. Find an antonym in the text for each of these.

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2. Find a synonym in the text for each of these.

(h) near © R. I . C.Pu bl i cat i ons 4. Circle as true or false. •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• (a) The Jovian planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. (h) free

(b) Our solar system was created around 100 million years ago.

(c) Scientists use observations of what is currently happening in space to theorise how our solar system was born and how it will evolve.

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(d) The Milky Way is part of our solar system.

(e) The sun will die within our lifetime.

true

false

true

false

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true

false

true

false

true

false

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5. What is the main idea of … (a) paragraph 3? (b) paragraph 6? (c) paragraph 9?

6. After reading the text about the solar system, what skills and attributes do you think a successful scientist would need when observing and theorising about events and objects in space?

Astronomy

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Beyond the solar system There are 88 different constellations (star clusters) visible in the night sky. None are part of our solar system but belong in solar systems of their own. Some are only visible from Earth in the Northern Hemisphere, while others are only visible in the Southern Hemisphere. Others, such as the signs of the zodiac, are seasonal, meaning they are only seen in the sky at particular times of the year. Research and draw the following constellations which are visible in the night sky. Orion

Brightest star

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Crux

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Visible from which hemisphere?

Interesting facts

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Symbol

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Map of constellation

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Astronomy

The sun Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the sun. ✶✶ Completes a cloze activity to find out how ancient cultures worshipped the sun.

Answers

✶✶ The sun’s name comes from the Roman name for the sun, ‘Sol’. It contains 99.8% of the total mass of our solar system, with Jupiter containing most of the remainder. ✶✶ The sun rotates, but because it is a gaseous sphere, not all parts rotate at the same speed. It takes about 25 days to rotate once at its equator and 35 days to rotate once at its poles. The solar system also revolves around a point in the centre of the Milky Way galaxy, taking about 225 million years to complete one revolution.

Page 10 1. The sun is a huge ball of constantly exploding gases, of which hydrogen makes up about 71% and helium about 27%. 2. Because of its size, the sun has an extremely strong gravitational pull and all objects in our solar system are pulled into orbit around it. 3. Earth is in the best position in the solar system to get enough heat and light from the sun to sustain life and to allow plants to grow. 4. The Earth’s atmosphere protects us from the sun’s harmful radiation. 5. (a) 15 million ºC (b) 1 400 000 km (c) 4.5 billion (d) 1 300 000 (e) 150 million km (f) 5 billion 6-7. Teacher check Page 11 1. sun 2. worshipped 3. cultures 4. gods 5. Egyptian 6. solar 7. calm 8. scare 9. blood 10. sacrificed 11. dragon 12. swallowed 13. built 14. pyramids 15. spring 16. rise 17. highest 18. statue

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Background information

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Astronomy Astronomy

Additional activities

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✶✶ View images of the sun on the Internet by typing in keywords such as ‘sunspot’, ‘corona’, ‘solar flare’ and ‘layers of the sun’ into a search engine. ✶✶ Discuss what might happen to the Earth and other celestial bodies in our solar system as the sun grows in brightness, heat and size as it ages. ✶✶ Research to find out what the spacecraft Ulysses discovered as it explored the sun.

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The sun – 1 Read the facts about the sun.

The sun is at the centre of our solar system, which is on the edge of the Milky Way galaxy. ‘Solar’ means anything to do with the sun. The Earth, the other seven planets, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, meteors and other celestial objects in our solar system all orbit the sun.

The sun is a huge ball of constantly exploding gases, of which hydrogen makes up about 71% and helium about 27%. The temperature in its core is believed to be 15 million °C!

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The sun is by far the largest object in our solar system. Theoretically, 1 300 000 Earths could fit inside it! Because the sun is so large, it has an extremely powerful gravitational pull. This is why all the objects in our solar system orbit around it.

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The sun does not appear to be as massive as it actually is because it is about 150 million kilometres from Earth. It would take about 200 years to ‘drive’ there!

Although the sun has a diameter of 1 400 000 kilometres (which seems enormous), it is only classed as a medium-sized star known as a ‘yellow dwarf’.

Without the sun, life on Earth would not exist. The enormous energy created by nuclear reactions in the sun is radiated into space as heat and light. Earth is in the best position in the solar system to get enough heat and light to sustain life, and for plants to grow through a process called photosynthesis.

The sun is made up of several layers: © R. I . C.Publ i ccore, at i oradiative ns zone, the convection the the zone and the photosphere (which is the sun’s surface). Above photosphere •f orr evi ew pur p ose sothenl y• are two

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Other than light and heat, the sun emits other radiation such as radio waves, X-rays and ultraviolet rays. The last two types can be harmful, but Earth’s atmosphere protects us from these negative effects.

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radiative zone convection zone

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layers of gas called the chromosphere and the corona.

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Some of the events which occur on the sun are: • sunspots—magnetic storms which can be seen as dark areas • solar flares—discharges of magnetic energy from the corona which can interfere with communications on Earth

sunspots

chromosphere

The sun was formed about 4.5 billion years ago and will ‘only’ live for about 5 billion more years! As it uses up the hydrogen in its core, more helium will accumulate. The sun will get about 2000 times brighter and about 100 times larger before eventually collapsing.

• solar winds—gas explosions which hurl ions from the corona at speeds of over 500 km/sec. • solar prominences—storms of gas which erupt as columns into space.

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photosphere

Astronomy

The sun – 2 1. Write the sentence that describes what the sun consists of. 2. Why do all the objects in our solar system orbit the sun?

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3. What is the reason for planet Earth having life?

4. How are we protected from the sun's dangerous forms of radiation?

5. Write numbers for these answers.

(a) Temperature in the sun’s core.

(b) Diameter of the sun.

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(d) Number of Earths that could fit inside the sun.

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6. Label the diagram below with the six layers of the sun.

• •

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7. Choose three events that occur on the sun and describe what they are.

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• Astronomy

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The sun worshippers Complete the cloze to find out how ancient cultures worshipped the sun. solar rise statue

sun cultures calm

Egyptian highest pyramids

worshipped blood gods

Unlike many other celestial objects, the 1.

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has always been known to humans. The sun was

because people knew they could not live without it, even though

they didn’t know why. Different 4.

all over the Earth worshipped the sun and had different

or deities; for example: Helios (Greek), Sol (Roman), Ra (5.

In ancient times, people were alarmed when the sun disappeared eclipse (when the moon blocks the

sun’s light). They thought their sun god was angry with them and they used prayer or sacrifice to

the

)

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and Amaterasu (Japanese).

during a

built dragon swallowed

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treated as a god and

names for their sun

scare spring sacrificed

sacrificed people, usually prisoners of war, and offered

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The Incas of Peru also

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their sun god, Tonatiuh, human

humans to

their sun god, Inti. The ancient Chinese thought that a giant

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chased the sun across the sky.

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When the sun disappeared, they believed the dragon had 12.

the sun and so they fired arrows into the sky

and lit firecrackers to scare the evil dragon spirit away.

A variety of buildings or structures have been designed and follow the movements of the sun or to honour it. The

13.

were constructed so their sides

14.

would be in a line with the rising of the sun for the commencement of

that the circles of stones at Stonehenge, England, were built so the sun would one of the rocks during the summer solstice (when the sun is at its 18.

17.

. It is believed

15.

over

16.

point). A massive

of Helios was built on the Greek island of Rhodes to honour the sun god.

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Astronomy

Mercury Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about Mercury. ✶✶ Uses word study clues to complete a text about information on space exploration to Mercury.

Background information ✶✶ In the 1970s, the Mariner 10 spacecraft was the first built object to visit Mercury, where it came within 703 kilometres of the surface, mapping about 45% of it. The MESSENGER spacecraft, launched in 2004, is programmed to fly by Mercury twice in 2008, once in 2009 and to orbit the planet for one year in 2011. It will study the planet in detail. BepiColumbo is a joint mission between Japan and the European Space Agency to study Mercury, scheduled for launch in 2013.

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Answers

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✶✶ Mercury revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. It gets as close as 47 million km from the sun and as far as 70 million km. Although it is the closest planet to the sun, it is not the hottest as its almost nonexistent atmosphere can not contain the intense heat of the day during the extremely cold nights. (Venus is the hottest planet.) ✶✶ From Earth, it is possible to observe the phases of Mercury (which are similar to those of Earth’s moon). These changes appear to occur because different parts of the planet are lit by the sun at different times.

Page 15 1. (1) spacecraft, (2) kilometres, (3) launched, (4) orbit, (5) Space, (6) god, (7) Instruments, (8) surface, (9) poles, (10) atmosphere, (11) cameras, (12) harsh

Page 14 1. closest planet to sun, smallest planet, oldest surface, orbits the sun the fastest, largest temperature variations, least explored inner planet, shortest year 2. They differ in that they are mostly composed of rock and not gas, are smaller and have fewer or no moons. 3. They both have many craters from collisions with meteors and comets because of their lack of atmosphere—with objects not burning up when they enter the atmosphere. 4. Teacher check 5. (a) Mercury has no seasons because its axis is not tilted like Earth’s. (b) Mercury has the shortest year of all the planets as it takes 88 days to orbit the sun. (c) Mercury is the second densest planet and objects on it are lighter than on Earth. 6. The sun would appear two and a half times bigger than on Earth because it is much closer to the sun. The sky would appear black because of the lack of atmosphere and stars could be seen during the day. 7. A ‘transit’ is when Mercury can be seen as a black spot against the sun when it is located between the sun and Earth, every three to 13 years.

Astronomy Astronomy

2. Teacher check

Additional activities

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✶✶ View information and images about the MESSENGER mission on the following website: <http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/the_mission/index. html>. ✶✶ Research to find out the myths about Mercury, the winged messenger, in Roman mythology.

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Mercury – 1 Did you know that not only is Mercury the closest planet to the sun, it is also the smallest planet, has the oldest surface, is the planet that orbits the sun the fastest, has the largest variations between day and night temperatures and is the least explored inner planet in our solar system. ‘Little’ Mercury wins a few ‘big’ planetary competitions! Along with Venus, Earth and Mars, Mercury is one of the four planets closest to the sun. Also known as ‘terrestrial’ planets, they are mostly composed of rock and are smaller and have fewer or no moons when compared with the four giant outer gas planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. (Mercury has no moons.)

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Mercury has a diameter of about 4880 kilometres, which is two-fifths that of the Earth—it is slightly larger than our moon. Like the moon, Mercury is heavily cratered from impacts with meteors and comets. Unlike Earth, both Mercury and the moon do not have enough atmosphere to burn up meteors and comets as they enter. Mercury's largest crater, called Caloris Basin, is about 1300 kilometres in diameter. Mercury also has many steep cliffs and smooth plains. The lack of atmosphere on Mercury is the cause of its extreme temperature variations. During the day, temperatures can reach 430 °C. Because there is little atmosphere, this heat is not retained when the sun sets and the temperature plummets to –170 °C! The sun’s rays are about seven times stronger on Mercury than on Earth. Mercury only takes 88 days to orbit the sun, compared with the Earth’s 365. This is the reason it was named after the swiftmoving messenger of the gods in Roman mythology. However, while Mercury has the shortest year of the planets, it has a very long day as it rotates on its axis about once every 60 Earth days. Also, because its axis isn’t tilted like the Earth’s, Mercury has no seasons.

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As Mercury is much closer to the sun than Earth, the sun would appear two and a half times bigger in its sky. Because of the lack of atmosphere, the sky appears black on Mercury and stars would likely be visible during the day. Its proximity to the sun makes Mercury difficult to observe from Earth except at sunrise or sunset. At certain times, however, Mercury is located directly between the sun and the Earth and can be seen as a black spot against the sun. This event is called a ‘transit’ and occurs every three to 13 years.

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Like Earth, Mercury has a magnetic field created by its iron core and a rocky mantle below its crust. After Earth, Mercury is the densest planet in the solar system, though Earth’s superior gravitational pull makes objects on it heavier than on Mercury. (An object weighing 50 kilograms on Earth would weigh about 19 kilograms on Mercury.)

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Astronomy

Mercury – 2 1. List six ‘competitions’ that Mercury has won over the other planets.

•

2. How does Mercury and the other inner planets differ from the outer planets?

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3. What are two things the planet Mercury and Earth’s moon have in common?

4. Write keywords and phrases to describe facts about the temperature on Mercury.

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(b) Mercury has the longest year of all the planets as it takes 560 days to orbit the sun.

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6. Describe what you would see if you looked up to the sky from Mercury’s surface and the reason why. 7. What is a ‘transit’? Astronomy

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Exploring the winged messenger 1. To read the information below about space exploration to Mercury, you will need to find the missing words in the wordsearch and write them in the correct spaces. The initial letters have been given. The Mariner 10 s

(1)

within 703 k spacecraft , l

(2)

was the first to visit Mercury, and, in 1974, it travelled

of the surface, mapping about 45% of it. The MESSENGER

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once in 2009, and to o

in 2004, is programmed to fly by Mercury twice in 2008, (4)

the planet for one year in 2011 to study it in detail.

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The MESSENGER space mission stands for MErcury, Surface, S

(5)

mythical g

(6)

Mercury is named after. I

spacecraft will study such things as the composition of the planet’s s

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ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging. Besides being an acronym, the name matches the (7)

on board the , the size

(8)

of its core, its geological history, the deposits (possibly ice water) at its p

(9)

the nature of its magnetic field and its exosphere (the outermost region of its thin

will collect © R . I . C . P u b l i c a t i o n s images of Mercury’s entire surface. To protect it from the sun’s h rays, a f orr e vi ew pu r pit.osesonl y• thermal • semi-cylindrical shade has been built around a

). The spacecraft’s sophisticated c

(10)

(11)

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P O D E H S U R F A P M S E R A T M O S C I N S T E R T F A

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N U A L O R B I T E C A M E R A S H E M O L I K D E A H E R E C T O L R U M E N T S G O S C E C A P S Y P H

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MESSENGER spacecraft

2. Write an acrostic about Mercury, using the letters in the planet’s name as the initial letter of each line. M E R C U R Y R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

Venus: Earth’s sister in space Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about Venus. ✶✶ Researches the weather patterns on Venus and writes a weather report.

Answers

✶✶ Venus, as it is similar in size and composition, is sometimes referred to as Earth’s sister planet. However, there are just as many differences as there are similarities, with Venus having a force of pressure, and an atmosphere and climate deadly to humans. Page 19 ✶✶ For this activity, students need access to astronomy books or the Internet for information. Students can work in pairs or groups to produce a two-minute long weather forecast for Venus. If time and facilities allow, they can watch a weather forecast online or on television prior to the activity to get ideas about what information a typical weather report contains. Groups may also enjoy drawing an image of Venus or a related image (using a photographic map) to point to as they give their forecast. For this they will require large sheets of paper and drawing materials.

Page 18 1. Venus is sometimes called ‘Earth’s sister’ because it is, in many ways, similar to Earth. Venus is just slightly smaller than the Earth and was formed about the same time, around 4.5 billion years ago. Its surface is rocky and dusty, with mountains, canyons and plains. The chemicals on Venus’s surface are similar to those on Earth. 2. Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system because Venus’s atmosphere has a lot of carbon dioxide, which traps heat from the Sun. 3. (a) false (b) true (c) false (d) false 4. Venus Earth

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Background information

225 days

365 days

Average 460 degrees 15 degrees temperature Celsius Celsius

Astronomy Astronomy

east to west

west to east

Number of moons

5. Answers will vary but should mention equipment to assist breathing, oxygen tanks, extreme-sunlight protection, and equipment or machinery to protect against the heavy pressure. 6. Answers will vary. Page 19 Teacher check

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Direction of rotation

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✶✶ Students could investigate some of the probes that have visited Venus.

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Venus: Earth’s sister in space – 1 Reflected sunlight

sunlight

Infra-red rays radiated into space

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atmosphere Atmosphere

Located between Earth and Mercury is Venus, the second closest planet to the sun. Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. From Earth, it can be seen with the unaided eye and is the third brightest object in our sky (after the sun and the moon), which is one reason it was important to the culture of many ancient civilisations. Venus was particularly important to the Maya in Central America. It is believed Mayan rulers planned for wars to begin when Venus rose, and they used the movements of Venus, the sun and moon to create a very accurate calendar.

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clouds Clouds

Even though Venus is twice as far from the sun as Mercury, it is warmer; in fact, Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system. Average surface temperatures are about 460 degrees Celsius. This is because Venus’s atmosphere, which is about 95 per cent carbon dioxide, traps the heat from the sun. Sunlight enters through the atmosphere, then is trapped and unable to escape back into space. There is a very thick layer of cloud around the planet, mostly made of sulfur, that gives Venus a very dense atmosphere, yellow colour and high surface pressure (about 90 times that of the Earth). The pressure on Venus would be similar to that at the bottom of a deep ocean; a person would be crushed on Venus (if they hadn’t already been cooked by the high temperatures or killed by the poisonous atmosphere!). Most scientists believe this high pressure also makes it impossible for any life to exist on Venus.

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Venus is sometimes called ’Earth’s sister’ because it is, in many ways, similar to Earth. Venus is almost the same size as Earth (just slightly smaller) and was formed about the same time, around 4.6 billion years ago. Its surface is rocky and dusty, and the landscape includes mountains, canyons and plains. The chemicals on Venus’s surface are similar to those on Earth.

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If Venus is Earth’s sister, it is certainly not a twin. There are many differences between the two planets, too. A day on Venus takes much longer than one on Earth, lasting 243 Earth days, while a year on Venus is shorter than Earth’s, taking just 225 Earth days. Venus spins from east to west, the opposite of Earth (and most other planets). Venus has no moons and no water.

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The trapping of heat that makes Venus so hot is similar to that of a greenhouse. Some scientists think that Venus is a model for what could happen on Earth if human-caused greenhouse gases are not controlled. Venus is also known as the ‘morning star’ (because, at sunrise, it appears in the east) and the ‘evening star’ (it appears in the west at sunset and can not be seen in the middle of the night). Next time you are out in the evening, you could perhaps try to find the third brightest object in the sky, Venus. Astronomy

Venus: Earth’s sister in space – 2 1. Why is Venus sometimes called ‘Earth’s sister’?

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2. What makes Venus the hottest planet?

3. Circle as true or false.

(a) Venus was named after the Greek goddess of the sun.

(b) Venus is also known as the ‘evening star’.

(d) Carbon dioxide gives Venus its colour.

true

false

true

false

true

false

true

false

4. Complete the table comparing Venus to Earth. Orbit

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15 °C

Direction of rotation

west to east

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Number of moons

5. If an astronaut was to land on Venus, what sort of equipment would he or she need to survive?

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6. Since Venus is so similar to Earth in size and composition, some people think there must have been water there in the past. What do you think? Explain your answer. Astronomy

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And now for the weather forecast ... While Venus is similar in some ways to Earth, most aspects of its weather are totally different. Imagine Earth has a colony on Venus that allows us to live there despite its pressure, heat and atmosphere. You live on Venus and work as a weather presenter for a local television station. Research Venus’s weather with a partner and create a two-minute long weather forecast for tomorrow. Think about what is usually included in a weather forecast, such as maximum and minimum temperatures, sunset and sunrise times, storms, lightning and wind speeds.

CHANNEL NEWS

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hot you could ...’ joke. You could consider giving viewers advice about what kind of sun protection they will need. Use the space below to take notes on Venus’s weather, then write your forecast on another sheet of paper.

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You might like to draw an image (using a photographic map) of Venus to point to as you give your forecast, or even make a ‘Tomorrow will be so

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VENUS

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Astronomy

Earth Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about Earth. ✶✶ Completes activities to show understanding of the text.

Answers

✶✶ Earth is about 13 000 kilometres in diameter and about 150 million kilometres from the sun. ✶✶ One orbit of the sun takes 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 9.54 seconds. The extra hours, minutes and seconds are added up every four years to create a leap year. Earth’s orbit is not a perfect circle, so at different times of the year Earth is slightly closer to the sun than at other times. ✶✶ Gravity pulls matter towards the centre of objects, which is why most planets are round. Small moons have no gravity, so are not round but ‘lumpy’. Gravity works the same on other planets and larger moons as it does on Earth. ✶✶ The layers of Earth are: a thin, outer layer called the crust; a thick, rocky layer called the mantle located underneath the crust; and the core at the centre. The core has an outer and inner section. The outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid. ✶✶ The air surrounding Earth becomes progressively thinner the further it is from Earth's surface. The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with the remainder being argon and small amounts of other gases. The atmosphere contains water vapour, carbon dioxide, water droplets, dust particles and small amounts of other chemicals given off by volcanoes, fires, living things and human activities. The atmosphere traps heat from the sun to warm Earth—the ‘greenhouse effect’. The greenhouse effect allows life on Earth to be sustained. ✶✶ Although our planet is called ‘Earth’, only 29% is actually ‘earth’. Ocean water covers about 71% of the Earth’s surface. Three per cent of Earth’s water is fresh, much of it in polar icecaps or below the Earth's surface.

Page 22 1. Teacher check diagram: sun – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars 2. Gravity is a force of attraction. It pulls objects towards a planet’s centre. It keeps the moon in orbit and stops us from floating into the atmosphere. 3. (a) It scatters the sun’s light, creating a bright blue daytime sky. (b) (i) ionosphere (ii) troposphere (iii) stratosphere 4. (a) (i) a day—the time it takes for one rotation of the Earth on its axis (ii) a year—the time it takes for one revolution of the Earth around the sun (b) The odd quarter days it takes to orbit the sun are added to make a whole day every four years. 5. (a) away from (b) less (c) more 6. No other planet has the conditions essential for supporting life as we know it on Earth. Page 23 1. average distance 150 000 000 km, Marianas Trench in Western Pacific Ocean, Andes Mountains 2.-3. Teacher check

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Background information

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✶✶ Write an illustrated report on the auroras using the Internet for information and artistic inspiration. ✶✶ Draw a scaled diagram of the layers of Earth’s atmosphere or its solid mass. Use the diagram to create a collage or model.

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Earth – 1 Earth is the largest of the four inner rocky planets. Lying between hotter Venus and cooler Mars, it is sometimes referred to as the ‘third rock from the sun’. Cross-section of Earth's core The solid mass of the planet is divided into layers, from its central inner core to its surface crust. Earth has a force of attraction which pulls objects on or close to its surface, towards its centre. It is responsible for keeping Earth's satellite, the moon, in orbit. This force is called gravity and it keeps us on the ground, preventing us from floating into the atmosphere.

Earth’s atmosphere, too, has a number of layers. Closest to the planet is the troposphere, where all of Earth’s weather takes place. The next layer, the stratosphere, contains the thin ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The outermost layer is the ionosphere, in which nature’s spectacular light shows, the aurora australis and the aurora borealis, take place.

upper mantle

outer core

inner core

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The atmosphere surrounding Earth scatters the light from the sun, creating a bright blue daytime sky for the section of the planet which faces it.

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crust

upper mantle outer core

inner core

ionosphere

tropopause

ozone layer

stratosphere

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Earth’s surface

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Earth spins in an anticlockwise direction on its axis, which runs between the North and South Poles. The time it takes to complete one rotation (roughly 24 hours) is called a ‘day’. Daytime and night-time occur at different times across the planet as the Earth spins.

It takes Earth 365 ¼ days to travel once around the sun. As most years are only 365 days long, every four years an extra day is added to the calendar to account for the extra quarter day it takes to revolve the sun. This day is 29 February. The year in which this extra day is added is called a ‘leap year’.

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mesosphere

The tilt of Earth’s axis relative to the sun causes Earth’s seasons. Summer occurs in the Southern Hemisphere when the South Pole is angled towards the sun. The sun appears higher in the sky and more direct sunlight reaches the surface of the southern half of the planet. The concentration of sunlight is greater and each day has more daylight. At the same time, it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere. However, when the North Pole is angled towards the sun, the reverse is true.

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Southern Hemisphere: autumn Northern Hemisphere: spring

Southern Hemisphere: summer Northern Hemisphere: winter

Southern Hemisphere: winter Northern Hemisphere: summer

sun

No other planet in our solar system contains life as we know it to be like on Earth. The atmosphere, the presence of water in its liquid state and the climatic conditions essential for supporting life are all unique to Earth.

Southern Hemisphere: spring Northern Hemisphere: autumn

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Astronomy

Earth – 2 1. Draw a diagram to show Earth’s position in the solar system relative to the sun and the other inner planets. You may need to research your answer.

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3. (a) How does Earth’s atmosphere affect the sky's colour?

(b) In which layer of Earth’s atmosphere does each occur?

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2. What is gravity and what does it do?

(i) a day

(ii) a year

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(b) Why and how often does a leap year occur?

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5. Circle the correct answer.

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4. (a) Define each term.

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(a) The North Pole is angled towards/away from the sun during the Southern Hemisphere's summer. (b) In winter, the concentration of sunlight is greater/less than in the summer. (c) In summer, each day receives more/less daylight. 6. Why can no other planet in the solar system support life as we know it on Earth? Astronomy

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How much do you know about your planet? There are many reasons why it is important to know about the planet we live on. For example, it helps us to: • understand who we are, where we came from and where we could be going • know what Earth has available to give us and how we should care for it • realise the different places we could visit.

Quiz questions

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1. Research to find the answers to these questions.

Q. What is the average distance from Earth to the sun?

Q. What and where is the deepest point in the ocean? A.

Q. Which mountain range lies on the west coast of South America? A.

2. Write three more questions, and their answers, about Earth. Q.

A. Q.

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Fascinating Earth facts

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Did you know that the moon is moving away from Earth?

Each year, the moon is moving 4 cm further from planet Earth. A billion years ago, the moon was much closer and a lunar month was only 20 days long! 3. Write two more fascinating facts about planet Earth.

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Astronomy

Mars: The Red Planet Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about Mars. ✶✶ Locates information in the text and conducts research to make comparisons between Mars and Earth. ✶✶ Completes a variety of cross-curricular activities about Mars.

Background information ✶✶ Mars is considered similar to Earth because: has has has has

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a similar temperature an atmosphere a rocky surface polar icecaps.

Page 27 ✶✶ Students read the five activities and choose one that most interests them.

✶✶ It is possible that Mars has a water cycle and that life could exist in warmer areas below ground.

Note: Mission 2: Impact craters One way to conduct this experiment is to, in a paint tray, place flour with a layer of tempera paint as the ‘Mars surface’. Use a golf ball (or marble etc.) as the ‘comet’. Students conduct trials, dropping the ball from different heights. Note: Mission 4: Rovers Balloons can make great ‘air bags’.

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✶✶ The Mars Global Surveyor probe found evidence that there was once flowing water on the planet’s surface. ✶✶ It is possible that future missions will discover fossilised evidence of life on Mars. ✶✶ Mars has some of the most spectacular scenery in the solar system, such as the 4000 km-long canyon Valles Marineres, and Olympus Mons, the tallest volcano in the solar system.

✶✶ When Mars is closest to the sun, dust storms can occur which cover the entire planet! Tornadoes eight kilometres tall have been viewed from Earth.

Answers Page 26

Page 27 Teacher check

Yes

Additional activities

Rocky planet (Terrestrial)

Yes

6794 km in diameter

12 756 km in diameter

Two small natural satellites—may be captured asteroids (Phobos and Deimos)

One natural satellite (The moon)

Yes

24 hours and 40 minutes

24 hours

Yes

✶✶ Research to create an information poster about Mars’ two moons, Phobos and Deimos; or Mars’ gigantic canyon Valles Marineries (which is the length of Europe!).

Seasons: four—twice as long as Earth’s.

Seasons: four Axial tilt: 23.5º

Yes

Mars

Earth

Distance from the sun

Average 228 million kilometres

150 million kilometres

Rock or gas?

Rocky planet (Terrestrial)

Size Moons

Day

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Seasons and axial tilt

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Axial tilt: 25.2º

✶✶ Imagine and design a liveable Mars community. Present ideas as a model, painting, sculpture or poem.

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Atmosphere

Atmosphere 100 times thinner than Earth’s atmosphere; 95% carbon dioxide

78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen + some CO2 + helium, argon and neon + water vapour

Temperature

Ranges from 30 ºC to –125 ºC

Ranges from 58 ºC to –89 ºC

Icecaps

Two icecaps of frozen carbon dioxide and water at south and north poles

Two icecaps of frozen water at South and North Poles

Yes

Volcanoes

Has large volcanoes—appear to be extinct. Olympus Mons is three times the height of Mt Everest.

Has volcanoes—many active

Craters

Surface is covered—over 43 000 craters with diameter >5 km

Some evident—most have eroded

Soil colour

Red soil due to iron oxide content

Ranges from white sands to rich black

Astronomy Astronomy

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Page 26 ✶✶ Access to the Internet and/or library resources is required to complete the second column of the table. Students decide on the similarities between the features of the two neighbouring planets.

Yes

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Mars: The Red Planet – 1 Mars, often called the ‘Red Planet’, is the fourth planet from the sun and can be seen from Earth by the unaided eye. The iron oxide (rust) in its soil and rock gives the planet its reddish appearance.

The surface of Mars is covered with impact craters, with over 43 000 with a diameter of 5 km or greater having been discovered so far.

Like Earth, Mars has north and south polar icecaps which expand and contract with the planet’s seasons. The ice is made of frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) and water. Some scientists believe that if the polar icecaps melted, a greenhouse effect For Mars to rotate once on its axis takes 1.03 Earth would occur that could make it possible for humans days—about 24 hours 40 minutes. To complete a to colonise the planet. full orbit of the sun takes 687 Earth days (about Missions to Mars two years).

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Robotic probes have Mars is roughly half the size of Earth, with a been sent to Mars diameter of 6794 kilometres, although it is only since 1964. about one-tenth as dense. Its average distance Some have been ‘flyfrom the sun is 228 million kilometres. by’ missions, while The atmosphere of Mars is thin—100 times thinner others have been than Earth’s. Approximately 95% of the atmosphere of space probes landing on the planet to take is carbon dioxide. photographs and collect data about the its surface The climate of Mars varies greatly. A summer’s and atmosphere. day near the equator can be as warm as 30 °C, Two NASA rovers, Opportunity and Spirit, landed while a polar winter’s night can drop to a freezing on Mars in 2007. To date, Opportunity has –125 °C. At present, it is too cold for liquid water explored 10 kilometres of the planet’s surface. to exist on its surface, but the planet may have All reports indicate that, many years ago, water been warmer in the past. once flowed on the planet. The absence of water Mars is considered to be more ‘Earth-like’ than today may be due to Mars’s thin atmosphere. any other planet in our solar system. Mars has four seasons, caused by its proximity to the sun and the MARS—god of war tilt of its axis at 25.2 °. The length of the seasons are about twice those of Earth’s. Mars was named after the Ancient Romans’ god Moons of war. Mars has two irregularMars was the father of shaped moons, called two sons, Romulus and Phobos and Deimos. Remus—said to be the It is possible that these founders of Rome. moons are actually The two moons of Mars, Phobos (meaning captured asteroids. ‘panic/fear’) and Deimos (meaning ‘terror/ Features dread’), were twins in Greek mythology who accompanied their father, Ares, god of war, Like Earth, Mercury and Venus, Mars is a terrestrial into battle. Ares was known as Mars to the or ‘rocky’ planet. Mars has volcanoes which, Romans. although all appear to be extinct, tower above

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those on Earth. The giant of them all, Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus), is about three times the height of Mount Everest! R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

The symbol for Mars is a spear and shield, and signify the war god Mars/Ares. Astronomy

Mars: The Red Planet – 2 Although Mars is a cold, harsh planet with very little oxygen, it is considered to be more ‘Earth-like’ than any other planet in our solar system. 1. Locate information from the text on page 25 to complete the facts about Mars. 2. Use the Internet and library resources to complete the same facts about Earth. Decide if the two planets are similar for each feature. Feature

Mars

Distance from the sun

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Similar? (Yes/No)

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Rock or gas?

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Size (diameter) Moons

Day length (rotation period)

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Atmosphere

Temperature

Icecaps

Volcanoes

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Craters

Soil colour

Astronomy

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Missions to Mars Choose one or more of the ‘missions’ to complete.

MISSION 1: MARS KIT

MISSION 2: IMPACT CRATERS

Design a kit required for a crewed mission to Mars.

Design an experiment to explore the creation of impact craters on the surface of Mars.

• Research the conditions on Mars's surface to understand how a human could survive on the planet.

An impact crater is formed when a comet, asteroid or meteorite smashes into the surface of a planet.

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• Investigate the possible dangers an astronaut could face on Mars.

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• Conduct your experiment and present your results in a table. Summarise your results.

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• Present the kit as a list with illustrations. Include the purpose and use of each item. Only 20 items are allowed.

• Consider how the height that an object is dropped from affects the appearance and depth of the crater.

MISSION 3: LIFE ON MARS? Conduct research to write and present an oral report to the class debating the question ‘Is there life on Mars?’

– Why are governments spending billions of dollars to send space probes to study the ‘red planet’?

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Give evidence to support both sides of the argument—and include your own opinion.

MISSION 5: MARS WEBSITES

Design, construct and test your own Mars rover.

Create a ‘Mars websites review sheet’ and use it to discover the best websites on the Internet about the ‘red planet’.

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MISSION 4: ROVERS!

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A robotic space probe which lands on a planet is called a ‘rover’. Investigate:

o c . che e r o t r s super Include checklists for:

– up-to-date information and facts about Mars – current news about Mars

Spirit landed in 2004

– images of Mars

– games, flash presentations, trivia etc.

– which rovers have landed on Mars – the airbags which protect the space probes when landing – the form of renewable energy which powers the rovers. Include special features to suit the conditions on Mars—and don’t forget the airbags! R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

– any other criteria you think a Mars website should include. Choose five websites and review them. Give each website you review a rating and an overall evaluation. Include if the websites are ‘student friendly’. Astronomy

Jupiter Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about Jupiter. ✶✶ Completes a newspaper article and a sketch relating to Jupiter.

Answers

✶✶ The atmosphere of Jupiter is composed of about 86 per cent hydrogen, 14 per cent helium and small amounts of methane, ammonia, water, ethane, carbon monoxide and other gases. ✶✶ Jupiter has the strongest magnetic field of any planet in the solar system. It extends far into space and is about 14 times as strong as that of Earth's. ✶✶ The core of Jupiter is thought to be made from rocky material. ✶✶ Jupiter has rings but they are much fainter and smaller than those of Saturn's. They are believed to be composed of tiny grains of rocky material. ✶✶ A complete list of the satellites (moons) of Jupiter can be found at the following websites: <http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?D isplay=Moons&Object=Jupiter>, <http://www.nineplanets.org/jupiter.html>. ✶✶ The first spacecraft that visited Jupiter was Pioneer 10 in 1973; followed by Pioneer II in 1974; Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 in 1979; Ulysses in 1992 and 2004; and Galileo orbited Jupiter for eight years from 1995 to 2003. New Horizons, launched in 2006, first approached Jupiter in 2007.

Page 30 1. (a) largest, heaviest (b) 1000, one-thousandth (c) fifth, 778 570 000 (d) 318 (e) one-quarter (f) oval, two, three, 360 (g) elliptical, 4333, 12, 10 (h) kilograms, 108 (i) twice (j) 16, smaller, 3000 2. Answers will vary but should refer to the gaseous composition of the atmosphere, the large temperature variations, the immense heat given off etc. Page 31 Teacher check

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Background information

Astronomy Astronomy

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✶✶ Read the description of Jupiter in paragraphs 3 and 4 on page 29 and use this to paint an artwork of Jupiter. Use a variety of painting techniques. ✶✶ Compile a table comparing various aspects of Jupiter to those of Earth. Include information about physical features, size, mass, density, temperature, orbits and rotations, appearance, composition of atmosphere and satellites. Research to find information about any aspects about Earth which are required.

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Jupiter – 1 1. Jupiter was the Roman king of the gods and the god of the sky and thunder. Naming a planet after him is very appropriate, since the planet Jupiter is the largest and heaviest planet in the solar system.

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5. Jupiter’s orbit around the sun is slightly elliptical. One orbit takes 4333 Earth days or nearly 12 Earth years! Jupiter rotates on its axis faster than any other planet, so one day on Jupiter takes about 10 hours (compared to 24 hours on Earth). The fast rotation causes the planet to bulge at the equator and flatten at the poles.

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2. More than 1000 times the size of Earth and only about one-thousandth the size of the sun, Jupiter is also one of the brightest space objects (after the sun, the moon and Venus). It is the fifth planet from the sun and is an average distance of 778 570 000 kilometres from it. That’s more than five times the distance of Earth from the sun! Also, Jupiter is heavier than any other planet in the solar system, with a mass which is 318 times larger than Earth's.

6. The force of gravity on the surface of Jupiter is about two and a half times stronger than that of Earth’s. This means that an object weighing 45 kilograms on Earth would weigh about 108 kilograms on Jupiter.

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7. The temperature of Jupiter varies from about –145 °C at the top of the clouds to about 21 °C at lower levels. The temperature then appears to increase again the further below the clouds that instruments are able to measure. Jupiter gives off twice as much heat as it receives from the sun because it is still losing the heat produced when it was formed. No evidence of life on Jupiter has been found.

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3. Along with Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, Jupiter is one of the giant ‘gas planets’. Astronomers believe that Jupiter has no solid surface but is composed mostly of hydrogen, a small percentage of helium gas and traces of other elements. For this reason, the density of Jupiter is about one-quarter that of Earth’s. Strong winds and different gases create thick red, brown, yellow and white clouds. The light-coloured bands of clouds are called ‘zones’ and the dark-coloured bands are called ‘belts’. These circle the planet.

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4. The most unusual feature on the surface of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, which is an oval-shaped, swirling mass of gas that, viewed from afar, looks like a satellite view of a hurricane. Two or three Earths could fit into the Great Red Spot at its widest point! Its colours (brown–red to brown) change and sometimes fade completely. The edge of the Great Red Spot circulates at speeds of about 360 kilometres per hour.

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8. Jupiter has 16 large satellites and numerous smaller ones. The larger ones, in particular Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, are at least 3000 kilometres in diameter. These four satellites are called the Galilean satellites as they were discovered by the Italian astronomer, Galileo Galilei, in 1610 using one of the earliest-built telescopes.

Astronomy

Jupiter – 2 1. Write numbers, fractions, ordinals or mathematical terms to complete the sentences. (a) Jupiter is the

and times the size of Earth and

(b) Jupiter is

furthest planet from the sun and its average distance from

the sun is about

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times larger than that of Earth’s.

(d) The mass of Jupiter is

that of Earth’s.

(e) The density of Jupiter is about

-shaped mass of gas, could fit

Earths inside it at its widest point. The

kilometres

edge of the Great Red Spot circulates at speeds of about

per hour.

. One orbit takes

(g) The orbit of Jupiter is slightly

days or

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(f) The Great Red Spot, an

of the

size of the sun.

planet in the solar system.

years in Earth time. One day on Jupiter is equivalent to

hours. ©Earth R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons on Earth would weigh (h) An object weighing 45 • f o r r e v i e w p u r posesonl y• kilograms on Jupiter. (i) Jupiter gives off

large satellites and numerous

(j) Jupiter has

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least

as much heat as it receives.

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ones. The large satellites are at kilometres in diameter.

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2. List as bullet points reasons why Jupiter would not able to sustain life.

Astronomy

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Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 In 1993, three astronomers, Eugene Shoemaker, Carolyn Shoemaker and David H Levy, discovered a comet in orbit around Jupiter. (The comet was named after them!) The comet had broken into 21 pieces. The astronomers used the comet’s location and speed to calculate that it would crash into Jupiter’s atmosphere in July 1994. At the predicted time, astronomers all over the Earth observed the impact of the comet on Jupiter. Large explosions resulted from the sudden changes in the gases in the atmosphere and scattered comet debris over large areas. Gradually, a dark haze of fine material spread over Jupiter and remained there for many months. The scars of the comet’s impact were clearly visible on the surface.

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Jupiter has been called a ‘cosmic vacuum cleaner’ because its strong gravitational pull ‘sucks’ many comets and asteroids into its orbit. These end up colliding with the planet.

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Some astronomers have called the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter ‘The astronomical event of the century’. 1. Write a short newspaper article about the event. Include an attention-grabbing headline, a leading sentence with ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ details, and sentences to follow which give more details.

2. Use a lead pencil or black crayon to sketch a cartoon picture of Jupiter as a cosmic vacuum cleaner. Use the information about the planet to add details. Outline your completed sketch with thin black marker or pen.

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Astronomy

Saturn Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about Saturn. ✶✶ Follows poetry frameworks to compose a limerick, haiku and cinquain about Saturn and/or Titan.

Answers

✶✶ Along with Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, Saturn is one of the four outer planets furthest from the sun. Also known as the ‘gas giants’ or Jovian planets, they are composed of gas, have rings, multiple moons and are much larger compared to the four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. The two sets of planets are separated by the asteroid belt. ✶✶ Saturn’s rings were first seen in 1610 by an astronomer, Galileo Galilei (who was first to use a telescope to look at space), but at the time did not realise what they were. In 1655, an astronomer, Christian Huygens, identified them as a disc surrounding the planet. ✶✶ The reflection of Saturn’s rings adds to its brightness and visibility. From a distance they appear a dull orange but they can also give off a variety of colours ranging from reds to blues. ✶✶ Although Saturn’s magnetic field is not as strong as Jupiter’s, it is 578 times more powerful than Earth’s. ✶✶ Because of Saturn’s gaseous nature and the fact that it rotates so quickly, its poles are flattened and its equator bulges outwards.

Page 34 1. (a) 1434 million (b) sixth (c) second (d) 120 540 (e) 764 (f) 60 2. Because its surface is not solid like Earth’s, and is a huge ocean of gases and liquids. 3. Saturn is the only planet with a density less than that of water, meaning it could ‘float’ on water. 4. Teacher check 5. Possible answers: (a) Titan is the second largest moon in the solar system and bigger than the planet Mercury. (b) Titan has an atmosphere rich in nitrogen, like Earth’s. 6. (a) true (b) false (c) true (d) false 7. Possible answer: What spacecraft is currently on a mission orbiting Saturn and Titan? Page 35 Teacher check

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Background information

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Astronomy Astronomy

Additional activities

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✶✶ View information and images about CassiniHuygens' space mission to Saturn and Titan on the following website: <http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/ home/index.cfm>. ✶✶ Find out about the Roman mythological figure Saturn is named after, the Roman god of harvest.

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Saturn – 1 Read the facts about Saturn.

D Ring

C Ring

Encke Cassini Division Division

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F Ring

• Saturn is the sixth furthest planet from the sun, with an average distance of about 1434 million kilometres. • After Jupiter, it is the next largest planet, with a diameter of about 120 540 kilometres; 9.4 times that of Earth. If Saturn were hollow, 764 Earths could (theoretically) fit inside it!

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G Ring

• To date, there are about 60 known moons orbiting Saturn. The largest is Titan: bigger than Mercury and second largest moon in the solar system (behind Jupiter’s moon, Ganymede). Some of its moons orbit within the rings but most orbit outside them.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons Saturn was named after the Roman god • Titan is shrouded in a thick, nitrogen-rich of agriculture, called Cronus in Greek • f o r r e v i e w p u r patmosphere osesthaton l yscientists • believe is some mythology.

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• Along with Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, Saturn is one of the four outer gas giants in our solar system. • Saturn is composed of approximately 75% hydrogen and 25% helium, with traces of methane, ammonia and water ice. It is the only planet with a density less than that of water; i.e. it could ‘float’ on water. It does not have a solid surface like Earth’s that a spacecraft could land on as its surface is like a huge ocean of gases and liquids. It is believed there is a rocky core in its centre about 10 times the mass of the Earth.

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similar to what Earth’s was in the past. It is the only moon known to have an atmosphere. It has been discovered that, like Earth, Titan has rain, clouds, snow, lakes, mountains and possibly volcanoes. It may also have early life forms.

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•

• The rings are composed of ice, small rocks and dust. Some particles are only a couple of centimetres thick while others are several metres. The rings are 300 000 km wide but only 1 km thick and are separated by gaps of various sizes. The largest is the Cassini division (about 5000 km wide).

• A day on Saturn (time to rotate once on its axis) only takes about 10 Earth hours, while a year (time to orbit the sun) takes almost 30 Earth years.

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• Saturn is known as the ‘ringed planet’ because of the colourful rings that surround it. The other gas planets also have rings but Saturn’s are the most extensive and complex. While Saturn can be seen from Earth with the unaided eye at night (it is the most distant planet we can see), its rings can only be seen with a telescope. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

• The average temperature on Saturn is –175 °C, which is far too cold for life. Extremely powerful storms rage over parts of Saturn; some can be 10 000 times more powerful than those on Earth! • The spacecraft Pioneer and Voyager 1 and 2 flew by Saturn in the 1980s, transmitting a lot of information about the ringed planet. Spacecraft Cassini-Huygens is currently on a mission orbiting Saturn and Titan, which has already resulted in many further discoveries. Astronomy

Saturn – 2 1. Write numbers for these answers.

(a) Distance in kilometres from the sun.

(b) Position in order from the sun.

(d) Diameter of Saturn in kilometres.

(e) Number of Earths that could fit inside Saturn.

(f) Approximate number of moons known.

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2. Why wouldn’t you be able to walk on Saturn’s surface?

3. What is unique about Saturn’s density?

4. Write keywords and phrases to describe Saturn’s magnificent rings.

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5. Rewrite these facts about Saturn’s moon, Titan, so they are correct.

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(a) Titan is the largest moon in the solar system and bigger than the planet Venus.

(b) Titan has an atmosphere rich in hydrogen, like Saturn’s.

6. Circle as true or false.

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(a) Saturn rotates quickly. . ...........................................................

(b) Saturn orbits the sun quickly. ....................................................

(d) Saturn may have early life forms. ..............................................

true

false

true

false

true

false

true

false

7. Write a question for this answer: Spacecraft Cassini-Huygens. Astronomy

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Stanzas about Saturn Use the facts you have learnt about Saturn and its largest moon, Titan, to help you write different forms of poetry about these two space bodies. Read the descriptions about each form of poetry and follow the instructions to write your own ‘stanzas’ about Saturn or Titan.

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A limerick is a humorous poem of five lines. Lines one, two and five rhyme and usually have the same number of syllables. Lines three and four rhyme and usually have the same number of syllables but are shorter than the other three lines.

Line 2:

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Line 1:

Line 3: Line 4: Line 5:

A haiku is a Japanese poem about nature that uses a number of syllables for each line. A haiku has a title followed by three lines and does not rhyme. Title:

(five syllables)

Line 2:

(seven syllables)

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Line 1:

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Line 3:

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(five syllables)

A cinquain is a poem that describes something and uses a number of words or syllables for the title and each line. It has five lines and does not rhyme.

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Line 1: (one word or two syllables for the title) Line 2:

(two words or four syllables to describe the topic)

Line 3: (two words or four syllables to describe the topic) Line 4: (three words or six syllables to describe the topic) Line 5: (one word or two syllables with a similar meaning to the title) R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

Uranus Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about Uranus. ✶✶ Completes a science experiment to create a miniature planet Uranus.

Answers

✶✶ Uranus is pronounced ‘yooh’raynuhs’. ✶✶ When measured in light-years, a planet’s distance from the sun is determined by the length of time it takes for light to travel from Earth to the planet. ✶✶ Most information about Uranus comes from the Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1986. ✶✶ Scientists do not think that Uranus is able to sustain life. ✶✶ Uranus is blue in colour because methane gas molecules in its atmosphere absorb red light. ✶✶ Because of the almost-perpendicular orientation of its axis, scientists are not sure which pole of Uranus is its north pole. ✶✶ The axial tilt causes extreme variations in seasons, each of over 20 years in duration and consisting of unusual weather. For nearly a quarter of the Uranian year (nearly 165 Earth years in length), the sun shines directly over each pole, while the other half of the planet experiences long, dark, cold winters.

Page 38 1. (a) false (b) true (c) true (d) false (e) false 2. (a) four (b) 141/2 (c) 1/4 (d) methane gas (e) hydrogen 3. (a) 30 685, 84 (b) 17, 14 (c) 98 (d) 90 (e) –215, 7000 (f) 11 4. Answers will vary but should include: 27 named satellites; 5 largest discovered between 1787 and 1948; Voyager 2 discovered 10 other satellites in 1985/6; others discovered by Earthbound astronomers; named after characters from works by Shakespeare and Pope instead of from mythology. Page 39 Teacher check

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Background information

Astronomy Astronomy

✶✶ Research to find out information about William Shakespeare and read a section of one of his works. ✶✶ Find out the names of Uranus’s 27 satellites.

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Additional activities

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Uranus – 1 Gravity:

General information:

• 90% of that of Earth’s—an object weighing 100 kg on Earth weighs 90 kg on Uranus

• First planet discovered in modern times (by a British astronomer, William Herschel, in 1781). It was originally named Georgium Sidus (the Georgian Planet).

Temperature:

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• About –215 °C in atmosphere, 2300 °C in ocean, 7000 °C in rocky core

• Seventh planet from the sun. Average distance from the sun about 2 872 460 000 kilometres

• Radiates as much heat as it receives from sun

• Poles receive more sun than the equator

• Third largest planet by diameter

Features:

• Farthest planet visible without a telescope

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• Named after the Greek god of the sky by Johann E Bode, a German astronomer

• Fast winds in the atmosphere travelling at 720 kilometres per hour

Size and/or dimensions: • Diameter at equator about 51 118 kilometres (four times the size of Earth)

• 11 faint, narrow rings made from rock and dust parallel to equator

• Mass 14½ times larger than Earth

Satellites: © R. I . C.Pub l i cat i ons • 27 known satellites, five largest discovered between 1787 and Voyager 2 Appearance: •f orr evi ew pur pdiscovered ose s o n1948, l y• 10 others in 1985 and 1986. • Density ¼ that of Earth

• Blue-green clouds of frozen methane crystals all over its surface

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Composition:

• Rock and ice

Magnetic field:

• Atmosphere composed of about 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2% methane and small amounts of ethane and other gases

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• Strong field of high-energy, electrically charged particles in radiation belts around planet

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• Possible molten rock core Orbit and rotation:

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Others discovered by astronomers on Earth. Named after characters from works by William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope rather than mythology

Spacecraft visits:

• Voyager 2 in 1986

• Elliptical orbit around sun takes 30 685 Earth days or more than 84 Earth years

• Rotates on its axis once every 17 hours and 14 minutes. Tilted almost on its side (at about 98°), possibly due to a collision with an Earth-sized planet. Rotation causes extreme variations in seasons

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Astronomy

Uranus – 2 1. Circle as true or false.

(a) Uranus was discovered in ancient times by the Egyptians.

true

false

(b) Uranus was first called the Georgian Planet.

true

false

true

false

(d) Uranus is the largest planet by diameter.

true

false

(e) It is not possible to view Uranus, even with a telescope.

true

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false

2. Circle the correct answer.

(b) The mass of Uranus is

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(a) The diameter of Uranus is three four 10

five times that of Earth.

14½

(d) Uranus’s blue-green appearance is due to

times larger than Earth.

that of Earth.

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the sky methane gas the seas on its surface .

(e) The atmosphere of Uranus is composed mainly of hydrogen rock

ice

Earth years to complete.

days or

hours and

(b) Each axial rotation takes

°.

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% of that of Earth’s.

(d) The gravity of Uranus is

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minutes.

°C to a maximum

(e) Temperatures on Uranus can vary from a minimum of

(f) Uranus has

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rings which circle the planet parallel to its equator.

4. Describe the satellites of Uranus, including as many details as you can.

Astronomy

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Uranus on a string Select one of the two craft projects below to create your own planet Uranus. Tick the steps as you complete them. ARt of Recycled CD Disc should Collect your materials.......................... have lines like a planet rather than big stones • an old or recycled compact disc See original

Project 2

Project 1 1.

• about 20 safety pins

• beads in shades of blue and green

• fishing line

• string, thin wire or strong fishing line

• strong glue

• washer or metal ring

• blue and green paint or dye

• lead pencil

• scissors

• A4 sheet paper

• paintbrush

• sequins, beads, buttons in shades of blue and green

• cord to hang

© R. I . C.Publ i ca t i ons 2. Instructions • Thread a number of beads on each o • Use the o pencil to trace• the shape of • f o r r e v i e w p u r p s e s n l y the CD and the centre hole onto the open pin in any order desired......

2. Instructions

• Close each pin..........................

• Thread the wire through the eye of each pin to connect them. Twist or tie to secure..............................

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paper.......................................

• Thread a second, longer piece of wire or fishing line through the outer end of each pin, inserting a larger bead between each pin. This will connect them all in a circle. (Insert smaller beads between each larger bead and pin head if necessary to insure that the circle of beads lies flat.).........................................

• Use the paint, dye and paintbrush to create a streaky design on the traced shape. Be sure to leave the tracing of the centre hole white...................

• When dry, cut around the outside of the shape and cut out the centre hole.........................................

• Cover the back of the painted shape with glue and carefully press onto the labelled side of the CD...............

• When dry, attach coloured materials in streaky lines or shapes to represent features of Uranus. Allow to dry....

• Cut a length of fishing line to loop through the centre hole and tie at the top. Allow extra length to tie a second knot at the top to hang......

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1. Collect your materials..........................

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• Tie the ends securely...................

• Tie a metal washer or ring to the head of one pin with wire, thread cord through and tie to size..........

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Astronomy

Neptune Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about Neptune. ✶✶ Completes activities to show understanding of the text.

Answers

✶✶ Neptune’s blue colour comes from a gas (methane) in its atmosphere which absorbs red light and reflects blue light. It is this characteristic that led to it being named after the Roman god of the sea. ✶✶ Neptune is invisible to the unaided eye but can be viewed from Earth with just binoculars, if only as a very small disc. For a better image, a large telescope is required. ✶✶ The last of the four gas giants, Neptune is the eighth planet from the sun and the fourth largest in the solar system. It has 13 known moons, all of which are named. ✶✶ Triton is its largest moon, known for its retrograde (opposite direction to the planet) orbit and for being the coldest body in the solar system. Images have been taken by Voyager 2 and the Hubble Space Telescope of plumes of nitrogen gas rising vertically above its surface before being blown horizontally across the moon. This indicates that the moon’s crust is geologically active. ✶✶ A day on Neptune is equivalent to 16 Earth hours and a year is equivalent to 164.8 Earth years. The tilt of Neptune’s axis creates seasons on the planet during which the poles remain in either complete darkness or brightness. Seasons last for about 40 Earth years at a time. ✶✶ Neptune was the first planet to be discovered using mathematics. While astronomers were pondering the unexpected movement of Uranus, they strongly believed that another body was causing its unpredictable orbit. ✶✶ Neptune has various weather systems, including the Great Dark Spot—with the fastest winds in the solar system and which move in an opposite direction to the planet’s spin. ✶✶ Four rings encompass Neptune, but they have a low density and are therefore very faint when compared to Saturn’s rings.

Page 42 1. (a) Teacher check: Planet appears blue, like the sea. (b) Methane in Neptune’s atmosphere absorbs red light from the sun and reflects blue light. 2. The unpredictable orbital path of Uranus. 3. They both move in an opposite direction to the planet’s spin. 4. (a) 13 (b) four 5. (a) false (b) true (c) false (d) true (e) false 6. G R A V I T Y

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Background information

Astronomy Astronomy

P T

N E

A N

Page 43 Naiad (G10,SW) Thalassa (H6,NW) Despina (G13,W) Galatea (D4,N) Larissa (K3,N) Proteus (L11,S) Triton (M10,W) Nereid (A11,S) Halimede (M3,W) Sao (B4,N) Laomedeia (J1,W) Psamathe (J5, N) Neso (E11,SE) Lassell (C5,E) Hemera (F2,E) Kuiper (M9,S) Neptune (A11,SE) Demeter (A6,NE)

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o c . che e r o t r s super Additional activities

✶✶ Research the similarities and differences between Neptune and its twin planet, Uranus. ✶✶ Present a report on Neptune using illustrations and charts to supplement your work.

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Neptune – 1 Every planet has some special characteristics that people remember. For example, Venus is the brightest, Mars is red, Saturn has its amazing rings, and Jupiter has an enormous swirling red eye. So what do we know about Neptune, the solar system’s most distant planet? Neptune was not discovered by accident. Because the orbital path of Uranus did not follow the path predicted by astronomers, they thought that the gravitational pull of another body must be affecting it. They calculated where this other body might be ... and they found Neptune!

atmosphere: hydrogen, helium and methane

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mantle: icy water, ammonia and methane

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As the furthest planet from the sun, we know that Neptune is cold ... very cold—about –230 °C. It has an internal heat source but loses much more heat than it receives from the sun, so it remains cold.

liquid hydrogen

core

Although mostly composed of a mixture of ice and hydrogen, helium, ammonia and methane gases, Neptune is believed to have a rocky, solid core. The methane gas in Neptune’s atmosphere absorbs red light from the sun and reflects blue light into the atmosphere, making the planet look blue.

Neptune’s gravitational pull captured Triton, forcing it into orbit around the planet. Unlike Neptune’s other satellites, Triton is composed of rock and ice.

More than one hundred years later, Kuiper © R. I . C.Pub l i c a t i o n s discovered Nereid, the outermost of Neptune’s Neptune is circled by rings but they are very faint moons. When Voyager 2 reached Neptune in •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• compared with the rings of Saturn. The three main 1989, six more moons were discovered. Five

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Triton (not to be confused with Jupiter’s Titan!) is Neptune’s largest satellite. It was discovered in 1846, just weeks after the planet itself had been detected. Astronomers believe that the strength of

more moons have also recently been discovered.

Neptune’s Great Dark Spot is a storm system about the size of Earth. It is surrounded by clouds of frozen methane. It was first discovered in 1989 and is believed to either move or disappear and reform as a different spot.

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rings are named after its discoverers, Adams, Le Verrier and Galle. Four of Neptune’s moons orbit within the rings.

. te o Neptune’s rings c . che e r o t r s super Adams Ring

The two planets of Neptune and Uranus are often thought of as twins and are called the ice giants to distinguish them from Jupiter and Saturn, the real gas giants.

Lassell Ring

Most of what we know about Neptune comes from information received from the spacecraft, Voyager 2 and images from the Hubble Space Telescope. For such a distant planet, we already know a great deal ... but there is even more we have yet to find out!

Le Verrier Ring

Galle Ring R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Some things on Neptune go backwards! Its largest moon, Triton, and the raging winds in its atmosphere—the fastest winds in the solar system— move in an opposite direction to the planet’s spin.

Astronomy

Neptune – 2 1. (a) Why do you think Neptune was named after the Roman god of the ocean? (b) Explain why Neptune has its characteristic colour.

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2. What caused astronomers to believe that Neptune might exist?

3. What is unique about the movement of Neptune’s largest moon and the winds in its atmosphere?

4. (a) How many satellites is Neptune known to have? (b) How many orbit within its rings? 5. Circle as true or false. (a) Saturn is Neptune’s twin planet.

true

(b) Neptune is blue in colour.

false

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6. Answer the clues to complete the puzzle. 1.

true

false

true

false

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Across 1. 6. 8. 9.

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gravitational pull long-travelling spacecraft space telescope discovered Nereid

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Down

1. storm system in Neptune’s atmosphere 2. Neptune’s largest moon 3. forced into orbit 4. Neptune’s twin 5. Neptune is sometimes called an ... 7. Neptune’s furthest moon

Astronomy

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The moons of Neptune Most of Neptune’s 13 known moons are named after characters from Greek mythology. The word list gives the names of the 13 moons, in order from Neptune. It also includes associated names related to the moons. Neptune's moons 1. Naiad 2. Thalassa

Location & direction (G10, SW)

Associated names Lassell

Location & direction

Hemera

3. Despina

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4. Galatea

Neptune

5. Larissa

Demeter

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6. Proteus 7. Triton

8. Nereid

9. Halimede 10. Sao

11. Laomedeia

1. Find the 18 names in the wordsearch.

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(a) the coordinates of the first letter of each word

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2. Record:

(b) the direction in which the word is written using the eight points of a compass. The first one has been done for you. 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

A A N E R E I D S I S H S A

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I I S A P M I D L L E E I C

P A U A E T A L A G U M E D

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S M N T L I U S S I E C D E

E N E E A A E N S S E H E F

D R H N S G H D E C D E M G

M E P N G O U T L A E M O H

I P Y O U O I O L H M E A I

N E H T A M A S P E I R L J

K A O I A S S I R A L A A K

E S P R O T E U S E A M G L

O U U T K U I P E R H U P M Astronomy

Pluto and the other dwarf planets Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about the dwarf planets. ✶✶ Finds and writes words derived from mythology.

Answers

✶✶ Pluto was classified as a planet for about 76 years. At times its orbit takes it closer to the sun than Neptune—now the furthest planet from the sun. Pluto’s distance means it is in constant darkness (hence its name). The surface temperature of Pluto varies between –235 °C and –210 ºC. Pluto is believed to be a mixture of rock and ice. In 2015, the New Horizons probe is expected to reach Pluto. ✶✶ Ceres is the smallest dwarf planet and believed to have a rocky core, a water-ice layer and a thin, dusty outer crust. The Dawn spacecraft, launched in September 2007, will reach Ceres in 2015. ✶✶ Eris is the largest known dwarf planet in the solar system and 27% more massive than Pluto. Because Eris is larger than Pluto, it was once referred to as ‘the tenth planet’ in the solar system. The uncertainty about the status of Eris led, in 2006, to a more concise definition of what a planet and a dwarf planet is. ✶✶ Because of its discovery around Easter, a name was chosen to preserve this connection. Makemake is the second brightest and largest object in the Kuiper belt (after Pluto) and has no known satellites. ✶✶ Haumea is twice as long as it is wide. Located in the Kuiper belt, it was recognised as a dwarf planet in late 2008. ✶✶ In June 2008, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) created a further subclass of dwarf planets —plutoids; i.e. dwarf plane, Makemake and Haumea are therefore plutoids, but Ceres is not because it is in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

Page 46 1. Both planets and dwarf planets orbit the sun and have enough mass for their own gravity to pull the planet into a round (or almost spherical) shape. 2. Planets dominate the zone of their own orbit and dwarf planets orbit with other independent objects in the same zone of their orbit. 3. Ceres, Eris, Makemake, Haumea, Pluto 4. Ceres (1801), Pluto (1930), Eris (2003), Haumea (2004), Makemake (2005) 5. Eris, Ceres 6. Ceres (590 km), Haumea (1150 km) Makemake (1300 km), Pluto (2300 km), Eris (3000 km) 7. Ceres 8. (a) Pluto is far from the sun and is cold and dark. (b) It is too far to get to. Page 47 Possible answers: (a) arachnid, arachnophobia (b) Martian, martial, martial arts (c) jovial, joviality, Jovian (d) morphine, morphia (e) fortune, fortunate, fortunately (f) volcano, volcanic, volcanology (g) cereal (h) January (i) June, junoesque (j) titanic, titanium, titanosaurus, Titanic (k) narcissus (flower), narcissism (l) nemesis, nemeses (m) cygnet (n) mercury, mercurial (o) atlas, Atlantic Ocean

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Background information

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Additional activities ✶✶ Research to find more details about the physical characteristics of each dwarf planet. ✶✶ Write a newspaper article stating that Pluto has been ‘demoted’ from a planet to a dwarf planet.

Astronomy Astronomy

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Pluto and the other dwarf planets – 1 In August 2006, the International Astronomical Union changed its definitions of planets. A planet officially became known as a celestial body that: • orbits the sun • has a large enough mass for its own gravity to pull it into a round shape • has a clear path with no other bodies in its way that it ‘gathers up’ as it orbits.

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A dwarf planet was officially defined as a celestial body that: • is in orbit around the sun

• may orbit in a zone that has other objects in it • is not a satellite.

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• has a large enough mass for its own gravity to pull it into a round shape

Five dwarf planets are officially recognised—Pluto, Eris, Ceres, Makemake and Haumea. Read the information in the table about the dwarf planets. Ceres

Eris

• Discovered 1 January 1801 • Located in asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter • Diameter of about 950 kilometres • Name derived from Roman goddess Ceres • Largest and most massive body in asteroid belt • 4.6 years to orbit the sun • No space probes have yet visited it

• Discovered 21 October 2003 • Located in a region of space beyond the Kuiper belt • Diameter of about 3000 kilometres • Largest dwarf planet • Most distant object seen in orbit around the sun • Reclassified in a subset—plutoid (dwarf planet beyond the orbit of Neptune) • Over 550 years to orbit the sun

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Makemake

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Haumea

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• Discovered 31 March 2005 • Classified as a dwarf planet on 11 July 2008 • Located in the Kuiper belt • Named after creator god of Rapa Nui of Easter Island • Third largest known dwarf planet in solar system • About 1300 kilometres in diameter • Classified a plutoid in 2008 • Over 300 years to orbit the sun

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• Discovered 18 February 1930 • Located in Kuiper belt beyond the orbit of Neptune • Diameter of about 2300 kilometres • Named after the Roman god of the underworld • Three known moons: Hydra, Nix and Charon • Charon almost half the size of Pluto • Nearly 250 years to orbit the sun • Not visited by any spacecraft 45

• Discovered 6 May 2004 • Located in Kuiper belt beyond Pluto • Named after the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth • About 1150 kilometres in diameter • More egg-shaped than a sphere • Over 285 years to orbit sun

Astronomy

Pluto and the other dwarf planets – 2 1. Name two things that a planet and a dwarf planet have in common. • •

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2. Write at least one way in which planets and dwarf planets differ.

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3. List the five identified dwarf planets to date in alphabetical order.

4. List the five dwarf planets in order from first discovered to most recently discovered. Include the year each was discovered next to each name.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons •f orinr evofi e wp usmallest r po esand on l y • in 6. List the five dwarf planets order diameter from tos largest, give the diameter 5. Which two dwarf planets are not located in the Kuiper belt?

kilometres for each.

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7. Plutoids are dwarf planets found beyond the orbit of Neptune. Using this information and that in the text, which dwarf planet is not a plutoid?

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8. Give a possible reason why ...

(a) Pluto is named after a god of the underworld. (b) no spacecraft has yet visited Pluto. Astronomy

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Mythological words The Romans called Eris, the Greek goddess of strife and discord, Discordia. In mythology, Eris liked to cause arguments among mortals and the gods. She threw a golden apple labelled ‘For the fairest’ (most beautiful) among the goddesses, which caused a fight in heaven and eventually led to the Trojan War. The dictionary meanings of ‘discord’ are: ‘lack of harmony between people or things; difference of opinions; strife; dispute; war’.

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Many words in the English language are taken from mythology.

(a) Arachne was an accomplished weaver who was turned into a spider and forced to spin and weave forever.

(i) Juno was the queen of the Roman gods.

(b) Mars was a warrior and the Roman god of war.

(j) The Titans were a race of very powerful Greeks gods.

gods and believed to be happy and good-humoured.

Greek man who fell in love with his own reflection.

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(d) Morpheus was the Greek god of sleep and dreams.

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(l) Nemesis was the female messenger of retribution and vengeance.

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(e) Fortuna was the Roman goddess of fortune and chance.

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1. Use your dictionary to find and write a word or two based on the following mythological gods, goddesses or mortals.

(m) Cygnus was a Greek king who was transformed into a swan.

(f) Vulcan was the Roman god of fire.

(n) Mercury was the Roman messenger of the gods who flew from place to place.

(g) Ceres was the Roman goddess of grain or agriculture.

(o) Atlas was one of the Greek Titans; his job was to hold up the sky.

(h) Janus was the Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings and endings.

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Astronomy

The moon Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the moon. ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the phases of the moon to identify, draw and label the phases in a diagram.

Background information

Answers

✶✶ A compass would not work on the moon as its magnetic field is not strong enough. ✶✶ The Apollo 11 mission included the first moon landing. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin ‘Buzz’ Aldrin were the first to walk on the moon (on 20 July 1969). A third astronaut, Michael Collins, was in the orbiter.

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Page 50 1. The moon is believed to be have been formed from Earth’s debris after an object the size of Mars collided with Earth. 2. Teacher check 3. 3474, a quarter, 384 500, three, 130 ºC, –170 ºC 4. It is a term to describe how the moon rotates once on its own axis at about the same time as it travels once around Earth, resulting in only one side of the moon ever facing Earth. 5. The phases of the moon describe how the appearance of the moon’s shape changes as it circles the Earth, due to the amount of lit surface. 6. asteroids, comets and meteors are able to collide with the moon; it is silent as soundwaves can not travel in space; the sky is dark 7. It is caused by the moon’s gravity being able to ‘pull’ the Earth’s oceans towards it, creating the rise and fall of the tide. 8. the size ratio between them, the strong gravitational pull they have on each other’s orbit

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✶✶ The moon is the only place, apart from Earth, where humans have successfully landed and studied for scientific research. There have been six landings on the moon and 12 humans have stepped foot on its surface. Approximately 380 kilograms of lunar rock and soil have been brought back to Earth to study.

Page 51 1.

Astronomy Astronomy

Additional activities

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✶✶ Observe the moon each day/night for a month and record observations by drawing and labelling the images of the moon viewed during its phases. ✶✶ Discover the cause of spring and neap tides, which are about 20% higher and lower than average tides. ✶✶ Research a specific uncrewed or crewed mission to the moon and write a report. A useful website is: <http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/ lunartimeline.html>. It provides a time line of lunar exploration and information about each mission, beginning with the first flyby mission in 1959.

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The moon – 1 • The moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It is believed to have been formed from debris created after a space body the size of Mars collided with Earth. Examination of rocks brought back from the moon support this theory.

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• The moon has a diameter of 3474 kilometres, about a quarter that of Earth’s. Situated relatively close to Earth at an average distance of about 384 500 kilometres, it takes a spacecraft about three days to travel there.

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• There are approximately 170 moons in our solar system and more are still to be discovered. These moons all have names or number codes. The Earth’s moon has never been formally named—it is known simply as ‘the moon’. The name originates from two Greek word ‘mene’ (moon) and ‘men’ (month), probably because the moon takes about one month (27 days, 8 hours) to circle Earth.

• There is no atmosphere on the moon and this is the reason numerous comets, meteoroids and asteroids have collided with it—it doesn’t have the atmosphere to burn up space bodies like Earth’s atmosphere does, for example.

l • i The moon is an silent place as there is © R. I . C.Pub c a t i o s no atmosphere to transfer soundwaves. Astronauts who have visited the moon • As the moon rotates once on its own axisp • f o r r e v i e w u r p osesonl y• used radios to communicate. The lack of in approximately the same time as it travels

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• Contrary to one myth about the moon, it is not made of cheese! Its surface is covered with craters and a powdery blanket of charcoal-grey soil (called ‘regolith’) between two and 20 metres in depth. There are highlands, seen as light features from Earth, and maria (low flat areas filled with dark lava billions of years ago), seen as dark areas from Earth. These patterns give the moon its ‘man in the moon’ description.

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atmosphere also means the sky is dark.

• Due to less gravity on the moon, a person who weighs 45 kilograms on Earth would weigh 7.5 kilograms on the moon. He or she would also be slightly taller!

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once around Earth, only one side of the moon ever faces Earth. This is called ’synchronous rotation’.

• Average temperature on the moon during the day is 130 °C and at night is –170 °C.

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• The moon produces no light of its own but we can see it because the sun’s light is reflected off it. The different shapes of the moon we can see from Earth during the lunar month are called the phases of the moon. They occur because the sun’s rays reflect off the moon at different angles as it circles around Earth and as Earth orbits the sun. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

• The ocean tides are caused by the moon’s gravity trying to ‘pull’ anything on Earth towards it, but only the water is affected as it is always moving. Each day, as the oceans rise and fall, there are two high tides and two low tides. • Many astronomers believe the Earth and the moon together are a double-planet system, because the size ratio between them is much smaller than other planets and their moons, and the rotational pull they have on each other’s orbit is so strong.

Astronomy

The moon – 2 1. Explain how astronomers believe the moon was formed. 2. Write keywords and phrases to describe the moon’s surface.

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The moon’s diameter is

kilometres, about

that of Earth’s. It is about

kilometres

from Earth and a spacecraft would take approximately days to reach there. Temperatures reach an average of at night.

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3. Fill in the missing numbers.

during the day and

4. What is ‘synchronous rotation’ and what effect does it have on our view of the moon?

5. What is meant by ‘the phases of the moon’?

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6. List three things the moon’s lack of atmosphere has caused. • • •

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7. What causes the oceans’ tides?

8. What two facts lead many astronomers to believe the Earth and moon are a double-planet system? • • Astronomy

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The phases of the moon The moon creates no light of its own but we can see it because the sun’s light is reflected off of it. The different shapes of the moon we see from Earth during a lunar month are called the phases of the moon. They occur because the sun’s rays reflect off the moon at different angles as it circles around Earth and as Earth orbits the sun. Each phase of the moon has a name which to descibe its shape. A ‘waxing moon’ means the part we can see is getting bigger. A ‘waning moon’ means the part we can see is getting smaller. A ‘crescent moon' is indented (less than half). A ‘gibbous moon’ is bulged (more than half).

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1. (a) Read the information below and label each moon in the diagram from A to H.

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(b) Colour the parts of the moon we see in yellow and those we can not see in black.

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A – new moon:

We see no moon. The moon is situated between Earth and the sun.

E – waxing gibbous: Only a small sliver on the left side of the moon is in shadow.

B – full moon:

All of the lit side of the moon can be seen. Earth is situated between the moon and the sun.

F – waning gibbous: A small sliver on the right side of the moon is in shadow as the bright side decreases in size.

The right half of the moon can be seen as it is one quarter of the way through the lunar month.

G – waxing crescent: On the right side of the moon a sliver of light can be seen.

C – first quarter:

D – last quarter:

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H – waning crescent: A sliver can be seen on the left side as the moon enters its final phase.

The left half of the moon can be seen as it is in the last quarter of the lunar month.

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Astronomy

The Milky Way galaxy Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the Milky Way galaxy. ✶✶ Completes activities to show understanding of the text.

Background information and infra-red ✶✶ A frequently-asked question is: ✶✶ In ancient times, everyone ✶✶ Radiowaves radiation, which can penetrate had a much better view of the If we are a part of the Milky Way, interstellar dust, are used to night sky as there was no light how can we see it in the sky? survey our galaxy. Radiowaves pollution. They could clearly see The answer is related to the angle determine where nebulae the scattered band of light that at which our solar system lies (clouds of gas) are located. Infrasplit the sky into halves, many within the Milky Way. Because the red radiation tracks the location believing that the bright path had plane of the solar system is almost of the Milky Way’s billions of stars. spiritual significance. perpendicular to the plane of the ✶✶ In 1610, Galileo determined that ✶✶ For many years, it has been Milky Way, it is possible for us to believed that the Milky Way the bright band we see in the see the Milky Way’s band of light has four main spirals with minor sky is created by the light from in the night sky. spurs leading from them. New millions of stars that are too faint To demonstrate this, cut two circles images from NASA’s Spitzer Space to be seen individually with the of card: unaided eye. Telescope reveal that the Milky –– one the size of a dinner plate Way has only two major spiral ✶✶ In the early 19th century, William to represent the Milky Way arms, Scutum-Centaurus and Herschel was able to count the Perseus, which appear to connect –– the other the size of a game stars using a much more powerful to each end of the galaxy’s central counter to represent our solar telescope than had been bar. system. available to Galileo. ✶ ✶ Sagittarius and Norma are now ✶✶ Astronomers have continued to –– Place the ‘solar system’ in considered minor arms. Orion, study the stars and determine the position on the ‘Milky Way’. where our solar system is located, nature of the Milky Way and other –– If you were a micro-person is still regarded as a partial arm or galaxies that are known to exist. standing on the small circle, spur, situated between Sagittarius you would not have a great and Perseus. view of the large circle but if you stand the small circle on Answers its edge (perpendicular to the Page 54 Page 55 large circle), the view would 1. 1. Teacher check be fantastic. Such is the view of 2. O – blue the Milky Way we can see from B – bright blue-white Earth. A – blue-white 4. Teacher check F – white G – white-yellow Additional activities K – orange-white ✶✶ Create a 3-D model of the Milky M – red-orange H A L O 2. Way. H N 3. 1. hydrogen 2. helium U D ✶✶ Write a report on where stars of 3. main 4. sequence B N R different ages can be found in E B C O 5. billion 6. hydrogen the Milky Way. S B U L G E L M 7. expand 8. explode E P U E U

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Astronomy Astronomy

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The Milky Way galaxy – 1

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bulge (central bar)

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On a clear night, we can see the Milky Way as a band of star-studded light that stretches across the celestial sphere. This view is possible because of the position of our solar system in relation to the plane of the Milky Way.

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The diameter of the Milky Way is estimated at 100 000 light-years. A light-year, which is a measure of distance not time, is the distance light travels in one year. As the speed of light is 300 000 kilometres per second, in one year it can travel a very long way: 300 000 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 = 9 460 800 million kilometres!

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons The Milky Way is one of billions ofi known galaxies • f o r r e v e w pur posesonl y• travelling through intergalactic space. A galaxy is A spiral galaxy is composed of a flat, rotating disc of stars, gas and dust. At its centre is a dense mass of stars called a bulge. A barred spiral galaxy also has a bar-like structure at its centre from which the spiral arms begin. Surrounding the outer edge of the spirals is a pale cloak of stars called a halo. It is strongly believed by astronomers that there is a black hole at the centre of each galaxy.

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Our solar system lies within the Orion spur, about halfway between the centre and the edge of the galaxy. Together with all the stars we see in the night sky, the solar system orbits the central bar of the Milky Way.

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a cluster of stars held together by gravity. There are three main types of galaxy: elliptical, spiral and irregular. The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy and the sun is just one of its 100 billion stars.

Galaxies are found in groups called clusters. The cluster known as the Local Group includes the Milky Way, Andromeda (which, at two million light-years away, is the Milky Way’s closest large galaxy) and several small galaxies (including the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud).

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The stars at the galactic centre are much closer together than those on the spiral arms, making it much brighter. The spiral arms are brighter than the gaps between them because their stars are more luminous. Stars are formed from nebulae, clouds of gas which can be found scattered throughout galaxies between existing stars. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomers have been able to study distant galaxies more closely with the information gained from deep galaxy surveys, such as those made by the Hubble Space Telescope. One phenomenon that has been discovered is that galaxies seem to form earlier than astronomers had previously predicted.

Astronomy

The Milky Way galaxy – 2

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2. Answer the clues to complete the puzzle.

Across

1. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Down

At the edge of a spiral galaxy At the centre of a spiral galaxy Between galaxies A measure of distance The Large Cloud Cluster of stars Our galaxy

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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1. Label the sketch of the Milky Way galaxy.

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The Milky Way’s closest galaxy The Space Telescope A cloud of gas A group of galaxies A galaxy with spiral arms

10.

11.

12.

Astronomy

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Stellar dwarfs Stars of different types can be found throughout the galaxy. They are grouped according to their colour and temperature. There are seven main groups of stars which are named, in order of decreasing temperature: O, B, A, F, G, K and M. 1. Write a mnemonic for remembering the order of the star groups.

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2. Research to find the colour of the stars in each group. O hottest

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M coolest

Most stars are fuelled by nuclear fusion which converts h

h stars.

. These stars are called m

This stage of a star’s existence is its most stable. It lasts for about five b The sun is this type of star. Stars begin to die when their supply of h

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3. Research information to fill the gaps. The first letter of each word has been given.

gas into

years.

gas runs

low. The core of the star contracts while the outer layers e

4. Research to find information about each colour of dwarf star.

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yellow dwarf

red dwarf

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white dwarf brown dwarf

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Astronomy

Stars and constellations Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about stars and constellations. ✶✶ Identifies constellations from written descriptions and drawn arrangements of groups of stars.

Background information ✶✶ As some constellations are only visible at certain times of the year, people in the past could tell what season or month it was and would know when to plant crops etc. ✶✶ The brightest constellation is the Southern Cross (Crux). Centaurus (the centaur) has the greatest number of visible stars and the largest constellation is Hydra (the water serpent).

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✶✶ The closest star is our sun. The next closest is Proxima Centauri, 4.2 light-years away. Sirius, also known as the ‘Dog Star’, is the brightest. It is part of the constellation Canis Major (the Great Dog). ✶✶ The International Astronomical Union has listed 88 ancient and modern constellations, dividing the imaginary sphere around Earth into 88 sections. Any star within each constellation boundary is considered to be part of that constellation, even it is not actually part of the pattern or picture.

Answers

Page 58 1. Unlike most planets, they give off energy in the form of light and heat. 2. Possible answers: • begins life in a nebula • hydrogen gas in nebula pulled by gravity and commences spinning • spins faster and gases gradually heat up • becomes a protostar • everything moves to centre due to gravity • protostar collapses; becomes smaller but hotter • becomes hot enough for nuclear fusion to occur • stops shrinking and becomes a star 3. They burn up their fuel more quickly. 4. blue stars: die in an explosion called a supernova, live for about 10 000 to 100 000 years, burn their fuel the quickest, hottest type of star yellow stars: our sun is one, live for about 10 billion years, medium-sized red stars: dwarf type—are most common type of star, much cooler than other stars; giant type are old stars that have expanded, live for trillions of years 5. A constellation is a group of stars that, when seen from Earth, appear to form a pattern or picture. 6. Teacher check

Page 59 Teacher check students’ additions to the constellations.

Astronomy Astronomy

(b) Cygnus

(d) Hercules

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(a) Ursus Major

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✶✶ Display posters of constellations or star maps. Illustrations and diagrams could also be found on the Internet. Students identify what they might be able to see in the night sky in their hemisphere and stargaze at night to find various constellations. Create a stargazing journal of their observations. ✶✶ Discover the mythological stories behind the names of different constellations.

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Stars and constellations – 1 What is a star?

What is a constellation?

A star is a giant, glowing sphere of gas (mostly hydrogen) that is held together by its own gravity. It gives off energy in the form of light and heat.

A constellation is a group of stars that, when seen from Earth, appear to form a pattern or picture. The stars that form a constellation are at different distances from Earth but appear to be in the same plane. Some constellations can only be seen at specific times of the year. Not all constellations can be seen in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

How is a star formed?

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Astronomers have divided the sky into 88 constellations. Many of these were first identified by ancient civilisations. They were named after animals and Greek and Roman mythological characters, such as Aries, the ram; and Hercules, the legendary Greek hero. More recentlydiscovered constellations include Telescopium, the telescope, and the Southern Cross or Crux.

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A star begins its life within a cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula. Nebulae are found throughout the universe. The hydrogen gas in a nebula is pulled together by gravity and begins to spin. Over time, the cloud spins faster and faster and the gases gradually heat up. It has now become a ball of glowing gas called a protostar. Gravity causes everything in it to gradually move towards the centre, or core. This makes the protostar collapse and become smaller and, at the same time, hotter and hotter. Eventually, the temperature in its core becomes hot enough for a process called nuclear fusion to occur. It stops shrinking in size and has become a star.

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Stars vary in size from neutron stars (with about a 20 kilometre diameter) to supergiants (which are about 1000 times larger than our sun). The larger the star, the shorter its life span will be as it uses up its fuel more quickly.

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How are stars classified?

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Stars can be classified by their colour, which is determined by the surface temperature. Blue stars are the hottest as they burn their fuel quickly, resulting in a very high temperature. They will use up this fuel over only 10 000 to 100 000 years. Blue giant stars die in a spectacular explosion called a supernova. Yellow stars are the next hottest and are medium-sized. They will use up their fuel over about 10 billion years. Our sun is classified as a medium-sized yellow dwarf. Red stars are not very hot compared with other stars and can live for trillions of years. Red dwarfs are the most common type of star. Red giants are old stars that have expanded and cooled in the process. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Aries, the ram

Southern Cross (Crux)

Astronomy

Stars and constellations – 2 1. One way stars are different from planets is that they are glowing spheres of gas. How else are they different? 2. Use a new bullet point to summarise the major steps in the formation of a star. • • • •

• •

3. Explain why larger stars have a shorter life span than smaller stars.

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•

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4. Colour these facts about different types of stars according to the code: blue stars (blue), yellow stars (yellow), red stars (red).

most common type of star

Die in an explosion called a supernova

Much cooler than other stars

Live for about 10 000 to 100 000 years

Live for about 10 billion years

Medium-sized

Burn their fuel the quickest

Live for trillions of years

Hottest type of star

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Giant type are old stars that have expanded

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Our sun is one

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5. Write a definition for the term ‘constellation’.

6. Write three interesting facts you discovered about constellations. • • • Astronomy

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Constellation clues Before maps, compasses, clocks and calendars were created, people used the constellations for directions on land and to navigate at sea, to know when to plant crops and to tell the time during the night. Many of the constellations are named after animals and Greek and Roman mythological characters. The constellations form more of a symbolic representation than an actual picture. For example, people imagined the group of stars in the picture to the right formed the constellation Orion, the Hunter.

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1. Read the description for each constellation and study the position of the stars in each constellation. Match the name to each constellation and draw extra details around each one to make the picture more realistic.

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Hercules – legendary Greek hero. He is kneeling on one leg with a club raised in his right hand and his left hand is aimed at a target.

Hydra – a water serpent with many heads that Hercules had to slay.

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Ursa Major – ‘Ursa’ means ‘bear’ and ‘Major’ means ‘great’; i.e. the Great Bear. Its tail is to the left (the tail forms a part of a famous group of stars called the ‘Big Dipper’) and it is walking to the right. Cygnus – the swan. It is flying with wings outstretched, downwards. It is sometimes called the ‘Northern Cross’, as opposed to the ‘Southern Cross’ in the Southern Hemisphere.

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(d) 59

Astronomy

Other objects in space Indicators ✶✶ Reads information and answers questions about comets, asteroids, meteoroids, meteors and meteorites. ✶✶ Writes a story, play or poem describing a fictitious meteorite landing.

Answers

✶✶ An asteroid is a small planetary body revolving around the sun, sometimes called a minor planet or a planetoid. Most lie in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. ✶✶ A comet is an icy body that releases gas or dust as it travels around the sun in a long, oval orbit. Most comets are too small or too faint to be seen without a telescope. However, some become visible as they pass close to the sun. ✶✶ A meteoroid is a piece of stony or metallic debris travelling around the sun. A meteor is a bright streak of light that appears briefly in the sky when a meteoroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space. Most meteors disintegrate before reaching the Earth’s surface. Those that reach Earth are called meteorites. Millions of meteors burn up in the Earth’s atmosphere every day.

Page 62 1. A comet is a lump of ice, dust and gas orbiting the sun in an elliptical orbit that brings it very close to the sun, which makes it start to evaporate and creates a long ‘tail’ of gas and dust, and causes it to ‘glow’. 2. A meteorite could fall without anyone seeing it because they are usually very small, and often land in the ocean. 3. Not all meteoroids enter the Earth's atmosphere. 4. An object moving towards a spacecraft is more likely to be called a meteoroid than an asteroid, if it looks like it could collide with the spacecraft. 5. Comets are lumps of ice, dust and gas with long ‘tails’ of gas and dust that ‘glow’ when they pass near enough to the sun, whereas asteroids are lumps of rock or metal with very little or no ice around them, so they don’t glow. 6. Diagram (a). 7. A meteor is a meteoroid that has entered the Earth's atmosphere and glows, while a meteorite is a meteor that has landed on the Earth’s surface. 8. Teacher check. Page 63 Teacher check

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Background information

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Astronomy Astronomy

Additional activities

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✶✶ Scientists have found more than 120 impact craters and basins on the Earth. Students could research different craters (such as the Chicxulub Basin in Mexico, with a diameter of about 118 kilometres) and present their information to the class. ✶✶ Students could investigate the different kinds of meteorites.

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Other objects in space – 1 Moving among the planets, stars and moons are other smaller ‘bodies’ in our solar system. Read about them below. Asteroids are lumps of rock or metal. They have very little or no ice around them, so they don’t glow with the heat of the sun like comets do. Some larger asteroids are called minor planets or planetoids, but are still too small to be considered as even dwarf planets. Asteroids vary greatly in size, from a few hundred kilometres to only tens of metres in diameter. The largest asteroid, Ceres, is 930 kilometres in diameter and is considered to be a dwarf planet. More than 100 000 asteroids lie in a belt between Mars and Jupiter (named the asteroid or main belt). Asteroids can be pulled out of their solar orbit by the gravitational pull of a planet. They are then orbiting that planet instead of orbiting the sun.

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Comets are lumps of ice, dust and gas usually orbiting the sun. They have elliptical (elongated) orbits that bring them very close to the sun, then swing them deep back into space, often beyond Pluto. When comets get close enough to the sun, heat makes them start to evaporate, creating long ‘tails’ of gas and dust that can sometimes be millions of kilometres long. Comets also ‘glow’ when they pass near enough to the sun. Scientists believe comets are either made of material (originally in the outer part of the solar system) that didn’t get incorporated into the planets, or from pieces of a planet that had a collision with a huge comet.

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A meteoroid is a particle of debris in the solar system that revolves the sun. Meteoroids are similar to asteroids, but are usually much smaller, ranging from a grain of sand to a boulder in size. Many meteoroids were once part of a comet or asteroid; asteroids can collide in space creating smaller particles, and icy comets melting as they near the sun release small particles. An object is called a meteoroid rather than an asteroid if it looks like it could collide with a planet or other comparatively large body (or spacecraft).

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Once a meteoroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere, friction between it and the atmospheric gases heats it to the point that it glows. This bright streak of light in the Earth’s atmosphere is called a meteor. Most meteors glow for only a few seconds (called ‘shooting stars’), then usually burn up before they can hit the Earth’s surface. While many meteors enter the atmosphere, only a few survive the fiery passage and land on the Earth’s surface and become meteorites. Most meteorites are too small to be noticed or land in the oceans, but the ones that are discovered give scientists important information about the solar system.

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Astronomy

Other objects in space – 2 1. What is a comet? 2. Could a meteorite fall without anyone seeing it? Explain you answer.

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3. Why don’t all meteoroids produce meteors?

4. If astronauts see a boulder-sized lump moving towards them in space, are they more likely to call it a ’meteoroid‘ or an ’asteroid‘?

5. How do comets and asteroids differ?

(a)

(b)

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6. Which diagram shows the orbit of a comet around the sun?

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7. How is a meteor different from a meteorite?

8. Describe what a shooting star looks like if you have seen one, or write what you think it would look like if you haven’t. Astronomy

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Chances are ... While the chances of a large meteoroid or asteroid hitting the Earth are quite low, it is nonetheless possible; in fact, many scientists believe a giant asteroid could have been responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, 65 million years ago. Sites of large meteorite landings, called impact craters, can be found around our planet.

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Write a short story, poem or play about a possible meteorite impact using one of the ‘story starters’ below. Describe the meteorite, the effects of its impact and what you would do if ... • you woke up one morning to find a large meteorite had landed in your backyard; or

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• you arrived at school only to discover there was a large crater where your school used to be; or

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• using a telescope, you discovered a big meteoroid coming towards Earth.

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Astronomy

The telescope Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about telescopes. ✶✶ Recommends telescopes for different purposes using own knowledge and a chart of different types of telescopes on the market.

Background information ✶✶ In September 2008, it was 400 years since a Dutch spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, travelled to The Hague, the seat of the then governing body of the Dutch Republic, to apply for a patent for ‘a certain instrument for seeing far’. Galileo Galilei then used this design to create a telescope for astronomical use that allowed him to make many great discoveries. Since then there have been many advancements in telescope technology that have helped astronomers gain valuable information about the universe.

Additional activities

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Answers

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Page 66 1. A telescope is a device that allows people to see distant objects more clearly and in greater detail. 2. Answers will vary but should mention that telescopes were first made as spyglasses in 1608, by Hans Lippershey, then modified to be used for astronomy by Galileo. 3. (a) false (b) true (c) false (d) true 4. Refracting telescopes use lenses to bend light, whereas reflecting telescopes use curved mirrors to reflect light and form an image. 5. (a) convex (b) concave 6. Hans Lippershey designed the telescope to be used for military purposes, such as peering into enemy camps. 7. Teacher check Page 67 Answers may vary. 1. Alyssa: A refracting telescope (achromatic). It is not fragile (boisterous sons), doesn’t need much maintenance, and is good for viewing the moon, planets and animals. 2. Jacob: A compound telescope. It is small and compact for his small flat, he can afford it (it is expensive), and takes excellent photos. 3. Gertrude: A reflecting telescope. She has time to clean and adjust the telescope, and it is excellent for deep-sky viewing.

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✶✶ Stars are mapped using the Celestial coordinate system. While this is quite complicated, some students might enjoy learning how stars are located. ✶✶ Bring in different types of telescopes to show the students. Allow them to see how they operate and what things can be seen through them.

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Astronomy Astronomy

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The telescope – 1 For thousands of years, men and women who wished to uncover the mysteries of the night sky were limited to what they could observe with their eyes. The invention of the telescope allowed people to see distant objects in space more clearly and in greater detail … and the secrets of the universe began to be unravelled.

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The invention of the telescope began with the lens, a curved piece of glass shaped to bend rays of light, forming a clearer image for the viewer. Eyeglasses have lenses, as do your eyes (made up of body tissue). No-one is sure who first made lenses, but eyeglasses (which use lenses to help people see better) were worn in Italy around the 1300s.

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The earliest known telescopes were made in 1608, but, like the lens, it is not known exactly who invented the first telescope. The man usually credited with its invention is Hans Lippershey. Originally called a ‘spyglass’, the telescope was designed to be used for military purposes (to peer into enemy camps). An astronomer, Galileo Galilei, heard about this invention and realised it could be used to look at the universe. The following year, he greatly improved the design and made a more powerful telescope. With this improved device he could see magnified, detailed images in the night sky.

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Galileo’s telescope worked through a combination of two lenses in a tube. One lens was a convex lens that curved outward. This curvature caused light rays to ‘bend’ and form a small image of the viewed object near the other end of the tube, where there was another lens. This second lens was a concave lens and curved the other way (inwards), which magnified the tiny image for the viewer to see. The larger the lens, the more light it could gather. Because the images were formed by the bending of light, or refraction, these telescopes came to be known as refracting telescopes.

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Later that century, Sir Isaac Newton designed and constructed a reflecting telescope, which, instead of lenses, used curved mirrors to reflect light and form an image. The 20th century saw the construction of giant telescopes and telescopes that could use wavelengths other than visible light, such as radio and X-ray telescopes. Telescopes can be used on Earth, but the Earth’s atmosphere affects the clarity of the images. Telescopes in space, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, allow astronomers to clearly view images of the universe without distortion from the Earth’s atmosphere. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

The telescope – 2 1. What is a telescope? 2. Describe the invention of telescopes in your own words. 3. Circle as true or false.

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false

(b) Telescopes placed in space can get clearer images.

true

false

true

false

(d) Convex lenses cause light to bend.

true

false

(a) Newton created the first telescope.

4. How are refracting and reflecting telescopes different?

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5. Label each lens as either concave or convex.

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(b)

6. What did Hans Lippershey intend his invention to be used for?

7. The James Webb Space Telescope, named after a NASA administrator, is a space infra-red telescope planned for launch around 2013. If you were to name a new telescope, what would you call it and why? Astronomy

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The right telescope Today, there are many different telescopes available, including refracting (achromatic or apochromatic), reflecting and compound (with a mirror in the back and a lens at the front) telescopes. Look at the chart, then read the descriptions below. Decide which telescope you think is best for each person and give a reason for your choice.

sun moon

Apochromatic refracting

Reflecting

Compound

fair

good

excellent

good

excellent

good

fair

good

excellent

good

poor

good

excellent

fair

poor

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deep-sky viewing

astrophotography daytime (birds, wildlife)

Small, compact. Needs little maintenance.

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planets

Achromatic refracting

fair

Small. Needs Quite cheap. Very Can be expensive. little maintenance. fragile. Need a lot Short tube— Quite expensive. compact. of cleaning.

like to observe animals, the planets and the moon.

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Recommended telescope:

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Reason:

2. Jacob has a small flat, lots of money and not much space. He would like to take photos of planets and moons.

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Recommended telescope: Reason:

3. Gertrude is an older lady with lots of time on her hands. She wants to be able to see deep into space. Recommended telescope: Reason: 4. You would like to be able to Recommended telescope: Reason: R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

Observing the universe Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about the different forms of radiation to gain information about the universe, and the equipment used to study them. ✶✶ Hypothesises reasons why astronomers study different forms of electromagnetic radiation in the universe.

Answers

✶✶ Astronomy involves more than just looking at the sky from Earth through a telescope. In order to discover and understand more about the universe, astronomers use a variety of instruments and pieces of equipment to measure and record different types of radiation from Earth and space. Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes. Visible light, radio waves, microwaves, infra-red and ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays are the different kinds of electromagnetic energy that astronomers use to discover and understand the universe.

Page 70 1. visible light, radio waves, microwaves, infra-red light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, gamma rays 2. The Earth’s atmosphere prevents some forms of radiation from reaching its surface. 3. Possible answers: (a) microwave ovens, weather radars, Bluetooth™, wide area mobile broadband (b) entertainment (radio stations), two-way radios, remote controls on toys, GPS, mobile phones 4. Most microwaves, X-rays, gamma rays and some ultraviolet rays can not reach the Earth’s surface. 5. Answers will vary but should describe two of the following: binoculars, space telescopes, radio telescopes, probes, satellites, cameras. 6. Teacher check 7. 1. e m 2. i t

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Background information

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Page 70 Teacher check

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✶✶ Have students use the Internet to research the development and history of the Hubble Space Telescope. ✶✶ Find out the location of any observatories or large radio telescopes in your area and, if possible, plan a class visit.

Astronomy Astronomy

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Observing the universe – 1 Most people know that astronomers use telescopes to see images of objects in space. What you might not know is that much of the information astronomers gain from space is by observing things the human eye can not usually see. Astronomers use various types of equipment, depending on what they want to see, to help them observe and measure objects and events in space that could not otherwise be seen.

that can be pointed towards any part of the sky to gather radio waves from space. These waves, from satellites and from naturally occurring events in the universe (such as suns expanding), can help astronomers understand the universe. The atmosphere prevents most microwaves, X-rays, gamma rays and some ultraviolet rays from reaching the Earth’s surface. The solution to this problem is to place telescopes that can detect and record these kinds of radiation above the Earth’s atmosphere—into space. Satellites in space, each with different telescopes (to measure different kinds of radiation), can peer deep into the universe without any atmospheric interference. Space telescopes have various cameras and electronics that allow images and information to be collected and sent to Earth. There are many probes, telescopes and satellites in space, all gathering different information for astronomers to use.

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The light we can see, called visible light, is only part of what is actually around us. There are other kinds of light and energy, moving as waves, that we are unable to see with our eyes. These include radio waves, microwaves, infra-red light (which our bodies, animals, plants and the Earth emit), ultraviolet light, X-rays (which black holes, stars and some comets emit), and gamma rays. These are all forms of electromagnetic radiation, and objects in space emit different types and amounts of radiation. Recording and measuring the different kinds of radiation gives astronomers information about what objects are in space and what they are made of.

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The Earth’s atmosphere only allows some kinds of radiation to reach our surface from space. Visible light, some infra-red light, and radio waves from space can be detected from Earth. Standard telescopes and binoculars allow us to study space using visible light, and radio telescopes and antennas can collect radio waves. A radio telescope is a large metal dish with an antenna

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The Hubble Space Telescope

Most space telescopes are uncrewed and in orbit around the Earth. The Hubble Space Telescope is one of the largest optical telescopes (collecting visible light, ultraviolet and near infra-red data) in space. There is also the Fermi Gamma Ray Large Area Space Telescope, which was launched in June 2008. Probes have also been sent out far into space to gather data which is then sent back to Earth for astronomers to interpret.

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Astronomy

Observing the universe – 2 1. List the different types of electromagnetic radiation.

•

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•

2. Why can’t all forms of electromagnetic radiation reach Earth’s surface?

(a) microwaves?

(b) radio waves?

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3. Can you think of some ways we use ...

4. What kinds of radiation can’t reach telescopes on the Earth’s surface?

5. Describe two types of equipment used when observing space.

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7. Solve the crossword using the clues. Across 1. Black holes

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6. Write one fact you found interesting from the text.

X-rays.

3. People use microwaves to heat and cook .

5. Light and energy move in 6. Probes send

back to Earth for astronomers to interpret.

Down 2. People and animals emit

light. .

4. A radio telescope is shaped like a Astronomy

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What are they looking for? Having read about the equipment astronomers use to observe the universe, you might be wondering what it is they are hoping to find. Read the chart below about what information different types of electromagnetic radiation can give scientists. Choose two types of radiation, then write your own ideas about why astronomers are interested in studying them. For example, why do you think astronomers want to learn about atmosphere and landform details from visible light data from other planets? X-rays

The most powerful form of radiation, and gives information about neutron stars and black holes. Some elements (such as uranium) emit gamma rays.

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gamma rays

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Emitted by black holes, comets, hot gasses, stars and galaxies

Planets and comets, giant clouds of gas and dust (nebulae), and stars and galaxies all emit radio waves.

microwaves

Give information about the structure of nearby galaxies, and our own Milky Way.

ultraviolet

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radio waves

Emitted by very hot stars. Gives information about temperature, motion, magnetism and chemical composition

Clouds of dust between stars. Such objects include the sun and the planets, and certain stars, nebulae and galaxies. A number of known infra-red sources can be observed at the wavelengths of visible light and, in certain cases, at radio and X-ray wavelengths too.

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons Gives information about and elements in space, and about planets, including •f or r evi e wgasses pu r p os e so nl y• visible light their shape, landforms and orbit. infra-red

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Astronomy

Astronomers Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about astronomers. ✶✶ Completes a cloze to find out information about American astronomer, Carl Sagan.

Background information ✶✶ Modern astronomy is often referred to as astrophysics as it involves examination and analysis of physical properties and phenomenon of objects in the universe.

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Answers

✶✶ Astronomers usually require a doctoral degree or master’s degree. Many are employed by firms carrying out scientific research and development or by federal government agencies. Nearly all astronomers carry out research of some kind and many rely on grants to fund their research.

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Page 74 1. Possible answer: What do we call people who study celestial objects and other phenomena in the universe? 2. mathematics, physics, chemistry and computer science 3. Possible answers: Observational astronomers: information from telescopes etc., collect/study data from cameras attached to satellites etc., use physics to analyse data Theoretical astronomers: use obs. astronomers' observations or own to develop theories, computers aid in solving answers. Theories analysed by observational astronomers. 4. There are too many aspects for a single astronomer to cover.

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5. Students should include any six of the following: studying a specific planet, analysing data from a space mission, create computer programs, develop simulators for experiments, study rocks from space, lecture, plan space missions, design/maintain space vehicles 6. Teacher check Page 75 (a) career (b) space (c) 1950s (d) astronauts (e) experiments (f) Venus (g) windblown (h) extraterrestrial (i) moon (j) oceans (k) exist (l) life (m) expert (n) universe (o) imagination (p) watched (q) remembered

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✶✶ View the NASA site at: <http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/people/index.cfm> to read about the work, educational background, hobbies and interests of a variety of astronomers who are employed by NASA. ✶✶ Students view the fully updated DVD version of Carl Sagan’s TV series, Cosmos.

Astronomy Astronomy

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Astronomers – 1 Astronomers are people who study celestial objects and other phenomena in the universe. This ranges from learning about the planets, moons, asteroids and other objects in our solar system, to investigating other galaxies and understanding how stars are formed and what becomes of them as they die. Modern astronomy relies on using not just space-based science, but other areas such as mathematics, physics, chemistry and computer science. Many people imagine that an astronomer spends his or her nights in a cold remote observatory peering through a telescope. However, those that work in observatories generally only spend a few weeks a year there and the rest in a laboratory, office or research facility, working with data and information.

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• Observational astronomers get information from equipment such as telescopes, spectographs or television cameras attached to satellites and space probes to collect and study data about the universe. They use the principles and laws of physics to analyse the data.

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Astronomers can be classified as one of two main types: observational or theoretical. Both types of astronomers help each other find out more about the universe:

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• Theoretical astronomers use these observations or those they make themselves to develop a theory or idea about the universe. They use computers to solve very complicated mathematical equations which might provide answers to their theories. These theories can then be proved or disproved by observational astronomers. It is not possible for any single astronomer to be an expert in every field of astronomy because there are too many aspects to cover. An astronomer usually specialises in a particular area. This could be studying a specific planet or analysing data and information transmitted from a spacecraft currently on a mission. Some astronomers use their knowledge to create computer programs to analyse data. Others develop simulators so astronauts can practise science experiments on Earth and again in a space shuttle before actually performing the experiment in space. Yet others specialise in planetary geology—the study of rocks and ground surfaces on the planets. Many astronomers work as lecturers at universities or in museums that have planetariums. And there are those who work in groups to plan and support space missions or design and maintain space vehicles.

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Our understanding of the universe has increased dramatically since the invention of the telescope over 400 years ago. With the technology developed over the past 50 years by way of space travel by manned and uncrewed spacecraft, our knowledge has increased beyond that ever imagined by ancient and early modern astronomers. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

Astronomers – 2 1. Write a question for this answer. astronomers 2. Other than just space-based science, list four other areas of knowledge modern astronomers need.

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3. Write keywords and phrases to describe the differences between observational and theoretical astronomers. Observational astronomers

Theoretical astronomers

4. Why couldn't an astronomer be an expert in every field of astronomy?

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• • • • • •

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5. Describe six examples of specialist areas astronomers might be involved in.

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6. In your own words, explain the main idea of the last paragraph. Astronomy

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An extraordinary astronomer Complete the cloze passage below to find out about an American astronomer, Carl Sagan. Carl Sagan had an extraordinary

(a)

not only as an astronomer but as an educator and

author in the fields of astronomy and other types of science. Sagan played a leading role in the United States it first began in the

(b)

program from when

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. He was an adviser to many National Aeronautics and Space

(c)

Administration (NASA) missions. Sagan had the important job of briefing the

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Apollo program missions to the moon. He arranged robotic

(e)

(d)

on all the

for the uncrewed Mariner,

to the discovery that

(f)

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Viking, Voyager and Galileo spacecrafts that explored the solar system. Sagan was a major contributor is an extremely hot and dense planet (not mild, as was previously

believed). After research, he suggested, and was later proved correct, that colour changes on Mars were due to

(g)

dust shifting and not seasonal vegetation changes.

A pioneer in the field of exobiology—the study of

(h)

life—Sagan found evidence that

, Titan, Jupiter’s moon, Europa, have © Rand . I . C .P ub l i ca t i ons which could contain the building blocks for life to evolve. As his research showed that life is likely to •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• elsewhere in the universe, Sagan created messages carried by space probes that might be understood Saturn’s

(i)

(j)

(k)

by extraterrestrial

. He also organised for large radio telescopes to listen for signals from

(l)

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Besides being an

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other lifeforms.

in many scientific fields, Carl Sagan possessed

an extraordinary ability to explain the difficult concepts of the people and capture their

(n)

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at the same time. He published more

than 200 scientific papers and popular articles and wrote more than 20 books. Approximately 500 million people in 60 countries

(p)

his award-

winning TV series, Cosmos.

He died in 1996, at the age of 62, and will be

(q)

for his enormous Carl Sagan

contribution to both astronomy and society. moon windblown extraterrestrial astronauts watched experiments R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

remembered expert oceans 75

Venus 1950s exist

space universe imagination

life career

Astronomy

Famous astronomers Indicators ✶✶ Reads and comprehends information about famous astronomers. ✶✶ Reads and completes activities about two famous female astronomers.

Answers

✶✶ From the beginning of time, people have been fascinated by the universe. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, thought the Earth was the centre of the universe, that the universe was spherical and finite, and that objects in space were made from either fire, water, earth or air. Aristotle’s beliefs were adopted by the church and remained in place for over one thousand years. Theories which went against these ideas were considered heresy (against the church's word). ✶✶ Other Greek scholars include Eratosthenes, who worked out the circumference of the Earth, and Callippus, who accurately measured the length of the seasons. ✶✶ Many other astronomers have added to our knowledge of the universe in some way—either by things they invented, calculations they made or observations they carried out. Some of these include John Couch Adams, Sir George Airy, EE Barnard, Johannes Bayer, Jocelyn Bell Burnell, Giovanni Cassini, Anders Celsius, James Christy, HL d’Arrest, Christian Huygens, William Kelvin, Gerard Kuiper, William Lassell, Jan Oort, Giuseppe Piazzi, Giovanni Schiaparelli and Heinrich Schwabe. ✶✶ Many astronomers have based their work on theories or discoveries of other mathematicians, astronomers and physicists. ✶✶ To answer questions on page 78, additional research may be required.

Page 78 1.–4. Teacher check 5. Answers will vary but should include that Galileo Galilei believed that the sun was the centre of the known universe, while the Catholic Church upheld the belief that the Earth was the centre of the universe. Page 79 Teacher check

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Background information

✶✶ Research to find out about other women in astronomy. Select from names such as Antonia Maury, Henrietta Swan Leavitt, Annie Jump Cannon, Williamina Paton Stevens Fleming, Dorrit Hoffleit, Margaret Huggins, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, E Margaret Burbidge, Vera Rubin or Jocelyn Bell. Compile notes in bullet point-form for a report and, in particular, show what contribution each made to making it easier for women to access study and careers in scientific fields. ✶✶ Create a time line of the most important events in space exploration.

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Famous astronomers – 1 Read the information in the time line about famous astronomers.

Lived around 150 CE

Claudius Ptolemy: Ancient Greek astronomer who originally thought the Earth was the centre of the universe but later wrote that the Earth and planets circled larger objects.

1473–1543

Nicolaus Copernicus: Stated that the sun was the centre of the universe and the Earth revolved around it annually.

1546–1601

Tycho Brahe: Completed accurate calculations about the orbits of planets. Discovered a supernova near Cassiopeia constellation.

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Hans Lippershey: Lens maker who invented the first refracting telescope.

1571–1630

Johannes Kepler: Invented eyeglasses. Assisted Brahe. Theorised that planets move in elliptical orbits. Formulated three laws about planetary movements.

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1564–1642

Galileo Galilei: First to use a telescope to observe the sky. Discovered the rings of Saturn, four major moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus. Believed the sun was the centre of the universe.

Edmond Halley: First to accurately calculate the elliptical orbit of a comet. Studied the moon. Comet named after him.

1738–1822

William Herschel: Discovered Uranus and two of its moons and also those of Saturn. Improved the reflecting telescope. First to use the word ‘asteroid’. Brother to Caroline.

1750–1848

Caroline Herschel: First woman to discover many comets and nebulae. Wrote two astronomical catalogues still in use.

1818–1889

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1656–1742

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1642–1727

Isaac Newton: Formulated the theory of gravity and laws of motion. Investigated the nature of light (how sunlight is ‘made’ of different colours). Invented the Newtonian telescope. Proved by calculations that the planets were held in place by the sun’s gravity.

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Maria Mitchell: Pioneering woman astronomer in the USA. Discovered a comet. Studied Jupiter and Saturn. Photographed stars. Nationally recognised and honoured in the USA.

1879–1955

Albert Einstein: Developed revolutionary theories about light, space, time, energy, mass and momentum. Theories explained the orbit of Mercury. Nobel Prize winner.

1889–1953

Edwin Hubble: Proved the existence of galaxies other than the Milky Way. Wellknown telescope named after him.

1906–1997

Clyde Tombaugh: Discovered Pluto, a comet, and clusters and superclusters of galaxies. Predicted craters on Mars.

1942–

Stephen Hawking: Modern physicist and cosmologist. Developed theories about black holes. Developed the term ‘wormholes’.

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Astronomy

Famous astronomers – 2 Use the information on page 77 to complete the answers. 1. In your opinion, which two astronomers in the era before 1727 contributed most to our current knowledge of the universe? Give reasons for your answers. (a) (b)

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2. In your opinion, which two astronomers in the era after 1727 contributed most to our current knowledge of the universe? Give reasons for your answers.

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(a)

(b)

3. Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein are two well-known scientists. State the work done by them that you consider the most important. Give reasons for your answers. (b) Albert Einstein © R. I . C.Pu bl i ca t i ons •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y•

Isaac Newton

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4. Female astronomers were very rare before the 1900s. Why do you think this was the case?

5. The powerful Catholic Church supported the ideas of Ptolemy for over one thousand years. Why was Galileo Galilei punished by the church for his scientific ideas?

Astronomy

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Cinderella and the Queen of Science 1. Read about two female astronomers.

(b) Mary Somerville, was born in 1780 in Scotland. When she was 15, she began to study algebra secretly after noticing mathematical formulas as a decoration in a fashion magazine.

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Fortunately, her brother, William, pitied her and took her to live with him in England. At first Caroline worked as his housekeeper, but eventually she became his assistant in his astronomy projects. Gradually, she controlled a number of projects herself and her work was recognised even by King George III. She identified a number of astrological phenomena and compiled at least two astrological catalogues which are still in use today.

Mary was forced to marry at the age of 24 to Captain Samuel Greig, a man opposed to her interest in mathematics. Three years later, when he died, she began to study mathematics and science seriously.

She eventually remarried a surgeon, Dr William Somerville, who encouraged her studies. She published many scientific papers and wrote about the work of other scientists. This led to recognition in mathematical journals and contact with other scientists. She wrote many books—one of which was used by John Couch Adams to discover the planet Neptune.

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(a) Caroline Herschel was born in Germany in 1750. When Caroline was aged 10, she became sick with typhus, a disease which left her with stunted growth. Despite being well educated in mathematics by her father, her parents decided that she would never be able to marry because of her physical disability. It was decided to train her to work as a servant in the household.

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Caroline lived to be 98 years old and is still recognised as a prominent astrologer. This was quite an achievement for a child who was destined to become a ‘Cinderella’ in her parents' household!

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She was named an honorary member of the Royal Astrological Society in 1833 with another female astronomer, Caroline Herschel. This was the first time any woman had been recognised.

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2. Complete the following activities.

After her death in 1872, a newspaper aptly dubbed her the ‘Queen of nineteenth century science’.

(a) With a partner, discuss what would have happened if these two women had followed society’s rules of the time and not used their talents? Would things have been different today? How? (b) Write bullet points for a debate which states: Even today, there are not as many opportunities for a woman to have a career in science. (c) Write a list of attributes these women would have needed to excel in their chosen careers. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

The seasons Indicators ✶✶ Reads text about how the seasons occur on planet Earth. ✶✶ Completes activities to show understanding of the text.

Background information ✶✶ Seasons occur as a consequence of the Earth’s axial tilt (23.5º). The shape of Earth’s ecliptic has no effect as it is almost circular. It is the planet’s tilt that accounts for the temperature differences between winter and summer, and explains how the seasons in the two hemispheres are directly opposite. ✶✶ The two main features of the seasons are: –– the amount of sunlight in one day

✶✶ This can be demonstrated by holding a torch directly above a sheet of dark paper. The rays of light form a definite circle of light directly under the torch. If the torch is shone at an angle, the light on the paper is more spread out. ✶✶ Seasons are more distinct the further away from the equator a place is. At any one time, opposing seasons are experienced in the two hemispheres. ✶✶ Demonstrate the movement of Earth on its axis and around the sun by using a globe (or large ball) and a torch. ✶✶ If using a ball, draw the line of the equator. Draw a cross at each pole and, using removable adhesive, attach small sticks as the rotational axis. Label as NP (North Pole) and SP (South Pole). ✶✶ Follow the explanation on the student page to show the position of Earth in relation to the sun as it (Earth) spins once on its axis to create day and night and as it orbits the sun, creating seasons. Use the torch to show light from the sun.

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–– the temperature of the heat from the sun.

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Page 82 1. Teacher check 2. (a) false (b) true (c) false (d) true (e) true 3. (a) away from, southern, longest, crosses, 21 or 22 December (b) halfway, autumnal equinox, is furthest from, 22 or 23 September 4. Southern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere summer solstice

winter solstice

summer solstice

winter solstice

21/22 December

20/21 June

21/22 December

vernal equinox

autumnal equinox

vernal equinox

autumnal equinox

20/21 March

22/23 September

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Additional activities

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✶✶ Create an illustrated display of Earth's orbit around the sun, creating the seasons. Include simple explanations. Use the display and a globe or labelled ball to explain the seasons to younger students.

Astronomy Astronomy

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✶✶ Throughout Earth’s orbit of the sun, it is always building up to either a solstice (longest or shortest day) or an equinox (same hours of daylight and darkness). ✶✶ The temperature is determined by the height of the sun in the sky. At the summer solstice, the sun reaches its highest point and the sun’s rays are concentrated (more heat). At the winter solstice, the sun is lower in the sky and its rays more diffuse (less heat).

✶✶ Create a time line to show the development of calendars throughout the ages. Describe any problems associated with each calendar you mention.

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The seasons – 1 People in ancient civilisations learned about the seasons as they observed the movement of the sun, planets and the moon across the sky. This enabled them to plan their agricultural work and religious festivals. As Earth spins anticlockwise on its rotational axis, different parts of the planet are either experiencing daylight as they face the sun and receive its light, or darkness as they face away from the sun. The time it takes for Earth to spin once on its rotational axis is known as a ’day‘.

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Earth’s axis is just under 25° from the vertical, which means that as it travels anticlockwise around the sun, more intense light is received by one hemisphere than the other. While it spins, its rotational axis remains in the same position and with the North Pole always pointing to the north star, Polaris. The time it takes for Earth to complete one orbit of the sun is known as a ’year‘.

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There are two days each year when Earth is tilted either directly at or away from the sun, causing it to reach its most northern and southern extremes. These are the summer and winter solstices, and give the longest (most hours of daylight) and the shortest (least hours of daylight) days of the year. Halfway between each solstice, there is a day when the Earth’s axis is tilted exactly midway between the two extremes and the day has the same hours of daylight and darkness in both hemispheres. This occurs twice a year and these days are called the vernal (spring) and autumnal equinoxes (depending on the hemisphere). ’Equinox‘ is Latin for ‘equal night’.

Imagine a sphere of sky surrounding Earth, also with an equator and poles just like Earth. This is known as the celestial sphere. The solstices occur when the sun crosses the celestial equator. The equinoxes occur when the sun is furthest from the celestial equator.

winter solstice: day with most hours of darkness in the Nouthern hemisphere summer solstice: day with most hours of daylight in the Southern Hemisphere

vernal equinox: equal hours of daylight and darkness in the Southern Hemisphere autumnal equinox: equal hours of daylight and darkness in the Northern Hemisphere

Earth’s seasons . t

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equinoxes are 20 or 21 March and 22 or 23 September. Whether they are summer or winter solstices and vernal or autumnal equinoxes depends on the hemisphere. How high the sun gets in the sky, and how long it remains above the horizon during the day, is dependent on the latitude as well as the season. 23.44 °C

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summer

winter

spring

summer solstice: day with most hours of daylight in the Northern Hemisphere winter solstice: day with most hours of darkness in the Southern Hemisphere

vernal equinox: same amount of hours of daylight and darkness autumnal equinox: same amount of hours of daylight and darkness in the Southern Hemisphere

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Astronomy

The seasons – 2 1. Give two reasons why you think using a calendar is important. 2. Circle as true or false. (a) Earth’s rotational axis changes position as it spins.

true

(b) It takes one day for Earth to spin once on its axis.

true

false

true

false

(d) The shortest day of the year occurs at the winter solstice.

true

false

(e) Earth orbits the sun in an anticlockwise direction.

true

false

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3. (a) Circle the correct words for the equinoxes and solstices in the Southern Hemisphere.

The summer solstice occurs when the Earth’s rotational axis points directly towards/away from the sun, which reaches its most northern/southern extreme and gives the longest/ shortest day of the year. On this day, the sun crosses/is furthest from the celestial equator. The date of the summer solstice is 20 or 21 June/21or 22 December.

The vernal equinox occurs halfway/a quarter of the way between the solstices.

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At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere is experiencing the autumnal equinox/winter solstice.

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On this day, the sun crosses/is furthest from the celestial equator. The date of the vernal equinox is 20 or 21 March/22 or 23 September.

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4. Write the dates in the table.

Southern Hemisphere

Northern Hemisphere

summer solstice

winter solstice

summer solstice

winter solstice

vernal equinox

autumnal equinox

vernal equinox

autumnal equinox

Astronomy

82 ART: SMALLER VERSION OF LARGE ART FROM PAGE 81

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Origin of the names of the months The calendar was originally based on the cycle of the seasons (from one vernal equinox to the next) and the phases of the moon (from one new moon to the next). As neither of these time periods occur in an exact number of days, 365.24 and 29.53 respectively, creating a calendar in which the seasons and months were always in step was very difficult. The calendar we use today is the Gregorian calendar, which was introduced in 1582. The names of the months are based on those used by the Romans in the days of the Roman Empire. Using books and the Internet, research the origins of the names of each month.

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Record any interesting facts you discover.

April

February

March

May

June

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January

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December

Astronomy

Astronomy and culture Indicators ✶✶ Reads information and answers questions about the influence of astronomy on aspects of culture. ✶✶ Writes a short science fiction story.

Answers

✶✶ Astronomical objects, discoveries and theories have been entwined with aspects of culture (such as music, traditions, dance, visual arts and literature) since most cultures began. Page 87 ✶✶ Prior to completing this activity, students might enjoy reading or listening to some science fiction stories (e.g. Ender's game by Orson Scott Card or The chrysalids by John Wyndham); or viewing or discussing television shows or films (e.g. Star trek, Battlestar Gallactica or Doctor Who). ✶✶ Upon finishing the stories, students might enjoy painting a scene from them.

Page 86 1. The Chinese Moon Festival is celebrated on the 15th day of the 8th lunar month of the Chinese calendar. 2. Families come together and share moon cakes. 3. Hou Yi was Chang’e’s husband and Emperor Yao’s archer, and shot down nine of the 10 suns, leaving just one and saving humankind. 4. (a) true (b) false (c) true (d) false 5. (a) Lugh (b) grandfather (c) Fomorii (d) Ethlinn (e) Manannan (f) secret (g) eye (h) Dana (i) Lammas

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Background information

Astronomy Astronomy

6. Teacher check Page 87 Teacher check

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✶✶ The moon (lunar) crater Chang-Ngo is named after Chang’e. In 2007, the Chinese sent the lunar orbiter Chang’e 1 to orbit the moon and to take 3-D images of the moon’s surface. Students might be interested in viewing some of the images taken by Chang’e 1 and reading about the mission. ✶✶ Students could listen to Gustav Holst’s The Planets suite and discuss how they feel about the astronomically -inspired composition.

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Astronomy and culture – 1 The constant presence of the sun, moon, planets and stars in the sky has meant they have been an important part of culture since human life began. More than just measuring time and seasons, the planetary bodies have been woven into the myths, arts, music, dance and religions of cultures throughout the ages. While some of the beliefs about the objects in the sky have ‘died out’ over time, many are still part of the culture and tradition of societies around the world. The Moon or Mid-autumn Festival, on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month, is one of the two most important holidays in the Chinese calendar. Families come together and share moon cakes. It remembers Chang’e, goddess of the moon.

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Long ago, there were 10 suns moving one at a time across the sky. When one day the suns decided to all come out together, it became too hot. Crops dried up and people started dying. The emperor, Yao, asked his archer, Hou Yi, for help. Hou Yi shot down nine of the 10 suns, leaving just one and saving humankind.

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Balor was the god of the underworld and the leader of the evil Fomorii. According to a prophesy, Balor would be killed by his grandson. Because of this, he was afraid of his only daughter, Ethlinn, having a child. Soon after, he imprisoned Ethlinn in a crystal tower. Nonetheless, she gave birth to a son, who she called Lugh. This scared Balor, so, as soon as Lugh was born, Balor had him thrown into the sea to drown. But Lugh was rescued and raised in secret by the god of the sea, Manannan.

Hou Yi had a beautiful wife named Chang’e, who he loved with all his heart. He wanted their happiness to last forever, so he asked the Queen Mother of the West, Xi Wangmu, for the elixir of life. As Xi Wangmu gave him the elixir, she told him that if they shared the drink, they would be happy and live forever on Earth. But she also warned if only one of them should drink it, that person would become immortal and live in heaven.

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Lugh became an expert warrior and joined the people of the goddess Dana (Tuatha De Danaan) in fighting the evil Fomorii. Knowing Balor had an evil eye capable of killing whoever looked at it, Lugh threw a magic stone at his eye during a battle and killed him, just as the prophecy had predicted. Lugh then became the king of the Tuatha De Danaan and known as a sun god.

Hou Yi and Chang’e were about to share the drink when an evil man, who wanted the elixir for himself, killed Hou Yi. Chang’e quickly drank the elixir and began to travel to heaven. But Chang’e missed her husband so much that she decided to stay on the moon, since it was the heavenly object that was closest to Earth. She is ‘the woman in the moon’, much like the Western ‘man in the moon’.

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At one time, a festival called Lughnasa, remembering Lugh and his foster mother, was widely celebrated in Ireland, Britain and France on 1 August. Today, it is better known now as Lammas and is a festival that commemorates the beginning of the harvest. Some Irish people continue to celebrate the holiday with fires and dancing. Lughnasadh is also the name for August in modern Scottish Gaelic.

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Astronomy

Astronomy and culture – 2 1. When is the Chinese Moon Festival celebrated? 2. How is it celebrated?

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3. Who was Hou Yi and what did he do?

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4. Circle as true or false.

true

false

(b) Chang’e went to heaven.

true

false

true

false

(d) Chang’e was killed by a jealous man

true

false

(a) Xi Wangmu gave Hou Yi the elixir of life.

5. Find the answers to these questions in the wordsearch.

(a)

O Y

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(d)

was Lugh’s mother

(e) Lugh was raised by

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(g) Balor had an evil that could kill.

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(h) Lugh joined the supporters

(i) The festival commemorating Lugh

today is now called

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6. What do you think is the reason that less people today celebrate festivals connected to Celtic gods? Astronomy

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Astronomy and fiction Astronomy is not just part of myths and festivals. Astronomical objects, both the real and imagined, also inspire poetry, literature, music, dance, drawing and painting. Science fiction (sci-fi), is a genre of fiction usually set in space or another planet, often involving alien creatures and scientific or technical data about that place. Using your knowledge of astronomy, write some plans below for a short sci-fi story. Make notes about the setting (e.g. in a spacecraft, in a time machine, the future, on a strange planet), the characters (e.g. humans, robots, aliens), their equipment and the plot. Start writing your story below, then continue on a separate sheet of paper.

r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S Setting and equipment

Plot

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Characters

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Astronomy

Light pollution Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about light pollution. ✶✶ Composes an exposition expressing his or her point of view about light pollution.

Background information

Additional activities

✶✶ Astronomers and organisations such as the International Dark-Sky Association are working to raise awareness and educate the public and governmental bodies about light pollution and what can be done about it.

✶✶ Investigate how lighting is used around students’ homes, school and buildings in the community. Decide how they can reduce (or suggest ways to reduce) light pollution on a personal basis. ✶✶ Discuss what types of lighting are or are not necessary on community buildings. Consider the following: Are particular lights needed for security reasons? Are specific lights used for aesthetic reasons (accent lighting such as wall washing, silhouetting, shadowing) necessary? Should a business use lighting to catch someone’s eye for advertising purposes? Should all advertising lighting be left on all night? Should lighting be left on in offices etc. after all employees have gone home? ✶✶ View images of the night sky at the following websites: <http://designresearchgroup.files.wordpress. com/2007/12/ontario14aug03.jpg> (These two pictures show the night sky from the same location—one when the power grid failed and there was a blackout and one on a night with the usual sky glow.) <http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/CfDS/Earth_ night.jpg> <http://www.grandeye.com.hk/etx/hk_pollution. jpg> <http://www.astropix.com/HTML/H_OTHER/ SATPOL1.HTM> (An image of the sky with no light pollution.)

Answers

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Page 90 1. Possible answer: What do we call excessive or obtrusive light that spills outside the areas it is meant to illuminate? 2. Teacher check 3. interior, residential, parks, headlights, lighting, billboards, security 4. Teacher check 5. Teacher check Page 91 Teacher check

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Light pollution – 1 What is light pollution? Light pollution is excessive or obtrusive light that spills outside the areas it is meant to illuminate. There are three types of light pollution: • sky glow – the orange-yellow glow above a town or city created by misdirected light escaping into the night sky • glare – light that interferes with the night vision of motorists and pedestrians

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• light trespass – light that shines unnecessarily onto neighbouring properties or into people’s homes and is not welcome. What are the sources of light pollution?

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What impact does light pollution have? Light pollution is becoming an increasingly serious problem worldwide as it impacts on us in many ways:

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There are many sources of light pollution and here is a starting list: exterior and interior lighting from residential and commercial properties, advertising billboards, street lighting, vehicles’ headlights, illuminated sporting and entertainment venues, security lights, car parks, aircraft and airports.

• Light pollution makes it increasingly impossible to view the stars and constellations in the night sky with the unaided eye. The sky glow effect that occurs in highly populated areas means those inhabitants will not experience the wonders of the night sky—unless they travel to an area with few lights.

• Astronomers rely on observations of extremely faint objects seen with powerful telescopes. Sky glow interferes with these images and observatories have to be built at sites free from light pollution far from urban areas.

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• Light pollution wastes billions of dollars a year as money is wasted on misdirected or unnecessary lights. • Vast amounts of natural resources, such as oil, coal and natural gas, are wasted to generate power for lighting. The more lighting that is used, the more the air becomes polluted.

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• Researches are investigating the possibility that artificial light is linked to breast cancer.

• Light pollution disrupts plant and animal behaviour; e.g. some nocturnal animals, such as Henslow’s sparrows, stop breeding if their habitat becomes too bright. What can be done about it?

• Many people are unaware of the problem, so awareness programs will help.

• Outdoor lights should be replaced with those that are shielded and directed downwards, and use energy-efficient bulbs. • Sign lighting on advertising billboards should be aimed down towards the sign. • The amount and quality of lighting needed to provide safety and protection for people and property in residential and commercial areas needs to be assessed. • Unnecessary lights inside buildings should be turned off to prevent light trespass and save natural resources. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

Astronomy

Light pollution – 2 1. Write a question for this answer. light pollution

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2. Write keywords and phrases to describe each type of light pollution. glare

3. Fill in the missing words to list these sources of light pollution. exterior and

lighting from

light trespass

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sky glow

and commercial

, vehicles’ , street © R . I . C . P u b l i c a t i onslights , advertising and •f orr evi e wpollution pur pyou os estheomost nl y• 4. Describe the four problems created by light that consider important. properties, car

•

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•

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5. Identify one way light pollution could safely be reduced: (a) at home. (b) at school. (c) in your community. Astronomy

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Light pollution exposition An exposition is a form of writing that tries to persuade the reader to share the writer’s point of view. It can be written in various ways such as an essay, a letter, an advertisement, an editorial or a speech. Plan an exposition expressing your point of view about light pollution. Make notes in the framework, then write your exposition and edit your work. Title:

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Arguments (Don’t forget to use persuasive language.):

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Introduction (One or more sentences that state the issue.):

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Conclusion (Restates the writer’s position and summarises arguments.):

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Astronomy

The development of astrology Indicators ✶✶ Reads and understands information about the development of astrology. ✶✶ Researches further information about three common forms of astrology in use today.

Answers

✶✶ It is difficult to trace the development of astrology, as it dates back to the beginning of time and probably began to evolve within several different civilisations concurrently. As it formulated throughout Asia, Europe and the Americas, each civilisation contributed their own beliefs and ideals to develop the different forms of astrology we are familiar with today. ✶✶ Many scientists discredit the idea of distant planetary objects affecting human behaviour and state there is no evidence proving a relationship between the position of planets at a given time, and the events, personality or actions of individuals. Others, however, believe in a connection between human life and the physical universe. ✶✶ Although astrology has been part of society since the beginning of time, newspaper horoscopes started to become popular after London’s Sunday Times included an astrological profile in a feature on Princess Margaret’s birth in 1930. Interest in horoscopes further increased in the late 1960s as alternative forms of spirituality became popular. ✶✶ Chinese and Indian societies have different zodiac signs, as well as different numbers of signs of the zodiac.

Page 94 1. (a) a set of beliefs or practices which are mistakenly thought to be of a scientific basis (b) an opinion or conclusion based on insufficient proof (c) large numbers (d) clearly visible or understood 2. Mundane astrology is based on observing regular celestial patterns and observing what is happening on Earth at the time, while natal astrology is based on predicting what a person may be like based on the stars. 3. (a) opinion (b) opinion (c) fact (d) fact (e) fact Possible answers: 4. (a) Astrology has been in use since the beginning of time when people first noticed the effect of the moon on the tides. (b) The Chinese developed the 60-year astrological cycle in 2317 BCE. (c) Nostradamus was a French astrologist who used Judicial astrology to make predictions about the future. He compiled his predicitions in a book, The prophecies, which he wrote in 1555. 5. Teacher check Page 95 Teacher check

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Background information

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✶✶ Students use the information they have learned to work out their sun sign in Western astrology, their animal in Chinese astrology and their rashi sign in Indian astrology. Students can go on to find a detailed horoscope for each form of astrology and compare their findings. ✶✶ Students write and display class horoscopes for the week. Keep them positive.

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The development of astrology – 1 Prehistory People noticed that the moon had an effect on the tide. 3000 BCE Babylonians recorded annual astrological patterns on clay tablets.

There are many forms of astrology and multitudes of traditions relating to astrology. The three most common forms of astrology in use today are Chinese, Indian and Western astrology. Each of these have their own unique beliefs and governing ideas of practice.

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2317 BCE

The 60-year astrological cycle was created in China. 900–800 BCE

539 BCE

Babylonian astrologers divided the sky into 12 equal sections of 30 degrees each.

History suggests that astrology has been in use since the beginning of time, when people first observed the astronomical patterns which were repeated annually. This form of astrology, known as ‘mundane (natural) astrology’ (now known as ‘astronomy’), was initially used to predict the recurrence of seasons and particular celestial events, such as the solstice. As astrology evolved, it was then used to predict major events such as plague, earthquakes, flooding, famine and war. The information was used to guide rulers in their decision making and to inform them of possible events which may occur.

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A group of Babylonian astrologers wrote the Enuma anu enlil, which consisted of 7000 astrological ideas recorded on more than 70 tablets.

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Astrology is the study and observance of planetary movements and how these are believed to influence moments in time. Astrology is not considered a ‘true’ science, but a pseudoscience based on superstition, conjecture and interpretation; however, this field of study has its supporters as well as its critics.

Historians and archaeologists have reason to believe that the systems of astrology developed by the Indians, Chinese, Babylonians, Mayans and Aztecs occurred at around the same time but independently of each other. However, the Babylonians were the first people responsible for developing an organised system of astrology, and recorded their ‘mundane’ occurrences and the constellations which appeared in the sky at the same time.

The Chinese began to keep records of astronomical events.

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Plato and Aristotle introduced the Greeks to Babylonian astrology in their search for a relationship between humans and the cosmos. 332 BCE

Horoscopes Egypt.

first

appeared

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100 CE

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Ptolemy, a Greek geographer, mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, wrote Tetrabiblos—four books outlining astrological lore. 1000 CE

The distinction between astrology and astronomy was made by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni—a great linguist, mathematician and astronomer. 1555 CE Nostradamus, a French astrologer, used ‘Judicial astrology’ to record his predictions in his book, The prophecies. R.I.C. Publications® — www.ricpublications.com.au

It was not until the 6th century BCE that the Babylonians divided the sky into 12 equal sections. They had established that various collections of stars were visible in the sky at particular times of the year and recorded this information. This form of astrology was introduced to the Greeks in the early part of 4th century BCE. They embraced the apparent power of the celestial bodies and extended the original ideas of astrology to forecast the personalities and fates of ordinary Greek citizens. Known as ‘natal (birth) astrology’, it is the most common form of astrology still in use today. 93

Astronomy

The development of astrology – 2 1. These words were used in the text. What do they mean?

(a) pseudoscience

(b) conjecture

(d) apparent

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2. Explain the difference between ‘mundane’ and ‘natal’ astrology.

3. Circle as fact or opinion. (a) Astrology provides us with an accurate forecast of future events.

fact

(b) The Greeks contributed the most useful aspects of astrology.

fact

opinion

© R. I . C.Publ i cat i ons (d) Information provided by astrologers was used by fact opinion rulers to aid decision-making processes. •f orr evi ew pur posesonl y• (e) Astrology has been incorporated in everyday life since the

opinion

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(a) Astrology has been in use

(b) The Chinese developed

opinion

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4. Complete these sentences.

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opinion

fact

beginning of time.

fact

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5. What is your opinion about astrology? Explain your views for and against.

Astronomy

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Different types of astrology The three most common forms of astrology in use today are Chinese, Indian and Western astrology. Research and compare these modern forms of astrology. Indian

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Beliefs

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How does it work?

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Traditions

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How does it influence daily life?

Western

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What is it based on?

Chinese

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Astronomy