Differing Views on the Status Quo: Stability Versus Change

high level of emotional energy, and the opposite is also true. Each time we engage in a new interaction, the situation has to be negotiated all over again, and the outcome cannot be known beforehand.

In the case of a shopper–cashier interaction, how successful will the interaction be for each of them? The answer to this question depends on a kind of social marketplace in which such interactions can either raise or lower one’s emotional energy. If the customer’s credit card is rejected, he or she may come away with lower emotional energy. If the customer is angry at the cashier, he or she may attempt to “save face” by reacting in a haughty manner regarding the rejection of the card. (“What’s wrong with you? Can’t you do anything right? I’ll never shop here again!”) If this type of encounter occurs, the cashier may also come out of the interaction with a lower level of emotional energy, which may affect the cashier’s interactions with subsequent customers. Likewise, the next time the customer uses a credit card, he or she may say something like “I hope this card isn’t over its limit; sometimes I lose track,” even if the person knows that the card’s credit limit has not been exceeded. This is only one of many ways in which the rich tradition of symbolic interactionism might be used to examine shopping and consumption.

Postmodern Perspectives

According to postmodern perspectives, existing theories have been unsuccessful in explaining social life in contemporary societies that are characterized by postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications. Postmodern social theorists reject the theoretical perspectives we have previously discussed, as well as how those theories were created (Ritzer, 2011).

Postmodern theories are based on the assumption that large-scale and rapid social change, globalization, and technology are central features in the postmodern era. Moreover, these conditions tend to have a harmful effect on people because they often result in ambiguity and chaos. One evident change is a significant decline in the influence of social institutions such as the family, religion, and education on people’s lives. Those who live in postmodern societies typically pursue individual freedom and do not want the structural constraints that are imposed by social institutions. As social inequality and class differences increase, people are exposed to higher levels of stress that produce depression, fear, and ambivalence. Problems such as these are found in nations throughout the world.

Postmodern (or “postindustrial”) societies are characterized by an information explosion and an economy in which large numbers of people either provide or apply information, or are employed in professional occupations (such as attorneys and physicians) or service jobs (such as fast-food servers and health care workers). There is a corresponding rise of a consumer society and the emergence of a global village in which people around the world instantly communicate with one another.

Jean Baudrillard, a well-known French social theorist, has extensively explored how the shift from production of goods to consumption of information, services, and products has created a new form of social control. According to Baudrillard’s approach, capitalists strive to control people’s shopping habits, much like the output of factory workers in industrial economies, to enhance their profits and to keep everyday people from rebelling against social inequality (1998/1970). How does this work? When consumers are encouraged to purchase more than they need or can afford, they often sink deeper in debt and must keep working to meet their monthly payments.

Applying Postmodern Perspectives to Shopping

and Consumption According to some social theorists, the postmodern society is a consumer society. The focus of the capitalist economy has shifted from production to consumption: The emphasis is on getting people to consume more and to own a greater variety of things. As previously discussed, credit cards may encourage people to spend more money than they should, and often more than they can afford (Ritzer, 1998). Television shopping networks, online shopping, and mobile advertising and shopping devices make it possible for people to shop around the clock without having to leave home or encounter “real” people. As Ritzer (1998: 121) explains, “So many of our interactions in these settings . . . are simulated, and we become so accustomed to them, that in the end all we have are simulated interactions; there are no more ‘real’ interactions. The entire distinction between the simulated and the real is lost; simulated interaction is the reality” (see also Henry, Baudrillard, 1983).

For postmodernists, social life is not an objective reality waiting for us to discover how it works. Rather, what we experience as social life is actually nothing more or less than how we think about it, and there are many diverse ways of doing that. According to a postmodernist perspective, the Enlightenment goal of intentionally creating a better world out of some knowable truth is an illusion. Although some might choose to dismiss postmodern approaches, they do give us new and important questions to think about regarding the nature of social life.

The Concept Quick Review reviews all four of these perspectives. Throughout this book we will be using these perspectives as lenses through which to view our world.

Looking Ahead: Theory and/or Practice in Your Future?

One of the themes of Sociology in Our Times is that we live in a world that is constantly changing. Some people might argue that sociological theory has not changed sufficiently to adequately describe these social changes. Others believe

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Perspective Analysis Level View of Society

Functionalist Macrolevel Society is composed of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability within society. This stability is threatened by dysfunctional acts and institutions.

Conflict Macrolevel Society is characterized by social inequality; social life is a struggle for scarce resources. Social arrangements benefit some groups at the expense of others.

Symbolic Interactionist

Microlevel Society is the sum of the interactions of people and groups. Behavior is learned in interaction with other people; how people define a situation becomes the foundation for how they behave.

Postmodernist Macrolevel/ Microlevel

Societies characterized by postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications bring into question existing assumptions about social life and the nature of reality.

that newer perspectives, such as postmodernism and globalization, adequately address the changes and continuities we are seeing today. Now it is time for you to consider how useful sociology and its theories might to you not only in this course but in the future.

As previously discussed, the sociological perspective (or sociological imagination) will help you gain a better understanding of yourself, other people, and the larger social world. We have discussed consumerism as an example of sociological inquiry in this chapter because it is a reflection of both social continuity and change in our nation and world. Consumerism is underpinned by power relationships, and studying it reveals how economic structures such as capitalism have an inescapable influence on all aspects of our lives. Today, consumerism is a rapidly growing area of inquiry in both academic and applied sociology. Jobs in applied sociology include project managers, urban development specialists, human rights officers, case managers, health planners, research coordinators, and a myriad of other careers in which sociological thinking and research can help people gain a better understanding of their work, clients, and pressing social issues.

1. the decision-maker who uses social science to shape public policy decisions 2. the educator who teaches sociology to students 3. the commentator and social critic who writes for the public through books, articles, blogs and social media 4. the researcher for clients who works with public or private organizations (such as health care institutions or mental health groups) 5. the consultant who works for specific clients to answer questions or solve problems that are of interest to that client (based on Zetterberg, 2002/1964).

People in the final two roles of researcher for clients or consultant are classified as applied sociologists. People in the final two roles of researcher for clients or consultant are classified as applied sociologists. The “pure” sociology of the past has been joined by those who engage in applied sociology and public sociology.

Q&A

CHAPTER REVIEW

Use these questions and answers to check how well you’ve achieved the learning objectives set out at the beginning of this chapter.

LO1 What is sociology, and how can it contribute

to our understanding of social life?

Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction. We study sociology to understand how human behavior is shaped by group life and, in turn, how group life is affected by individuals by group life and, in turn, how group life is affected by individuals. LO2 What is meant by the sociological

imagination and how can it be used?

The sociological imagination helps us understand how seemingly personal troubles, such as debt or unemployment, are actually related to larger social forces. It is the ability to see the relationship between personal troubles, such as debt and individuals.

LO3 How can we develop a global sociological

imagination?

We must reach beyond past studies that have focused primarily on the United States to develop a more comprehensive global approach for the future. It is important to have a global sociological imagination because the future of this nation is deeply intertwined with the future of all nations of the world on economic, political, and humanitarian levels.

LO4 What was the historical context in which

sociological thinking developed?

The origins of sociological thinking as we know it today can be traced to the beginnings of industrialization and urbanization increased rapidly in the late eighteenth century when social thinkers began to examine the consequences of these powerful forces.

LO5 Why were many early social thinkers

concerned with social order and stability?

Early social thinkers—such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim—were interested in analyzing social order and stability because they were concerned about the future of the nations in which they lived. Order and stability seemed functional for everyone’s wellbeing in a rapidly changing world, and as such, many of their ideas had a dramatic influence on consensus and order perspectives in contemporary sociology. Auguste Comte coined the term sociology to describe a new science that would engage in the study of society. Comte’s works were made more accessible for a wide variety of scholars through the efforts of the British sociologist Harriet Martineau. Herbert Spencer’s major contribution to efforts of the British sociologist Harriet Martineau sociology was an evolutionary perspective on social order and social change. Durkheim argued that societies are built on social facts, that rapid social change in inevitable and social influence is a factor in change. LO6 Why were many later social thinkers

concerned with social change?

In sharp contrast to Durkheim’s focus on the stability of society, German economist and philosopher Karl Marx stressed that history is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces. He believed that conflict— especially class conflict—is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. He believed that conflict—especially class conflict—is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. Although he disagreed with Marx’s idea that economics is the central force in social change, German social scientist Max Weber acknowledged that economic interests are important in shaping human action.

LO7 How did industrialization and urbanization

influence theorists such as Weber and Simmel?

Weber was concerned about the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution and the influences these changes had on human behavior. In particular, Weber was concerned that large-scale organizations were becoming increasingly oriented toward routine administration and a specialized division of labor, which he believed were destructive to human vitality and freedom. Whereas other sociologists primarily focused on society as a whole, Simmel explored small social groups and social life in urban areas, arguing that society was best seen as a web of patterned interactions among people.

LO8 What are key differences in contemporary

functionalist and conflict perspectives on social life?

Functionalist perspectives assume that society is a stable, orderly system characterized by societal consensus. Conflict perspectives argue that society is a continuous power struggle among competing groups, often based on class, race, ethnicity, or gender and is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society.

KEY Terms

anomie 00 conflict perspectives 00 functionalist perspectives 00 functionalist theory 00 high-income countries 00 industrialization 00 latent functions 00 low-income countries 00 macrolevel analysis 00 manifest functions 00 microlevel analysis 00 middle-income countries 00 positivism 00 postmodern perspectives 00 social Darwinism 00 social facts 00 sociological imagination 00 social Darwinism 00 social facts 00 society 00 sociological imagination 00 sociology 00 symbolic interactionist perspective theory 00 theory 00 theorist 00 urbanization 00

QUESTIONS for Critical Thinking

1 What does C. Wright Mills mean when he says the sociological imagination helps us “to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society?” (Mills, 1959b: 6). How might this idea be applied to today’s consumer society?

2 As a sociologist, how would you remain objective yet see the world as others see it? Would you make subjective decisions when trying to understand the perspectives of others?

3 Early social thinkers were concerned about stability in times of rapid change. In our more global world, is stability still a primary goal? Or is constant conflict important for the wellbeing of all humans? Use the conflict and functionalist perspectives to bolster your analysis.

4 Some social analysts believe that college students relate better to commercials, advertising culture, and social media than they do to history, literature, or probably anything else. How would you use the various sociological perspectives to explore the validity of this assertion in regard to students on your college campus?

ANSWERS for Sociology Quiz

CONSUMPTION AND CREDIT CARDS

1 True The credit card debt owed by the average U.S. household (that had credit card debt) in 2014 was $15,611.

2 False Since the 2009 Credit CARD Act, it has become more difficult for college students to get a credit card in their name unless an adult co-signs for the card or students can prove they have sufficient income to pay the bills.

3 True The average balance among college students with a credit card in 2014 was about $499.00. More students are now using debit cards than in the past.

4 True Millennials are the biggest spenders online in any given year. Despite their typically-lower incomes, they spend about $2,000 in online shopping each year.

5 False Although the credit card industry has cracked down on companies issuing cards to people in lowerincome brackets, many lower – and middle-income families do use credit cards for their financialsafety-net to purchase necessities such as food, housing, and utilities because they lack adequate cash to pay for these goods and services.

6 False In the United States, approximately 900,000 people filed for bankruptcy in 2014 (as compared with more than 1 million each year in previous years). However, this change is a sign new regulations were in place that made it more difficult to discharge (get rid of) debt by bankruptcy and not because people are now better off financially.

7 True The total U.S. outstanding revolving debt on credit cards alone was over $880.5 billion in 2014.

8 False People in all income brackets in the United States have problems with overspending, partly as a result of excessive use of credit and not paying off debts when they are due.

Sources: Adapted from Holmes and Ghahremani, 2014; Smith, 2014; U.S. Courts.gov, 2014.

A

absolute poverty a level of economic deprivation that exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. achieved status a social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort. activity theory the proposition that people tend to shift gears in late middle age. acute diseases illnesses that strike suddenly and cause dramatic incapacitation and sometimes death. age stratification inequalities, differences, segregation, or conflict between age groups. ageism prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly against older persons. agents of socialization the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society. aggregate a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else in common. aging the physical, psychological, and social processes associated with growing older. agrarian societies societies that use the technology of large-scale farming, including animal-drawn or energy- powered plows and equipment, to produce their food supply. agrarian societies societies that use the technology of large-scale farming, including animal-drawn or energy- powered plows and equipment, to produce their food supply. alienation a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. animism the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces that have an impact on events in society. anomie Emile Durkheim’s designation for a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society. anticipatory socialization the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future roles. ascribed status a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control, such as race/ ethnicity, age, and gender. assimilation a process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture. authoritarian leaders leaders who make all major group decisions and assign tasks to members. authoritarian personality a personality type characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking. authoritarianism a political system controlled by rulers who deny popular participation in government. authority power that people accept as legitimate rather than coercive.

B

beliefs the mental acceptance or conviction that certain things are true or real. bilateral descent a system of tracing descent through both the mother’s and father’s sides of the family. bilateral descent a system of tracing descent through both the mother’s and father’s sides of the family. bilateral descent a system of tracing descent through both the mother’s and father’s sides of the family. blended family a family consisting of a husband and wife, children from previous marriages, and children (if any) from the new marriage. blended family a family consisting of a husband and wife, children from previous marriages. body consciousness how a person perceives and feels about his or her body. bureaucracy an organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personnel matters. bureaucratic personality a psycho- logical construct that describes those workers who are more concerned with following correct procedures than they are with getting the job done correctly.

C

capitalism an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production. capitalist class (or bourgeoisie) Karl Marx’s term for those who own and control the means of production. caste system a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics. category a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic, such as education level, age, race, or gender. charismatic authority power legitimized on the basis of a leader’s exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment that inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. chronic diseases illnesses that are long term or lifelong and that develop gradually or are present from birth. chronological age a person’s age based on date of birth. church a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it. civil disobedience nonviolent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it. civil disobedience nonviolent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it. civil religion the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. civil religion the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. cohort a group of people born within a specified period of time. civil disobedience nonviolent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it. civil religion the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. civil religion the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. cohort a group of people born within a specified period of time. civil religion the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society.

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Abaya, C., 360 Abdel-Hameed Mesk, R., 46 Ackard, D., 315 Addams, J., 22 Adler, F., 191 Adorno, T. W., 286 Adrian, N., 303 Akers, R., 193 Albanese, C. L., 509, 51 513, 516, 520 Albas, C., 145 Albas, D., 145 Albrecht, G. L., 567 Alley, K., 332 Altemeyer, B., 286 Amato, P. R., 463 Andersen, M. L., 341 Anderson, E., 53 Anderson, L., 56, 126, 127, 131 Andrews, M., 238, 239 Angier, N., 99 Applebome, P., 199 Appleton, L. M., 596 Applewhite, M. H., 527 Arendt, H., 12 Aristotle, 11, 477 Asch, A., 568, 569 Asch, S., 166–167 Ashe, A. R., Jr., 282 Assange, J., 202 Atkins, P., 530 Aulette, J. R., 448 Avades, T., 144 Axtell, R. E., 67 Aydelotte, B., 188 Ayers, N., 130 Ayukawa, C., 36 Angier, N., 99 Applebome, P., 199 Appleton, L. M., 596 Applewhite, M. H., 527 Arendt, H., 12 Aristotle, 11, 477 Asch, A., 568, 569 Asch, S., 166–167 Ashe, A. R., Jr., 282 Assange, J., 202 Atkins, P., 530 Aulette, J. R., 448 Avades, T., 144 Axtell, R. E., 67 Aydelotte, B., 188 Ayers, N., 130 Ayukawa, C., 36

Babbie, E., 43, 44, 47 Bacevich, A. J., 437 Baker, D. B., 15, 387, 393 Baker, R., 70 Ballantine, J. H., 108, 23, 477, 481 Banner, L. W., 352 Barkan, S. E., 210, 212 Barlow, H. D., 210 Basow, S. A., 26 Baudrillard, J., 30, 86 Bean, I., 365 Beck, A. T., 54 Beck, R., 4 Becker, H., 195 Beeghley, L, 18–19, 391, 418 Begay, N., III, 297 Belkin, L., 328, 350 Bell, D., 294 Bell, W., 594 Bellah, R., 521 Below, R., 546 Ben Ali, Z. E. A., 623 Benjamin, L., 22 Berger, P., 6, 144, 453, 50, 508, 510, 528 Bernard, J., 454 Bernstein, N., 553 Best, J., 213 Biblarz, A., 54 bin Laden, O., 203, 513 Bindley, K., 51 Bishaw, A., 242, 368 Bjornstrom, E. E., 191 Blauner, R., 291 Blitzer, W., 199 Block, F., 246 Bluestone, B., 245 Blumer, H., 28, 143, 616, 621 Blynn, J., 414 Boateng, K-P, 285 Bonacich, E., 292, 399 Bonanno, G., 375 Bono, 126 Bono, C., 318 Bonvillain, N., 325 Bosworth, K., 332 Bouchard, G., 458 Bourdieu, P., 82, 228, 477, 621 Boyes, W., 383, 391 Branigan, T., 272 Brault, M. W., 568, 570 Braun, R., 405 Boateng, K-P, 285 Bonacich, E., 292, 399 Bonanno, G., 375 Bono, 126 Bono, C., 318 Bonvillain, N., 325 Bosworth, K., 332 Bouchard, G., 458 Bourdieu, P., 82, 228, 477, 621 Boyes, W., 383, 391 Branigan, T., 272 Brault, M. W., 568, 570 Braun, R., 405 Breault, K. D., 50 Brewer, J., 581 Brill, S., 541 Briody, B., 495 Brooks, K., 315 Brown, E. R., 552 Brown, P. R., 148 Brown, R. W., 620 Bucktooth, B., 297 Buechler, S. M., 629 Buffett, W., 234, 235 Bullard, R. B., 629 Burgess, E. W., 592, 617 Burgess-Proctor, A., 192 Burros, M., 249 Bury, M., 567

Caldwell, L. A., 428 Calvin, J., 522 Cameron, D., 264 Campbell, D., 532, 533 Cancian, F. M., 39 Canetto, S., 46 Cantor, M. G., 84 Cantril, H., 618 Capek, S. M., 629 Carender, K., 629 Carlson, S., 238, 239 Carnegie, A., 387 Carpenter, R., 45 Carroll, K., 584 Carson, R., 614 Carter, G. L., 384, 385 Carter, J. D., 149 Castells, M., 594 Catalano, S., 467 Chagnon, N., 81 Chambliss, W., 195 Chávez, C., 403 Chesney-Lind, M., 192 Chu, J., 303 Chu, K., 627 Cisse, D., 285 Clayman, S. E., 619 Clementi, T., 36 Clines, F. X., 249 Clinton, B., 419 Clinton, H. R., 344 Cloward, R., 189, 190 Coakley, J., 282, 284 Cohn, D’V., 579–581 Chávez, C., 403 Chesney-Lind, M., 192 Chu, J., 303 Chu, K., 627 Cisse, D., 285 Clayman, S. E., 619 Clementi, T., 36 Clines, F. X., 249 Clinton, B., 419 Clinton, H. R., 344 Cloward, R., 189, 190 Coakley, J., 282, 284 Cohn, D’V., 579–581 Cole, G. F., 210 Coleman, R. P., 229 Coleman-Jensen, A, 238, 239 Colford, P., 584 Collins, P. H., 111, 341 Collins, R., 29, 508 Collins, R. L., 11 Coltrane, S., 465 Columbus, C., 295 Comte, A., 13–14 Confucius, 513–515 Conn, C. P., 116 Cook, K. H., 6 Cooley, C. H., 28, 102, 10, 160, 195, 453, 620 Coontz, S., 455 Cooper, E., 506 Cormier, d., 487 Corr, C. A., 376 Corr, D. M., 376 Corsaro, W. A., 105, 109 Cortese, A. J., 331 Coser, L. A., 161 Cotter, D., 344 Coughlin, E. K., 53 Cox, O. C., 291 Creswell, J. W., 46 Cronin, J., 614 Crouch, W. W., 6 Crow, S., 332 Crutsinger, M., 7 Cumming, E. C., 372 Cummings, A., 51 Curtis, J. E., 300 Curtiss, S., 98, 99 Cyrus, V., 324

Dang, T. L., 272 Daniels, J., 496 Daniels, R., 302 Darwin, C., 506 Davidson, J., 192 Davis, F., 621 Davis, K., 98, 246 Davis-Delano, L. R., 330 Deegan, M. J., 22 Delgado, R., 293, 294 DeNavas-Walt, C., 15–16, 37, 3, 42–44, 50, 51, 140–14, 187, 421, 452, 478, 50, 509, 519 Dennis, J. A., 463 Dickey, W., 314 Dickson, W. J., 56 Dollar, C., 524 Dollard, J., 286 Dolnick, S., 238 Domhoff, G. W., 230, 41, 424, 425 Donaire, N., 303 Dowd, M., 382 Dozier, D. M., 116 Driskell, R. B., 160 Du Bois, W. E. B., 22, 291 Dunbar, P., 461 Durkheim, E., 15–16, 37, 3, 42–44, 50, 51, 140–14, 187, 421, 452, 478, 50, 509, 519 Dye, T. R., 422, 424, 434 Early, K. E., 48 Ebaugh, H. R. E., 129 Eckholm, E., 190, 493 Eddy, M. B., 527 Early, K. E., 48 Ebaugh, H. R. E., 129