Learner English by Tym Hanson

Learner English SECOND EDITION

A teacher's guide to interference and other problems

) ! +

published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011Âą4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de AlarcoĂ&#x201A;n 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org # Cambridge University Press 2001 This book is in copyright, which normally means that no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The copying of certain parts of it by individual teachers for use within their classrooms, however, is permitted without such formality. To aid identiÂŽcation, pages which are copiable by the teacher without further permission are identiÂŽed by a separate copyright notice: # Cambridge University Press 2001. First published 1987 Second edition 2001 Fourth printing 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeset in Sabon 10.5/12pt

[CE]

& + '

, , - -* Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems / [edited by] Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. Âą 2nd ed. p. cm. Âą (Cambridge handbooks for language teachers) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-77939-1 (pb) Âą ISBN 0-521-00024-6 (audio cd) Âą ISBN 0-521-77497-7 (cassette) 1. English language Âą Study and teaching Âą Foreign speakers. 2. Interference (Linguistics) I. Swan, Michael. II. Smith, Bernard, 1937Âą . III. Series. PE1128.A2 L36 2001 428'.0071Âądc21 ISBN: 0 521 77939 1 paperback ISBN: 0 521 77497 7 cassette ISBN: 0 521 00024 6 CD (audio)

00-046785

Contents

Notes on contributors vii Introduction ix Note for teachers of American English List of phonetic symbols xiv Acknowledgements xvi

xii

Dutch speakers 1 Speakers of Scandinavian languages 21 German speakers 37 French speakers 52 Italian speakers 73 Speakers of Spanish and Catalan 90 Portuguese speakers 113 Greek speakers 129 Russian speakers 145 Polish speakers 162 Farsi speakers 179 Arabic speakers 195 Turkish speakers 214 Speakers of South Asian languages 227 Speakers of Dravidian languages 244 Speakers of West African languages 251 Swahili speakers 260 Malay/Indonesian speakers 279 Japanese speakers 296 Chinese speakers 310 Korean speakers 325 Thai speakers 343 The cassette and CD

357

Dutch speakers

Distribution ! "# $$ % & '( ! $$ $ ) ! $$ $$ * &$ " + & & , ! $$ & & -. ! $$ $ # + " ! & / +0" $$ " $ * * 1

Introduction "# ! !& + # )2 1 ! " & "# + 3 "# "$ $ $ 4 *$ # ! # " $ * * # $ * * # # $

4$ # # + $* ! /# + & +0" $$ " $$ 54$ ! #6 # + # $ * * # 0 $ * * + ! / # # $ # 4$ # ! $ # & $$ + # ! $ " $ $ " 7 ! + # $ * * # # *# ! # * $$ * # $ * * 3

$! /# & $ " & ! $$ $$ * &$ & # # # $ 4$ "# *$ # & * "$ $ $ # # ! !3 $ $$ + # * !! "# * *$ # $ $ $$ /# # ! *

Phonology General # "# *$ # # $ * " $ ! & $ ! $ # + "# ! $$ # +0" $ " * * " * ! *$ # $ ! * * $ "" # "# -

# &$ ! / # *$ # "" *$ $ +

+ "# * * "# "" *$ # 8 9 " * + 0 $ " " * # * # $ * # + " * / $ 8 + + " 9 ! "# / * "# * # ! $ / "# *$ # 9 : " + /# "" # $$ *

Vowels

{

eK aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z8 @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ "#

# $ # + & " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - * # $ 6 * + * <I< ! & " "$ )$ * " + & / $ 1 )/ # " + & / $ 1 ' "# <e< ! /# & / *$ # <e< <{< #

$ " + + # $ / ) $ 1 " $$ " "# # / $ " * <{< = $ " *$ # <A:< + & " % !

! $ <O:< )/# "# + 1 $ * " + & / $ > <ยก< and <ร < ! & * # $ * " +

$ ! $ ! $ " <ร < # $ <@< . "# 0 *$ # <O:< <@U< +0" $ ! " + $ , "# # ; $ + <U< ! & " # $ <ร < )/ # " + & / + 7 ! $ 1 $ <u:< )! * ! $ 1 ? <z:< ) 1 $$ " / # $ 3 * & "# $ '

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ "#

# $ # + & " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - # $ )5 " 61 " <b< <d< <v< <D< <z< <Z< <dZ< "" # + / "# / $$ $ " # ! & # + )5 " 61 " 8 + % + % + % + % + % + % + ) $ $ + $ ! # *$ # " # $ * # + / $ & + " " " 1 ' # / ! # "# $

" <f< + <v< <s< + <z< <S< + <Z<8 + % + % + = "# $ " # # ! <g< / $$ # <k< # + " <7< ) " # 1 " ; $ <[< > <p< <t< <k< # & * * + / "#% # " ! # ! # $ <b< <d< <g<8 + %

+ % + . <tS< + " <S< <dZ< <Z< ) <S<18 + % <Z{m< or + , <T< $$ " <s< <t<8 + <D<

$$ " <z< <d<8 + ? # "# ! ! <s< # $ <S<8 + @ ! ! <w< / # # $ $ * " + / # <v<8 + A "# <r< 7# & $ + % + # $ *$ # <r< -( "# " $ " 5 6 <l< 5 6 / # # * + # & " # ! # # *$ # " $$ + <i:< <I< <e< ! "# "" # 5 6 <l< & + / $ /# *$ # # 5"$ 6 <l<

-- <h< " & &$ ! + $ / # $ " & " * + ! # " $ " + $* !8 # " <7<3$ + "

Consonant clusters *$ # "$ * $ +0" $ + "#

! <@< & / <l< " # " 8 + % +

Influence of spelling on pronunciation - # "# ! + $$ * / $ # # * + $ ! $ " # * +0" $ # +

3 " * / 6 $$ * + ! " ' " # $ /# "" $ * ! + # ! * # *$ # = "# $ " * <g< # " !& $/ " <ĂŞ< "# # $ &$ ! / # / $ " > " $ / $$ " # $ / $ <ÂĄ< + <Ă&#x192;< . # $ / $ $ !

<@U<3$ + <O:< , 4 $ + " <w<8 " <haUw<% " <sO:w<% " <drO:w< " ? / $$ " # $ $ / $ "

Stress "# *$ #

/ " ;

! $ # ! &$ ! # *# - "# " ! * $ $ #

# 0 $ ! " $ * &$ !

/# *$ # " !

" " " + ) "# appeltaart1 ' "#

" &$ * " " * !! " $ " * ) &1 ) 1 #

$ $ " & #

+ ! / = "# # ! / + ! *$ # # ! " $ / $$

/ $ " * * + ! # *# >

Intonation "# ! / # ! "# / * # *$ # # "# * # /# $ $ $ # *# "# # ! $ / "# *$ # * / # " * ! / # # / /

Juncture and assimilation - "# # 0 $ " + " " /# # "; 0 $ <b< <d< <g< <v< <D< <z< <Z< <dZ< / $$ $$ ! # ! " + # 7 / & * / # " B $ "# / 30 $ " / $$ + & " ! " & + / & * * / # " / $ # $ &$ ! *$ # 4 7 ! $ 8 " " ! " ! " ' "# ; " + / " $ ! $ "

$$ " 8 " "

Punctuation "# " !! + " $ "$ % # " !

$ 8 C " # $ B !! ! & & / $ "$ 8 C "

" $ D ! / $ # 8 C % " $ && $ $ / " * $ / " ! $$ + $$ / & 8 # " & & 7 # / # *$ # + $ $ ! & + " + * 2 # ! 7" "# " ! / / ! # / $ * # /# # & / + ! & *$ # ) * 1 # $

$$ * $ $ .

Grammar General $ * " $$ * # "# $ * * "" ! / & / *$ # ! 2 $$ # ! ! % "# $$ # * !! " $ * # *# " * + " & $ & ! " * / "# + ! + ! + !& + $ * * 3 " 0" ++ " ! # $ * " ! "$ # *$ # ! # E " $ ! $ $ ! $ % # & * 5" 6% # $ + / $ " + # $ &F "

Interrogative and negative structures - "# # 3 * + ! & ! $ % * & $ " * niet )G 1 + # & & + # 0 30 & $ $ ! 8 C' ( C " % $ C% $ ' : 3 * ; / "# ) # / " = 5 $ 6 " .1 # & *# 7 $ " $ /# $ & + "# / $$ 3 $$ " ' ( + ( $ " " # $ &$ # "# = "# * & $ & * * / # # ; $ + ; & # * ) $ 5 $ 61 # &$ # ! *# 3 * & # & + + # $ * 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C' ( > D / # " # + $$ * "# #

! ! + *$ # /# "# " ! ! $ " ; $ ) * ( $! & $$ *

Tags, short answers and reply questions "# # " " " ! &$ / # # *$ # ; *% "$ & 8 ,

C+ " ( , ( )+ + " (1 $ "# *$ # # ; !& + 07 &F " 3 $ 3 7 $ /# "# + ; " $ 7"# * # 3 # / + "# ! ! ! * !

+ &

) ( - $ )+ - " % $ 1 - $ . " $ )+ + $ 1 $ / $ )+ / " $ / " " ( 1 - $ - 0 )+ - " % $ % $ 1

Auxiliaries # * $ + " " 3! "# *$ # hebben )G 1 / zijn )G 1 + ! # + " + zijn + blijven )G 1 + " !! "# * 3 +3 & 8 C1 " $ C1 $ # "# ! + #

" worden )G 1 #

! $ % # / # + " "# # ! $ + ! + zijn )G 1 + "# $ # zijn $$ # /# $ # * # # *$ # & * + " # # / $$ &

# * # &$ ! " !3 & # 7 " *$ # + " " $ /# "# ! ! $ + 2 # + ! # *$ # + + $ " $

Time, tense and aspect + "# " & # + " / # ! "# ++ " ! * # $ # ! $ + ! B $ "# " /# *$ # / $ + " 8 C% $ C) $ ?

C+ % " $

# / $ * + ++ # & * * "# ! $$ + " 8 C% $ C% ) % $

- # *# "# # + + ! / # 7 $ ) *#$ ; $ # , + + *$ #1 +

# + # + 8 C% % $ ' 7

# / $ * + + ++ / $$ # $ "# + ! $ + ! $ 8 C% 3456 % 57 $ C % $ = "# " + $ # + &"$ + ! 8 C1 $

"# # *

& + ! 8 C% * $ C% 2 $ 5: *

6 ! * " # / & 7

+ "

& # + " F " & 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C- " ( ! & * * $ # *$ # *

8 C $

Conditionals - # "# # " & / # + & $ + !

# "# &"$ ! "$ # *$ #% + ! # ; $ + # ! $ *$ # + ! "# $$ /

# + , , # &"$ + + $$ $ 7 " $ & # ! "$ " ! $ 8 @

C% % " % $ C% " ) 1 $ C% " $ ' " !! "# # & dan )G 1 # ! "$ + " $ " " 8 H C% " % # ( H C1 % " % $

Modal verbs I # /# $ # "# *$ # ! + ! $ &

! $ 8 - *$ # " $ $ "# moeten )G 1% # " # + ; + /# # # ! $8 C' ( )+ ' $ $ $(1 C% 8 )+ $ $ $ $ $ $1 # * moest niet ! 8 C- " % ' " 0" $$ $ ! & # ; $ + # "# moest )G 1 C% * $ C

" $ = # "# moet niet !

# + " ! $ $ ++ + ! 8 C9 > "# kan ) 0 kunnen1 $$ +

& $ % #

; $ + *$ # , # 8 C% : $ C% . # + "# kunnen kon ) *1 < konden ) $1 /# * & $ $$ ! $ ! # ! & $ 8 $! &$ ** # # " 7

& # ! & /

" $$ " " "# ! & ! $ & # 8 C- 7 )+ $ $ $ 1 , : !

! $ *# * "# & ! + # A

! $ mag ) 0 mogen1 + ! $ * $ *

*$ # $ $ # + mag /# "# mocht ) G 18 C+ # ? "# zou # $ ++ ! * $ + / + /# "# " & 7

& ' = 8 C )+ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $: 1 C1 + " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $8 + $0$$ 1 C) )+ ) 8 ! 1

Non-finite forms "# " &$ + / 30 + ! # *$ # #

" &$ ! " $$ # + & $ " ! $ ! 3 # + ! / / & # *$ # "# "# ! " $ $ # *$ # " ! $ ! + / + ++ + ! "# ; $ - "# / $$ & "$ F " $ & $ " " + 0 * + & 8 C1 % $ C% C% )+ % 1 C ' "# # ; $ + # *$ # * / $$ +

& 0 + + / " $ 7 ! $ 8 C% $ C% " C% $ C% $ C% $ C% $ " $$ # & " + * ; $ / $$ $ $ # "" " + 0 + 8 C% " = # ; $ + # " 5 & J &F " J " $ 6 /# ! * 7

!& + ++

" 8 C% $ C% ; $ C -(

4 $$ " $ "$ "# "# $

$ &$ $ " ! + * " $ " $ & $ "$ ) 1 $ /# $ * # ! & $ " $ "$ $ < " * # ! / + " " $ "$ $ 1 " )/# "# # "# ; $ $$1 / $$ $ *

Word order 2 "# $

! $ # *$ # ! + # !

* ++ " / $$ $ + $ ! $ $ & # "# ! ! & $ # # / $$ $ &$ ! ! ! " $ $

- "# # &F " # 0 + ! + # &

&$ 8 C1 + ' # "# 0 & * & + ! # + # & $ * ) 0 " $ 18 C% C = " *$ # "# " # & ) ! $ 1 &F "

" ! $ ! & & $ 8 C% C C+ > $/ "" "# + # " / # " # # # &F " " F " 8 C % C% 0 C # . # $ + & $ $ ++ ! & $

* " # + $ " 8 C+ * , # & "$ " ! # + # "$ 8 C1 ; ? "# # "$ " & + ! & " ! $ 7 " $ "$ & F " " ! $ ! 8 --

C + C1 @ 4 / * "$ # " 5 * * " 6 A "# + & * " / # # ; $ + 8 C' + $ ) )+ 1 C) 5==3 %

& & $ * " ! # + & "$ 8 C1 2 ) $ $ $ 1

Constructions with it and there - B$ + * $ # * & * / # het # "# ; $ + het + $$ / & $ $ & + ! /# $ $ + $$ / " / $$ 3 " * " $ 8 C% 2 $ C% $ ' "# $ het $ + " " + ! & ! $ % < ( / " $ = "# er + ! " " # *$ # ; $ <D@< /# "# $! &$ + $$ / & + ! + "# / $$ / # * $ 8 C $ C ) ! ! 1 C $ C $

Articles # "# ! + 0 0 "$ & " $$ # ! *$ # + ! !& + ++ " + ! " # ! 8 - "# ! ! 0 "$ / # " &$ $ $ + * ! # *< # * < $ * $8 -'

C C "# # 0 "$ &F " " ! $ ! / # " &$ * +

"" $ * $ % + # ; $ + : C+ "

+ $ + $ C) > C+ # ! / *$ # )$ " " 1 /# "# " & # "$ /# # /# ! & # ! ! * $ " & /# "# $ " # "$ /# #

" # & # " + /# "# # $ " " $$ # *# "# # ! $$ $ # / # # "$ $ naar bed/school gaan )G , 1 # + + / % # " ! $ 8 C )+ 1 C ! + ! $ ! $$ " & "$ # $ $ " " # # ) 1 $ ! $ 8 C* # ! $ -(( - ((( # "$ "#% # " C C

Adjectives and adverbs & " $ / # # E " + ! + # " * F " # + ! & $ + ! $ # "# 6 " ! " # " $ ! ! $ 8 C+ $ C- ? # 8 C

Quantifiers and determiners - "# ++ ; 0 / # " &$ " 3 &$ % # " ! $ $

+ )+ 1 ' # " & / / $$ # & *# -=

7 $ " $ # # * # " ! "$ # ; 0 "# # ! # $ + , , ! " $ ! 8 C% )& * $ 1 C$ $ $ # C@ % ( C $

Interrogative pronouns # $ &$ ! # + # & * 7 " ; $ + # "#% # " 8 C' " ? A (

Relative pronouns - "# # ++ $ + $ # * # + / # $ " ) ) $ $ $1 +0" $ " ' # & * " & / " 3 " "$ + # "# " + " " & * + /# " $ & " A & " ) * !! " $ = Wat # ! "# / " * # *$ # 8 / # "$ " / # ; 0 " " * $ / # # 7 $ # + !& + " /# *$ # ; 8 C2 " # $ C % $ I"" $$ $ 8 C % $ $ $ > B " "$ )"$ / # $ 1 3 * $$ / "# 7% # + & * ! 7"

+ " $ 8 % B 2 . + $ J "# + " ! $ & $ + # / * $$ & $ *$ # K J + ! $ "# # + # ! " # $$

&$ /# "# / $ & * # $ "# *

* 7" # $ + )K 1 $ 8 ->

C $ C % $ , 4 " !! / # $ "$ 5: " 6

Reflexive pronouns "# E " # " # $+ + E 7 + !& # " ! $ )+ % $ "" 1 # " !& / # /# ! $$ ! $ & ) ! $ & + * # * # $ # ! $ 1 *$ # /# "# # "# ; $ 8 C1

The indefinite pronoun one Men $ + ! $ *$ # ; $ "#

# $ & $ # # * + $ " ; $ 8 C% &

) )+ $ $ $ 1 . $ $ $ )+ $

+ ! $ - 1 C. )+ $ $ $1

Gender # $ * ! + *$ # # ! "# "#8 # "# # ! $ # ! " ! )F $ # ! 1 /# $ + # "# / & ! )! " $ 1 / # $ ! # * !& + + ! 2# "# ! # $* "# + "$ " !

# ! " $ + ! * ! / # # "# ; 3 $ 8 C ? $ $ $ $ $ $ C $ $ $ $ $ $

Countability and number - "# " $$ " $/ + $$ / & * $ & /# $ & + / $$ * $ *$ # & + $$ / & $ $ /# % # / $$ * + # # " $$ " # ; $ $ & / $$ * $ 8 C $ ' : 3 $ $ / % # & 3 * $ # & / * "

$ * 8 C' ( % ) % 5 61 ! " !! + $ # $ $ + ! 8 + $ = "# $ * # " &$ " &$ & $$ ; $ & $ * # ! " * % # " ! $ C " " " > + # 0 $ ! + J " ! $ $

! $ * $ *$ # "# # !& " $ * ! $ $ . & $ # ++ " & / + 7 ! $ + "# # * $ # / $ & & # " " ! $ C

Conjunctions # $ $ &$ ! # # " !! " + & / 8 C' $

Prepositions # *#

&$ " *# ; $ " & / "# *$ # # ! " /# # ! "# # / $$ # $ ! # " $$ " + / " !! ! & / + 7 ! $ 8 C C1 =$ C , )+ 1 C -,

C C C $ C $ C )+ 1 # $ $

/ + / ! " ! " & ! 8 - Sinds $ # % $ 8 C% ' Achter $ # % " + # !8 C1 = In $ # % $ 8 CB $

Vocabulary "# *$ # # # ! & " ! " " & $ ) * voet G groet G zien G mij G in G 1 /# "# * $ + " $ $ * + # ! + $ + * # ! " + # " & $ + " $ & # + " # "# #

& / + $ 7 $ + ! ! " # ! " $ / 4 "# ) " $$ $* !1 !

False friends # "$ * " $ # # * * # " $ 7 ! & / "# *$ # $ # + " # & # # & / 7 $ + ! ! " "

$ $ # 7 " + ! + $ + + # ! # "# $ $ * *

4 "# $ "# / $$ # + $$ / *8

;

bekomen merk brengen camping parking smoking chance techniek

dramatisch solliciteren

* " $ )+ F &1 * F &3# * * "; & ! " ! *3 " * $ F " 7 $ " "# $ * -?

concurrentie controleren neef nicht actueel actueel defect rijden zich amuseren eventueel leren missen fout novelle stage achterkant

" ! "# " ) 1 " " " " $ + " ) " 1 F $+

&$ "# / #

# # & "

Some typical mistakes with high-frequency words C D =

% $ 1 ( + $ @ % ( )# * 81 9 $ 1 ( )+ 1 (1 " $ C D % $ % )+ %

Compounding *$ # " ! $

+ ; $ # "# / $$ !

"# " !

Multi-word verbs # 7 "# & # + $

# *$ # / $$ + & "

7 $ " $ / # 6 -@

$ & # # / $$ # / + $ " 8

zoeken beschouwen verdragen

) ! $ 3/ & + $ &$ ! # ! "# & ! $ " ! & &$ & "# 1

A sample of written Dutch with a word-for-word translation Vele

malen heb ik al

meegemaakt, als

in een gezelschap

! # $ 7 " /# < +

iemand

zo onhandig

is te verklappen dat ik taalkundige

! # L"$ ! M & ben, dat men reageert met:

! # "

" !

`Oei,

# $ *

dan mag ik wel

/ #8 5I # ! / $$ L 6 & M

mijn woorden letten!'. Misschien dat een politiecommissaris

! / / "#N6 wel herkent,

maar de wijnkoper,

de hondenfokker of de

/ $$ " * & # / & # * leraar

wiskunde heeft zoiets

"# ) +1 ! #

toch

dat

$ " " !!

niet. Hoe

komt het

# ! # * / " !

dat de taalkundige of de leraar

L #M # # $ * hetzelfde schuitje

Nederlands in

# "# ) +1 "#

zit als de politiecommissaris?

Ik weet

# ! & L ! M # $ " " !!

H / het niet, maar Nederlandstaligen, aan beide zijden van de grens, zijn

& "# # als

het om

hun taal

& # + # &

gaat, voĂ&#x201A;oĂ&#x201A;r

alles onzeker, voorzichtig

/# & # $ * * * & + L & M $$ " + $ bang.

Bang gemaĂ&#x201A;aĂ&#x201A;kt, lijkt

" " !

me. Terwijl

de meesten

) 1 ! ) 1 ! 2# # ! L! $ M -A

toch minder reden tot schrik

hebben dan in de

+ E F #

nabijheid van de politiecommissaris.

# #

Vreemd

genoeg zijn het

+ # $ " " !!

* )$ 1 *# juist de leraren

Nederlands en

F # "# ) +1 "# in taalkwesties

veelal

de taalkundigen die

# $ *

het meest tolerant zijn. Veel

$ * * ; ! $ # ! $ toleranter

dan vele

anderen buiten

hun kring. Niet

! $ # ! # # " "$ vreemd wegens

hun opleiding,

maar wel

vreemd

* / * # " & / $$ L M * omdat

het ijzeren schrikbewind

dus uit

andere

& " # + * ! L M # ) +1 # bron

moet voorkomen. Lag het aan

de doorsnee-

" ! + #" ! L2 M # * taalgebruiker,

men zou

onze taal

onmiddellijk

tot kerntaak

$ * * / $ $ * * !! $ " uitroepen van een minister tot

"$ ! +

deugdzaamheid en Preventie

Bevordering van de

! L+ M ) # 1 4 # * + # van het kwaad

: + # $

)5 " $ ! 6 & . =? )-AA@1 ,' 1

Speakers of Scandinavian languages: Danish, Norwegian, Swedish $ 3 $ :

Distribution O I 2 P 2 4 ) / #1 ! ) #1

Introduction # " $ * * 3 $ * * & $ * * $ *$ # # ! " & "# B &$ " " & / # *$ # " $ * * / $$

" !! E " # + " # "$ $ # & / # $ * * *$ # # + $ $ + " $ 4 # + ! $ " # + $$ / * " " " # ! F &$ ! /# "# # / * / # $ + *$ # # " !!

# &

/# "# ; "

3 " " ! ) # *# # & "

$ / # ! + # # " # $ * 1 + + " # &

&$ "$ # +0" $ + " $ " 4 $

Phonology General $$ # " $ * * # $ * " $$ & $ ! $ *$ # ! + + *$ # "

+0" $ + # $ * * # # $ * " $

! + # / * / # "# " & " &$ ! $ & # / # " *! )+ 7 ! $ # + / $ 1 / $$ & $ / # ! " !! " *$ # 3 # $

$ " + 7 /# "# # " $ * * + ! "# # # + $ + ! '-

+ +

& 6 3 / # ! & *$ # " / # 5 " "" 6 # / $ " "# & $ / 3 " ++ " # & ! & ! ++ 3 " + # " & # 7

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

ยก O: U

aU @U I@

ร z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ $$ # " $ * * " " $ / #

+0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! + # / # < / * 4 $ " !! & $ / - <I< + " "$ / $ <i:<8 + ' <{< + " & / # <e<8 + B $ ! / * " <e< <{<8 + = <U< ) 1 + " "$ "$ $ / $ & / / * & ! " $

"$ $ / $ > <u:< ) 1 + " " $ / $ & 3 / * *$ " ! /# $ / / $ & / . / / * + ; $ $ " <ร < ) 1 & ! + / $ , "# " " $$ $ " <ร < & / $ ! & / *$ # <ร < <ยก< # $ $ <ยก< " ; $ 0 +0" $ + ! " + ! " ? <z:< ) 1 " $$ " & / @ <@< $/ +0" $ " )5

61 A / * ! " <eI< ) D 8 <{I< -( <@U< + " & / <u:< ) + 1 &

<Ou< <ร u< & / * <au< <ยกu< / *

+ +

" $$ 0 +0" $ * # & / *$ # <@U< <aU< ) 1 ! " $ $ & # ! " " $ -- <I@< <e@< <U@< ) 1 $$ " / # <r< + <@< & / * / " $$ $ " # ! / # # # # * <iยก< <eยก< <uยก< " $

Consonants

tS dZ k

รช

D j

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ $$ # " $ * * " " $ / #

+0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! + # / # < / * 4 $ " !! & $ / - <T< "" " $$ " <t< )& 1 <s<8 + % + ' <D< "" / * / # + " <d<8 + %

+ % $ " / # ! "# ! $ $ " $ <D< = <z< "" " $$ $ " & <s<8 + I " # ! <z< ! $ 5& KK6 ! "# > <Z< "" " $$ $ " & <S<8 + . <tS< "" + " <tj< , <dZ< "" + " <dj< & / * <j< & / 8 + ? <r< " / # # & " + # * & ! ) # 1 / / * ! / $ " & # 3 *$ # 3 +3 # 3 * 3 @ <w< "" & $ " & $ 7 <v<8 + A 5 6 <l< "" $ ! / # / * $ " % $ " & 5"$ 6 <l< '=

+ +

-( $ " / 30 $ <b< <d< <g< / # <p< <t< <k<8 + % + % + / / $ # ! # 8 + %

+ % + -- / # / * " " $ * + # / $ % # ! & " *$ # / $

Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$ * " ! "$ $ $ # " $ * * ) " $$ / # / * 1 # *$ # # + / !& * ! & ! " /# $ # ++ $ *$ # # ! # * % /# *$ # # * # $ # $ / + # # # / # & " $ + " " & / $ *$ # " $ $ 8 - * ! " # $ <i:< < < )$ ! G 4 "# 1 <A:< ) * $ 1 <U< <aU< $ * ! / $ )4 7 ! $ # & * ! ! 3 " " " $ < ri:D@< <pA rA:D@< 1 ' <@< $/ $ " $ * * 2# <@< $ / # # $ *$ # ! " / $ " * + 7 ! $ <ยก< <{< <A:< = + " # $ " *$ # <z< # " !! $ ! " # $ <s< / "#

> + " # $ " *$ # <D< ) / $$ <T<1 # ! ! " <T< " " . # ! & " / $ " "

$ * ! # *$ #

Rhythm and stress : + / "

; ! $ *$ # # " $ * * # $ $ + / &$ ! #

# / 8 '>

+ +

- " " ! $$

# 0 $ ! " !! *$ # " ! /# "# + $$ / # 8 " " C ! ! )"+ ! 1 " C / # $$ B $ " ! ! + 5 & J &6 " !& 3 " &

# " $ ! 8 C " C

" C " C ' # " $ * * # + / 5/ + ! 6 # *$ #

+ / *$ #

+ ! + / $ " " C D" " " " " * * # ! # 5 *6 " ! " # $ + ! "; * $ " # #! * ! # +0" $ " * / + !

Intonation -

$$ &$ # ) + / * / #1 " # *# "# # " *

$$ &$ # + + *$ # * # / # " " # 0

$$ &$ + $ / "#8

. .

* .

) #1

% & + $

. .

* .

) / * 1

' "$ "# * /# "# / $

7 # $ $ / ! / * = # + $$3 +0" $ + " $ > / * ) ! / 1 ! * ! # *$ $ * # *#

+ +

Orthography and punctuation Spelling # /# # & " ! / + # " & / <v< <w< & + $$ " $ $ " & ) " 1 & &$ & " # $$ *

! & # ! 5 *$ #6 E " + ! ! ! ! ! / + ) " 1 # $ ! "# ! + ; $ # # " $ * * # ! $ $ " $

Punctuation - ! " " ! / / # + # # # / $ )brandalarm1 + " * / $ )ytterdĂšr1 " +0" $ ' " ! ! " !! + ! 3 " $ & / ! "$ /# "# & " 3 * " F " & + $ & "$ $ $ 8 C " $ = " !! & + &F " "$ " $ "$ 8 C% " $ C' " ( > # # ! / *$ # # $

" + " $$ /# # ! ! $ " ) , % , 1

Grammar Order of constituents # " $ * * & * " / #

! # * # # # &F " 9 /# "# # $ " + # & *$ # $ & $ * $ $ 5+ 6 # * $$ " &F " 9 & * ! " &F " " ! $ ! " *$ # " $ ! 8 C % $

+ +

Position of adverbs # " $ * * ! 3 " & * $$ $ " + # 0 & # $ ! *$ # "

/ # 3/ & 8 C@ $ / & "$ & $ " 0 &

" $ * * # $ ! *$ # "

/ # " ! $ 7 & # 8 C$ $ $ $ # " # / # ; $ * & $ 8 1 2

Constructions with it and there - / * / # # ; $ + # " "3 # det /# "# $ ! * " ; " 8 C% $ ' $$ # $ * * # " " / # / * + & )/# *$ # $ " !! / #

! &1 # $ ! $ 8 C% , $ C% , ; $ C% , $ = " $ * * ! + # *$ # # * 0 # &F " # ! $ + 3"$ + " $ $$ + # $

" !& ! + $ $ $

Nouns: countability and number - # " &$ < " &$ " + " $ * * & # ! ++ " + & /# "# * &$ ! 8 C )+ 1 ' # " " + $ $8 C1 ( = B $$ " " $ * 7 # " $ * * : ! $ + " $ $ $ $ $ $ $ "" & + $ & " $$ ; $ '?

+ +

> ! " /# *$ # # $ $ * $

# " $ * * :

&$ ! 8 C )+ 1 C &

) )+ &

) 1 C $ . ! " # # / $ * $ 8 C9 # $ C $ , ++ " + * ! ! " $ 7

" !

$ 8 C 3 H C

Articles - # 0 "$ "" " $ * * & + " 3 &$ $ $ * $ *$ # ! $ "$ # " # $ $ 8 C+ $ C ) + $ ' &F " &F " " ! $ ! + " ! $ $ + # " $ * * # 0 "$ /# + " 3 " 0" /# "# $ $ 8 C1 $ C) $ = $ * !& + ! $

! " " # ! " + " $ $ /# # &F " " &

+ ! * ! " /# $ * # / # # & #

# $ " " / $ # "$ # " $ * * "$ $ " !! $ $ + + # / + : C C

Premodification - # * )/ # # 1 + # " $ * * &F " # " # $ ! *$ # # ! $ 8 C ' " & ! + # *$ # / # " $ * * # / + ! " ! / /

# 0 $ ! ) $

" 1 '@

+ +

= +0" $ $ & F " " $ " # 3 " $ ! "# # ! #8 den i de gamle regler beskrevne maĂ&#x160;de )G

) ! "" $$ + # + " " *$ # > # $ + * F " / # # # " 3 $ * * " &$ $

" # *$ # /# "# $ $ 8 C) $

Postmodification - # " $ * * + + $$ $ "$ ) * 1 " /# *$ # + $

" !& ! " $ " " ) * 1 ' ! " *$ # $ # / # 3 ! 0 /# # " $ * * #

$ " !! ! # + # / 8 C

Adjective or adverb? - " & + ! & ! $ + ! F " /# "# $ + ; ! 8 C+ ; $ C- $ ' # ! " "" " / # # & " " " " /# "# ! " & F " " $ * * 8 C% $

Pronouns and determiners - # , " # " " $ * * 8 C % '$ + # *$ ; $ 8 C+ " % $ 'A

+ +

= + + + $$ / & $ "$ " $ * * + ! ! 8 C # $ > # " $ * * # " ! $ $ " 0" $ man /# "# " # *$ # 5* $6 + ! & /# *$ # #

$ % $ ; $ $$ " . ! " /# #

! &$ * *$ # & /# "$ + ! # " 7 /# #

# " $ * * # 0 "$ 8 1

Verb forms # E " + !& " $ * * B ; $ $ # # 3 % " $ # "# # "" $$ 8 C1 I @ $ ) ) # + ! + ! ! $ # *$ " & + ! er/aĂ&#x2C6;r1 & + " 8 C% $

Do " # # ! &$ ! / # # " "

# + $ " " * # + ! + ; * * " $$ +0" $ & "$ 8 C $ # " !! + 5 &$ 6 < + ! 8 C1 $ C+ C D $

-ing forms - # " " $ $ $ ! $

" ! / # *$ # & * ! $ & F " ) 1 / # " & ) D B ; $ $ # &$ ! / # # " $ !& + " + 7 ! $ & $ "$ )

+ +

B " % 1$ ' # & " + # * # / $ * * ! " # 0 " $ 8 C% ) * 5 61 C% C D $

Progressive aspect " $ * * # *

& + ! $ !

+ * $ # *$ # 5 ! $ 6 + ! 8 C $ ! ! / *

+ ! # $ + " " # 8 C% + $

Tense - # + " " !! $ + ! $ / # # 7 $ & $ / # # ; $ + + + # 3 + " /# "# 7

"# * + ! # " !! ! * $ ! # $ 8 C $ C $ ' # " + " " & / # 0 + " $ * ! $ 8 C $ C1 5=J3$ = / # # + " " " / # sedan )G , 18 C% $ > # " $ * * + /# #

+ # & "" ! * & $ ! "$ # # + " # + # $ #

! $ + # + ) # + " + # + + " 18 C+ $ C% $ - $ C' # $ C % $ =-

+ +

# ! $ $ / # + + " + # *

+ !8 C2 + $ C% % $

Voice # " $ * * #

" 7

# + / / 8 / # # +07 -s / # # 7 $ blive/bli )/# "# " $ ! 1 # + # " $ "" $ + ! 8 C% )+ % 1 C1 $ #

! $ & 3 + + # ! $

" / # ) # " 5: 61

Modal verbs $ # *# !& + # *$ # ! $ # *# " ; $ # ++ " # + ! $ / # " ; $ * &$ ! ! + # ! !

+ $$ / 8 - Kan $ +0 ! " $ & /# # # * # " ! # # + 8 C9 * $ C # $ ' Skal 7

" ! $ " !! )$ *$ # 1 # ! $ / # $ " + 8 C- ; $ = Skal " $ 7

# + ! )$ *$ # 18 C1 $ > # + skal $ & * ! ) *$ # 18 C& ) $ C2 $ . / # / * # + ! skulle " !& + *$ # & & # ; $ # $ ! 8 C+ )+ + 1 C+ )+ 1 ='

+ +

Complementation - : &$ ! /# " & ++ + ! *$ # ; $ " &F " ! !

++ $ & 8 C+ $ C1 # $ ' Q & / # &$ * E 7 ! "# ! " !! # " $ * * # *$ #8 C1 0 = # 5 &F " J 0 6 " " $ * * / $$ 8 C1 )+ 1

$ $ $ 1 C% $

Prepositions - # " $ * * " & + $$ / & att/at-"$ ) # ; $ + *$ # 3"$ 1 # ! $ $ 8 C1 $ C $ ' ! $ & + $$ / & 0 " " :

&$ ! 8 C $ C% , $ =

" # * " & # af/at $ * $ 8 C $ > # # *#$ + ; i + /# *$ #

# # # $ $ 8 C I

Vocabulary # "$ $ # & / # " $ * * *$ # ! $ * + *$ # " & $ $ ""

&$ " 2 $ " " " $$ 5 #

! 6% !& + " # $$ * /# "# E " $ *

+ # $ * * # $ &$ # + ! $ /# # " ++ ! $ * " $ ! + # ! $ + ==

+ +

" " % & $ / / $$ & + $ + *$ # 5+ $ + 6 # &$ ! " + + $$ # $ * *

False friends # + $$ / * $ " !! ! * + " " * /

# / & " 4 " 5 ) G 16 !

# # " / # $ $ & /# "# " $$ ! ) # / # " # annoncere / * annonsere / # annonsera 1 ! " " 3 / $ ! # $ # 5+ $ + 6 ! * & $ ! " 7 # ! ! * # *$ # " * 4 " komme/komma " / $$ ) 1 $ ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G " C D / $$ 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1

) G 1 C D ) G " " 1 ) G 1 ) " ! # Han kom fĂšrst kl. 10 G 1 54 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G # 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " " ; " 1 ) G " 1 ) G C D 1 =>

+ +

) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 " ) G 1

Some problems involving grammatical words - ) ! + # # " ; $ # ! " &$ ! / # # " & / + " * ) / $$

! "# % &$ ! + $ 1 $ ' " # / " * " ) +0 !3 " 1 , # ! " ! + # ! 5 ! $ 6 / = # / ogsaĂ&#x160;/ocksaĂ&#x160; " # + *$ # " " # ! / $$ ! + + ! &$ ! + "# " # $ " &$ +0" $ + / + 7 ! $ 8 C% , > # ! & " # / # / /# "# " $ & $ # "" $$ $ # + $ " + $ & $ + " )+ 1% / & $ + " % E " * # * # " $ * * . # / om + " & # " F " )G 1 )G " 1 4 $$ / * & /# & # + /

&$ ! $ ( " & +

A sample of written Danish with a word-for-word translation Der

holdt

mindst hundrede taxaer med dĂšrene

# $$ $ og

han havde aldrig set

# #

staĂ&#x160;et til ham,

paĂ&#x160; klem

# 7 / # # F

saĂ&#x160; mange biler paĂ&#x160; en gang. Havde det

! " ! var han styrtet

# ! LG + # & $ + # !M / # # =.

+ + fra

den ene vogn til den anden, indtil han havde fundet en

+ ! # " # # $ # #

chauffĂšr med et ansigt, han kunne lide.

Men hans

/ # + " # " $ ++ L G # $ M #

far

lĂšftede blot en ÂŽnger, en mand med kasket paĂ&#x160; hovedet saĂ&#x160;

+ # $ + F 0 * ! / # " det, stĂšdte Ăšjeblikkelig

en ÂŻĂšjte

# # /

og straks

blev der

&$ / !! $ /# $ " / # bevĂągelse i den yderste bilrĂąkke ! ! # ! " 3 / )4 ! 5 # 6 & 2 $$ ! !

2 & &

Acknowledgements # # 6 # * #

! R 3 $ # * $ * S F I#$

T * $ # + "

German speakers "# $ /

Distribution P 2 U B I 4 " $ ! $* ! $$ : $ BK "# &$ " $ * !

Introduction ! 3 $ * * "$ $ $ "# *$ # # " $ * * 7 / + $ " ! ++ + ! "# # & ! $

! $$ $$ * &$ # $ * * + ! )Hochdeutsch 5 *# ! 61 + / " !! " # *#3 # ! 3 * / # + / ! $$ * $ ++ " & ! ! ! 3 /

# # 0 $ * * " $ " ) + / # * * $ " $ *1 " + # "$ + ! $ $ # & / *$ # ! # ! ! $ & / # / $ * *

* # $ * " & $ 7 ! # + 0 *$ # $ $$ ! $ $ *

Phonology General # ! *$ # # $ * " $ ! & $ ! $ ! # +0" $ " * 3 " * ! *$ # ! * # + + ! /# "# " * 5 ! "" 6 *$ # 8 9

* " " $ # *$ # + / # / $ ! 7 $ " )<p< <t< <k<1% ! $ 3 * * =?

9 ++ 9 4 ; + *$ $ & + $ / $ * * "" ++ " 9 " + ! * $$ $ / # *# "# # ! # $

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ÂĄ

O: U

aU @U K@

u: Ă&#x192;

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ !

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <e< <{< + " + 8 ' <O:< <@U< + " + 8 # ! & " "$ / $ <o:< = <Ă&#x192;< ! & " $ <A< > <eI< ! ! " "$ ! # # * <e:< .

/ $ ! & " 3$ * & + " " ) 1 , /

! $ " / $

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ !

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ =@

$ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <Z< <dZ< ! ! + $ # ! <S< <tS< *$ #8 + % + 2 ' # " <Z< <dZ< <z< <v< <b< <d< <g< "" # + / ! " + # ! / # $ " # ! & # " ; $ # 8 + % + % + % + % + % + % + = <T< <D< "" ! % ! $ " # ! & <s< <z<8 + % + > # $ ! # ! # + <v< <w<8 + )$

+ 1 + . <r< ! & " / # # & " + # * ) 4 "#1 E )$ *$ # <r< & ! * " * # + ! 1 , 5 6 <l< ) 1 7 !

! $ " & 5"$ 6 <l< ) 1

Stress : + / "

; ! $ *$ # ! # + / &$ ! # # / 8 - ! " ! 7

* $$

# 0 $ ! % # *$ # " ! /# "# ! & ! 3 " " " ) * % 1 ' ! # + / 5/ + ! 6 ! !

/ $ * * # ! # * )/ 1 " $$ " 7 * ! # +03 " $ " * / + !

Intonation # / $ # ! 3 * # ! ; $ *$ # # ! + # $ * * *$ ! 3 " 8 ' % % & $ /

! " / # + $$ / & $ *# + $$ )% D8 # *$ # =A

B + + ! + *$ # ) 3 * # / # # ! * " " $ /# "# " !! 1 " !

! / # * * " $ " " 3; )/# "# ! ! " / # * /# "# " # " * # *$ # 1 ;

Juncture ! / $$ &$ & * * / # / $ + + ! /# " ! & + & *$ $ ) + & * $

$ *$ #1 # " " + * 3 * "" ++ " 8 ? ? ? ) ! ? ? ? 1

Orthography and punctuation Spelling ! # ! &$ # # $ / # *$ # $$ * * ! *$ # & # ! $ ! * ! $ # ! / / # $ " $ $ $ * ! $ % @ A $

Punctuation : " " *#$ # ! ! *$ # # ! ++ " # " !! & + $$ & "$ / $$ 0 " ! $ ! + & F " C% " $ C+ # " $ C% " $ C1 " # $ C+ # " $ ! 3" $ $

# *$ # D ! / ++ $ 8 C""1 % ( $

Grammar # ! *$ # * !! " $ ! ! $ ! / # # ! 5 + "#6 " * ! # + " * $ $ $ + ! 0 0 "$ * $ * $ & 7 $ ! $ & "

& $ " ! $ * $$ & # & # ! "# *$ # # *# # + ! /# "# !&$ # *$ # + " # ! / % # *

+ ! ! # *#$ E " $ * * /# "# / "# * # + ! ) " $$ # * 1 "" * # * !! " $ + " 9 "$ F " + 7 ! $ # ++ + !

)5" 61 "" * /# # # # &F " " &F " " &F "

# ! # / ! /# + # *$ # /# # * !! " $ + " + /

" $$ " & ! # * !! " $ * 8 ! " $ + ! ) # $ $ $ # & / * ! * 1 # $ " + ! " E " $ ! *$ # + $ ! 3 * + $ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7 $ # ; $ ! % * ! & ! $ 3/ & ! * & * nicht ) G 1 + # &8 C' ( C " % $ ' : + " * $$ + ! / # haben ) G 1 J " $ *$ # / ! & )! $ " !! & + * "# * + 1 + ! # + "

/ # sein ) G 18 C+ = " + # ! $ + + ! *$ # + ! ; $ + ! hat ) G 1 haĂ&#x2C6;tte )/# "# " !

9 & $ /18 C ) ( > ! # # * " * # " ! $ " *$ #

! + ; * 8 * ! ! $$ $ " & *$ &$ / # "# nicht wahr? )G (1

! *$ # ( ( ; $ 8 C% " ( >-

Time, tense and aspect - ! # + ! ! $ # *$ # ! $ ! $ + " ! $ + " & # *

+ ! 8 C% $ C% % $ 1 ( ' # ! + ! /# "# !&$ # + " 7 " $ # ! / 8 + + " F " $ 8 C% & = B $ # ! ! & /# / / $ + " 8 C B > " "# ! &F " /# *$ # + * & 8 C%

- # ! $ " + *

" ! 8 C' ( ' # / $ * + ++ # & * * ! + /# *$ # + " 8 C1 B ( )! * 1 $ $ $(1 C%

! # ; $ + # + # + + ! / # 7 $ ) *#$ ; $ # , + 1 # 7 $ + # + 8 C% %

Conditionals ! " $ " # 7 $ wuĂ&#x2C6;rde )/# "# " *#$ 1 ! & & # "$ 8 C% " % (Wenn er mich fragen wuĂ&#x2C6;rde, wuĂ&#x2C6;rde ich ihm nichts sagen.)

# " $ # 2 # " " !! & ! >'

! # &F " ) 3/ + !1 + # " 3 $ )" ! $ *$ # % 1 " !

&F " + !&$ # $ *$ # ) * kaĂ&#x2C6;me< waĂ&#x2C6;re< haĂ&#x2C6;tte< 1 " + " $$ $ $ 8 C% " $ C% % " % $ C B $ ! * 7

& ! + $ ! # *$ #8 C' % " % $ ! so + & + # ! "$ 8 C% #" $

Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ " # *# ! ; 3 $ &$ # ++ " + /# "# $ ! ! 7 ! $ + " !! &$ ! 8 - Ich kann )G % 1 " & / # # ! + $ * * ! % 8 C% < ' *$ # $ $ # ! musste )G 18 C- % * $ & ! & + 8 C ( = Muss nicht G % # ! 8 C% > ! will ! C D 8 C+ # " $ " + & / ) ! wollte)8 C% % . ! soll )G 1 ! ! ! 3 $ sollte )G 1 8 C1 )+ 1 1 C% , ! ! $ + ! ; * # ! /

# & # " $ *$ # ! $ & * #

! / 8 C ( C- >=

Passivisation ! + " " / # # &F " man )G 1 /# *$ # +

C. ? $ C.

There is . . . " !! ! ; $ + es ist )$ $$ 18 C% $ ! " $ es & + $ $ & # " % #

" " !! / # & # # sein )G 18 C% $ C $ ! $ es gibt )$ $$ 1 ; $ + , C%

Non-finite forms ! # ; $ + # *$ # 3$ + # + ! )5* 61 Lachen + " " " *$ # ! " # & 0 "" * # " 7 " # $$ # + + " + C% , " , $ C% , $ C% $ C% $ ! # $ ! # +0" $ / # # *$ # 5 &F " J 0 6 " " 8 C% "

Word order - 0 " $ " ! # + "$ ! # *$ # / ; " $ $ & & *

! ! ! ! 8 C% C1 >>

' =

> .

, ? @ A

& * $$ " ! # + ! & "$ $ * & * ! ! 8 C % " ? ( ! # & " 5 & " 6 / + # &F " + ! "$ " & # * # # " F " #

&F " & 8 C. " ! & * / # # " &F " " ! $ ! 8 C % CA 0 & ! & + ! &F " " ! $ ! % #

$ *$ #8 C- B $ C1 9 & "$ " ! # + "$ 8 C1 ; ! # / # + "$ # &$ / # " $ % ' ( ! "$ ! & + ! & ; " ! $ 7 " $ # 8 C # Vor ) G 1 " 7

+ ! Entlang )G 1 + $$ /

8 C% C% , # $ C+ $

Articles - ! # 0 "$ + "" ! /# "# * $ 8 C $ C' ' # 0 "$ /# 0 * $ 6 +

8 C& = # 0 "$ + ! + # ; $ + 8 C- $ C% "

Gender ! " $ + ! / # 5 ! 6 * : "" *$ 8 C& $ @ ( C )das MaĂ&#x2C6;dchen 9 ! 1 $ %

Number and countability - ! + ! # $ $ / B !! $ $ * -en -er% & * ! ! # + ! # $ $ + *$ # # # $ 8 C% $ ' ! *$ # " &$ # " &$ ! ; $

9 + " ? C) C1 ? $ C@ ( = ! *$ # $ $ # * $ ! ; $ 8 + 7 ! $ &

) C@ ( C

Possessive `s ! # ; $ + # *$ #

" &

! $ / # ! # " von ) G 1 * $$ 8 C%

Adjectives and adverbs - ! & + ! $$ " $ + ! / # # E " F " 4 7 ! $ gut G , % schrecklich G , 8 C+ $ C1 $ C% ' ! ! ! & + " & 5 6 + F " 8 C " >,

Relative pronouns - ! was " $ & $ ) " " 1 /# # " "$ #

$ ! + 8 C $ $ $ C) $ $ $ C1 " ' ! * # $ 8 C% = " # * !! " $ " ! & / 3

" 3 " $ "$ & * ! /# " $ 1 " 9 & " * !! " $ > ! " &F " $ " $ 8 %

Conjunctions - ! # # ! / + ) + * ! $ 18 C- ' # ! / falls )$ $$ 1 ! " " 7 # " $ + /# "# " " # *$ #8 C9

Prepositions ! # *# *$ # ; $ : &$ !

" ) ! $ 1 /# 07 *$ # 7

" $$ " " " / # # 5 ! 6 ! " $ ! # 8 C C- , $ C $ C I # &$ ! ) " 1 "" /# ! # ! # * $ *$ # ; $ ! " !! +03 " $ 8 - Nach ) G 1 " $ ! 8 C) " >?

' Seit " ! 8 C% = Von G % $ /# $ * & # # 8 C@ % ( C C > Zu G 8 C ? 1 1 . An G 8 C & , Vor G % $ 8 C $ C% , C% ) * % 1 ? Mit ) G 1 / # * 8 C' 5K @ WaĂ&#x2C6;hrend G 8 C+ A Bei " $ * !& + *$ # * # " 7 9 & $ : C% 2 ) )+ $ $ $ 2

) 1 C I

Vocabulary Q ! ! *$ # / + ! # !

) * Haus G % Schuh G % jung 9 % singen G 1 #

+ " $ $ * # /# $ # *# # " !& + 5+ $ + 6 ) & $ /1 ! 3 * /

* $$ / ! 4 "# /# "# # $ # ! / # # + *$ # " & $ /# "#

+ 4 "# * ) # *# ! $ $ # ! ! " $$ 4 "# ! + $$ * " & $ 1

False friends $ * !& + ! / # ! * /# "#

$ *# $ " ! $ $ ++ + ! # + # *$ # " * ! ! # + $$ / * / ) ! * # 18 >@

) ! kommen G "" * " 7 1 ) ! gehen G "" * " 7 1

C D C D

) ! bringen G "" * " 7 1 ) ! meinen $$ G 1 ) ! aktuell G " 1 ) ! eventuell G , , 1 ) ! sympathisch G 1 ) ! danke " ! / " 1 ) ! wenn G 1 ) ! bekommen G 1 ) ! kontrollieren G 1 ) ! weil G 1 ) ! kochen G 1 ) ! gluĂ&#x2C6;cklich G 1 ) ! rentabel G 1

$ # ) ! wer1 ) ! wo1 $ " + & & *

Other confusions + ! +0" $ " & ! $ * " * &$ ! ! * $$ /# ! / # ! # *$ # ; $ /# + " * / & ; # ! / # *$ # ; $ + / 7 ! $ 8 :# " $$ ! " + 8 # ! / + )bitte) /# ++ * ! # * $ + ! $ " $ # ) # $ & ! "# ! / $ 1 # $ ! 9 *$ # >A

! ! ' ( $ /# $ ; 8 ' & * @ ( ' (

Word formation B ! $ 7 " !! ! )Dorfschullehrer G 1 ! ! ! $ 3/ " ! *$ #

A sample of written German with a word-for-word translation Eines Abends

saĂť ich im

I * L* M

Dorfwirtshaus

# $$ * &

vor

(genauer

gesagt, hinter)

Bier, als

ein Mann gewoĂ&#x2C6;hnlichen Aussehens

+ + )! 7 " $

einem Glas

& # 1

& /# ! L +M " L* M sich

neben mich setzte und mich mit

vertraulicher

# ! $+ & ! $ " ! / # " 0 $ ich eine Lokomotive kaufen wolle

Stimme fragte, ob

" /# # L &F " M Nun ist es zwar

$ " ! & /

ziemlich leicht, mir

etwas

zu verkaufen

/ # ! ! # * $$ denn ich kann schlecht nein sagen,

" & $

groĂ&#x2C6;Ăťeren Anschaffung dieser Art

& **

aber bei

schien mir

doch

+ # ! ! # /

Vorsicht am Platze " # $ " L" ! ! & " M Obgleich ich wenig von Lokomotiven verstehe,

$ # *# ich mich

einer

L 0 +0" $ M & / #

erkundigte

$ $ + $ " ! + ! nach Typ und Bauart,

bei

! $+ L ; M + " "

B dem Mann den Anschein

zu erwecken, als

# ! # !

/ mit

einem Experten zu tun, der nicht gewillt sei, die Katz'

/ # im

habe er es hier

L +M # # #

/# / $$ * & # " sagt & + $)$ 1

Sack zu kaufen, wie man so schoĂ&#x2C6;n

# " &

)5 * VW "# ++ *6 & 2 $+* * $ # ! + ! * * 1

French speakers B # 2 $

Distribution 4 B ) "$ * 4 "# 2 1 2 U B % ! + #/ $ 7 !& *% +0" $ / " $ * * ! + ! 4 "# $* " $ # / " $ + " # : " 0" # ! "

Introduction 4 "# & $ * # ! " * + 3 $ * * "$ $ $ $ # : * ! # ! " * # ! ++ " & / $* B 4 "# + 7 ! $ # 4 "# + 4 " & # ++ " * # # & / # ! " *$ #% # ++ 4 "# $ " " $ ! $$ " ! # &$ " 4 "# 3 $ * * & " # ! " & *$ # / * # ! ! $ 3 & / 4 "# *$ # & # 7 " & $ # # $ * " $ ! 7# & ! ! ++ " # / # $$ 4 "# / # &$ ! * " * *$ # ! * $ & / $$ * "

Phonology General 4 "# # ! # $ * " $ "# " " / # *$ # 4 "#

# * +0" $ " * " * ! *$ # " & ! + # / $ &$ ! : # ! ! $ # 4 "# *$ # ! + /

# #! ++ # " $

+0" $ & # * " * *$ # ! * # + + 4 "# /# "# $ 54 "# "" 6 *$ # 8 9 $$ 4 "# / + / $$ &$ !

* $ / ) & $ /1 $ # *$ # ! /# #

+ "# / / 3 ! & $ # " $ &$ !

+ " ! # " ! # & $ 9

* $$ &$ 4 "# $ " * # ! * " *$ # #

$ $ + # / $ " # ""

*$ #

$$ &$ # / + " ! ! 4 "# # *$ # 5 / $$ /6 # / " ! # *$ #

& 4 "# ! "" 9 4 "# ! $ ! + ; F / *% # + # * # ! + # &$ ) # & # # 1 + # * * * 5 + 6

! "

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ 4 "#

# $ # + & " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - 4 "# # $ # + ,i:< ,I< $ * " + & / $ ' <ร < ! ! " $! $ ,@< # & " !

= 4 "# # $ # + ,U< ,u:< $ * " + & / $ > <ยก< + # + " $ ! # * $ . # ,O:< ,@U< ! / # 4 "# ,o< $ * " + & / $ .=

, <{< + " +0" $ * # / " & # 4 "# ! & $ 8 9 $ *$ # ,Ă&#x192;< # / $ " + % 9 # $ ,A:< # + " $ % 9 ,e< " * " + & / $ $ ? <eI< ! ! & " ! ,e< # + 7 ! $ $ " ,{< " $ & $ ,e< # " $ " + $ @ I # # # * $$ &$ ! " & # ! & " / # ; $ + " $ * # # / $ ! 8 % & " ! )

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ 4 "#

# $ # + & " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <T< ,D< 7 4 "# # + " # 4 "# ; # + # * ! # +0" $ $ ,s< ,z< ,f< ,v< ,t< ,d< " !! $ + # # ! ! & $ " %

" ' <tS< + $ ,S< ,dZ< ,Z< & " ! F & " ! = <h< )/# "# 7 4 "#1 + 8 % > <r< " / # # & " + # * 4 "#

$ $ & " # ! / *$ # . 5 6 ,l< "" 4 "# ! $ " & 5"$ 6 ,l< , *$ # $ * # / $

$$ &$ & + 0 $ " " + " # ! / *$ # # # .>

++ " & / / $ & # * # $ * / $ & + # + # " / ) # " < " " & / ! "# $

! + " 1 4 "#

" $$ $ * # # / $ $ * " + & / + / $

Consonant clusters - / * " J # 4 "# ! 3 # 5 6 ,l< ,@l< B !& / # # "

! $ $$ & " / # $ $$ &$ # * "

$ ' ' $ ' # + / $ 4 "# ! " ,s< $ " ,m< *$ # ! # $ = I ! $$ 0 " + $$ / & ,z< # + 4 "# / " * *$ # $ $ 4 "#

# + " " ! * ! $

Stress - 4 "# / + ! # $$ &$ # /

)/# "# ! /# / # *$ #1 # $ "

$$ &$ 2 # # 7" + <@< /# "# ! ! $ / $

/# "#

# " # # & *

# / <@< ,I< *$ # 4 "#

# * +0" $ " * # / $$ &$

/# *$ # " # ! # # * / * $ " &$ ! + 4 "#

* " *$ # ! * + ! # * $ 4 "# ! + /

*$ # /# #

+ "# / / 3 ! & $ +

" ' 2# *$ #

! " 4 "# + * !! " $ " " B ! 4 "# *$ # / 5 (68 *$ #8 / " % baker's 4 "#8 Non, c'est aĂ la boulangerie que je suis alleĂ&#x201A;e. )G / " % $1

Intonation # 4 "# *$ # ! ! $ ! " ! ! 4 "# & $ *$ /# "# " ! * !

+ # ! " /#

Influence of spelling on pronunciation $ # *# 4 "# $$ * " ! $ 7 4 "# " $$ # / " / )/ # 7" 1 + ! # / $ 4 "# $ ! # + 7 " & &$ # ! *$ # $$ ! ! & ! " $$ & & * " /# $ " !& + $ # ++ $ *$ # 4 "# " $ $ 8 - $$ &$ * / # # $ # $ " 4 "#% + " # ! " &$ ! + + # *$ # / # / $ " " $ / $ 4 "# ! " # 0 $ ,e<8 5 6 ' ! & " ,u:< ! & " ,o<8 = * $ * ! " 0 $ ,Id< ,ed< + $$ " + $$ " " 8 L L > 4 $ / " 4 "# ) * $ $ 1 + " # & " *$ # $ ! $ + $ . # $ * !& + " * *$ # 4 "#

" !! + 4 "# + 4 "#

# /

Orthography and punctuation 4 "# # ! &$ # # $ / # *$ # $$ * # + # / ! # $ * * $ F " " $ 4 "# ! $ ! $ % : " " *#$ # ! 4 "# *$ # B !! " & 4 "# ! " /# # / $ & *$ # ! $ ! $ @

" $ .,

D ! / $ *# $ ++ $ 4 "#8 X Y # # 5 6 55 66

Grammar General # 4 "# *$ # * !! " $ ! ! $ ! / 8 # # ! 5 + "#6 " * % /

& $ ! $ % 4 "# # * $ $ $ & + ! 0 0 "$ * $ * $ & 7 $ & "

+ ! + # + " & + ! ) # *# # /# "# " " $ # *$ # + " # ! / 1 # ! ! ++ " # *# 4 "# & E " # # * + & " & # # !& + # &F " + # "$ ) # *# ! + # E " # + ! "#1 4 "# # ; $ + # *$ # *

+ ! # & 4 "# /# "# 7

! $ E " + ! ; * # ! / # & # # * " * # $< 3 $ & 4 "# # E " ; * 4 "# #

* !! " $ * 8 F " "$ ! ! ! " $ + ! ) # *# $ + / # / $ # & / * ! *1% # ! / $ E " + $ $ ) $ / *1 5 6 + # " $$ " ! & + # ! 0 4 "#8 + 7 ! $ " $$ " ! & + & F " & & + &

Verbs 4 "# # &$ $ * " # 3 * # * $ & # ! + # *$ # " 3 E " $ * * " ! 4 "# # * + E " & + * 4 $ / 3 4 "# / $$ " $ # *# # ++ " # $$ * + 0 " # * $ * + * $ & 4 "# $$ # + ! " # !

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7 $ # ; $ 4 "# 4 "# " &$ ! *$ # * + ! * # 4 "#8 9 ! $ & * ; ! & * ; 8 C- ( 9 8 C' ? ( ' * 4 "# + ! & * ne . . . pas 3 / & # 7 $ + $ * & # " $ !

+ , < " " $ " ! + 8 C+ 9 # ne $ " # & /# # * + $$ / 8 C% = 4 "# # /# "# + ! $ # *$ # + " * $$ / # # & avoir )G 1 / ! & ) 3 "$ * ! " !! & + ! ! 1 + ! # / # eĂ&#x192;tre )G 18 C@ > B F * ; * 7 4 "#% /# *$ # # ; * * / # # ! & 4 "# n'est-ce pas? )G ( (1 ! " $$ non? + $$ & 8 C- ) " ( C? + " (

Time, tense and aspect - # 4 "# # + ! ! "# $ # *$ # + " & + " ! $ "# + ! $ / *8 C% 2 $ ' 4 "# # $ & " # & * # " * # 8 C% 9 ) , # $ C+ & # = / * ! ! "# ) " $$ /# * " 1 # ! & $ & # 4 "# # * ++ " + + 3! * " 8 C. 3M 2 57K=" B . < * + .@

C% ? $ ' % ) ( " > 4 "# # /# "# # ! / # *$ # *

$ & " *

* # # ! 4 "# $ $ & # &

" # 4 "# ! # *

$ " + ! $ ) # + , 18 C' % $ C% % % & C? @ A @ " # $ " /# # + " *

/ $ & *$ # / # 8 C' % " $ # $$ & "$ * 5 6 & " & # 4 "#8 C% . # 4 "# /# "# + ! $ # *$ # + " * " * $$ # *$ # " $ & /# # " & + ! # & + " # " !! /$ * # 9 # *# # ! & ! 8 1 $ < 3H3$ % 0

- 4 "# # *

+ !8 C2 $ + , ' 4 "# # + 7

$ 8 C % * $

4 "# # # ! # / + 7

* + ! *$ #8 " + * $ 4 "# *$ # * + # ! $ & # ! ++ " - " 4 "# # *

# ! $ ! & " " $ + # + 8 C% @ ' 4 "# # 7

" # ! ! 8 .A

) # & $$ * 1 % 0 # $ 7

! 8 C% ,% $ = 4 "# # + + + ! + # ; $ + 8 C% $ C' (

Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ " " " # 4 "# ; $ # & 4 "# + ! "$

8 $ # *$ # " # & # ++ $ + ! # E " & # " $ $ & ; * + $$ / * 0 # $ ! " $$ + & * $ 1 $ $ $ $ $ $ $ # # ++ " + /# "# $ ! ! " !! &$ ! 8 - " 4 "# *# # # 0 + ! " 3 # *$ # 3 0 " !! + # ! # 3 0 / # *$ # ! $ 8 C% $ C- $ C- ' 4 "# + ! + # *$ & devoir " # + &$ * " 7

*$ # & $ # " $ * /# # ! " 8 C- C D ? $ C- C D ) $ = # " 4 "# " * # *$ # + + ! * * + ** # "

8 # # 5 ! + " 6 / # 8 C% ( C' ( C% % ( > 4 "# " $ # ! / # *$ # ; $ / " $ $ )+ 7 ! $ / "$ / & " 1 " # # + ! * & $ $ " 8 C # $ ) + , $ $ $1 ,(

C) . " $ ) + $1 . # 4 "# ; $ + ! $ + " " " ++ $ 8 # ; $ + % + 7 ! $ j'aurais duĂ&#x192; aller 9 $ $$ % # " $ 4 "#

*$ # 0 + " $ 8 C% $

Imperatives - 4 "# # + + + " " $ * ! *$ #8 C- " $ $ $ ' / 4 "# # 0 + ! + !8 C " $ C

Clause structure and complementation - 4 "# + + $ "$ /# *$ # + ! F " $$ 8 C% ' 4 "# 0 * /# & + !

0$$ # $ " + 8 C $ C $ C% $ C% + $ C1 = " /# *$ # 0 + & 7

4 "# # ; $ + $ " $ # "" 8 C1 * $ C$ $ $ $ C$ $ $ $ > 2# $ *$ # # & # 5& 6 5 36 0 4 "# # $ # $ ! $ 8 C% $ % $ . 4 "# $$ / 5 7 6 &F " &F " " 8 C- $ C ( ,-

C+ " ( , $ ! 4 "# 4 "#

" # &$ * ! " * "

$ 8

Complementation with certain verbs 4 "# & # # "$ ; $ *$ # + # ++ " ! $ ! ! + # ! " !! " 8 - 4 "# ) &F " 1 "$ # # 0 " + # ; $ + 8 C+ $ ' # ; $ + 4 "# " & + $$ / & 0 8 C% $ = 2 # 7

+ $ " ! ) " " " " 1 4 "# " + # + ! ! & " $ # & # "# " + ! & # *$ #8 C+ $ )+ + $1 $ )+ $1 > & # *$ # 4 "# " & " & !! $ + $$ / & " &F " /# "# /# ++ " & # &6

" & # $ ; # ! # / $ * * 8 C% # C1

It and there # 4 "# 7

" * ! " # & * * / # # ; $ + # " $ ! 8 C% $ # 4 "# ; $ + C$ $ $ D " $ & / # ! 7

! % $ $ $ 8 C% $ C # $

Passivisation - 4 "# # E 7 # ; $ + ! " /# *$ # #

8 ,'

C $ )+ $1 . ? $ ' 4 "# # & 0" + & ) " &F " " " " 1 " & # &F " +

" 4 8 ' 4 "# / $$ 8 C. C D = # $ 4 "# # &$ / # " ! $ 7

8 C $ )+ $ $ $ $1 ) $

Word order: influence of French 4 "# # + # " $$ " ! & + ! 0 # # + /# # *$ # # "

! # - & F " 4 "# $ " + # ! &$ ! *$ # ! + ! # 8 C

C C ; ; C+ % $ ' 9 " ! 4 "# $

+ ; # *$ #% /# # "" # ! 0 # ! + * + $$ / 8 C C = # " " * # * " 4 "# # 4 "# # 30 / " $ !

$ 8 C C

> 4 "# & + " ! & / # & # " &F " 8 C% $ C% $ C+ ? $ C1 $ # $ # " !! + ! /# "# " 4 "# / ,=

- 4 "# " &F " "$ $ "$ + #

&F " + # "$ 8 C% $ C 2 ( C $ $ $ C $ $ $ ' + # &F " + # & "$ ! $ " 4 "# *$ #% & * $ + ! *$ # ; + ! ! $$ $ ! "#8 C $ C% = 4 "# + " " " 8 C% $ C% $ C& 1 $ C9 # ) " 1 0 # ; $ 4 "# " " # "

! * $ * *$ # " $ % > 4 "# 7

+ ; " &F " " ! & + # " $ + / 3 &8 C% $ C+ " $ C% $ C1 . 7

/ # 0 4 "# " & de aĂ /# "# 4 "# ! ! $ $ # # ++ " # $ + * 0 8 C% $ , 7"$ ! / # # 4 "# ; $ + J F " < & 8 C1 0 ? I # " $ ! * + ! 4 "# / 8 C C C% ( C " C )+ 1 C # C1 A (

Word order: particles and prepositions # & " * " * # $< $ &

4 "# 4 "# # +0" $ $ * # / # & *$ #% / / # &F " " $ &$ ! C2 $ @ ( 4 "# " 5 6 # + "$ 2# # ; / # &F " + 4 "# # $/ " ! & + # ; / # " *$ #8 CA ( # # $ # ! " * 8 C D ) $ $ $( $ ! # +0" $ * $

" $ 8 % $ 1 $

Articles - 4 "# # 0 "$ "" ! /# "# * $ 8 C% ; $ C ' 4 "# "$ & + # ! + +

" ! $ ! 8 C+ = 4 "# 0 "$ & +

! ! 8 C $ C > 4 "# # 0 "$ " ! ! & ! + # ; $ + 8 C% $ C ( . I # " $ ! * + ! 4 "# + "$ 8 C &

C' ( C ? $ C1 # $ C @ N C 9 @ ,.

C% $ C' 0

Gender - ! " $ + ! : "" *$ 8 C% O $ C ' #

! " * 3 " $% # * * / # # # ! + 8 C% 2 $ C2

Number - !& + " &$ 4 "# " &$ )!

1 *$ # B !! ! 8 C C C ' ! # * # * & $ $ *$ # * & * $ 4 "# :

&$ ! 8 C C

)+ &

) 1 C )+ 1 C = D + ! ! + $ ; $ "

" $$ $ $ & + $$ / & $ $ 4 "#8 C% " % $ CA % $ C+ # > 2# $ $

# ! + # * 4 "# + # + * # # * # * $ 8 C' $ . *$ # 9 " ! ! $ &$ ! /# + # # $ $ ! * * $ + !8 C

Adjectives and adverbs ) $ # " 52 6 1 - + / ! F " 4 "# $$ et )G 1 & + # $ # " $ ! / # *$ # & F " 8 C ' # !& + F " # " & * $

4 "#8 C 0 )! * , 01 C F " " & # " $$ / # # ; $ + *$ # + ! 8 ' ( $ = : " $ F " )$ 1 + " + 8 C% $ > B ! $ $/ + ! / # # ; $3 + 8 C% $ C% $ , . 2 # " ! F " & 4 "# # / que )/# ! " !! *$ # ; $ 1 8 C% $ C+

Reflexive pronouns 4 "# 7

" # 0 "

& / E 7 &F "

4 "# # " & / # 5 $+6 5 "# # 68 C% $ C'

Relative pronouns - 4 "# # &F " $ )qui /# "# * ! 1% &F " $ )que /# "# * ! 1 # " $ &$ ! *$ #8 ,?

C $ $ $ C % $ $ $ ' # "$ ! + # 4 "# # "

8 C $ $ $ = 4 "# # / " * $ + ! ! 7

8 C

Conjunctions - 4 "# # # ! / )comme1 + ) + *

! $ 18 C' " ' 4 "# + $$ + 8 1 ( % B ) $ $ $

Prepositions 4 "# # *# *$ # ; $ : &$ !

" ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7

" " / # # 5 ! 6 4 "#% /# + # $ * * # # " $ ! # 8 C C C C

C I # &$ ! ) " 1 "" /# 4 "# #

! # * $ *$ # ; $ ! " !! +0" $ 8 - Depuis " ! 8 C% ' De " ! $ /# $ * & # # 8 C1 @ $ C P = *$ # $ " /# # * + ! ! ) * , , 1 4 "# $ "

! 7 # / "$

+ # &F " + # ,@

" + 7 ! $ / $$ & " & aĂ /# # #

! " *$ #8 C+ * $ C 9 $ C% B > 4 "# "$ " !! & $ + ! + * + 8 C% ; C% C% / $

Vocabulary Q ! 4 "# *$ # / + ! # ! # ! $$ " $ "# " $ / # ! # $ $ "" # + " $ $ * # /# $ " $$ # 3 ! * & / + ! # 4 "# $

"$ $

" !! ! 3 * " * ! " ! + ! " !! ! " /# "# !

8 + # # # # # # + ! " ! ! ! " " " * * # +0" $ + * # $< $ & # !& + 5+ $ + 6 /# "# # ++ ! * # / $ * * % 9 # / 9 5 $ &$ + 68 / # ! $! # ! # / $ * * ! # ! " 7 #

`Bleached verbs' + ! $ 3 5&$ "# & 6 7 & # *$ # 4 "# & # * " ++ $ "# $ * * 8 - + # " " 7

*$ # / # # & 7

4 "# / # # & " * # " $ ! $ 8 C% C+ $ C- $ )+ - 1 B $ 4 "# # ; $ + Je suis d'accord )G % $ $$ % 1 $ * # " !! ! % ,A

' 4 "# # ; $ + 7

/# *$ #

/ $ $ * ! $ *

= " # 7

/ # # & *$ # 7

/ # E 7 & 4 "#8 C%

False and unreliable friends !! !& + 4 "# / # ! * /# "# $ *# $ " ! $ $ ++ + ! # *$ # " *

! $$ ! $ + # / # 4 "# ! ! *$ #8 " )4 "# actuel G " > actuellement G 1 )4 "# avis G 1 )4 "# chance G L M 1 )4 "# commander G L " " M1 )4 "# corps G 1 )4 "# crier G 1

)4 "# demander G 1 )4 "# eĂ&#x201A;ducation G 1 )4 "# engageĂ&#x201A; G 1 )4 "# essence G 1 )4 "# eĂ&#x201A;ventuel G " 1 )4 "# eĂ&#x201A;vident G 1 # )4 "# expeĂ&#x201A;rience Q # # 1 )4 "# faute G 1 )4 "# gentil G " 1 )4 "# ignorer G 1 )4 "# important G " # 1 )4 "# inteĂ&#x201A;ressant G " " 1 )4 "# large G 1 )4 "# librairie G 1 )4 "# occasion G " 1 C # D )4 "# passer un examen G " # 1 )4 "# politique G 1 )4 "# professeur G 1 )4 "# sauvage G 1 )4 "# sensible G 1 )4 "# sympathique G " 1

A sample of written French with a word-for-word translation Le printemps eĂ&#x201A;tait venu. Un

dimanche, apreĂ s avoir

# * / " ! I sa boutique aĂ grande eau,

# #

& *

Lecouvreur, sentant les chaleurs

/ " + $ * # #

proches, deĂ&#x201A;cide de sortir

nettoyeĂ&#x201A;

+ 3# "$

terrasse

: quatre

" # ! " + Z 8 +

tables rondes et

huit

chaises de jardin,

qu'on

aligne

sur

&$ *# "# + * # $ 3 le

trottoir,

ouĂ

sous un grand store

lit

en lettres

# ! & * / * /# $

rouges: HOTEL- VINS-

LIQUEURS.

I 32 3 :

Lecouvreur aime musarder dans le quartier,

" $ 3 $$ au

coin

des

cigarette

# *#& # # " *

leĂ vres . . . Toujours la meĂ&#x192;me

3 # " +3 # $ $/ # ! promenade, tranquille, apaisante. Il

longe

/ $

;

" $! * / $ 3 $ *3 # 3 3 +

l'hoĂ&#x192;pital

Saint-Louis, puis il regagne le

quai

# # $ 3 # # * # !& ! de Jemmapes. Des

peĂ&#x192;cheurs sont installeĂ&#x201A;s sur le

bord du

+ !! ! 0 # ! $$ # & +3 # canal, au

bon endroit. [. . .] Lecouvreur s'arreĂ&#x192;te.

" $ 3 # * $ " L M " # ! $+ fait

beau . . .

! 0 Partout

les marronniers

ÂŻeurissent,

/# # # 3"# 3 &$

! de

grands arbres qui semblent planteĂ&#x201A;s laĂ

L 0 !& +M & * pour saluer

# !

les peĂ&#x201A;niches. Des

+ 3* # & *

$ #

bateliers

L 0 !& +M & !

A se

deĂ&#x201A;meĂ nent . . .

Un peu plus

haut,

L # ! $ M / / # + " * $ $ ! # *# des

montagnes de sable ou de pierre,

des

tas

L 0 !& +M ! + + de charbon, des

L 0 !& +M $ + " $

L 0 !& +M

sacs de ciment, encombrent le quai.

& * + " ! " !& # !& ! Des

voitures traversent le

L 0 !& +M "

& * M

pont

tournant.

# & * * LG # / *

)4 ! 1 R / & * [ & # Z V$1

Italian speakers $ *

Distribution P : B I4 $ ! $

I Q B 2 U

Introduction $ 3 $ * * " $ " + ! "$ $ $ # : * 4 "# # / + * $ $ " ! + /# "# ! $$ $$ * &$ ! + /# "# # $ + # / $ " " + # * $ * ; " # # $ "

/ $$ $ " $$ # $ # ! " $ # $ * * /# "# $ + ! + " % & ! " # $ " $ $ " /# * $ " " $ $ #

# $ " ! & # 0 $ * * + ! $ $ * * " ! $ &F " # *# !

" "# $ # $ $ # ++ " # / *$ # / $$ & $ $ # !

" $ * *$ # # *# # /

+ # * + ! "# *$ # $ 7 7 # *$ 3 7 $ ! *$ # # / " " +0" $ & " " $$ ; $ *$ # * + "

! &$ # ! + ! $ " ! " * $ $ + / & * !! " $ "" " % # ! E " # " 5" " $ 6 # " !! ! # 3 * "# * # $$ # # *# $ $ + * !! " $ /

/# "# " & 7 $ + * $ * * $ *

Phonology General $ # *# # ++ " & / *$ # $ # & + $ # ! +0" $ + $ $ $ # +

# #! # # $ # ! &$ ! * ! * # !3

$ # $ $ * $ ! "# & /

$$ * " $ # " $ + /

! ! " $ & " ! ; * & # " 3

" + *$ #

Vowels

{ eI aI OI

ยก O:

aU @U I@

ร z:

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ $

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / <I< + ; $ $ " <i:<8 + $ <{< + ; $ $ " <e<: + $ <ร < $ ! ! " <{<8 + $ ! $ / + ! *$ # # $ 3 " 8 I + I % 5" " 6 + . # # # * $ # *# # " !& + / $ /# "# ! ! *$ # # # * * # $ " * / $ + # # * "

! * ; $ / *# # / $ ! $ # #

* # 0 $ ! , ! *$ # # # * ! & "" $ " B 3 + " !! & / <@U< <O:< <ยก<, $$ # / $ & * $ # $ <o<% # $ +0" $ * # * / $ ! $ " + ! - ' = >

& / <e< <eI< & # & * $ # $ <e<. ? # " + $ / $ ++ " &

/ $ / $ $ * + ! *$ #

3 ! * " &$ ! " $ $ # " ! # 3 " + ! $ " $$ ; $ "#

/ $ + " # / # # & * / " " " ) * < fotogr{fer< + <f@t ÂĄgr@f@< + 1 / + ! + + ! $ / "# ! & " *

Consonants

v T

Z tS dZ k

ĂŞ

D j

# # ! # ; $ ; $ $

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - $ <t< <d< <n< " / # # * * # # # # # * !3 * ' <T< <D< + " <t< <d<: +

+ " I 3 ! # * # " $ 7"

++ # $ 6 /# "# " & ! &$ ! " # # * $ = # &$ ! $ " * " $ $ / # # " & / <s< <z< /# "# $ $ # * "# 5 6 + > # " * + $ $ # 3 " /# *$ # ; " * ! ! # +0" $ "" $ " * $ " " ) / $ 1 " & " + # $ + " * *$ # > # ; $ $ + # # ! <Z< / $ & " / # <zj< # E " + # $$ * ?.

. <ĂŞ< $ + <n<. *$ # ) 1 + " <ĂŞg< & $ 8 <sÂĄĂŞg< + <sÂĄĂŞ<. , # ; $ + <h< $ / $$ # + $ " 3" ! 8 1 $ ? $ 0 $ " $$ + $ + * $ / * " " 0 $ " *$ # ! & * + $$ / * / $ $$ "#/ 8 % @ @ @ @ @ + ! ! * ! " 0 $ " " 8 <aI wend om on d@ b{z< + % $ A $ " " &$ ! 8 + 7 ! $ ! & " " <u:d< <hu:d<

Consonant clusters $ # *# $ # ! + # !

&$ " "$ + *$ # ) ! ! & 1 # $ * * $

" 3# # *$ # 2 / # ! # "$ )$ 1 " $ $ +0" $ 4 $ "$ + " &$ ! " $$ # " * <T< <D< * # " .

Influence of spelling on pronunciation ! * $ $ "# $ & " + # "$ $ # & / $$ * " $ 7 " "# $ & " ) * <kni:< + 1 " $ $ 8 - # $ $/ " $ # " *$ # $ * ! / $ ' &$ " " "# $ % # " ++ " $ 6 " + / "# = # $ # " $ "" * /# + $$ / 8 " <tS< & + & <k< & + # / $ % " <dZ< & + & <g< $ /# % " <S< & + & <sk< $ /# " $ $ * + ! # 8 + + + $ " <k< $ * "" $ $ + > $ / + ! *$ # # $ * * + ?,

" <v<8 + " # $$ *$ # / / # . ! ! " $ $ $ /# "# $ $ " $

Rhythm and stress $ $ + "$ ! # *$ # $ 5 # / 6 #

3 ! + *$ # " * +0" $ $ $ " $ $ ! + " " ! # # "# " 3 " +

3 ! * & " $ & # " + / + ! " $

/ $$ 7 " + $$ $ & * $$ $$ &$ ! + " +

! $ # "# * + ! * / # /

# * un poco ) <"umpoko<1% # " ; $ $ " an cora C " D ancora C D% capi tano C D

" capitano C D # ! +

"# * & / + "# /# "# $$ $ *$ # * " " / + / / + /# # # / $ * * ! " "# # ! *$ # & & K 4 $$ # $ & # # / + $ accento # ! & " + / # $

Intonation ! $ ! & # * *$ # # * # ! * ++ " ! $ # +0" $ " * * 8 ++ " # *$ # & / , ; ) * 1 ;

)+ $$ * 1 " " $ &$ ! B $ $$ * $$ & * # " ! + # " # # $ ! + " " ! # /# "# " " / # # !

8 Il treno arriva alle nove ) at nine 1 Alle nove il treno arriva ) arrives $1 *$ # + " ++ ! # " & " & "# * # !

# / # "

$ "# * * # + # $ ! $ $ # " & $ # &$ ! " * * # $ +

* $$ * ++ " ! *% + ! ! * ! * **

/# ! * ; * ; ??

Orthography and punctuation + ! $ * + ! # $ # & / $$ * " /# $ 6 7 " + $ # "

$$ * # &$ ! + "" " " ! + ! # $ $$ * + " * $ psichiatra psicologia " * * $$ * "# $ $ " # + $ / " ++ $ *# $ + ! *$ # ! $$ $ $$ # ! + #

! # F " + $ # ! + $ * *

Style 7 " &$ ! & " + ++ " # + $ * " " ++ & /# "

5* $ 6 ! $ * " ! $ 7 " / # !

& # *$ # / $ ! $$ + $ & # * # ! / : " $ " "

! & & " ! & /# & $ " " / $ & ! ! $ *$ #

Grammar General # ! +0" $ + $ $ * *$ # $ # + " # *$ # $ * 7 / # " " * !! " $ + " /# $ $ # *# # 3 $ $ * / + ! # + * + / + * $ # $

! "# ! ! # $ * " $ E " # + " " " *$ # # $ $ " + ! # $ * " $

* $ / $$ + " " ! $ # *$ # # $ # $ $ * !! " &$

Statements, questions and negatives; auxiliaries # 7 $ # ; $ $ " " " $ +0" $ * + ! & * # + " $ $ 8 ?@

C' ( C' ( * + ! & # + # * "$ non C% $ C% ? $ # $ + * "$ /# "# / # non 7

" " " * * # + &$ * *$ #8 C% $ B + "" / # # * + 0 8 C% $

Time, tense and aspect: forms - $ # 0 # # # E " + ! + + " $ ! $ ! + " I #

+ ! & # + 7 $ ' # # * $ * # + ; $ ! & $ $ ) $ / $

+ $ " # * & " $ " & $ + / * / $$ 1 # " $ $ +0" $ " $ # *# $ ! " !! " C = $ # + ! ! $ # *$ # + " )" " / # # 7 $ & " $ /# "# ! & * $ * $ 1 * + & ! $ " !! 3 & + ! "# * + + ! # / # )essere1 # * 8 C1 $ E 7 $ + ! # + " / # essere: C% > 5B $6 + $ " ! # $ * " $$ * $$ & + ! # # " " # + " 50 6 5 " 6 5 # 6 " $ 5" $ " 6 " " ! + $ 7 $ # &F " # 3"$ + /# / / $ " $$ " # " 3 $ ! ; $ *$ #8 C% " $ C% %

Time, tense and aspect: use - : *

& 7 $ & # ! $ ! # *$ #8 C' ( )+ ' (1 ' $ # + " + " " # " # 0 ! $ / ! # $ ! + /# " ! & " & +0" $ # / # + # ! $ 5# "6 + # " ! $ " & # + " # # ++ " * & / # # $ & / / $ # " ! *$ # + # / # " / / # " # # $ ! * + $ + +0" $ + # ! * + # + " + # ! $ + ; 8 C% = $ & # / $ * + ++ # & * * $

# ! $ ) + ! * + * % " " & $ * / # $ 18 C% $ C% 5=JH$ C% % ? > + " & # $ ; $ + "$ # & "$ /# / $ & *$ #8 C' " % . $ # ; $ # + # + # *

/ # + ! *% & #

! $ + " / # + ! + " $ 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C%

To be, to have and to do # ; $ + $ $ & " !! # " $

8 C% $ C1 , ( 7 $ + $$3 & + ! + + " + 8 C% # ; $ + , + " *$ # + $$3 & 8 @(

C% , $ C' $ C% , # $ ; $ + " / # 8 C% $

Auxiliaries and modals " $ & & $ ! $ 8 C% + # 0 ! $ 7 $ $ /# "# # $$ # ! # 3 $ * " $ " " + # & $ # *$ # ; $ # " $ "# " " + *$ # ! $ # + " &$ ! 8 C% $ C% $ C+ $ C ( % + $ + vorrei )G D8 C% $ # # + ! * # +

& $ " &$ * " 7

& # *$ # ! $ +0" $ + $

5+ $6 # + " " $ ++ + ! + dovere # ! * # # ++ ! $ 8 C- )+ - , $1 I # " /# "# ! " +0" $ # & /

% % " %

$ C- % $ C@ $ B ! # &$ ! ! & " & # + " # # /

+ ! + ! $ $ ! & " & $

Non-finite forms $ # *# # 5* 6 $ # + ! # ! / + ; $ *$ # # 0 & & $ + & + # * + F " + J * 8 @-

C' $ $ $ C% * $ C% $ C% $ $ + $ $ # * + 8 C " $ $ $ C% $ ! & & + 0 /# # " * / $ 8 C% $ C% # 5 &F " J 0 6 " " &$ ! " $ "$ 8 C % " ( # $ 0 + " per )G 18 C+ $ $ $ , $ $ $ , $ $ $

Clause structure: subjects and objects $ " !! $ 7

# + 5$ *6 / # # ; $ + 5 $ 6 )piacere) # ! # # $ &F " " # *$ # &F " " /# "# " " ! 8 C- $ ! $ &$ ! / # # & 8 # $ + % Tu mi manchi 9 $ $$ - # " " $

# *$ # & # / * / 8 C& $ + # &F " &$ * ! $ " $$ ; $ "#8 C' " $ C% $ # + &F " " + # *$ # " & ! " + ! # $ " 8 CC% D $ C% B $ &F " " !! 8 C& % $ $ $ I&F " ! & ! 8 C- " % $ # ; $ + # " # / &F " $ 8 C9 # $ C@ ( C+ $ @'

Reported speech +0" $ * * # *$ # 5 3 6 # + $ + " & " $ " + * ! " $$ " $ " " $

"# "$ 8 C1 # )+ 1 2 * 3; " & &$ !8 C ( $ # / $ " # + " + 8 C1 $ $ $

Relatives ! # +0" $ * " * "$

/ # K $ $ % $ ! & 8 C %

The passive voice $ #

" ! "# $

# *$ # ! # +0" $ + ! * *$ #

" $ $ + " *

+ ! C/ $ C. ! ! # & *# #

# ! "# " $ / 8 C D & $ $ " ! " &F " # &F " +

& "$ $ B " ! " $ $ " $ 1 " ! $ $

Reflexive verbs E 7 & ! " !! $ # *$ # # ; $ + + 7 ! $ $$ E 7 $ @=

% C D

% K$44 $ $ E 7 ++ + ! + ! $ 8 C $ $ E 7 " $ & " &F " "

/# *$ # / $

8 C% $ # " 7

# + 5 "# # 6 C' $ # $ $ ! $ E 7 " " % + $ 0 # " " *$ #

; $ $ "# 8 C% , , $

Articles $ # *# ! + "$ $ ! " !! " # $

+ # * &$ ! + $ $ $ # & # 0 0 "$ /# "# E " + !& * & # ++ + ! *$ # # " & / " 0" * " " &$ ! " $ * " # 0 "$ 8 C $ C% $ $ # 0 "$ /# + * $ 6

8 C% $ C' % $ $ $ 0 "$ + + # ; $ + : C% $ C- $ C% ? # $ ! " !! 7

+ * $ " 8 C+ , / "$ " & $ !& + " /# # *$ # 9 + " /# + * " " $ * ! $ 8 C% % $ C& C) " $ I # +0" $ "$ 8 @>

, , , # , #

C D " " " "

Quantifiers $ $$ $ # +0 ! "$ 8 C+ & + / *$ / # "$ 8 C * $ # + " " &$ ! 8 C' $ + $ $ $ , $ ! $ $ $ : C1 $ / " $$ & nessuno $ 8 C/ $

Possessive structures " / #

! & # / * / 8 C

! & $ 8 C $

! E " + !& * # # # # 3/ " & / " 8 # "# " + / $ # * )! " $ + ! 1 + /#

+ #

8 C* O & 0 C1 I $ I # " !! "$ # + + % !

$ " $

+ ; $ " 3 "" / # "$ B + +

! $ "" + 3 ; $ # # # ! + ! $ 8 C 4 ! $ +0" $

Number and countability # " &$ < " &$ " $

"$ 3" $ # *$ # ! " &$ *$ # / # " &$ ; 3 $ $ 7 ! $ 8 " " " " " " ) # # 1 $ C% 0 C% $ B $ # $ $ /# *$ # 8 C) $ # $ / + )gente1 * $ 8 C9 $ $ + ! $ ! " & * $ $ E " 8 C + )+ + D

Pronouns ' ! & / # " # + 5 /# 68 C' $ $ + # di )G 1 + # ; $ + " * 8 C C 1 "" $$ + E " * # * + # ; $ $ 8 C' " $

Adjectives and adverbs F " $ $$ + $$ / # E " + !& /# "# ! $ & * ! ! 8 C

C " $ ! ! ! / # 7

$ " " 8 C' $ $ # " ! $ E " 8 C+ ! 7

$ F " /# *$ # / $ &8 C C ;

$ & ! & + ! &F " " ! $ ! 8 C% ? $ C% < $

Prepositions # " ! * + ! $ $ $ & # $ * * *$ # + $ & " $ " & $ + "$ 8 C C C ?

C # $ / + $ " !! $

& 8 C' / B > " & $ # +0" $ / # 5 3 *6 ; $3

! $ / $ 0 # + $$ / * "

# " 8 ' ( % $ +

Vocabulary : $ * 7 " + $ $ / + / $ # # $ &$ ! + + $ + ! + # ! + ; $ " + # 8 !

! " ! " ! ! C D ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! @?

I # " !! + " + $ * + ! ++ 3 $ * " * # / $ * * "$ 8 " " " " ) $$ $ & come1 " " " ) $$ $ & che1 " " ) $$ $ & troppo1 " " " ) $$ $ & molto1 " )& # $ & percheĂ 1 " "

" )& # $ & morto1 " )& # $ & anche1 " 2 ! & & / + ! 4 "#8 C + 5" 6 5/ 7 " 6 C + 5& "# 6 +07 + / *$ " " & $ * / # # *$ # 4 "# / 8 C *$ # $ 3/ ! & 3 7 / # "# * ! *

# + gadget ! 5+ & 6 5 ! $ !6

A sample of written Italian with a word-for-word translation L'

altra notte ho

fatto un incubo

tremendo.

# # *# L M # ! *# ! !

nella stazione di una cittadina a me sconosciuta

trovavo

L M + # + Ero

appena scesa

dal

! /

treno, quando fui

L M / & $ " + ! # /# L M /

avvicinata

da due poliziotti

che mi chiesero i

"# & / $ " ! # ! con aria intimidatoria. Presa alla

sprovvista,

documenti

# " !

cominciai

/ # ! * 3 # L M & * a cercarli

prima nella borsa, poi nelle tasche ed

"# # ! 0 # & * # # " inÂŽne nella valigia,

cui

estraevo ogni

0 $$ # " + ! /# "# L M 7 " "# @@

% indumento ed ogni oggetto, uno per uno, prima con calma * ! "# &F " & 0 / # " $! poi

affanosamente anche percheĂ mi

stavo

rendendo

# & #$

$ & " ! L M / *

conto

che quella non era mia valigia.

Cominciai

"" LG $ *M # # / ! " L M & * allora a farmi

prendere dal

panico, a guardare in giro

# ! ! & # " $ a destra e

a sinistra per cercare

*# $ + la

una via

+ "#

stazione era circondata da un ÂŽlo

di scampo ma

/ + " &

spinato ed

a poco

# / & / & & $ $ a poco

apparve

non piuĂ

come una

$ $ LG $ $ & $ $ M ! L M !

stazione ma come un campo di concentramento. Ed

piuĂ e

io non ero

" ! + " " /

una viaggiatrice

qualsiasi

ma una deportata

$$ L+ ! M + /# &

quelli non erano poliziotti

ma soldati.

L+ ! M

Presa dall'

# / $ " ! & $ & # angoscia e

dal

panico mi

sveglai di soprassalto

7 & # " ! L M / + LG / # M e

cuore mi

batteva

cosi forte

che ci

# # ! / & * * # # vollero alcuni minuti

prima che mi

/ ! ! & + conto

rendessi

! L M L &F " M che

"" LG + / ! $ $ M # era tutto un sogno L M / $$ ! )& I $ 1

Speakers of Spanish and Catalan ! B -

Distribution 8 : "$ * # B % # /# $ + I B 7" K $ # % B B % BI% B % : I BI I B 3 : B% 2 # % ! & " # "" % ; $ % ! + # 8 B I I # B

+ Q $ " $ " 4 " ) : 1 / # + / $ /# B $ 7"$ $ % ! B $

$ # 4 "# ) * /# # $ 1

Introduction # B $ ! " $ * * "$ $ $ $ : * % # & $ * # 3 + ! $ Q # " &$ / # $+ $ & / ! 3 $ # # ! " / # ++ " $ * $ " 0 " " & $ ! # $ * 7 & * + $ /# 2 # $ $ 7 " $$ ! $$ $$ * &$ $ ! * * # " $ B $ " &$ + ! # # *# # $ * $ / # " " & $ # $ * * + ! $ $$ * & $ # *# # # $ " * 0" $ ++ + ! ! $ B $

Phonology General 2# $ # # *$ # " ! # / ! ! $ 3 # / $ ! "

++ # -

$ + ! ! " * $ & # # # "#

+ + @

" " * +0" $ + #3 * $ + *$ # # " $ 0 *$ # " # # + ! # $ * * + B $ / # & * + / $

! !

! $ # + *$ # * $ # $

+0" $ ! " !! + + # " " $ + # B $ + *$ # 8 9 +0" $ " * * * *$ # / $ 9 * " * + 0 $ " " 9 " # #! / # # " $ ! " + *$ # ! * * +0" $ + *$ # $ 9 / * + "# ) 1 " * & ++ "

Vowels # # 0 / $ 0 # # * % B $ # *# / $ *# 5+ $$ *6 # # * # $ * * $ * # " + B ; $ $ 0 +0" $ ++ 3 * & / *$ # / $ " $$ /# $ * # + # ++ " " $$ $ / *$ # / $ # # 5 # "

" 6 "" & #<B $ / $ 3 3 " 3 " " " $$ !

&$ - <i:< <I< " #<B $ < < " " + ' <A:< <{< <Ă&#x192;< " #<B $ <a< / "#

" + " # *# " & # <u:< <U< " #<B $ <u< $ " + . *$ # <z:< <@< # ! $ # / $ <@<

! $$ $ " & # * " + # / / $

<abaut< + " <z:< $ " & <i< <e< $ E <r<

<birt< + % <bert< + " B $ # # # # $ / $ /# "#

$$ &$

" * # $ % *$ # <@< # + "# &$ ! + B $ , + # # * # + # ! $ *$ # A-

+ + @

# ) 7" # # " $ ! # &

* # *$ #18 <aU< <eI< <aI< <OI< # # # *

+0" $ + #3 * $ *$ # <@U< # / + * # + ! <O:< ) / $$

1 " + + 7 ! $ B $ # / * + # # * # *$ #% # # *# # 7 " $ " " B $ $ # $ $ +0" $ " * "" &$

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ # B $ " " $ / # +0" $ # *# # # ! " ! $ " # # !

" &$ ! - $ " $

$ )<p< <t< <k<1 *$ #

# + $ <b< <d< <g< *$ # ' 2 30 $ " $ # B $ % $

<t< + 0 $ <d< <k< + 0 $ <g< <p< + 0 $ <b< I # " / 30 $ " $ & *$ " 5 6 + % <beiT< + " = # B $ # # ! # $ # !

*$ # <m< <n< <ĂŞ< & #

! $ # 3 * # " " 7 ++ + ! *$ # + 7 ! $ <aiĂŞgoiĂŞ< " !! + % # <n< <ĂŞ< $ " <m< 0 $ + 7 ! $ + 4 $ <n< # $/ " ! & & & $ / $ < " ! $ <ĂŞ< # B $ <k< + $$ / <ĂŞ< # + / " + & # " > #<B $ * # ! # 3 * $ /# "# "" * " 7 # ;

! $ *$ # $$ & & / / $ # + " 8 <b< ! $ <v< <d< $ <D< <g< A'

+ + @

@ A

-( --

7 " $ $ *$ # # " ! $ 6 " + / $

! /# +0" $ + # <z< 7 % $ <s< + <z< + & # + & # " # # " + <s< + "# <S< " * " + & / $ B $ # # # # <z<9<s< " ! $ # + *$ # # * $ &$ ! / B $ <z< / 30 $$ B $ / $$ + & # " # ! + B $ $ # # + <b< <v< ) " " $ " $$ & $ & $ + " " 1% # " " + & / $ I+ # *$ # # ! <S< <tS< <Z< <dZ< # $ # <tS< / # & " ; " + $ B +

" !! & / / "# % ! & " 5 6 5 6 5 6 # ! " <Z< <dZ< "" / / / # * $$ ! <dZamar< B $ # # # # + # ! ! $ # *$ # # *# # " <Z< <dZ< 0 $$ " * &$ ! / # / $ #<B $ <r< E ! $$ " $$ % # " *$ # ) $ # " 5 E " + $$ * " 6 & $ / 1 # # *$ # <h< $ + " $ # " # ! Bach )& / 1 # + $ " *$ # <h< # ! /# $

# # ! " # # + " *$ # <j< ) 1 # $ <dZ< $ * / # " * " + & / 2 " # B $ ! " <w< # $ <b< & / / $ * <aribalker< + 2 $ + / $ <w< ! & " <gw< <g<8 <gwud< <gud< +

Consonant clusters B "$ * $ $

+ ; # B $ # *$ # # $ # +0" $ " * " * *$ # "$ " $ ! $ 0" 8 A=

+ + @

+ # + + + # +

+ & # + & # + " "

+ % +

! $ " 0 $ " $$ + # " * * 5+ + $ 6 + # <s< $ # " + " " "" # & * * + / # B $ ? " " "

Influence of spelling on pronunciation - $$ * " "$ $ 9 ! $ 9 $ # & * * $ " *$ # /

$ & $ B $ # $ # & / " $$ * & " ! $ " *$ # # *$ # # * # ! $

+ &$ ! / / # / / B $ $ " $ & $ ! 7 ! $ 8 " 8 " $ 8 " 8 " $ )& 1 8 " 0 $ " ' 4$ <r< * $$ " /# /

& + " ) 1 + # $ # + / ) 1 4 # ! # B $ &$ $$ ) B $ $ / $$1 # # & " = <@< 7 #

$$ &$ " / # # / / $8 <titSer< <interestet< <fotografi< <fotograf< > # B $ &$ * $$ " # $ # 3 3 5! $$ 6% ! " "

"$ <j< <Z< <dZ< * ! " # "

*$ # . # # $ " " $

$ + " #

+ + @

! ! $ " * / #

! $ *$ #

Rhythm and stress # $$ &$ 3 ! $ * * * $ $$ $$ &$ & # ! $ * # + ! " \ # *# 7 $ * # ! & + ! # 1% *$ # # # + * ++ " ! " & /

$$ &$ *$ # # # #

$$ &$ " "# "# * & " ! " $ /# $

$$ &$ " + " / # $ / $ <@< <I< " " /

\ & F " & 1

*$ # # # + $ $ ! " ! / # #

* !3 ! " $ / \ "$ 7 $ & 1 #

# #! + *$ # " * $ + " " "$

" ! * 2# # " *$ #

" / #

# #! # "$ !

* *$ # $ 0 +0" $ & " # " $ " # " \4 7 ! $ ) 2 " ! & ! $1 B $ # / ! ! ++ " & /

$$ &$ "$ * $ / $ $ <@<

B $ $ !

3 ! \/ # ! $ ! 3 $

$ * & /

*$ # # # & /

$$ &$ $$ &$ 1 & # + $$ ! *$ # # /# $ B $ $ " $$ 7 ! ! "$ $ *$ # " # #! # $$ ! * ! * + ++ " & " ! # B $ $ 0 &$

" &$ \ $ # " 5 6 & $ /1 # " $$ # " * " # ++ " *$ # 7

$ 8

$ &$ ! &$ ! + " * " * 8 C' sugar( C& 2 " yes$ # $ / ! # $

# # " * /

+ + @

Intonation # B $ / "# * # *$ # ! # "

7 $ * # # # 7 "# # ! ! # " & *$ # *$ # # "$ " + $$

$$ &$ # " * /# & * ! # " # ) $ * 7 B $ 1 # "$ + $$ # $

$$ &$ # " ) + $ ! &

# + / $$ / ! # 1 # $ " 7 ! 2 painted the walls ) / # ; ' 2 (1 / # 0 * +0" $ " * ) " * *1 # John ) / # ; ' (1

Orthography and punctuation Spelling # # # *# 9 $$ * " " & $ #

$$ * + *$ # " ! $ % B $ # " " ! "# ! " ! $ " ! * # $$ * + *$ # $

# " 4 & # * " !! " &$ $ *$ 8 C # &$ ! + $$ * 7 " & & " $ 3 * # *$ # # ! " # " 7 $ #

9 $$ * * $ # 7 4 7 ! $ 8 " + / # " + / # $ # # +0" $ * * & " * $ $ # *$ # " / # / / $ $ " / $ $ / " 8 C

Contractions # B $ # " " & + ! $

0 # ! &$ ! $ * *$ # # 0 +0" $ " * + 7 ! $ 8 % $ A,

+ + @

" # ! % " " * $ $ $ " " " + 3 *8 % % " & ; $ /# # # * # # " # ! * 8 ) + ( - " %

Punctuation # B $ " " ! $ *$ # # $ $ + / &$ ! B !! + /# *$ # / $ + ! 3" $ ! 3" $ /# *$ # / $ + + $$ * ! " # # + ; 7"$ ! ! # & * * + " 8 CS' ( CT% 0 # B $ " !! * "# & ! ! 9 # 8 O ÂżCoĂ&#x201A;mo te llamas? )2# 6 ! H1 O Me llamo Sara. ) ! 6 1 ! ! # " " " "# ) # 7 " * ---1 # B $ & # " !! " ! $

# 8 H$444 ) # # 1 H"36 ) # / 0 % " $$ " + $$ / * # # C 1

Capital letters # B $ " $ 0 $ + + # / ! # $ F " 8 C C C "

Grammar General !! " $ ! $ & / # B $ *$ # "$ 8

* $ $ $ + ! + % 0 0 "$ % A?

+ + @

* $ * $ & % + % + " *

& + ! % "$ + F " ) ! $ + + ! + " * ! $ + 8

& $ / 1 / " ! / # *$ # & # # B $ 8 9 9 9 9 9 9

# # *#$ E " & ! % # + / %

# / * !& F " % # ! $ 7 $ % #

! "# $

% # &F " !

# $ $ + 7 ) " " 1 # B $ # / $ $ * " # &$ ! $ / # & $ / $$ $/ " !! & # # $ $ + ! # $ * & # # B $ # *#$ E " # & # * $ $ $ + ! + F " I+ # $ # $ $ + # F "

"$ # " &$ ++ " # $ * + *$ #%

" 5 !& 6 & $ / ) " $$ * # + $ * * / # " + & * # $ 0 # + # # * $ + # *$ # ! $ " $" " $ + ! ! # 1

Word order # ! "# + # B $ # *$ # - 5 &F " 9 &6 5 &9 &F " 6 * $ $ "

! ; " $ 8 ) ! 1 C) ) ! 1 )4 ; 7 " 1 ' # + / $$ / / # ! # & $ " $ 8 C- $ C9 / $$ 8 - = 4 ; " & # $

&$ & # " $ ! 3 + *$ #8 C. C+ A@

+ + @

> F " " $$ ! + # 8 C C@ ( # ! # $ @ N @ " $ $ +0" $ + # B $ $ & " + # ! # $ ! + # # / $ ! $$ & 7

# 8 C @ N @ * # #<B $ + " los Rolling + < + un Christmas + @ # " # 0 / # *$ # # # # . # B $ " &F " ! # )a1 # / &F " " * # 8 C + $ + # *$ # / 3 &F " " + +0" $ + $ # , & $ &F " " ! $ ! * $ $ $ " & + " &F " 8 C $ C& + ? $ C! $

Questions - # / + ; 7 $ $ # !8 2 ( C1 2 ( & ( C' & ( C@ & ( C& " ( $$ &F " &F " ; " +0" $ & # " * " 8 ' . ( ' . ( ' ! ( ' ! ( )4 # + / # " &F " # " 5: 6 & $ / 1 ' # +0" $ / # , , 8 C ( C ( AA

+ + @

C ( C ( ) $ 5 " "#6 & $ / 1

Question tags # # / * * ! ! ! /# + ! * no # # " ! $ " )+ 1 + ; * *$ #

* # # ! $ $ " * 8 C " ( C- " ( B $ # " * $ ; * oi & B $ $$ *$ #

Negatives - 7 $ $ + ! * * " # B $ % # * / * & + # & # 8 C9 $ C9 $ # * "$ no & * ! $ " & "" *$ 8 C% $ # / # * * + # F " & " 8 $ B $ 1 $ ' # &$ * 8 C% % $ C $ # ! +0" $ + $ " # # *$ # " * +8

8 , " 3

8 " * 8 , " " $ 3

+ ! " * 8 C% ) $ 5B$ " " ! $ ! 6 > & $ / 1

-((

+ + @

Verbs - # B $ $$ & # / # ! $ * +

) + " $1 " ! + ! ) *

+ " 1 # # " * + ! $ 7 $ *$ # $ 0 # " " # ! $ " + # + ! # +0" $ * " $ ! "$ 8 C& $ C ( C& ( C+ )! * $ $ $ $ $ $1 C+ )! * $ $ $1 C # $ ' ! " /# *$ # # / ++ / / / # / ++ " # B $ # & / # & #

& $ 8 + $ C+ )! * $1 $ $ & $ ' ( = # * $ &$ ! / # / 3 # 3 & ! " & " # ! * + # *$ # " ! " &$ + ! # ! * + # $ & " $ + $ ! " !+ &$ / # ! + ! ) 5Q " & $ 6 - & $ / 1 ! " # *# #<B $ / 7

& # # ! * + # *$ # & $ $ # ! * + # $ & * tirar/llencĂ&#x2039;ar G gastar G > : " $ &$ ! + & $ " "$ # + " # ! *$ # # " * + J F " 6 7

# B $ & J 68 C CQ D C C " #<B $ % 7

$ * " + "# 8 CA

Ellipsis 2# " & + ! $ * * # 2# *$ # " + " ! $ ! # " & -(-

+ + @

+ ! # " 7 # % $ ) ( / " % 6

Time, tense and aspect + ! # B $ ! ! $ < *

" 8 Maria visita )G & 1 < Maria estaĂ&#x201A; visitando )G & $1 # B $ $ # + " " 8 Maria ha visitado )G & $1 / $ # *# # + ! " *$ # + ! # "

$ ! $ " + ! * - # ! $ + + " * $ " /8 C* 0 % 0 ' # ! $ + + + ! 8 C % ( )+ $ $ $ + % (1 C% )+ % 1 C% )+ % 1 = # + * ! " * # )/# *$ # + " 18 C1 ( C% % $ > B $ # # + ! + # + " " & / # ! 3/# & $ ! *

! $ /# + * " $ # ! 8 C' ( C % % $ # + ! " # # # #

! $ " & ) ! # # + # # $ ! 1 /# # *$ # ; # + " 8 Ya lo leĂľĂ&#x201A; G % $ . # B $ # ! # + ! " * # *

*$ # + /# "# ! # ! C D # " " + 8 C' " $ -('

+ + @

* $ # + ! ! + ; # *$ #

" " $$ + # + & ) # ; $ + " " 18 C' % " % $ C+ $ , # ! + # 7

&F " 8 C@ 0 ? # B $ # & "$ + ! "

+ * + ! # # &F " $ $ " # ! $ 8 C' & " @ # B $ # + ; & )soler1 /# "# $$ /

$$ + ! + 5 6 7

+ ; " ! * 8 C% # $

Passives - # B $ #

+ ! " " # ! / # *$ #

8 / # J " $ 6% & # " /# *$ # #

/ # * # # B $ + ! ! " + # *$ # E 7 8 C $ ' # B $ " + !

# $$ $8 @ $ 9 $ # " )/# # " &F " # & " ! # &F " +

&1 +0" $ + $ = # #<B $ * " * # "$ "

! * " $ / # " ; " + *$ #8 C $ C% 9 $

Infinitives - # B $ + # 0 & " )" * # *$ # 3 + !18 C D $ " ; " $ ! # +0" $ *

" /# "# # 3 + ! &F " -(=

+ + @

' # B $ # 0 ! )a1 & 3 & ; + $$ / # *$ # 8 C% ? $ C* $ ) $ # " 5B$ " " ! $ ! 6 5 " "#6 & $ / 1

Articles ! + # ! ++ " # + # "$ # B $ " ! / # *$ #8 - # 0 "$ * / # !

$ $ "

# / # * $ ! *8 C $ C ( )! * 1 ' # B $ # 0 "$ / #

3 8 C " $ = # B $ ! " & / # 0 "$ # !& : C' I > > ! 7

/# # " & / !

" $ * $ " "$ 8 C ( C1 $ . # 0 "$ # $ $ + ! )" * *#$ D # " " & * ! ! 8 C% ) $

Gender # B $ # * !! " $ * 8 $$ / $$

$ "$ F " ! " $ + ! + "

! / # # " * 8 $ @ " $

Number - # B $ # + ! + # $ $ ! $ *$ # ) *1 & # * / # "$ F "

/ $$ 8 I -(>

+ + @

' # $ / # " $ $ + ! #< B $ /# *$ # # !

* * + 7 ! $ 8 C C% $ = # 5 !! " $6 # * # $ $ + ! *$ # ) " " 1 $$ * $ # B $ 8

# * $ $ $ # B $ % $ $ &$ " * $ ! ! $ " " $

Adjectives - F " " / # # + ! : C " % $ ' B ! $ 7

& * # ; $ + 8 C% $ # $ / )maĂ&#x201A;s/meĂ&#x201A;s1 + & # 8 C @

Pronouns - &F " $ $ * $ "

# # ; $ + # " U 6 + $+8 ' ( ) %$ )+ % $ 1 -(.

+ + @

. E 7 ! ! " ! " E 7 & * #<B $ /# *$ # # " $ * 8 + /# # & & # #<B $ *$ # E 7 # ! # &$ ! # # E 7 # # ! # $ 8 C% , #<B $ ! $$ 7

" " 3 *

Possessives - # B $ # 0 "$

" $ 8 C& + ! " + # ++ " # "# * E 7 8 C ' # B $ # # ! / + )+ ! $1 " / # " ; " + *$ #8 C+ 2 $ = B $ # 0 "$ / #

8 C 9 $

Possession :

$ " " # *$ # 7

" + ) * 2 " & 1 7

# B $ / # 3 # 8 < # &$ ! * # * & / " & " una botella de vino / una ampolla de vi " 7

& # ! * # / # / 7

9/# $ $ # $ / $$ & 7

8 C

-(,

+ + @

Relative pronouns and clauses - # * # & / $ 3 $ $ 8 C ' # $ " & $ # B $ $ # +0" $ * *$ # "$ / # K $ 8 ; $ ( ) 7 ! $ $ # $ /# "# $ "$ 0 # / # /# &F " # & $ " $ $ +0" $ + 1

Clause structure and complementation - : "$ 7

/ # )para/per a1 # 0 8 C C D $ '$ # B $ + 7 ! $ ' * $

+ /# " $$ * * # * # 0 &$ ! / # "# " 8 ' + "

#<B $ " 7

# + " & #

" + + *$ # 8 C' C D $ =$ $ # *# # B $ # / 30 + ! )$ 0 + !1 # & ++ 8 C $ C% > #<B $ ! & 7

# 5 ++ " 6 !! 3 $ + $$ / * # & /# *$ # # ; ++ " 8 C+ # C D C 2

Indirect speech "# + " "# #<B $ " # + *$ #8 & + ! " "# * # ++ " & / # * # * $ - / # " + " !! ; "

++ #<B $ "# # / # &F " ) -(?

+ + @

# + 0 &1 # "$ $

! $ " *$ #8 C% C C D , 7 " ! $ " /# # "$ * /# "# *$ # / $ + " & 7

& " 8 C% , C ' *$ " ; " &$ ! + ! " $ 2# # # 0 $$ " ! * / # *$ # ; / # " ;

$ * # 8 C% & C %

Prepositions - # # 5 $ 6 )a1 "

/# # " &F " # ! 8 C $ ' # B $ ! $/ * / # # # " * # + "$ 8 CA ( 0 +0" $ * " $ 8 % $ ' A # ( = # B $ " & + $$ / & 0 8 C) " $ > 2# $ ! " # 5" $6 ! * + $ * * " # # # $/ ! 7" # ! $ " " + " $ +0" $ 8 9 , , 8 C & 2 C $ 9 , , 8 C C' $ 9 , 8 C+ $ C $ 9 , 8 -(@

+ + @

C @ B VW$ 9 , 8 C $ # ! # &$ !

Vocabulary - # B $ $ ! + % # " & $

# + " # 3 + *$ #8 estructura G derivar G difĂľĂ&#x201A;cil G confusioĂ&#x201A;(n) G 2# $ # + " ++ # $ ""

$ *

" & $ $ ! # $ * * + ! $8 # # # + # + " " $ $ # +0" $ / # # + ! ! $ $ ! * + / 3 # 3 & "# ' # B $ + & # # ! !& + ! $ 9+ ! $ ) + ! $ * 1 & * # $ $ + # ! $ + !8 rey/rei G reina G ; reyes/reis G hijo/ÂŽll G hija/ÂŽlla G hijos/ÂŽlls G $ + + +

+ " = ! $ &$ ! + $ 8 9 # + $ $ " C 9 # B $ $ * $ $ C 2 9 " + !& ) # " 5: " 6 & 1 9 # !& ( /# "# + cero/zero $$ $$ " 3 7 % # " &$ ! / # # 5 6 + $ 3 # !& > # " + $$ $ * * # ! ! + " & $ /# "# # ! * $ # + 3 3! 4 $ # * +0" $ " $$ /# ! # ! # *

/ # * $ * * # &$ ! / # cero # F & ! I # " !! 7 ! $ 8 casa G % coĂ&#x201A;mo/com G % conocer/coneĂ ixer G

% decir/dir G % dejar/deixar G % esperar G % hacer/fer G % historia/histoĂ ria G % mucho(s)/molt(s) G % nervioso/nervioĂ&#x201A;s G # % romper/trencar G % llevar/portar G % perder/perdre G % pista G C D % porque, perqueĂ G % receta/ recepta G % tiempo/temps G % uĂ&#x201A;ltimo/uĂ&#x201A;ltim G -(A

+ + @

. ! " !! 5+ $ + 68 #<B $ ? actual asistir/assistir beneÂŽcio/beneÂŽci caravana conductor-a carrera discutir (estar) constipado/constipat embarazada/embarassada eĂ&#x201A;xito/eĂ xit en frente/davant ( enfront) extranjero/estranger eventual (persona) formal lectura librerĂľĂ&#x201A;a/llibreria pariente/parent pas(s)ar (un examen) pretender/pretendre (clas(s)e) particular profesor-a/professor-a propaganda probar/provar propio/propi remarcar reunioĂ&#x201A;n/reunioĂ&#x201A; sensible simpaĂ&#x201A;tico/simpaĂ tic suburbio/suburbi

--(

" C D

C D C D C # D

C D "

+ + @

A sample of written Spanish with a word-for-word translation Sentado en el

suelo se

calzaba

# E # ! $+ # / # * LG * M

las aĂ&#x201A;speras botas de racionamiento

de suela clavateada

# *# & + * L G ! & M + $ y

puntera de metal: ellos se

las

" + ! $8 # L+ M # ! $ # ! LG # & M con envidia

miraban

# / $ * L M / # ÂżUn regalito

GalaĂ&#x201A;n? dijo

la viuda

Sarnita, y

$ $ + LG + !M # / / $ H # levantoĂ&#x201A;

Java se

una senĂ&#x201E;a

le hizo

# ! $+ # LG * M L M # ! # ! Ven,

dijo,

Sarnita le

seguioĂ&#x201A;:

bastaba

B ! # # ! # + $$ / 8 / *# # luz

que se

a traveĂ&#x201A;s de la

ÂŽltraba

$ *# # $+ / 0$ * # *# para ver

escenario de tables, desierto, la diminuta

+ # * concha del

# $$

arpillera

# " *

+ & #

apuntador, forrada con

+ # ! $

candilejas de cinc abollado,

una tela

/ #

maĂ&#x201A;s allaĂ&#x201A;,

roja, las

"$ # # la

+ $ *# + K " !&

! # LG & M # oscura sala con los bancos de missa en formacioĂ&#x201A;n # $$ / # # & "# + !

LG / M + ! sin

pasillo central

/ # $ " $

)4 ! + ; VW &

---

+ + @

A sample of written Catalan with a word-for-word translation Tenia

prop de divuit

anys

quan vaig

/ # * $! *# /# * L 7 $ M coneĂ ixer

en RauĂ&#x2C6;l, a l'estacioĂ&#x201A;

/ LG /# ! M # $ # + LG M Manresa. El

meu pare

havia mort, inesperadament i

encara

# ! + # # 7 " $ $$

jove,

un parell

d'anys

abans, i

d'aquells temps

* " $ + & + + # !

conservo un record

de punyent soledat.

! ! + "

Les meves relacions

$ $

# !

millorat, tot el contrari $$ ! $$ # "

amb la

mare

no havien pas

potser

ÂŽns i tot empitjoraven

/ # # ! # # #

a mesura que

# / / *

# LG M

em feia gran ! $+ / ! * & * LG / * / * M no existĂľĂ&#x201A;

No existia,

mai

nosaltres

entre

/ 7 * 7 & / d'interessos, d'afeccions " !! + + ++ "

una comunitat

Cal

creure

que cercava . . .

una persona

& $ # / * en qui

centrar

meva vida afectiva

/# ! " # !

$ + ++ " )4 ! N &

--'

$ : $1

Portuguese speakers # #

Distribution U :I I IU D 3 B : Q I : B : ! ] ! "

Introduction : * ! " $ * * "$ $ $ # "

+ : * )# " + # :1 # $ $ &$ * "# # % # $ # ! $ + # + " # + ! + " " $ # * $ " : * $ # + # " "$

+ ! # B !& 3 & * : * $ # $ * * + 7 ! $ A?^ + K $ K K $ # / + / ! F $ " " ! / # ! " 3 # * + K $ : * )# " + # :1 # + # " & / K $ : * ! "# * # # & / # ! " $ + *$ # # " + # / ++ % # ! * " + " & $ )+ 7 ! $ : # ! / + & " * # : /# "# #

& / " *$ $ * !& + / + ! $ * *

! " *$ #1% # ! * !! " $ ++ " # + " # / ! $$ " ! 3 # &$

Phonology General # *$ # : * / $ ! ; ++ 2# $ *$ # # / $ / $ : # ) : *# $ "#/ <@<1 $$ + /# "# " & $ --=

! * # + + : * /# "# * : * "" *$ # 8 9 4 ; $ / $ 9 # + / $ & / " ) " $$ :1 9 4 : " $$ $$ &$ 3 ! # #

3 ! $ / # 3 ! # " " + !

$3 $ &$

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

ยก O: U

aU @U I@

ร z: @

e@ U @

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ : * # $ # + & " " $ / # * +03 " $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # !

! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <i:< & " # " + / # <I<8 + % + " ' <e< " + / # <{<8 = <A:< # " + / # <{<8 % > <ยก< " + / # <O:<8 + + % / # <ร <8 + . <U< " + / # <u:<8 + , <ร < ! & " <{<8 + & " + # * # " + " <u:<8 + ?

/ $ + * # + $$ $ " $$ & :

8 ) + % + I # # #

/ $ # + / ! & " ! /# $! &$ 8 + % + % +

-->

Diphthongs # + / # # * : * # *$ # # * &$ ! / # <I@< <e@< /# "# & " + 8

Consonants

tS dZ k

ĂŞ

D j

# # ! # ; $ ; $ : * # $ # + & " " $ / # * +03 " $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # !

! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - # 5 6 <l< 0 $ & + " + " / $ ! $ <U<8 + + ' <p< <k< <t< $$ : * ! & " + / # <b< <g< <d<8 % ! %

= $ ! $ <t< <d< & # " ; + " + $$ ! & " + 8 %

/# + $$ / & <i:< <I< <e< # + " ++ " $! $ <tS< <dZ<8 + % 2 + > # $ " + & / <t< ) # E 1 <r< ) # $$18 % . Q / $ & + 0 $ <m< <n< <ĂŞ< $ + # /# # 0 $ " &$ , $ <r< " $$ ) :1 + " % : $ ! ! $ * $ 8 % ? 4 $ <z< "" : * ! & $ " & <s< ) + 1 )/ # : 1 & <S< ) + 1 @ <T< <D< $ # <s< <z< <t< <d< $ * " + "# + + --.

A <tS< <dZ< " <S< <Z< $ * " +

& / + " -( $ <h< # ; $ : * # ! ) + + 1 "

$ & " + 3 " ! 8 1 + % -- 4 / " " "" 0 $$ : * / $

+ 8 + % + B$ & / / ! & ! $ 0 8 +

Consonant clusters # * + " "$ ! "# / *$ # # : * + " * # + 7 / $ & : *

6 " + *$ # ) + 1 :

0 " $ $ +0" $ $ "$ / # ) 1 /# $ : ! $ + 0 $ "$

Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$ * " "$ $ $ : * / $$ & ! $$ $ $ + " ! " " !! " # $ )& + 1 <Z< / $ & $ * / # : * gelo caju "

Rhythm and stress : # $

3 ! $ * * + : 0 &$ " "

" " $ *$ # & # " +

$$ &$ ! & 7"

$ " :

$$ &$ 3 ! $ # # $ +0" $ + # + $$ / * + : 8 " 9

$ * "/ "" ! * "

#% 9

7 $ & "$ " F " 3 " ** * ! # 8 C% them C were # C% his & his & * / 9 : " *

/ $$ &$ --,

Intonation "$ " * ! $ / + $$ + ! * # $ / &$ $$ *$ # ; * & " / # * " + ! *

Juncture # " /# # &$ " " & # / $ + 7 ! $

Orthography and punctuation : * # " &$ +0" $ / # *$ # $$ * $$ $ $ # " *$ # )$ $$ 1 / # # : * $$ * + ! # + $$ / * + " $8 - $$ / * " ) 7" 1 & * 0 $ / $ # / $ + "$ /# / * *$ # C+ ' 2# # # ! <I< <i:< "" 8 C % + ? C +

C% = 2 # # # # * <aI<8 C + C + C+ > 2 # # # ! <S<8 C +

C + . 2# / ! $ & # $ * * & * / $$ # : * $$ *% # + $ / & * / / # *$ + &$ " ) * 1 , F " + $ # " $ $ : * 8 C

--?

Grammar General # : * * !! " $ ! # ! "# " !! / # *$ # ! # / $ * * # ! $ 5 +

"#6% : * $ $ # 0 0 "$ * $ * $ & 7 $ ! $ & "

+ ! + # + " & + ! $ # *# # + " # ! $ ! $ " : * + ! $ : # + " *

: * E " ! "# # ! / 4 "# $ # /# "# ! # # / " &

! /# + # *$ #

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - : * ; + ! ! & & # + 7 $ ) # ; $ + 7 $ 1 ) , ; 1 & "# * + / 8 - 2 ( 1 ( ' I * $ + " ! " ; 8 C9 $ C+ # $ = # * + ! : * ! & $ " * # / naĂ&#x201E;o & + # ! 7 $ & + 8 C1 $ > # &$ * : * 8 C1 $ C% $ . # / ; : * + ! & * # & + # ; 8 ( - " % $ * $ , # $ ; * : * ! $ naĂ&#x201E;o eĂ&#x201A; (verdade)? )$ $$ % (1 # ; $ ( 3 " ! $ *$ # C " (

There is : # & haver ter ) # + ! $ " $$ ; $ ; $ + 1 7

, " : $ haver $/ # * $ --@

C , + # $ C1 $ C1 < C?#

Time, tense and aspect : * # ! $ + " + " + ! - *$ # : * # + " + " "

$ * # C D % ' /# # ; $ + " &

" !! 8 C% # = 2# # ; $ + " & # ! $ 8 C C D * ( )+ 1 C D * (1 > 7

# + # ! $ / # haĂ&#x201A; )G 18 C% % . # " + & $ + * 0 # 0 # ! 3 # $ " "# " : * 8 C% < $ C% , # + " *

: * #

! $ *

! ; $

8 C% $ C% ? C+ & 5=J5

- : # / " !! $ 3 + ! 8 *#$ ; 3 $ # *$ # ! $ ) * Ele percebe 9 1 1 # # ; $ # *$ # *

) * Ele estaĂ&#x201A; trabalhando 9 1 1 : &$ ! # / / # & )! $ & 1 /# "# # $ " " : * & *$ # C+ --A

' : + ! *

+ ! / # estar a J 0 )$ $$ 5 & ! # *61 C ' ( % $ " # " / # & # " & :

! " + ! $ *

+ ! *$ # = : * " $ # ; $ + *

7 $ $ * ! ' ( 1 $ )+ 1 $ 1

! + & + ! + " F " + ! 8 C% $ # + : * ! + # *$ # 7

$ ' 9 ( C1 ( )+ 1 (1

Modal verbs 2# *$ # $ & $$ : * $ # ! &8 C1 )+ 1 1 # *$ # + " $ + ! )/ # 1 + # 0 + ! $ # : * ; $ 8 C1 $ # " ! $ 7 " & / +0" $ + : * + # $

Conditionals " + $ ! ! : * * !! " $$ # $ * * ! $$ $ & + ! # / # $ + " $ " C% % " % $ C% % * " % & $ C% $

-'(

Relatives : * # / que " * $ C% $ C% # +0" $ * * *$ # "$ / # K $ )$ 1

The passive voice * $ #

+ " ! $ / : * *$ # $ ! # # $ &$ ! " " * # + ! " " $ " ! $ 7 " ! " +0" $ 8 C- )+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 : * ! ! E 7 & /# *$ #

8 C? : * # " &F " + " & " *$ # + " # &F " +

& # + # +0" $ / # " $ % B + # : * ; $ 8 1 )+ 1 , $1

Non-finite forms - # ; $ : * + # & $ + # + ! )* 1 # 0 8 C ( C% C+ $ ' : * 0 + " & "# de a " /# : * 0 #

! & + # *$ # ; $ C% $ C+ $ = # *$ # 5 &F " J 0 6 " # : * ; $ 8 C+ )+ + 1

-'-

Word order - : * / * $$ + # *$ #

" !! ! 3 &F " " $ ! # + + #

" 8 C D @ % 0 ' # & + $$ / # ; / " "# : 3 * 8 C% C% = & & $ # " & + ! &F " 8 C% $ C1 ? $ C% + > "$ / 7"$ ! / # como ) G 18 C1 0 . : $ ! & $ " & + + & / $ !

+ # & * ! /# # + : * 8 C1 # ) :1 C1 # ) :1 C% )+ % 1 , : " 3"$ + " " & Quem (= ' 1 C' 2 ? F " + $$ / : * 8 C% @ # ++ " # / " $ ! 3

* 8 ! & % " & A :# $ & "" : * % # / / # &F " " &$ ! 8 $ @ ( -( : " & "# + ! # &F " : * # ! $ $ 3+ ! $ $ ;

" 8 ' ( $

" $ # + $$ / * $ + +0" $ 8 % % $ 1 $

-''

Articles and countability - : * # 0 "$ / # # + $$ / *8 9 * $ 8 C $ C $ 9 8 C 9 & $ 9 ! + ! $ 8 C1 " $ 9 # ; $ + # 8 C% # + $ C% $ 9 # ! +

C% .# + $ 9 / + 5 6 * $ /# *$ # +

"$ 8 C , , ' ! " $ ! E " * : * 7

/ # "$ 8 C1 & $ C C C C- )! * - 1 = ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ : * 8 C% $ > + # ; $ + : * " # * $ + ! + " &$ + /

" &$ C' $ C% $

Determiners - # ; $ + # 8 C $ C' ' : * # ; $ + " & / # * $ " &$ # ; $ + + " ! "# 8 -'=

C' )+ $ $ $ 1 C1 = "$ # ! " !! $ & + 3

" $$ :8 C+ $ C. $ C (

Adjectives and adverbs & F " ! $$ + $$ / : * * / # $ $ 8 C # $ C' 0 C $ " & + F " + # ! * "$ + ! # " 7 C $

Pronouns - &F " + ; $ % &F " ! $ & $ + + # " & + ! # " 7 C $ C% $ C8 $ C% ' # ! $ &F " 7 : * 8 C% " " C% = B $ 0" + eĂ&#x201A; / # " $ # + 8 C > ! : * & " & + $$ / & &$ 3 &F " " "3 /# $ # *$ # ; $ " 8 C?# C< . . # ; $ : *

! $$ 7

& a gente )$ $$ 1 C )+ . 1 , : * # *$

! + -'>

/# "# * * / # # # *

2# " *$ # # " " &$ ! 8 C1 ? + ! $ + $ $ : * # "

teu(s), tua(s) $ " & # # 3 + ! seu(s), sua(s). # " " " + # *$ # ; $ 8 C+ )+ + 1 @ E 7 / # ! : * & /# *$ # ; $ # # !8 C% % $

Prepositions and particles # * !& + *$ # /# "# # 3 + ! " 0 + ! $ " ! ! : &$ ! "" /# : * # ! # *$ # ; $ - AteĂ&#x201A; + & # ! ) G 1 " ) G 18 C1 ' Durante " ! 8 C% * = Para ! 8 C+ $ C1 ? # $ C $ C1 )+ $ $ $ 1 > Para $ / # 0 ! * 8 2 . Em ! )+ ! 1 $ 8 C+ @ $ C% $ C1 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 , # ; $ + # / # &

"# " C 9 ? I # " !! ! E " * : * $ * 8 C )+ 1 , C C , C )+ 1 )+ 1 -'.

C C

Vocabulary " : * 3& $ * * : : 0 * " ! " " 0" ! "# $

+0" $ # 3

* " $$ ; $ *$ #

Some common problems - # ; $ + # $ *# $ ++ ! " $ # : * B ! & + ! ! + ! $ 8 ) ( . % " $ ! $ ! / # 8 C 2 $ 1 # ' # & ÂŽcar / $ : * " ! & " $ + "# * + + * 8 C1 )+ 1 1 = : * # # ! / + 8 C1 $ > : * # # ! / + 8 C1 . # ! & ! # ; $ + # : * 8 C C )+ 1 , # : * / obrigado ) G 1 " & 7

$ + $ 2# # / *$ # * # !

) #

# $ ! $$ &$

obrigado1 *

+ ! $

" ! ? # ; $ + /# 0 1 $ $ $(% 1 @ B + * & " # : * / + / ! / *$ #8 O O O

O -',

O O O O O

O O O O

False friends ! $$ $ " 8 C D

# #

)abusar G ; 1 )actual(mente) G " " 1 )cigarro = 1 )cobra = 1 )constipacĂ&#x2039;aĂ&#x201E;o = 1 )discutir G 1 )desgracĂ&#x2039;a = " 1 )desgaste G 1 )distraĂľĂ&#x201A;do G 1 )educado G 1 )esperar G $ 1 )esperto G " 1 )facilidades G 1 )familiar G " 1 )entender G 1 )livraria G 1 )licencĂ&#x2039;a G 1 )local G 1 )lanche G 1 )ordinaĂ&#x201A;rio = 1 )parentes G 1 )presentemente G 1 )pretender G " 1 )primeiramente G 1 ) : privada G " 1 )puxe G 1 (rato = 1 )real G > > # 1 )usar G 1 )vulgar G 1 -'?

Paralinguistic elements : * & $ / "# # # *$ # & # *# $ ! # * $$ &$

$ " + ! + ; + ! ) $ ; ! # ! 1 + " # ) 1 !

# # * ! $$ "" 3 ! $ " " $ * # ! * K $ # / # ! : $ "$ * # /# # $ # " $ "# * ! / $ "" &$ # " " & !

A sample of written Portuguese with a word-for-word translation Ao acordar

disse

para a

I / # hoje

eĂ&#x201A; dia de pagar a

mulher:

Escuta, minha ÂŽlha:

# / ! L/ + M8 !

prestacĂ&#x2039;aĂ&#x201E;o de televisaĂ&#x201E;o, vem

* $8

aĂľĂ&#x201A;

+ # $! + $ " ! # # sujeito com a

conta, na certa.

&F " / # # & $$ trouxe

dinheiro da

cidade, estou a nenhum.

& *# ! + ! # " ao

homem Âą repondeu a

DaĂ&#x201A;

um ar de vigarice,

# !

Mas acontece que ontem

eu naĂ&#x201E;o

" # # !

Âą Explique isso

L $ *M 9 7 $ #

mulher. Âą NaĂ&#x201E;o gosto dessas coisas.

9 / # / ! 9 $ + # # * gosto de cumprir rigorosamente as

+ / $ * $ + + $0$ * $

minhas obrigacĂ&#x2039;oĂ&#x201E;es ! L $ $M &$ * ). 1 / & 4 & 1

Acknowledgement # # / $ $ # # # /# # $ $$ * + # + # "# & $ ! / B# # ! /# ** + # : * 7 ! $

-'@

Greek speakers # B : + # ! 3

Distribution B BP:

Introduction 3 $ * * & "$ $ $ # $ * * # + ! $ *$ # # $ * 7 " & $ ++ *$ # # + $ * * +

Phonology General # *$ # # $ * " $ ! & $

! $ # +0" $ " * < " * " " $ ! *$ # # *$ # / $ ! /# "# !

+ ! " # # ! " &$ !

$ ++ ! * # + + /# "# * 5 "" 6 *$ # 8 9

* " " $ # *$ # / # $ 7 / $ $

$ 3 * $

* 9 " + " & / / * + ! $ "#

" ! / # *$ # 9 " + $

! $ % # ! # *$ # +

$ / /$ * # + ! $ 9 " # *# $ ! ! + ! "# $ $ # ! *$ # $ 9 ++

-'A

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $

# $ # + & " / # +0" $ 3 * $ # / # +0" $ " $ * #

" " $ # # * & " $ / / $

" / $$ &$ # / $ ! " ! &$ ! - <I< $$ $ " & <i:< " * $

! $ ' <{< $$ $ " & <e< # <a< + 7 ! $ ! & " <bad< + <b{d< = <ร < $$ $ " & # <a< + 7 ! $ ! & " <bat< $

! & " + > <z:< <@< $$ $ " & <e< + 7 ! $ ! & " <berd< + <bz:d< . * / $ <A:< <O:< <u:< $$ # $ " & # ; $ <a< <o< <u< " $ , <ยก< <@U< $ <O:< $$ $ " & # / $ <o< + 7 ! $ " <of< + <ยกf< 3 " <hom< + <h@Um< # " + & / *$ # / /# "# * # & # / $ "#

, , " , , " , " , " , ? <@< # # * "# <e@< <I@< <U@< $$ $ " & # <a< + 7 ! $ " <hIa< + <hI@<

-=(

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

+ # # # ! 7 ! $ *#$ *$ #

% $ # *# $ / $$ " # ! $ "" " 3 $ ! +0" $ # # ! / $$ ! # # ! " ! ! " &$ ! - <S< + " <s< + 7 ! $ ! & " ' <Z< + $ " & <z <b< $$ " & <m< <d< & <n< ! & " <eImbl< <aIndl< . <ĂŞ< $$ " <ĂŞg< 4 " " <sIĂŞg< + <sIĂŞ< , <h< 3 7 + $ " & # *#

<7< )$ 1 4 " ! & " <7Im< ? # letter " /# / $ * !

# *$ # /# " " " ! # + / ) " 1 @ <tS< <dZ< ! & " $ <S< <Z< " $ $ * " + + " & /

Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$ * # "8 # $! 3 3 " " & / * # " !& $ / # + / !& * $ $ " $$ & * # " " $$ # $ # / + * * # ! # $ 8 -=-

,kUld< +

,me< + ,water< + ,eleven< + ,eIgt< + ,sekretari< +

Stress # ! ! $ + / "

*$ # # / # #

$$ &$ "# / $ *$ # / /# "# ! $ # $$ &$ / # "

$ $ " !

*$ # / * $$ #

$$ &$ /

8 " " ,sĂ&#x192;bstI tju:S@n< + <"sĂ&#x192;bstI tju:S@n<

Rhythm - # $$ &$ 3 ! # #! "# $$ &$ # 7 ! $ # ! * $

+ # !& +

" *$ # # / #

$$ &$ " $ " * $

+ # !& +

$$ &$ # $ + # $$ &$ 3 ! # #! *$ # ' * ! $ # +0" $ " * " $ *

" /

" Q + # "

5/ + ! 6 "# " " " " * # ! # $ # ! 0 +0" $ # "# / /# # " $

Intonation ++ *$ # ! + + " *$ # ) "# # + # *# + $$ /# *$ # / $ $ / 1 ! ! & ! $ " $ " " # + $ ;

** " !! ++ ; * # + "# & " - " % " / # -='

Orthography and punctuation Spelling -

$ # & " !& $ ++ + ! # *$ # $ & * " " # / * ' * ! $ " $ + "#

$ * ! $ 8 C % )+ 1 )+ 1 = ! $ $ $ 8 C )+ 1 C )+ 1

Punctuation : " " * $$ ! $ # *$ # & # + / " $ ++ " /# "# ! " &$ ! # ! ++ " # ! " $ ; !

; ! / ++ $ /# "# " " &$ ! + & * 8 ! " $ 8 ; ! 8 % ; ! 8 X Y

Grammar General # *$ # * !! " $ ! ! $ ! / # # ! 5 + "#6 " * # + " * $ $ $ + ! 0 0 "$ * $ * $ & "

& + ! + # + " & + ! & # + " + " # ! / *$ # # ; $ + # *$ # *

+ " *

+ ! ) # *# # ! * 7

& # + ! " & 7

# / 1 # # / *# ; $ + # *

+ ! # *#$ E " $ * * 9 "$ F " # + " + 7 ! $ 2 " ; $ + # *$ # /# # * !! " $ + " + / ! $ " & # " $

# +0" $ / # / *$ # -==

# * !! " $ * 9 ! " $ + ! 9 & # ! " $ # & / * ! * F " $/ " + ! # * + # /# "# # + # $ " + ! " E " $ ! *$ # $ $ + $ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6 / / # "# " " + & + !

# ! / # &$ !

Questions and negatives # 7 $ # ; $ ! ; % , ; ++ + ! +0 ! & $ 8 - ( C' ( C1 ( * + ! & * den )G 1 & + # ! & ! * # 7 $ 8 C $ C' ( C1 $

Time, tense and aspect - # + " + " )+ ! / # exv # ; $ + J 0 1 / $$ ! 3 + " # *

+ ! # *# ! "

# ! + " + " $ # *

*$ # ' # + " ! "# % # " !! $ 8 C1 $ % % $ ( C% $ = # / $ * # & * * ! 8 C% % $ C1 $ > I * $ + # *$ # + " ! $ ! $ 8 C+ $ -=>

. "" # # # + * & # / # /# *$ # + * &8 C1 $ , + # ! + " + 8 C1 " $

- # # * $ * + ! 8 C1 $ ' # $ " + *

" ! 8 ' ( 1 I $ C* 0 0 C% % $ = # *

# & + ! 8 C $ C+ $ I # # # ! ! "

$ # ! $ 8 C' $ C+ ? $

- *$ # + " " ; ++ $ # ; $ + # + 8 C% $ C $ ' $ ! ! $ + + 8 C% $ = I # # # &$ ! " & # *$ # + # & "$ + * # + 8 C% $

Conditionals and `unreal' forms - " $ " ! # # ! & $ " & # "$ # + & * 6 *$ #8 C% % $ C% $ -=.

' : " $ +0" $ 8 C% # $ = # +0" $ / # " + % 8 C& $ % , % $

The passive voice - # + #

*#$ ; $ *$ # " !! ! ! + ! # " $ # 7 $ 8 C $ C ' ! # +0" $ / # " ! $ 7

! ! $ 8 C $

Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ ! 3! $ " # 3 3 ; $ &$ # ++ " /# "# $ ! ! " !! &$ ! 8 - * J 0 + ! $ 8 C% $ ' : ! $ " " &$ ! + ! * # ! $ & ! ! $ / # ! &8 C% $ C' $ = # ++ " & / " ! !

Complementation - *$ # + ! + " 0 9 + 7 ! $ + 8 C $ ' 0 + + + ! " ! $ ! + & F " 8 C% $ % $ C9 # $ C+ $ -=,

= $ + J 0 " /# *$ #

# 0 / # 9 + 7 ! $ + # & " " " " " " 8 C+ $ C% $

Infinitive of purpose - *$ # * 0 + * $$ " & # ! & 8 C1 $ ' ! $ " # 0 + & + ! ) * $ + + ! 18 C% B $ = 0 + ! & $ " & ! "$ 8 C% % $ > 0 + ! & " & 8 CB * ? $

The causative structure # 7 $ " / # # ; $ + ! /# "# *$ # $ " + & /# /# + /# !8 C+ $

Word order 2 + /# "# " $ ! + ; ! - " ! & * / # # " # " &F " " ! $ ! 8 C & % + $ C' $ ' & ! & $ + ! &F " &F " " ! $ ! 8 C% $ C ? $ C $ = & + $ " ! " & + ! " /# *$ # / $ # 8 -=?

C $ > # ; $ + ! " 7

+ ! 8 C% $

Articles - # 0 "$ ! "" ! /# "# * $ # $ ! ! / # " &$ $ $ *$ #8 C # $ C $ C' $ C $ ' 0 "$ / # ! 8 C+ A $ C 9 $ = # 0 "$ & + &F " " ! $ 3 ! 8 C+ $ C) # $ C1 9 $

Gender ! " $ + ! : "" *$ * + / "# # * 8 C& $ @ ( C $ 1 $

Number - ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ 8 C@ ( C% $ C% $ ' * $ $ $ $ &$ !8 C $

-=@

Adjectives and adverbs - F " E " # " + ! # !& )

/ $$ # * " 1 + # /# "# # + # $ " + ! + & * 8 C $ ' & + ! + !&$ F " + ! 8 C) $ = Q + F " "# & 8 C+ $

Pronouns and determiners - : $ + ! 8 C% $ C' " $ C' $ C% $ ' I # # # &F " + &F " ! & " & 8 C& $ C& # # $ C % $ + 0 " ! $ ! &F " ! & "

$ 8 C $ "

! $ & $ "$ 8 # " & $ / = % ! & + " 0 &F " 8 C% # $ > I # ! $ " + & $ 8 O O O O O O O O

-=A

Reflexive pronouns - # + " + & / &F " E 7 < ! # " 8 C% C2 $ ' E 7 ! ! + & $ /# "# ; ! 3

C $

Relative clauses - $ $ "$ /# "# ! + # ! " $ + ! $ "$ /# "# ! + # * $

+ ! * C $ ' ! # +0" $ * " * $ "$ / # K $ $ 8 = $ &F " &F " ! & " 3

$ C 9 $ C % $ C 2 " % $

Conjunctions $ " " ; 8 C% $

Comparisons - * + + + ! + " ! *$ #8 C& 2 $ C& 2 $ ' # ! / ! " & # " " 7 # $ " + " + 8 C+ $ C%" " $ ->(

Prepositions - $ # " &$ +0" $ / # *$ # 3 # *# *$ # ; $ & &$ ! " ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7 3

; # 5 ! 6 8 C+ $ C1 $ C $ ' : &$ ! $ "" /# # ! # *$ # ; $ * # " 7 ! 7 ! $ 8 9 meĂ&#x201A;xri G C' $ C # $ 9 se G 8 C1 $ C+ $ 9 se G + ! 8 C' + $ C% $ 9 apoĂ&#x201A; G 8 C+ + $ C1 $ = : ! & " " $ ! + " & # E " + 8 C1 $ C1 # $ C $ > # " + & * # E " + 8 C ? A )+ ? 1 C1 $ . # +0" $ / # 5 3 *6 "

/# $ " # + "$ " !! ! # 8 C' ( C % $ , + $ " / # / # 8 C& $ C% 5==M$

->-

Phrasal verbs - # $ 7 " $ ! ; $ *$ # # $ & $ # +0" $ / # # ! * # ! + * 3/ & /# "# " * # + ! $ & # !

8 1 + )+ 1 + 1 % )+ % 1 )+ 1 ' )+ ' 1 ' 2 # / 3 # $ & # &F " + $ " + # "$ + & + C% $

Vocabulary - ! *$ # / $ + ! ) * 1 I # # & & / ) * 1 # + " $ $ * " " & # $ ! 5+ $ + 6 /# "# ! $ " + 4 7 ! $ ! ! 8 !

! " ! ! ! ! ! ; ! ! " ! ! ' ! # +0" $ " /# / #

$ *$ # ; $ /# $ + *$ # /

# 7 " " 7 ! $ 8 , , , ,

, , , , , , ->'

, , ,

, , ?# , + , , , , = :# " $$ ! " + $

&$ " + ! 8 , , ,

A sample of written Greek with a transliteration and a word-for-word translation " Htane toĂ&#x201A;so dynatoĂ&#x201A; to xtyĂ&#x201A;phma, poy den brhĂ&#x201A;ke Itane

toso dinato to htipima,

O O

to koyraĂ&#x201A;gio na to kourajio

# &$ /

# + # # " *

noĂ&#x201A;hma

Wa eiĂ&#x201A;xe mia opoiadhĂ&#x201A;pote diamartyriĂ&#x201A;a;

diamartyrhWeiĂ&#x201A;. Ti diamartirithi.

pou den vrike

noima

tha ihe mia opiadipote

2# ! * / $$ #

aĂ&#x201A;lloq

diamartiria?

th doyleiaĂ&#x201A; toy: eĂ&#x201A;kobe syneĂ&#x201A;xeia

allos,

doulia

# # L" M # /

to kreĂ&#x201A;aq. to kreas # 8 " # " $ # !

tou: ekove sinehia

Kai to maxaiĂ&#x201A;ri, aytoĂ&#x201A; to katakaiĂ&#x201A;noyrio, to astrafteroĂ&#x201A; maxaiĂ&#x201A;ri, Ke to maheri, afto to katakenourjio, to astraftero maheri # + # # $$ / # # + eiĂ&#x201A;xe giĂ&#x201A;nei ihe

jini

agnwristo. agnoristo.

PagvmeĂ&#x201A;no liĂ&#x201A;poq eiĂ&#x201A;xe kollhĂ&#x201A;sei sthn Pagomeno lipos ihe

# & " ! " * &$ B $ lepiĂ&#x201A;da toy kai sthn

kolisi

stin

# " #

labhĂ&#x201A;, mikraĂ&#x201A; kommaĂ&#x201A;tia kreĂ&#x201A;aq. mikra komatia kreas &$ # # $ ! $$ " L +M ! L* M lepida tou ke stin

lavi,

Den mporoyĂ&#x201A;se na dei kalaĂ&#x201A;, to fvq Den borouse

" $ #

na di kala, to

fos

ligostoĂ&#x201A;, h

ligosto,

/ $$ # $ *# L/ M $ $

kardiaĂ&#x201A; kardia

->=

toy tou

anastatvmeĂ&#x201A;nh. Pwq na to piaĂ&#x201A;sei sta xeĂ&#x201A;ria toy to anastatomeni.

# L/ M

Pos na to pjiasi

sta herjia tou to

/ # # # #

ejaWlivmeĂ&#x201A;no maxaiĂ&#x201A;ri, pwq na to karfwsei sto sthĂ&#x201A;Woq exathliomeno maheri, pos na to karfosi

! &$

# / $3#

thq . . .

tis # & #

sto stithos

)4 ! 9 & ! 1

An example of the written English of an elementary Greek learner ! # + / # $ / # # * # + ! # ! ! # /# "# ! !

# $ # 6$$ * $$ / / # ! * ! # N + ! * + # 6 # $ # / ! / # # N 0 # * ! / # ! + # & # # N 6! # & * * $$ / 6$$ 6$$ * + ! $ " N I+ " 6! $ $ # & " 6$$ ! + ! + ! $ + $ * ! 6! # # # 6$$ E N 2 # $ 4

->>

Russian speakers "

$ 7

Distribution 4 I ! K & F $ * O K # O * K # $ F ! K&

Introduction

& $ * # $ " & "# + # 3 + ! $ + $ * * "$ $ $ $

% # # $ " $ * * : $ # BK "# $ $ & B $* " # ! # ! F + # ->@ ! $$ $

# $ * * ! @( ! $$ $ # + ! &$ " + # $ #

# 0 $ * * / # # >( ! $$ $ # /$ " *

" $ * *

Phonology General # / ! F + /# "# * # #

! + ! *$ # # & " + # # 9$ * / $ ++ # & " + # # * *$ # # #!

$ # +

->.

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @ e@ U@

aI@

aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $

# + ! # + $ + " !& + " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - # <z:< /# "# +

$ + *$ # # * +0" $ # + & #

<z< <o< ) #

<z< ! $ # "$ + # *$ # # # * # *$ # / $ 1 : " $ $ &$ ! / & * * / # "#

' <A:< & $ " & # ! + $

<a< = <{< & $ " & ! "$ !&$ * <e< $ * " + & / "# > # " + # # * # " # + # # * & 5 " 6 . # <O:< + $ " & # ! + $

<o< # # * <oU< " + + & / / $ , * $ $ * / $ " +0" $ 5 6 /# "# ! # ! ! $ # / $ A ! & " $ + 7 ! $ $ ? # ++ " $ * # + $ * / $ * # 0 $ " )" ! 1 $ +0" $ ! @ # # *

" ! *$ # / $ *$ * <ยก< + " $! $ <wยก< <O:<

<@U< <z:< <e@< " # ! & # +0" $

# / # ++ * # " & / $ * ) 1 # )$ 71 *$ # # & * * + )$ *1

& " $ 7 / / #

* / # ! $ + # " $ % #

& # # * # $ *# $ * # *

->,

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $

" " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / I+ # '> *$ # " # <T< <D< <ĂŞ< <w< /# "# +

+0" $ - <T< <D< ! F +0" $ + $ " & <s< <z< " $ ! 8 + % + % + ' <ĂŞ< $$ $ " & #

<g< $ <n< + 7 ! $ ! *# & " = # ++ " & / <w< <v< + "$ $ + $ $ * " + & / + " > # <t< <d< <l< <n< + ! / # # * "# * # # /# "# * # ! + * . 4 $ " " "# <b< <d< <g< "

" * $ " "# / + " , # <p< <k< <t<

/# "# " $ ! " # ! # & * * + / *$ # + 7 ! $ ! # $ $ $ ? ! $ " <h< & *# )$ " # 1 ! + " " # " +

" $ @

$ 5 + 6 ) $ $ 1 ! *$ # " 3

& + + / $ "# <i:< <I< <e< <eI< <I@< /

$ )/# # <t< & * !&$ <ts<1 )/# # <d< & * !&$ <dz<1 )/# + ** + # <j< + <k< $ $ 1 " A 5 6 <l< ) 1 + $ " 5"$ 6 <l< ) I 1 -( # <S< $/ # 5 6

->?

-- -'

-= ->

$ + *$ # ! <S< & + / $ # + / # )5 61 # # " " *$ # /# "#

$ *# $ $ $ # <tS< $/ $ *# $ + )5 $ $ 61

$ $ " # # )5 6 $ $ 1 *$ #

<tS< / # $ $

# <dZ< $ # *# # <d< <Z< # <dZ< $ ""

& / /

+ ! *$ # * 2 " ! # $ * * $

$ + *$ # " # *$ #

<dZ< / / # +0" + +

" ! #

" + # *$ # <j< " / # $ ! + " # $ / $ ! ! " <r< &

/# 0 $ * *$ # $ + # ! * # "

Consonant clusters - # " !& <T< J <s< <D< J <z< <s< J <D< ) # 1 * $$ ! F "# $$ * + ; * $ /# + & <ts< <z< ' 3 &$ ! " * <t< <d< <s< <z< + $$ / & <j< " " (" " " /#

$ + *$ # * # # " # ! + "" !! <

! $ + F " = " !& + / $ " ) "# <p< <b< <t< <d< <k< <g<1 # 0 $ $$ 7 $

" # " + "# / " " " >

# $ <@< # " !& <tl< <dl< <tn< <dn< $ * " "# <lIt@l< <bร t@n< ,mยกd@n< . # $ "$ <tw< <tr< <pr< <dr< <br< $ +0" $ $ * &$ ! / # / $

$ + *$ # " # " ! $ # "$ $ ! ! * $ / $ & / # / + + * # ! * # " &$

$ <tr< /# # $ *$ # "$

! $ # $ <dr< /# # $ *$ # "$ # $ <dZ< " ->@

Rhythm and stress

&$ *$ # /

$ "

$ * *$ # / 8 " <k@mpI tISn< " <Int@l@dZ@ bIlItI< " <k@mp@t@ bIlItI< " <Imp@t@b@ bIlItI< " # #! &$ ! 4 " $ + 3 " # $ / 5 *6 + ! + / $ + # + 5/ 6 + !

Intonation #

$ / + $$ *# # $ / & * $ / *# 5 # 6 / & $ I # &$ ! 8 -

0 # # , ; / # + $$ /# "# " ! # ! ! $ 8 ( ' * ; ! $ " " + 8 % " ( = $ ; + / # 8 (

Influence of spelling on pronunciation +0" $ + +

+ # $ + ! # $ " + " " & / /# / # / #

" " $ ! 8

<knaIf< <kÂĄmb< <bri:k< <raIzn< <sIĂŞgIĂŞg< <mInd< <TraU< <TroUg< "

Writing and punctuation Writing $ # *#

# B $$ " $ # & ! *$ # $

! $ + !

$ 8 " " " " " " " " " #" " &" " 1 ->A

)" + # ! " ++ $ 1

! 7 " +0" $ / * " " " " " " " " " %" B" X" / /# "# "" B $$ "

Punctuation

" ! # $ + # & " $$

! $ *$ # # ! ++ " # + " !! ! ++ $ $$ & "$

# $ & + " # + $$ / * " $ ! 8 C% " $ C% " $ " !! $$ / $ # 8 66

Grammar General # * !! " $ ! +

*$ # + ! $$ ++ *$ # $ " $ * * /# "# * !! " $ ! * $ * $ 7

# *# # + $ / & "# * /

# # # # " $ * * /# "# # ! F + * !! " $ + ! " # *# "# * # " + / & ! + $

! + 07 +07 E " $ * /# "# " "$ " F * !& *

# + # + $ " ! $ " ! + F " "$ 3

& " F * & #

" # $ 07 / #

*$ # & ! 7

# ++

+ ! *

# $ # 8 + # & ! ! $ & $ # + " # # " & / " /# "# " ! $ ) ! + " " 1 # /# "# " ! $ ) + " " 1 # " " # *# +07 : + " *

+ ! + & 3

*$ # 7 " $ * # 7 $ & $ "

$ # *# # & bit' ) 1 + 7 ! $ - & $ + + ! !

" + ! " $ & " + 7 $ & * V dva chasa ya budu rabotat' doma )I'll be working 1 Rabota bila -

" + ! B $$ " # + $ ) bit'1 " # # $ $

-.(

< zdelana v srok ) was done , 1 # ! #

& $ "$ pust ) ! $ ! * # *$ # 1 & $ ! ! ! + ! " $ $ & " " + 7 $ * Pust on pridyot zavtra )Let come 1 5:# $6 & 7

# +

+ ! $ ! # *$ # # * !! " $ * # "$

2 # "# & " ++ " & / # * !! " $ ! + # / $ * * &$ # # / $$ & " ! F +0" $

$ * *$ #

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7 $ # ; $

" $ ! ! ; 8 C% $ C' ( C1 ( (6 C5- " % 6 ' + " + / # " 8 C+ = * ; + ! ! & / *$ 8 C ( )+ H1 > # * 7 $ &

$ " ; *

# * +0" $ + ! * # + ! ! /# * # ! # $ ! $ # ! + $

+ ; $ # 8 C- " ( C% " ( C " ( C- " ( .

$ 0 # + # / $ ;

+0" $ 8 @ ( C D - $ )+ - " $ 1 ) ( C / " $ )+ 5/ " % $ 1 $ C D / 6 )+ % $ 1 % $ C D - $ )+ - " $ , - " ( 1 % $ C / ( % # $ )+ ( % # $ 1 ,

# +0" $ / # # + * ! 8 -.-

C* $ C* $

Time, tense and aspect

# + " *

I ! $ + ! + " & + " *

*$ # " $ ! 8 C% $ C1 $ C% $

# + " *

+ ! # $ ! $ # $ ! $ 8 C' ( C- $ 9 C1 , ( )+ (1 ' "#

+ & #

; " + $ 8 C1 $ C% C D $ = # # * $

+ ! # +07 3) 1 8 C1 )+ 1 1

- ! $ ! & + # + 8 C% % ' # + + " + *

8 C+ C % = & "$ + ! # +

/# / $ & *$ #8 C' " % > ! / # ; " + 8 C+ C C1 C $ -.'

!! ! * *$ # * $$ "" & " #

& ! # $ / " ) + " ! + " 3 1 7

! $ # *# +07 /# # *$ # &

/ + ! # " /# "# " & " !& 7

3 * 5 ! $ 6 " + " "

& " $$ # # " & " * /# *$ # # -, + "

+ 3 3 # 3 + ! " # +0" $ $ 7 "

* # !

The passive voice

$ $$ 0 # & " + ! + #

&$ ! " # " ! $ 7 + ! # " + " " " # ! +0" $ 8 C C D $ C $

Conditionals - & "$ + " # +

/# # / $ & *$ #8 C% " % ' &$ ! &$ " ! $ 7 " $ + ! 8 C% C D % $

Modal verbs - # ! + ! $ &

! $ # *$ # + " ! # + " ! "# # + $$ / * # " " " $ " 8 C% $ C- $ C- $ C% $ C+ $ ' / ; / # " +0" $ 8 & % (6 C5/ " , 6 )! * 59

61 & % ( / " 6 )! * 5/ " $ 1 -.=

To be - # $ & $ #

8 C1 C $ ' $$

7 " +0" $ # + # " " 8 C% ( C& " ( = 2# # " " # & $

! $$ " + / # # + !! &F " 8 C " ( C% $

To have -

$ " 7 " +0" $ ! * #

" & / # *$ # &

; $ # `u menya est' " " )$ $$ 5 ! 61 ' & * $ $ ! ! ! ! # + , $ C1 $

Non-finite forms - # ! " ! $ 7 3 + ! 0 ) *

+ "

1 " +0" $ 8 C% )+ %

1 C% )+ % 1 C+ $ C+ $ ' # 5 0 + 6 +0" $ ! 8 C% $ C% $

Verbal complements - 5I&F " J 0 6 " " &$ ! +

$ C% $ -.>

C% C $ ' B " $ +0" $ 8 C% )+ % 1 C% )+ % 1

Word order - "

& " * !! " $ $ # *# E "3 / #

" # ! + # *$ # " !! +

" & * / # & $ # + ! $ " # $ " " $ ! 8 C- ' B$ 30 $ " &$ ! + $ 8 C) ( C' % (

Articles

# "$ # !

$ + *$ # ! # + # *$ # "$ ! $ # # * $ " + # * + # & " ++ " & / , # K "$ - I + # $ &$ ! +

$ $ * # / # "$ * $8 C/ $ C1 ( ' # # # &$ ! + "# " & / # 0 0 "$ 8 C1 ( C% (

Quantifiers 2 + $ * & ; ! $$ " " 3 &$ +0" $ # " !! $ ! " + ; 0 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 C 1 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 ! # 8 C% $ -..

C% % ) # 8 % % 1

$ +0 !3 " 8 C D % )+ % 1 C D % )+ % 1 C D % )+ % 1

Gender

! " $ + ! # $ $

! ! / # $ 8 ' (6 C5+ 6 ' ( C51 6

Number - # " * + !& 7

/ # " &$ < " &$ " " &$ ! " ! *$ # 3 " &$ # " &$

; $ 8 C1 C% C% C ' (6 5 6 ' " $ " $ / # , , 8 C% $

Noun compounds " ! + # 2 &$ ! & * $ $ 3 # ) * C

1 /# ! <

# !

Numerals # $ $ * + # E " + #

$ * * 8 C C -.,

Adjectives and adverbs - # * +0" $ +

# + ! + # * + " ! + # F " 8 C1 % C

C% ' F " " $ & " + / # & + " , , 8 C1 ? C+

Relative pronouns - $$ " + / # & " # !

/ " & + & #8 C % $ ' " + / # 8 C%

Interrogative pronouns "" # + 8 C' , ? ( C' (

Indefinite pronouns ? +

" / # # $ $ !& & " # " * $ $

8 C? ,?

Negative pronouns / , + + # ; 0 3 " $ 8 C/ ,

-.?

Prepositions and adverb particles - # !

+ $ 8 C% C% # C% )+ 1 C1 C@ ( C' ( '

# ; $ + *$ # & "$ % 3 7 :# $ & # + " +0" $ " $$ /# # "$ + $$ / # &F " % $

Vocabulary False friends # ; + / / # ! $ *$ #

& # # ++ ! * # + ! * 7 ! $ 8 aktual'niy )G 1 simpatichniy )G 1 biskvit )G 1 manifestatsiya )G 1 salyut )G 1 perspektiva )G 1 perspektivniy )G 1 dekada )G 1 miting )G 1 kharakteristika )G C D 1 pretendovat6 )G 1 operativniy )G ; 1 moment )G 1 ekonomniy )G 1 ! " ! $ $ +

3 *$ # + $ + & + # " & Q Q $ *$ 3

3 *$ $ 6 5 K# # K : "# 6 ) *$ #3

3 *$ # " + 5 $ 6 4 $ 4 6 1 " /8 " "$ : &$ # * -A,A

-.@

Other confusions !& + / $ 3 / # ++ $ + * + ! # "$

; $ - < 8 C1 ( )! * 1 (1

/ $ 0 +0" $ & * $ $ ++ & / 1 ( /# * $ $ * ! ; 1 ( # ' ( + ( 1 ( ' < 8 C1 C% = < 8 C1 C > 9 8 1 6 5 6 C59 $ 8 B " 6 C59 $ ) + 1 1 . # 8 ' (6 C5 " 6 C' " " % @ " , 4 $ 5" $ 0$$ 6 # ! !

! $ /# + " # ! & 8 ' (6 C5/ " % 6 )+ 5' " % % 61 C )+ ?# "

" H1 ? # 7

& $ ! 8 @ A (6 C5- " 6 )+ 5- " % 61

Attitudes to language learning $$ "# $

" "# $ $ + * $ * * # ! F + $ $ *$ # ) # *$ # & * # ! / # ! " *$ # $ /$ * * * 1 $ # *# 4 "# ! # !& + # $ * * $ *# B !! " ! # / $ / # ! # $

" K # + &$ 7 " $ * * $ # * $$ # " & $ * * $

& & " # $ ! $ " $ $ ! $ $ * $ " -.A

+ / * " 3 " ! " "# * # $$ / " * " " " / # # *$ #3 * / $

Samples of written Russian with transliterations and word-for-word idiomatic translations Pyftnt kb

ds^ xnj dpzd

Znayete li

vi,

shto . . . vzyav

j,sryjdtyysq heccrbq obiknovenniy

O / L * M # * fkafdbn b alfavit

hfcgjkj;bd ,erds jghtltk/yysv j,hfpjv^ raspolozhiv

$ # & *

bukvi opredelyonnim obrazom,

$ 0

vj;yj gjkexbnm yt njkmrj rfylblfncre.^ yj b mozhno poluchit' ne tol'ko

russkiy

kandidatskuyu, no i

ljrnjhcre.

doktorskuyu

& "

lbccthnfwb.? dissertatsiyu?

/ # & * #

$ # & $ " * # $ " / " & $ # & " $ H )4 ! * B ? !& -A@>1

Gjckt ltcznbvtczxyjuj

jncencndbz dthyekcz r ;tyt b

+ ! #

& "

Posle desyatimesyachnovo* otsutstviya vernulsa k zhene i

ltnzv

exfcnybr

detyam uchastnik

/ +

ghjikjujlyb[ cjhtdyjdfybq gj proshlogodnikh sorevnovaniy

"# $ " $

cgjhnbdyjve jhbtynbhjdfyb. A& Erkjyztd& sportivnomu

orientirovaniyu

" !

F. Uklonyaev.

Chfpe ;t

Srazu zhe

4 $ "

gjckt djpdhfotybz

cgjhncvty yfxfk ecbktyye.

! & * * #

posle vozvrashcheniya sportsmen nachal usilennuyu

gjlujnjdre r

podgotovku k

yjdsv dtctyybv cnfhnfv&

novim vesennim startam.

+ /

C # * / 3 * & " 3 -,(

4 $ )G # * 1 /# " $ 6

* "# ! # # # / + "# $ + 3! # & " !! $ # # #$ * # + #" ! * * )4 ! * B -' -A@.1

-,-

Polish speakers K * K Z / ) # $ * 1 " _ `& / Distribution :I % : $ # " !! # ! K $ B $ /#

Introduction : $ # 3 $ * * ! !& + # )2 1 $ " & "# "# ! "$ $ $ BK "# $ ! $

$* " & 3B $ " # "# * + $ " $ ! -A@A /# : $ & * *# $ / # # 2 # $ + *$ # $/ $ $ * * # ! " $$ " *$ # / "

$ + * " / $ *# +

"# $ ! $ * 3 " 4 " " *$ # $ : $ # 3 $ * * & " 3 !

" $ F # *# * : $ # " $$ # * 0 " $ $ +0" $

Phonology General : $ # $ + *$ # + + # $ " + " 3 " & / $$ * " $ ! $ $

7 " "# $ & " * : $ # $ "# $ # ! $ +

*$ # $ $

: $ * # * $ $ ! 3 $$ &$

+ # ! # * # $ !

+ *$ # " # 5 # * * # 6 # # *$ # 5 # / 6 4 + # : $ # " + *$ # # " & : $ # "" *$ # "$ 8 # + + $$ + " / $

$$ &$ * * # !

+ 5 " * -,'

! "#6% " " % ! $$ <r< 9 " $$ / 30 $$ % 0 $ " * ) " $$ <s< $ " + <z<1% ! " + <ĂŞ< & $ 4 $ & $ /

Rhythm and stress : $ # # ! F &$ ! ! * #

3 ! # #! + *$ # # + " " * / + ! ! " $$ # / / # $ ; $ ! " /# "# ++ "

# # #! " $ 8 - 4 $$ / $ " $ " + <@< / $ ' !! " $ ! "# " " " * # 5 *6 " $$ " 7 = !& + / ! 3

# E " + # $ ! 3 $$ &$

: $ # $ $ + # $ "/ # # " " " + / + ! $ / #

3 # + ) * " " 1 $ / # / $ " " /# # / *$ " <eI<

)

&$ & $ * / # 1 ! * "# /

+0" $ > : $ # $ + + $" " " " "

$ * / * " "

Juncture - : $ # # $ * <j< <w< ; " $ " " $ ' / : $ # $ $ " / $

; " $ 8 " = 2# / $ + $$ / "# # ) " @ "

1 : $ " $$ " & # $ " $$ 3 " * # 0 + " > ; " + <d< <t< <s< <z< + $$ / & <j< # $ " " " "

/ #

! $ ) * <wUdju:< + <wUdZ@<1

-,=

Vowels Q / $ + * +0" $ $ " + # + # # : $ # # @ / $ $ ), $ ' $1 " ! # '' / $ + *$ # : $ # # $ * # " # # * # # * $ *$ # / $ " ! F &$ ! : $ & # * " " $ # &$ & $ / $$ ! + # &$ ! 8

i: I U u:

i 3i u

e @ z: O:

{ ร A: ยก

# !& $ " + # *$ # / $ # 7 " ; $ : $ # 2# ! : $ # # $ / $ " ! ! + *$ # B ; $ / $ # *$ ! +0" $ + : $ # & # * # * # ++ " & / # ! " * "" / $ # + $$ / * / # * - # / / $ : $ #8 "#/ <I< * $ $ $ " & + $$ / $ ' # <e< <{< " $$ " <E<% # " #

&$ ! / # $ 9 " O " O $ = <I< " <i< # # # ! ! $ & " $ : $ # <a <A:< ! & " + / # <{< $ * ! " + /

$ " " # "# " & / # ! " + / $ . <ow< # : $ # 7 ! + # # # * <@U< + " $ " + <O:< $ $ # + $$ / * + " + 8 O " O " O $ , # *# <z:< $ $ / $ $ : $ * $ $ $ " / # <o< /# # / "# ) " " 1 ? # " $ ! + # "$ * # # * <eI< <aI< <OI< <@U< <aU< " <j< <w< " $ ) ! * : $ # 3 ; " $ 8 <a< J <j< <u< J <w< /# "# # # * 1 @ # $ * # + $ * / $ "" * /# + $$ / )

1 +0" $ !

-,>

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

*$ # " " ! F " ! # &$ ! + : $ # $ # ! +0" $ $ # "" " " * # $ + ! $$ * # # ! # ; 3 $ ; $ : $ # " $ / #

+0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # !

! " " &$ " &$ ! 4 $ " !!

& $ / - <T< <D< * $ $ $ " & + # + $$ / *8 <f< <v< <s< <z< <t< <d< <ts< <dz< $ *# ! + $ ! $ $ + " " ' " " $ + ! " <S< <Z6< <tS 6< dZ < $ " * # ! / # # # # 3 $ $ : $ # < s < < z < < 6 6 <ts< <dz< " $ = # : $ # ; $ + *$ # <h< " $

/ $ & + " ! $ # 0 $ ! $

" *$ # <h< # / : $ # $ 7 " & " /# # / ! ; " $ " > # <r< # " $$ ; $ : $ # + ! *$ # " $$ $ ! $ $ ) * # / # # $ $ $ " + " $ 1 + # *$ # $ & *# " <r< / 30 $ & + " " " " " ) ! 3 " *$ # + : $ # " 1 . : $ # " ! 0 $ " " /# "# $ " 3 + & / $ 8 O " O " O # &$ ! " $ $ " / # / + ! + / $ 8 " " /# "# $$ " / # &$ 0 $ <s< I / $ / # # &$ ! ++ $ + " " $ * 0 $ " + $$ / * $ / $ " " $ , I # # # <l< <r< + " " /

-,.

? @

A -( --

$ " " " " " $ " / # + $$ " * # <l< : $ # /# "# " +0" $ / # / $ " " " $ : $ # $ " $$ ! " <ĂŞg< )& + / $1 <ĂŞk< ) 0 $ 1 + ! & " <sIĂŞgIĂŞk< <rIĂŞk hIm<% $ % " $ : $ # $ " + <p< <t< <k< /# "# ++ " # + & # # " # + $$ / * / $ / $ $ " " + $ )/ # $ $ 1 & + + / $ * 8 " " Q + / $ / # # $ " + " $ + <t< <d< <n< $ : $ # & $ $ ) # * ! * 1 *$ #

Intonation # ! F + : $ # *$ # 7 ** 3 ++ " /# "# " " &$ " ! * *$ # " + + + * + : $ " $$ ! " 3; " * + $$3 + + $$ * I # # # # ! + $$ * +0" $

! * * # !

+ * E

Influence of spelling on pronunciation + ! # " + * + ! # " " & /

$$ * " : $ # # +0" $ / # /

# / / # $ $ $$ &$ 8 * " "

Orthography and punctuation Spelling $$ : $ # $ 7 " ! +0" $ / # *$ # $$ * # $ + ! # + " # : $ # $$ * $ * $ # " 2 # ! # / # # / ! # + # / ! # " $ : $ # -,,

# $ & " $ * F " # $ ! $ 8 C I # # # $ * + " $$ : $ # ; $

+ " $ % # " ! $ 8 C% - $ $ $

Punctuation : " " *#$ # ! : $ # *$ # # ! ++ " # " !! ! ++ & "$ 8 C% " .!$ C% " , $ " !! / ++ $ 8 66

Grammar General : $ # $ *$ # # *#$ E " $ * * # + # ! "# + / + 7 ! $ # * !! " $ !& * )! " $ + ! 1 " # / & "# *

+ ! F " " + ! # * !& " + # /# "# # + "# & )/ # / # 1 * " $ " # * !! " $ + " + / " & # ! # # & # " *$ # Q & $$ # ! + " + " % # ! + "

+ ! # ) + 1 # + " / ) + 1 ! * $$ " + " & # ! # # ! : $ # ; $ 8 czas : $ # #

! "# $

# *$ # # # $ & ! ! $ 7 $ ) *$ #1 + " *

& + ! # "$ : $ # $$ $$ # ++ " " + : $ # $ + *$ #

Questions and negatives : $ # * ! $ ! & * $ ; / ! $ & * ; * ! & -,?

" * # & / # nie )G 1 # /# $ + 7 $

# + $ " " &$ &$ ! " $ !

) " $$ & * 6 $ $1 "$ 8 C+ C D C D $ C , ( C% $ C' ( CC' D - ( C1 " ( $ 8 C ( C1 C D $ I * $ # # # + $ "# 8 C ( : $ # , ; ; ; / )czy1 $ $ + ; $ " & " # # # " ! !&

*$ # ; $ # # * $$ " + 7 ! $ 8 C% ( )+ (1 I ! "" : $ # ; ! $ $ * /# "# $

! $ 8 C/ $ C+ $ $ 8 C+ )+ + 1

Question tags, short answers and reply questions : $ # # / ! $ - / $ ; ; * ; $ - ( < ( + / # # $ # $ 3 & "# 8 @ ( C D / $ )+ / " 1 ( C D - $ )+ - " % 1 C C D " , ( / # * # ; * # / $ ;

+ ; : $ # # *$ # : $ # ! $ * # # ! ! ! $ /# + " # ! & $ 8 1 $ - $ )+ / $ 1

-,@

It and there as subjects - 2# *$ # " # ! $ &F " : $ # + # &F " # $ ! $ 8 C $ C1 ; $ C) )+ % 1 C% $ $ 8 < ,+ ) + " % , 1 C , )+ % , 1 ' * !! " $ &F " " * 0 # & " $$ +0" $ + : $ # $ 8 C% , )+ 1 C% ( C , , $ C )+ & 1

Time, tense and aspect # " &$ " + # + $$ *$ # ! + $$ + " *

# # : $ # ; $

- : $ # /# *$ # ; + " 8 C+ $ C' @ ( )+ 1 @ (1 C% )+ % 1 C+ % $ ( C+ )+ + $1 I # # # : $ # $ / $$ 8 C% $ C' ( ' " + *

: $ # $ ! $ 8 C% 8 $ = B $ # *

! ! 8 C& 5J C' $ C1 $ > # + " ! ! + ; " + 8 -,A

C% % $ + # " 8 C $

- *$ : $ # 7

/# "# *$ # ; + " # $ 8 C $ C' 8 $ C% $ C1 , ? ( )+ 1 $ $ $1 ' # ! $ # * $ * + ! 8 C+ $ = I # " $ ! "$ 8 C% $ C) ( )+ @ $ $ $(1

- # "# " & / $$ ! !8 C )+ $ $ $ 1 ' # ! $ # # # *

! & + # + " $ 8 C' ( = # *# # + + ! : $ # & !&$ # *

" : $ # $ ! $ # 8 C% ? + $ > $$ + " &$ ! ! + $$ # + + " 8 C1 & )+ 1 & 1 . 4 + ! + " : $ # # + & "$ + ! 8 C' % " % $ C% $

Sequence of tenses "# + * & : $ # # + # * $ "# # " 8 C1 $ -?(

$ 8 C% $ C1 $ C% $ I * $ $ ! $ 8 C% , )+ % , 1

The passive voice B ! / # *$ # : $ # #

! "# $

# *# ! " # 7 " ; $ /# # # $$ 0 # *

" $$ +0" $ 8 C% , )+ % 1 " $ ! "$ 8 C+ & $ C $ $ 8 C% $

Conditionals 4 + ! + " : $ # # + & "$ + " 8 C% % " % )+ % % " % 1 # & "$ # 5 " 6 5 # 6 " $ " $ : $ # # * # / # # $ ! !& + : $ # $ * " + $$ " !& + *$ #

&$ " $$ 8 C% " % )+ % " % 1 C% " , % "

% ) $$ + % " 1

Modal auxiliaries *$ # ! $ 7 $ # *# : $ # ; $ # : $ # & # / + $$ / " $ $ + ; * 4 # ! : $ # # $ + 0 -?-

# "# " & / 0 / # / # $ "

&$ ! ! + " *

0 + ! $$ # $ * $ + " + - I * $ + $ " " * # + ! + *

* $ 8 C , " " C D ( $ 8 C1 )+ 1 1 ' # + " &$ ! 8 C% C D C $ = # ++ " & / - - + $

# & / - $ $ $ - $ $ $ > # / + " " $ 8 & % ( - " $ )+ 9 1 . + % $ $ $( ++ +

" * $$ * * / @ ,& % ( $ $ $( % $ $ $( , @ # # $ & "

& $ 8 C+ $ ? : + " *

0 & $$8 C+ )+ + 1 C1 )+ 1 $1 " $ # & ! $ / $$ & $ $ $ % $ $ $ * ! $ $ * #

Infinitives and - ing forms - *$ # + ! $$ " : $ # 0 8 C% $ C- $ ' : $ # & "$ /# *$ # 5 &F " J 0 6 " # " 8 C1 % )+ 1 1 C' % ( = : $ # $ & "$ /# *$ # 5 &F " J " $ 6 " 8 C% , )+ % 1

-?'

Reflexive verbs E 7 & ! " !! : $ # # *$ # " $$ $ 8 C% " % " % %

$ C )+ 1 C )+ 1

Word order 2 $ $ + : $ # # *# # "

! &$ ! ! *# 7 " - I + +0" $ # + & 8 C% ? $ C% ? $ C% $ C% $ C% , $ C. % $ ' 4 $ : $ # $ # $ $ 8 C) ( CA ( C' ( C $ = # & + !! $ + $$ / # $ : $ # # " 8 C C , D $ CC ,)D X C D $ > 2 : $ # " ; # ! " ; ) # 1% , ; ; ; / /# # # " /# # ! *$ # " ; ! # + 8 C $ C $ C+ $ $ 8 C1 ) 5 ; " + 61 C%

-?=

Articles # "$ : $ # $ ! $ # ! $$ ! # ! ! $$ # # ! # ! & " " & / 5 0 6 5 0 6 " * " + 8 C% C D $ C1 C D $ C% , $ CC)D A % )+ % 1

Possessive determiners and pronouns, personal pronouns - :

! # ! : $ # # " 8 C $ ' :

! + : $ # /# "$ + ! # " 7 /# #

8 C% $ C? )+ ? 1 = * $ # " &$ &$ ! / # &F " &F " $ / $$

! 8 C% )+ % 1

Other determiners : $ # $ # &$ ! " ! * & / , , " " # " 8 C1 ( C% $ # + ) " + # $ 1 $ " " + 8 C% C D )+ % 1

Relative pronouns " # ! $ ktoĂ&#x201A;ry )G 1 + # ! ! $ ! &F " # + $$ / * + !

&$ 8 CC ,)D + C D C D $ $ 8 C % $ -?>

Countability, number and concord - # " &$ : $ #8 C% $ ' # : $ # / + )drzwi1 7 $ # $ $% $ + )zĂ&#x2021;ycie1 7 $ # * $ 8 C C D )+ 1 C9 $ $ $ = : $ # " $$ " # !& * $ * $ $ $ ) & ! & "" *$ 1 # +

" $ $ $ $ : $ # $ # ! "# ! $ $ $ $ $ " $ ! "$ 8 CC D 9 $ $ # wszyscy )G & < 1 ; $ $ &8 C? $ > # : $ # ; $ + ; * $ & # ; $ + /# # + $ $ " &$ 8 C1 ( C1 $

Gender : $ # * $ ! " $ + ! : "" *$ # " ! $ 8 * , $ + $ ' ( 1 $

Adjectives and adverbs - & ! ! : $ # /# *$ # ; F " 3 # " 8 C% , $ C% $ ' : $ # & F " " & $ + # ) # /# "# # : $ # ; $ 18 CB C , D )+ B 1 C $ -?.

Prepositions - : $ # $ # " &$ +0" $ / # *$ # $ # *# ! # *# : $ # ; $ # # / ++ " * # " 8 C , )+ , 1 C C C @ C , C )+ 1 C 8, C C )+ 1 C C , " C C C C )+ 1 C # C , C )+ 1 C )+ 1 ' : &$ ! $ /# : $ # ; 8 C , C # , $ $ $ C , $ $ $ = : + " " $ # E " + : $ #8 C C C C )+ 1 C C C C # ,

Phrasal verbs # # $ & : $ # : $ # $ ! $ $ # # # -?,

# # #

Vocabulary - # " &$ !& + / # " $ : $ # *$ # ) 9 radio1 ! $ ) 9 alfabet1 + # # + * # $ !

$ + ! *$ # ) 9 sweter1 $$ # + " $

$ * $ $ ! "# # " + ): $ # parking G 1 )camping kemping G 1 )sleeping sliping G 1 4 $ + ! 5+ $ + 6 # @ % ? ' $ "" # + " # / ! : $ # / # *$ # ; $ *$

+ 7 ! $ # szklanka ! $ + * kieliszek + $" # $ ) " # " &$ ++ " K & / # / " 6 " !3 ! / *$

+ / $ " & ! &$ # " & ! 1 = # # " ! " + # / # + $$ / * + / $$

" / # : $ # ; $ 8 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ) 7 !1 ?# ,+ > # *$ # / + & # 7 " ; $ + # : $ # proszeĂ&#x17D; + " proszeĂ&#x17D; # ! "# / * + * 8 $ / ) *#$ / 1 " ! 1 9 @ " A " C& % ( )+ @ ,A 1 . # 7

& ! 8 ( - " $ , # : $ # ; $ + $ & * 8 C1 )+ 1 1

Forms of address : $ # ! " * + + ! $ # + $ $ 0 +0" $

# "# & # # 0 ! -??

9 ! +0" $ + ! : $ $

$ / $$ "; #

# * pan )& 1 pani )& 1

! ! panna )& 1 # $ !& + ! 8 C& ) " % ( C9 ,& $ )+ ?# 1 $ 8 C) ,& $

A sample of written Polish with a word-for-word translation Nie ma pisarza, ktoĂ&#x201A;ry

nie mysĂ&#x201A;laĂ¸

# / /# "# L" $ "$ M # *# L! " $ M o

tylko w sĂ&#x201A;redniowieczu spotyka

sĂ¸awie. MozĂ&#x2021;e

& + !

& $ ! $ * ! L ! $M bezimienne ksiaĂ&#x17D;zĂ&#x2021;ki, ktoĂ&#x201A;rych

sieĂ&#x17D;

autorzy, ukrywajaĂ&#x17D;c

L E 7 "$ M ! & )+ 1 /# "# # # * swoje

nazwisko, zwracajaĂ&#x17D; sieĂ&#x17D;

przy

! < <# <# < < # !

L E 7 "$ M

konĂ&#x201A;cu dzieĂ¸a z

prosĂ&#x201A;baĂ&#x17D; do czytelnika, by

modlitwaĂ&#x17D; do Boga albo z

/ / #

nich pamieĂ&#x17D;taĂ¸

/ # ;

w kosĂ&#x201A;ciele

& # ! ! !& L! " $ M "# "#

An idiomatic translation # / /# / $ # & + ! $ # $ * # # " ! "

! & /# # # # ! $ # + # / # / # ) 1 # / # $ ! !& # ! "# "# )+ ! ) Y & : / 1

-?@

Farsi speakers $

2 $

Distribution +*# : #

Introduction 4 3 $ * * /# "# # & * $ E " & & " # $ # & + ! 4 " + =' "# "

/ & " " + ! *# $ + # / + # & " ; # # " /# "# ! * $ + & " " & $ / $ " ! * 4 $ &$ + / ++ * E " 4 # +0" $ $ * *$ # " $$ * # $ * $ * $ & " + # + ! $ "

Phonology General # 4 *$ # # $ * " $ ! ++ # * +

/ $$ #

4 # $ $ / $ # # * =' " /# $ *$ # # '' / $ # # * '> " 4 # + # * +0" $ " * " $ * # + $$ * + *$ # / $ # # * # 0 *$ # " # ! # # ; $ 4

-?A

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ 4

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / # ! " !! / $ $ $ & 8 - <I< + " <i:<8 + ' <ร < + " <A:<8 + = <{< + " <e<8 + > <U< + " <u:<8 + . <@< + "

/ $ $ # 3 * # " + ! , <O:< + " # $ <ยก<8 + ? <z:< + & " ! <e< J <r< 2 # # # * # &$ ! "" " $ # + $$ / * $ $ " " $ +0" $ 8 @ <aU< + " "# * <A:< A <e@< + " <e< J <r< -( <@U< + " "$ <ยก< -- <U@< + " <u:<

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

รช

-@(

D j

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ 4

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <D< <T< & " + " <t<8 + % + ' <ĂŞ< ! & " / # ! <n< <g< & " + # * # " + ! = <w< <v<8 $ # *# <v< # ; $ 4 # / # ! & " + > <r< / $$ 4 ! $ # * +0" $ " * # *$ # <r< . <l< 7 4 # 5"$ 6 <l< ) 1 & # ; $ + # 5 6 <l< ) 1 $ $ $ # &$ ! / # #

Consonant clusters B "$ "" / # *$ $$ &$ 4 4 # + # / $ # & + # ! $ + # *$ # "$ 7 ! $ + $ / 3

*! "$ # " +0" $ " I" " " " " " " " 6 + 6 + 6 +

6 + # / $ $ $$ 7 ! # # ! <e< & " ! 5 6 2 # $ # 3 *! "$ # &$ ! & " ! * # <e< " $ $ " !! & + "$ & * * / # <s< B$ "# " " " $ " " 3 "# 8 + + + 4 $ " "$ $ $ $ " &$ ! / # $

* * <e<8 + +

-@-

Influence of spelling on pronunciation # " $ & / 4 *$ # $$ * ) + ! + / $ "# 1 # 4 #

$ / # * # " /# "# $ $ + / # # # " / $$ * 4 ! $

# " 7" + # !

+ # / $ $ 4

" " $ $ / # " $ #

" " &$ ! / # * $ /# / $$ " $ # / + ! " $ 4 $ $ # +0" $ / # # ! /# "# # / + # * # " 4 7 ! $ # # ! <i:< /# "# #

*$ # * # " + ! 4 " # + # + $$ / * + !

*$ #8 " " " " " " ) ; 1 " $ $ # + 4 " * # # 3 " $ " " # *$ # & $$ " $ * # * + # / $

Stress 4

# *#$ " &$ * $$ + $$ # 0 $

$$ &$ + / # $ # * +0" $ ! * # " &$

+ *$ # : " $ &$ ! "" /#

$ ! * ' ' 2 + ! $ " " &$ &$ ! # ; $ + / + ! 4 / $

$$ &$ $ # ; ; $ $ $ $ # + $$ $ + #

+ $$ / # # / $$ $ # &$ ! " * / + ! "#

Intonation 4 " + * / # "# * " * !

$$ &$ /# "# ! "# * + " * " & 5 6 )/ # ! + $$ /1 50 $6 # & " 0 $ ! $ # *$ # / # + $$ " $ + " ! $ ! + , ; + $$ /# * / 4 # * # # *# #

$$ &$ /# "# ! # + # * 2# " *$ # ! + # " " $ # *#3 "# 5/# *6 ++ " /# "# " " * -@'

* $ 4 3 * # ! F +0" $ / # # ! $ # *# ! + # ! $ /# "# ! $ " ! * +03 " $ ! / $$ "# * /# * $ / # $ " + "$ $ "

$ $ $

Juncture 4 + # ! $ &$ ! / # *$ # F " # # # / # " "$ # + / # / & "# # # / $$ + 7 <e<

$ $ " " ! # * $ 4 / / #

! $ ) # " "# * 1 F " /# # "" *$ # ' <wUdZ@< $ $ " +0" $

Orthography and punctuation & 4 / & " " # " ! $ $ ++ + ! # " + *$ # / + ! *# $ + / # # $ F * "# # "" * 0 $ 4

+ *$ # $$ # $ " ! $ $ / $ # & / / + / * ! # / $ $ + ! $ 4 # * # # " $ ! *$ # # " $ $ 4 # *$ # +0" $ + $ ! * $ $ $ # &$ ! # + $$ / * 8 - / # ! ! * * ; ' B !& + $ # " $ & " + + + ! *# $ + * % % $$ * &$ # " 4 6 / *$ # & # ! 4 !& $ # *# & " ++ + ! # *$ # # # / / + ! $ + *# ! $$ " $ $ + / &$ !

Punctuation $ # $ # " " / $ $ 4 & * # $ # ! ! $ # -@=

*$ # # & # # / * * + + ! # + " !! ; ! # ; ! Ăš # " !! 5 4 $$ 7 ! $ *$ # & ; ! $ # / $$ # $

" 4 4 / # " F " * # ! / # " F " "#

: * # * " " $$ $ "" /

Grammar General 4 3 $ * * ! $ ! / *$ # # # / ! # ++ + ! *$ # # " " " &$ + " + # 4

$ * *$ # 2 4 + ! $$ ++ + ! *$ # / $$ " +0" $ # $ * F " $/ + $$ / # % & $$ $ " # + " C- C%D

Questions # 7 $ # ; $ 4 - , ; + ! $ 4 * $$ & " $ ; / aya & + * 4 # + ; ! $ & ! $ ! # 7 $ /#

&$ * 8 C' ? (

Negatives 4 & # * $ * $ & " F * "# / # # 0 < " < # & * & " ! + # & # +

&$ ! ! * ! $ & 07 * # & )& # 1 / # na / ! / $$ & # ! / 8 C+ )+ + + 1 -@>

Auxiliaries 4 # ; $ + # 7 $ ! ! +07 + & * + $$ + ! # + 4

/ $$ ! ! ! *$ #8 C+ C D )+ + 1 $ # *# 7 7 $ & 4 $

" ; $ # *$ # *

/ # # *$ # + " ! ; *

! " ! +0" $ % $ $ $$ 4 ! %

Special confusion ^ Chera (= Why not?) 4 # " $ * ; # " $ $ & $ ' ( 2# # *$ # + & 4 $$ **

8 ) ( ' (

$ 7 $ # # "" &$ $ *$ #

Question tags 4

/ * + ; * Na )G / 1 #

$ $$ # + 0 $$ ; *

7 ! $ " ! $ 78 C1 " ( )+ 1 " (1 C- " ( )+ -

" (1

Time, tense, and aspect - + 4 # ! $ ; $ & # + "

! $ *$ # # + 4 ! ! !

# / * 8 C% )+ % 1 C% + ' )+ % + ' 1 C% $ ( -@.

' 9 # *

4 + ! / # # ; $ + # $ 4 " 8 C' % " )+ ' % " 1

4 "# $$ " $ # + ! /# "# /

# " ! $ 7 $ + "# * * *$ # " # + " " + # ! $ # 4 " 8 C1 % )+ 1 1 D ; $ " $ # 4

! *# " 8 C1 )+ 1 % 1 ; ! $ 4 /# * "

"# *$ # # 4 $ ! *# " 8 C1 % )+ 1 : % $ 1

# 4 + + + " 8 - # ! / # *$ # *

+ " * $ " # # ! *# $ # 4 " 8 C1 )+ 1 1 ' + " & * * # $$ " * /# "# ! *# $ # 4 " 8 C% )+ % 1 = + # + /# "# ! " " + + # + ! $ *$ # $ # 4 3 " *8 C1 # )+ 1 # 1 # + " + # 4 # $

/ * *$ # " + # + # *

+ " ! 7 + # $ *

+ ! / # # ; $ + /# "# # ! * ! $ # *$ # *

% # ! *# $ # 4 " 8 C1 )+ 1 1 # * $ /# "# ! $ # *$ # ! $ -@,

" & * $ # % # # + $ $ $ " + # $ + 4 + ! / # 7 $ ; $ # + ! $ 9 "# $ $ ! / * 9 & ! $ # 4 $ " 8 C% )+ % 1

Modal verbs $ & / # ! / 4 *$ # 4 & # # ; $ + #

" ! & E " # ! & " *$ # C% $ # *# # ; $ + 4 E " /

& # + # ! $ # 4 / * *$ # " 8 - % )+ - % 1 # / # + ! $ # # $ +0" $ 4 # # * + ! * 7

# *# ! $ *$ # ! + # ! / $$ " &$ ! 4 7 ! $ # * + ++ ! * 7

& " " " *$ # 7

& ! $ & 4 / # # ++ " # ! * & * " & $ # # & 4 ! # &$ ! / # # ++ "

& / # *$ # ! $ " $ $ & /

Non-finite forms # * + ! 4 # 0 + ! ! $$ $ " 2# " ; *$ # 4

0 +0" $ 8 C% "

Word order 4 / " $$ + $$ / # 8 &F " &F " & # ! $ " + F " ! $$ + $$ / # # ! + /# "# ! $ 4 " 8 C% )+ % 1 -@?

4 # ! 4 & + ! $$ $ " & /

&F " &F " /# "# " $ $ " + /# / * *$ #8 C% )+ - % 1

The active and passive voices 4 #

+ ! + $$ & #

/ $ # *$ # :

" 4 ! $ + ! & # ! * # $ # # $ $ ) 4 & E " " # * 1 & * # 4 ; $ + # " $ + #

& #

4 ! " 8 C% )+ % 1

Articles # 0 0 "$ # ; $ 4 +07

" /# # # 0 0 # ! ; ++ + ! *$ # 4 # " &$ +0" $ / # $$ + "$ I # # 4 ! "$ & + /# "

8 C1 $ C1 $ C $ C? $ C% $ C+ ( C% C1 )+ 1 1 I # # # 4 ! "$ /# #

# $ & ! 8 C% )+ % 1 C& $ $ $ )+ & $ $ $1 C I $ C@ $ C%

Adjectives and adverbs F " & $$ ! $ / 4 # + + ! * & + ! F " ! -@@

" # ! / & # F " & 2# / " $ & F " )$ # 4 / +

1 # "

# ) 1

& $ ; $ # + 4 $ $ " + F " & & # + ! ! * # / / & $ #

Comparatives and superlatives B ! $ $/ + ! & # +

+07 # / ++ ! # *$ # " + * # 4 # 4 $ /# / * *$ # ! " 8 C1 )+ 1 1 C # / # " ! 4 # ; $ + # 4 ! " 8 C1 )+ 1 1 # 0 "$ & + # $ ! $ & ! $ * 4 " 8 C. )+ . $ $ $1

Gender and number 4 # , * " *$ & * + & # # $ $ $ * $ ; " $ $ 8 C& $ 1 * :$ $ * $ " 4 ! F +0" $ / 4 $ $ + ! /# / # !& # $ $ " *$ #8 C% C

Prepositions 4 + ; $ + & & + # ++ + ! # *$ # 4 $ # " $ *$ #8 C1 )+ 1 1 -@A

C+ C%

Phrasal verbs :# $ & 7 4 $ 0 # ! " + * / +0" $ 8 - # +0" $ + "" * # # + "$ " $$ "# * # ! * + & run up ) ! ; " $ 1 ' # + " # # & " & + ! # "$ &

&F " I # + ; $ $ # !

+ # "$ 8 C1 C%

Subordinate clauses # $ $ 4 # + # ! ! $ ! &F " $ /# # #

&F " # &F " + # & /#

; #

$ " + # " " $ *$ # # + "

&$ ! C $ $ $ # &F " $ "$ /# "# ! *$ #

"$ 4 8 C " % $ $ $ C " % $ $ $ 4 # 0 +07 / # # # " ! & + # $ /# "# ! *# $ 4 " 8 C) % $ $ $ )+ % $ $ $1 4 $/ # & * * + # $ "$ # ! * " $ ' ( +0" $ +

/# + ! $ " # ! + ! $ " 8 A (

B $ " + * # + + !

$$ # ! / 4 *$ # # 7

+ # -A(

) =1 " $ ++ 4 # # ! "$ * * 8 C% % " % )+ % %

" % 1

4 # ; $ + " & # !

" # + ; $ " *$ #8 C) " )

! B F " ! "# ! + ; $ 4 # *$ # " $ $ # & * * + " # ! " !! $ " F " 4 # " F ! "$ * # $$ / # * +

Vocabulary $ # *# 4 3 $ * * # + / ! $

& / *$ # 4 " & $ / # $ + / # *#3+ ; " / "# # ; $ + # / * # " !! 3 * I # # # 4 "

! " & $ ! / # & " # $ $$ # $ : : #$ # + ! "# $ * # & *# !& +

" 0" "# " $ / + * "# ! + /# "# $$ % & # " # & 4 # " # / + + " &$ ! * " # -A?( # / ! & # * ! 5: 6 $$ + * "# " $ / & # ! / # $ $ !

+ # $ ! " $ # / ! ""

+ $ ! / ! $ $$ # 2 ! 4 "; * *$ # " & $ # + ! "# ! +0" $ + 4 # + 7 ! $ "# ! 7 " # ! + *

" &

! # # $ * ! + " & $ / $$ & & & $$ # *# * " " $ 4 $ $ * ; + " & $ & # # *# $ + ! & 0 # ! # + " + #

$ * * "" $ -A-

B ! 4 + ; $ $ " $ *$ # * * * 8 C )kar khane 9 $ 1 G C )ketab khane 9 $ 1 G

False friends # + / ! $ & / 4 *$ # " & $ # $ $ + / + $ + &$ ! + ! /

/# "# # & & / & 4 / # ++ ! * 2# "# / " *$ # #

! # # ! ! * 4 8 lastik G machin G nylon G chips G ) *$ #1 estanless G

Culture $! $$ 4 3 * $ + *$ # / $$ & # " ! 7 ! $ + ! $ $ * ! #

# $ + + ! $ $ $ * * $ * $ + +0" $ "" # ! " + ! * " $$ ; $ + ! + / * ! $ "$

$ 7 " # "# & # 0* # 7 " & 5; KK 6 * $ $ 7 ! $ # * ! " " / # * " # / $ " !! "

" $ " * ! " # + " " / # " " !! " ! # $ * / $$ $ $ 3 ! + $< $ $$ " $ $ / # * $ # $

* + 6 / $$ *

"" + ! $ ! # "# "# $ $$ * $ * * $ * # # $$ " !! " "# 7"$ $ " !! " ! # $ * ! " + $ # " $$ 5 6 ! $ " $ $ / $$ " $ # " & *# 3 $ ! " $ ! / $$ 0 # "# * +0" $ "" # ! / $$ " ! / # 3 2 + / # * + $ ! " + ! $ ! -A'

# " * * 2 ! ! # / * + # $ ! 4 ! $ / # # ! # & <* $ $ # + # # " ! + $" # $ " & * $ / ! "# # / $ $

A sample of written Farsi

A direct transliteration # $ ! ! 4 K & # ! + K ! # K $ KK ! & * * & *# $ $*# & K K * ! ! # ! 5 + K6 # $ * # * $ & & & ! # *# *# * & #! # ! $ *# # $& * # ! * # ! #

A word-for-word translation # $ 4 $ * * $/ # $ * + K + ! # F # # * " + $$ $ " 5 + K6 # # $ # # ! ! * & * + + $ / $ " " " # $ $ * $ &$ " $

-A=

An idiomatic translation 4 # + 4 # F * + K6

# $ * " * $ * # " # * + # 5+ $$ 6 + K # # $ # # ! ! # *

+ $ / $ " " " # $ / # $ & # * $ &$ " )4 ! 1 ) & *# 1

Handwriting difficulties: a sample written by a Farsi-speaking student

-A>

Arabic speakers ! #

Distribution P: D I O 2 I P I IBBI I : D P P : B & " " ! F $ * * B# $ F & *$ #% $ K & F K& ! F O K # O * K B# "# & " & * # $ * * + # O # # $ / + $ ! $$ $ ! + /# $ ! 7 + ! $ / # & " " " 7 $ # + E " & # + # / $ * * / $ ! # * 0" + $$ / * * $ $ * * ! $ &$ " O +*# : $ # :# $ # B# * $ 7 ! $ >(( ((( ((( $ $$ " *

Introduction & " ! " $ * * # * * !! " $ ! ! $

! " & / # # $ 5 3 & "6 $ * * /# "# *# "# $ & # !

! $$ & " + $$ " !! " + +0" $ 2 # "# " + ; ! $$ / + " $$ ; $ $ " # $ ++ * + ! # $ " & $ " !! $ 7 " $ ! ! 7 " # ++ " + ! " " ! ! # ++ " & / O $ *$ #

Phonology General # & " *$ # # $ * " $ ! ++ $ # * + & # ! # $ " / $

-A.

)

" 7

* ! * 2# $ *$ # # '' / $

# # * '> " & " # $ *# / $ # # * ) # # # $ * / # # * 1 =' " 3

# # # / $ & " # $ $ * 0" " 8 # $! $$ # " # / # " # " $ * / $ # # * /# "# * ! * & " # + *$

" + *$ # # / $ /# $ $ ! # * " * $

# + ! ! * # + + & " /# "# * 5 & " "" 6 *$ # 8 9 * " " $ # *$ # / # !

$3 $ &$ & + / "$ $ " $ / $ * * $$ "" 5F && 6 ++ " 9 # + *$ $ & + $ / $ " !! + + & " # & * # $ " + *$ # 9 * $ $ " " ! " " # / + !

/ * <klaImbed< +

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ & "

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / 2# $ $$ $$ / $ ! " &$ ! # + $$ / * # ! " !! " + 8 - <I< <e< + " + 8 + ' <ยก< <O:< + " + 8 + = # # * <eI< <@U< $$ " # # " + / # <e< <ยก<8 + % +

-A,

)

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ & "

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - & " # $ $ # <g<9<dZ< /# "# " <g< ! * &$ * <dZ< # & "

# + " *$ # ! !

$$ "" * # $ " $ $ " ' <tS< # ! + $ + / $ " & # "" $$ $$ $ " F " + <t< <S< = # / 7 ! # *$ # <h< & " # " !! + # ! " # # % & "

# + " *$ # <h< # # #$ > <r< " E $ # : <r< & " " !! $ " # 3 " $ " $ . <p< <b< $$ # " & # !$ 8 % 9 9 , <v< <f< $$ # " $$ & # " <f< % $ ? <g< <k< + " + " $$ & # & /# $ " "$ # # ! <g< : $ , , " +0" $ @ $ # *# <T< <D< "" $ & " ! $ " 3 " # ! <t< <d< " $ # ! #

6 *$ # %

$ A # # ! <ĂŞ< $$ " <n< <ng< <nk<

Consonant clusters # * + " "$ "" * *$ # ! "# / # & " $ / 3 *! "$ "" * & " "$ 8 -A?

)

" " " " " " $ # 3 *! "$ "" & " $$ * 8 " " " $$ + # & " # " ! * & " # / $ 5

6 " 8 + + # * + 0 $ "$ $ ! "# ! $$ & " I+ # ?@ # 3 *! "$ + + 3 *! "$ "" * 0 $$ *$ # "" & " & " * # / $ +

+ + # "# / $$ ! ! &$ 7 ! $ + "# " /# "# $ " # $$ * + "# / & 6 / *$ # / : 4 $ " ! $ + *$ # & " " "$ ) ! "# # + $ + ! 1 ? ) + & F ) *! -A,=1

Influence of English spelling on pronunciation 2# $ # ! $ & / # & " *$ # / *

! & " $$ * / # / ! ! $ $$ # " & " # + ! " *$ # / # " $$ # # " + " * " &$ ! " & # E " + # / + !8 +

Rhythm and stress & "

3 ! $ * * /

" $

" &$ * $ & " # + # &$ !

* * # " &$ + *$ # /

# #

" $ ! * ' ' ' ) &1 ' ) 1 " ! $ $ * :# " # #! ! $ # / $ * *

# $ " + / &$ ! : !

"" ! + ; $ & "

$$ &$ " ! "$ $ / # $ / $ & 5 / $$ / 6 *$ # & * *$ # -A@

)

$ / $$ + " " + ! $ / # # # "" # #!

Intonation & " ! $ # + *$ # " ! * D ** ++ ! ! "# ! + ; $ & * # & " $ ! #

" *$ # 2# * $ # / " * # & "

"# " * $ / + $$ # + # "

Juncture # *$ $ " !! # ! & " + / /

& * / # / $ # " * *$ # $ * 0 $ " / # + $$ / * $ / $ " " * " "$ / $$ " &$ !

" & # " 5B "$ 6 F " "#

# " !& + 7 / $ # ! " + # " "# * *$ # # *# # F " + " # ! * <t< J <j< <wยกtSu: ni:d< <d< <j< ( <dIdZu: si: hIm<

*$ & & " /# $

+ "# * " " # " !! "

Orthography and punctuation & " # * # " ! * + ! *# $ + I $ " $ * / $ / # $ / " " " # $ + ! + $ ! $$ & F 7 + ! / & " ! # + $ $ / $ # & + *$ # "$ * " $ $ !% # ! # " $ $$ * $$ " + / * *$ # " ! F &$ ! + & " # # $ & 7 " " / # * / * # ! $ $ "

/# ! $ $ $ + 0" " $ *$ # " $ &$ ! 8 9 * $ / # 5! 6 # * ;% -AA

)

* $ / # / & *# $ + ! ! * + % 5 6 + # "" # / * + & + " 9 $+ ! + $ $ / * +0" $ * # $ ! + " " / * ! #

! $$ / # " $ $ ) + ! 1 / # # $ " " " " # " $ * + $! $ $ & " *$ # # # ! "

" # ! $ & " ++ + ! # 5 & "6 ! $ # *# # / + ! $ + *# * " * !& ! F &$ !

Punctuation & " " / ! $ / $ " # *#

! + # !& $ * Ăš + H 5 + # + + $$ " !! ! "# + # *$ # " !! & * "# / " / # # ; $ + ) + B " / * *$ # # + " $ * $

" $ & " !!

Grammar General & " ! " $ * * * !! " $ " ++ + ! # + 3 $ * * # # + + + / + + " $ + * + + " #

! & & ! /# & " ! 7 / # # & + # & " $ * * # # 3" "# & # " " $ $$ & + ! F " " $ " # + ! & * # # "

07 ! 0 ! ! & ! $ 07 +07 /#

# + $ * :

" $ : '((

<k/ /t/ /b/

"# writing$

kattaab maktoob yaktubuh

)G 1 )G 1 )G 1

)

# + $ * :

" $

/dZ/ /r/ /h/

%# wounding cutting$ \G 1

majrooh

yajruhuh

\G 1 \G , 1

djarraah

# .( & ! $$ + ! + + "# & # # " $ & + # $ * * + $$ / # & " # * +0" $ * * # " + * * + + $$ / *$ #8 # & F " + $$ / * $ * # + ! # ! # # ! # * # " + ! "# * $ + ! # $ * *$ # # " $ $ # + +07 / $$ & $ * & & " * " " "

Word order " $ # & " " $ " # & 0 + $$ / & #

&F " # " + $$ / ! / * # "# " $$ # & $ + / * ! " *$ # / *8 C $

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries # 7 $ # ; $ & " 2# " 0" ; / ; ! $ & * 8 C' * ( - ( # # & " + ( wayn? /# "# &$ " + / # ( * + ! & * "$ \laa maa1 & + # &8 C1 $

To be # & & " # # " $ \ " " 1 7

# + " !! $ ! *$ # & & " " $ $ # *

& + ! 8 '(-

)

C1 $ C $ C1 $

Pronouns & " & + ! " # $ &F " &F " 07 +07 " !! # # ! *$ # + # &8 C2 $

Time, tense, and aspect - & " # + " /# "# * 0 " " ! $ # ! + * # # + " $$ ; $ & " " / & / /# *$ # / $ &

! $ + " &8 C% $ ( ' # + " 7 ! $ *$ # + ! & # + # & + $$ / & # & ) G 18 C1 % )+ 1 % 1 = # *

+ ! & # + # & + $$ / & # & ) Q 1 C1 % )+ 1

% 1 > "# & " # + # * $

"# # " + *$ # C1 C D * $ # + " "# ! " !! * * "#

8 C1 % C+ D * $ C1 $

- & " # ! $ + ! /# "# * 0 " 0 # # ! + * " # + # *$ # '('

)

! $ *

"$ * # + + ! # $ " + + # & " $ / # # *$ " / * + *$ #8 C1 , $ C1 , $ C1 , $ C' ( C' , ( ' # $ + + ! # ! +

* 7

*$ # & # + " 8 C% , % ? $ = # $ &F " + +

& "$ " !! & " /# "# $ "" $$ $ / # *$ # * 8 C1 $ C% $ C D % > 2 # + / & + ! ! " $ )$ $$ " " 1 )/ # " $ 1 7

! ! # * # ! + * # + #

7 ! $ ! / *

& " $ # *# ! * # " $ C' ( C% * $

- # + + ! & " + # *$ # + ! + # + ' Q + 3 " * "$ " $$ ; $ 3 & " " + " # + # $ " & + # & # 7 ! # *$ # +

Modal verbs # ! $ & & " # + " + ! & ! $ & + ! $ + $$ / & &3 F " ) 1 8 % : % % $ A % $ % : A % $ '(=

)

. % $ % : A % $ & " # + # &$ ! * * * # + ! + " + ! $ & / $$ * $ & * # ! 7 $ / # # ! C ( - " $ # $ * " "$ & # / # ! $

# & * &F " J 0 " " *$ # ) 5 30 + ! 6 & $ / 1 C% C D % ( C% % $ C1 $

Non-finite forms # * 7 & " + " + ! & & $ + & * $ & + ! + # & " ; $ + # & $ + ; + ! + # & # & " ; $ + % / $ & % % $ % # & " ; $ " " / $ & % C D % C D % $ ! $ $ # 0 + ! & "% * # 0

" ! $ & / # / # C% C D % $ C D % % $ + $$ / # & $ / $$ # $ # $ &$ ! + ! * # " " "# " & / * 0 & $ & " &$ ! + + ! " " + & #

The active and passive voices # "

+ ! + $$ & " & # $$ " $ # " + ! ++ * $ # " + # ) / 1 # / $$ *

& 7 # + $ " * &$ "# + ! " 7 + $

+ ; $ & " / * # *$ # # $ $$ "# # /# $ # " " + "

# $ $ & 3

# + ! + #

/ $$ " &$ ! # + # * & " bi /# "# + " $ # + *$ # '(>

)

# + * * 8 C1 $ C $ B !! + ! # + " & + ! +

8 C1 $ C $ # " !! " " !$ " ! $ ! #

& " 8 C " $

Articles # 0 "$ & " # 0 "$ # * + ++ + ! *$ # # 0 "$ " # ! & &$ ! " !! $ ! / # * $ $ $ " &$ 8 C I )+ 1 C1 $ 2# # *$ # 0 "$ # & & /# # 0 "$ 8 C $ C% $ # 0 "$ + ! & " # *# # + ! + 07 )al-1 *$ # + & " 0

$ ! $ + ; + " ) " I " 1 # ! " !! &$ ! / # # 0 "$ + ! + " + ! # & " * " " 8 2 ) 2 1 2 ) ) $1 ' $ ) $1 @ $ + / + "$ * " "

+ " + # 8 C $ C $ + $$ / # & " # * +0" $ / # # *$ # * " " # " /# "# *$ # ! # "$ * " " " " $$ # 0 "$ & "8 C) $ C' + ( $$ + # / ! ! # # $ ! " $ ! '(.

)

! + / " " "$ # 0 "$ & " /# "# + $ $ 8 C' % $ C' I ! $ ' - $

Adjectives and adverbs F " + $$ / # & " * * !& # ! " & * ! ! 8 C1 C D )+ 1 1 & $

" !! $ & " # *$ # 7" + & + ! # 07 & + ! + 7

# 8 ; 7

# + ; " + & / # F " & + ! *$ # # F " + !

$$ 8 C1 $

Gender and number & " # / * ! " $ + ! /# "# $$ + ! / * / ! * :$ $ + + * # ! & * " + ! * $ 8 ' ( + $ % $ :$ $ + & " + + ! & $ "# * ) / # O *$ #1 # + +07 + # $ $ ! $! + & " + ! 8 C% $ 4 + $$ / * !& & # $ & " + ! # + + 8 C% # $

Prepositions and particles & " # / $ # + 07 "$ / # & # & F " + # " " / # # " *$ # $ 8 '(,

)

)+ 1

)+ 1 #

! # & $ + " 9 # ; $ + " 7

&$ * 8 C% % $ 9 # ; $ + " 7

8 C , )+ 1 9 # ; $ + " 7

8 C' )+ % , 1 9 # ; $ + " 7

8 C% C%D )+ % 1 # # $ & & " # /# $ + * +0" $ + & " + " ! "# ! ! $ 3 $ " * $ & * $ & * # $ &

$ * # # ! !

+ # "$ C% $ C% $ C% $ C% C D$ & " $/ + $$ / & $ 3 * *$ # )' ( % $1 / $$ $$ & + + # & " /# "# + ! $ ! + ! $ *$ # 4 7 ! $ 8 A ( A ( % I ! + % ) # + # "

& " 7 9 $ 5 & "$ 6 & $ / 1

Confusion of it and there # 7

, 7

! " $$ ; $ & " $ " & # fee ) 1 & # " !! $ " *$ # ! + ! $ & " # " " 7

+ # & ! * # 8 C% # $ C) $ " # & # / $ $ # $$ $ " & # & 8 '(?

)

C% $ # / /# " $$ 3 $ ! / $ & ! . C D $ + $$ / # # " & / # + "# 7

" + $ * *

Question tags # ; * " !! $$ & " $ " $$

! "# * * + ! $ * # $ + 5% (6 # &$ ! # + / # ; * " " $ &

" " & $ $ ! # & / $ & # ! $ + "# * * + ! *$ # ; *

Subordinate clauses B$ " & " & " & " F " $ $ $ + $$ / & # &F " ) 1 8 C% C%D $

# $ ) " " 1 ! " & " "" * * & # ! 3# ! # # 3 + " + # "# " + & " "$ # &F " + & $ "$ /# "# *$ # ! & ! 8 C % $ C " % " $

& " # / / + /# "# " # * + $ $ # + # " " $ " /# "# *$ # " $ & + ! & " # ! $ & # ! " $ "$ 8 C% + " + )+ % + " + % + "

+ 1 '(@

)

Vocabulary # "; + " & $ " $ $ +0" $ + & $ # # $$ + 8 $ ! ! $ !& + / *$ # & / + ! & " ! $$ * + ! $ "# " $ / "# " # & & " & # " !! ! $ * * & "

# + / * $ * " ! # & + # 0 $ * * # # $ & 7 " "; *$ # # * $ # ! " $ # + $$ / * *$ # / ! $ $* / & " "# # $ # ! +

&$ 8 " " " " " " " ;

Culture " # *#$ * # & / $ # "# $$ " 0* # "# $ * * $ & / " & * $ " $ & # "# * ! "# ! $ $ * # " * + + ! # # / / $ ! + "# * /# "# / $ " "

! & F " " + # "# / ! $$ /$ * 7 ! + ; $ ; $ # " + 3$ ; * * $ # *# # 7

+ $

! & " + # / $ * * * / ! B $$ 3 ; $ $ * * # $ $ $ *$ # $

" " 3 * 5 " $$ ; $ *$ #6 ! & $ # # +0" $ /# "# $ & $ # " * / # + ! $ "# * "# /# "# # "# 0 ! " ; $ # # ) # *# 4 ! # $ * & "# $ & * 3 $ 1 #

/# "# $

" ! # $ * "# ! & F " $

+ & "# # $ # + + ! $ $/ & 7 $ /# # " + "# ! $ + ! $ # $ $/

" + $$ ! $ * &$ " 2# # 7 # # & "# # ! 8 # "# #

! # $ & ! !& # ! & "

"# $ " $ * * $$ $ $ ! / ! ! ! 7 " $$ $$ # !! + ! $ " "$ # " $ ! 7 * + # 7 " $ O $ * * "# $ " " '(A

)

! $ ! $ & $$ "# ) + # 71 # $ ! 0 !$ +

$ $ # / # & $ I " + ! $ "# # "# * /# "# & / # # ! 5! # 6 ! * # # # 5 6 ! * # / $$ # + / &$ ! # " $ $ "# * ! & " & *# & & " " / # # / ) * "# ! # $ + / !

! * " ! 1 ! & / * * & " ! " / $ ! " # 7 # * E " + $ ! ! & "" # ! + # & / $ / $ $ " E " $ # $ * # + ! & + # # " $ "# # $ & / + # $ ! " " $ ! ++ ++ / *$

Written samples of Arabic Type-written Arabic

A direct transliteration fee qalbi lundun taqa' saaHa waasi'a tusummee traafulghaar skweer aw, idha aradnaa an nasta'mil lahaa ismhaa al-'arabee al-aSlee, saaHat aT-Taraf alagharr. haadhi-s-saaHa al-maqSood minhaa iHyaa' dhikra tilka l-ma'raka intaSar feehaa al-loord nilsoon 'ala naabulyoon gharbee shibh jazeerat eebeeryaa. wa-yatawassaT haadhi-s-saaHa 'amood murtaÂŽ' ya'taleeh timthaal il-loord nilsoon. wa-bijaanib haadhi-s-saaHa al-ma'raD al-waTanee li-S-Suwar az-zeeteeya al-mashhoora wa-kaneesat il-qadees maartin.

'-(

)

A word-for-word translation # # 3 ; & # 3 3" $$ + $* ; + / 3/ # / 3 3# ! 3# # 3 & " # 3 * $

; # 3# $ # 3& + $ # # 3 ; # 3 + !3# " !! ! ! ! # # 3& $ /# "# # 3/ 3 " 3# # 3$ $ $ / / !&$ " $ & 3 # 3" # # 3 ; " $ ! # *# # 3 ! 3 # 3$ $ 3& # # 3 ; # 3* $$ # 3 $ + 3 # 3 " # 3 $ # 3+ ! "# "# # 3

An idiomatic translation # # + # & ; " $$ + $* ; + / / * $ & " ! # ; + + $3 *# ) # + $ $ 1 # ; / * 3 # ! ! + # & $ /# "# $ / " $ / + # & : $ * # " + # ; $$ " $ ! + /# "# + $ # ; # $ $$ + + ! $ * 6 B# "#

Printed Arabic ) # 7 " + ! # " $ * + # D $ *$ # $ + ! # ! " & 1

! #

& ' # $ + # D $ / ! * # 0 & !& " $ ! # # + # * " # "$ # * / # + # $ /# "# D $ " $ $ ! $ # " + # ! $ " & # ! * " * # -A # " + # $3 # + ! $ 6 $ # + # # ! &$ ! /# #

# $ '--

)

A direct transliteration qatar fee-l-'ahd il-islaamee kaan sukkaan shibh jazeerat qatar min awwal il-aqwaam allatee a'tanaqat ad-deen al-islaamee. wa-taareekh il-minTaqa mundhu dhaalik al-Heen yashmal numoow w-izdihaar tijaarat il-lu'lu' allatee la'ibat qatar feehaa dawran 'ala ghaaya min al-ahamiyya. wa-yaSif haadha al-qism min al-matHaf aiDan DHuhoor usrat Al-Thaanee fee-l-qarn at-taasi' 'ashar li-tatabbu' za'aamat ad-dawla wa-rijaalhaa al-afdhaadh alladheen khadamoo al-bilaad ka-Hukkaam li-d-dawla.

A word-for-word translation 3/ # & !&$ " $ ; + ! 0 # 3 $ /# "#

# 3 !& " # 3 $ * # 3 $ ! " 3# # 3 " # # 3 ! # 3 "$ * / # 3E # * # 3 $ /# "# # 3 $ ; 3# $ 7 ! # 3 ! " 3# 3 " &

# # 3 + ! # 3! ! $ " + ! $ $ # # 3 " # 3 # + 3 # 3 "" $ # # 3 3! 3# # 3 ; /# # 3 # 3" 3 $ + 3 # 3

Handwriting difficulties: samples written by two Arabic-speaking beginners

'-'

)

'-=

Turkish speakers # !

Distribution O P I BP: $* # K $ * * + #/ $ * $ " 3 $$ * &$ / # #

Introduction # " $ * * " / + ! / #/ B# & # * # ! * / # # + ! $ /# "# $ # # 3 * # ! " # # + + ! $$ ++ + ! & # 4 & " # *# # # & / # $ + ! & # / $$ + ! 4 "# " -A'@ # # & / ! 0 + # ! " # + " & 7 ! $ + # **$ + $ * * /# ! * " ! $ 4 " kuĂ&#x2C6;cĂ&#x2039;uĂ&#x2C6;msenmemeliydiler )G 1 " & $ + $$ / 8 kuĂ&#x2C6;cĂ&#x2039;uĂ&#x2C6;k G )0 $ # 1 mse- G n- G

< E 7 me- G * meli- G

ydi- G ler G # # / # O / & / " $ 8 ) 1 ! 0 & + ! 0 F " & + & & + &% )&1 # 0 & # + #

" 7 ! $ + ! $ " " ! * K 8 Yeraltl

suyundan

duĂ&#x2C6;sĂ&#x2039;uĂ&#x2C6;k dereceli

B cĂ&#x2039;lkartan

lsl

pompalarlndan

lsl

banliyoĂ&#x2C6;lerdeki

'->

bahcĂ&#x2039;elerde kaĂ&#x192;rll

bir bicĂ&#x2039;imde yararlanllabilir.

$ ! + $ 8 1 # $ $ "# # / / / $ + # #! ! # * " E /% # "

+07

/ ! "$ /# /# /# ! * $

+ / # # + 0 *$ # / $

$ # *$ " #

* ! *# ** & # $

! F

!&$ * &$ " $ * " ! $ 7 "

Phonology Vowels - <i:< + " $ # # # * <I@< "$ $$ &$ <I< 9 # $ 8 <kI@< + % + # # / giy " * 7 ! *$ # <i:< ' <e< + + & + "# * <{<8 + = <{< $ * #3 * $ $ *

& / # <e< <{< # + & <e<8 + > <O:< + " <oU< $ * " + & /

"# # " " <O:< ""

3 + $$ + # $ * # # <o< . <u:< & " ! <U@< /# 0 $ <U< "$ $$ &$ 8 <dU@< + % + & # # &$ " # ""

+ $$ + <j< , <@< 0 # ; $ # l /# "# # / # *# # E " + $$ * # + *

/ $ #

$ 8 <InkonwInient< + % <eddISonal< +

? 2# # # # * <eI< <aI< <OI< "" 0 $ <I< ! & " " / # + " ) # $ ! ich # # + 4 "# oui # 8 <boIC< + % <deIC< + 1 @ <e@< $$ & " ! <eI< A <@U< + # <oU< / # + $$ & " 0 $ ! #

* $$ ! "" &$ *$ # # # 5 #6 + <@U< <bU< /# "# ! # ! '-.

-( / " <I< <@< ! & " ! " $ * # 8 <stI@< + % + <beIsk< +

Consonants - <T< <D< "" # # * * $ + +0" $ + $ " # ! & 3 <t< <d<

# + 7 ! $ & " ! <thru@< + <Tru:< ' # <b< <d< <dZ< $ " /# 0 $ <g< "" 0 $$ 8 + % + = # <v< ! "# ! $ *# $ " $ # # *$ # ; $ / # & " / $ "$ *$ # <w< # # $ # & 6 " # $ $ / " * / / # # + 0 # / " + *8 + % + > <ĂŞ< $ "" & + <g< <k< #8 + . # # # + <r< + # ! $

# <r< < " /# / , # # & # 5"$ 6 <l< ) 1 5 6 <l< ) 1 / # & # ! *$ # ! " & 7 " & + / $ )5 6 <l< + 5"$ 6 <l< ! " 1 & + " )5"$ 6 <l< + 5 6 <l< ! " 1 ? 2# <p< <b< <m< <f< <v< + $$ / & <{< <A< *$ )$ <w<1 8 <bwAI< + % <fwAn< + @ 4 $ <m< <n< <l< & " # " # ! # ! +0" $ " ! $ $$ * & $ &$ !

Consonant clusters # # " ! $$ / $ "$ / "$ + ! # # " $ $ # *# ! $ / # $ * / $ ) * istasyon G 1 # " /# * *$ # # / $ + # 0 " 8 + % + I

Rhythm, stress and intonation # # #! " + *$ # / # "# 3

$$ &$

$$ &$ / # # " / $ $ '-,

+0" $ + # " $ /# $ + $$

! "# " " 2

7 # /

# 0 $

$$ &$ & ! &3+ ! 9 " $ $ * 9 # $

& ! $ & 0 $$

$ ' , ' , ' ; " &$ &$ ! ! &$ + *$ # # * /# "# / " # !

" & ; / ) "# kim G ne G nicĂ&#x2039;in G 1 $$

# /#

# $

*$ # + " $ ! # /# * $ # # + 'Where ( + ' 'going? "$

+ $$ "# #

$$ &$ * # / # $ *# $ * # * " $

9 ! "# *$ # *$ # "# " " + # # * "# + # *# # /

" ! $ # !

8 $ . O % $ + 0 1 $ $ + ! $ # + $$9 / # " + / * " ! $

$ " * " + + ! 8 @ ( ' " % $ $ $ # 9 " $ $ ! 9 0 # !&

3 * 4 $$ *9 * "" # & ! $ *

# * + "$ # 0 $ "$ * + $$ #

+ " *$ # # $ " + " F " 8 %Z " %Z " %Z " %Z $

Punctuation # ! + ! + # " ! $ &$ 3

" $ * * & / / 8 - " !! $$ / + # " + " /# "# + # & # &F " 8 C& " ' & "$ $$ ! ++ / # " !! 8 ' '-?

= >

. ,

" * / # # ; $ + 1 % % ! $ 7

" !! # "$ ki )G 1 /# "# * 8 C1 " " !! + / " 3 "$ 8 + " " * / # CĂ&#x2039;uĂ&#x2C6;nkuĂ&#x2C6; )G 7 $ * /# # * & + 1 ! $$ + + $$ + $ I # / # + # + $$ * # * " ! "# *$ # B $ *$ # & $$ + $$ / & " $ $ ! 3" $ $ $ D "# + & / *$ #3 $ " !! & / X Y ! I+ ; *$ / # "$ # ) 1% # " ! $ ! & + & / X Y ! # 9 /# *$ # ! *# 3 $ & $ 9 # / & " $ $ " !!

Grammar Word order # 5 &F " 9 &F " 9 &6 $ * * /# ; $ 0 "

; $ 0 " " " !! & " ! & + ! # $ " !! "# $ $ / * $$ F " $ # / $ * " # & # ; $ + *$ # + $$ / # # ; $ + & 3 * " F " + $$ / # "$ $ & + $$ / $ 7 " $ & ; " $ $ # + ! $ + *$ # / $ ! $ " & " # +0" $ ! " ! $ 7 " # + &F " / # # $ &

&$ !8 C% " % $ " / # 5 3 *6 $ " &$ 8 $ # &$ * " * " $ 8 1 ( %

'-@

Verbs: general # # & # / !& " " ! ! $ $ / $$ # + & + # " " & 7

# *# "# * & + ! # *# # *$ # + ! # ! $ " * +0" $ # &F " 7

/ # # &% *

To be # & # # ! $ " $ $$ * 7

C& $ # # ; $ + " & ) $ # *$ #

" 1 / # 0 &F " 8 C )+ 1 C- % " )+ - % " 1

To have # " # ; $ )4 " # # + % $ $ $$ @ 1 # & & * / # ! $ * &$ !

Questions and negatives - , * * " " # & * " $ "$ # & 0 & # # + +0" $ 8 C- ( C% # # ; $ + *$ # ; * ! $ &$ 7

8 C- " (

Time, tense and aspect ++ " # " * + # *$ # & + ! $ # + $$ / * +0" $ 8 '-A

- ! # *

$ / # & "# + # & $ " 8 C% $ % ' # # / $ * # * # & * * # # ; $ + 8 C% ? = # " &$ +0" $ / # # ! $ $ " + "

# 7 *$ # + + * # + 4 " #

! $ ! & + # + " $$ ; ++ ! /# + * " &$ " ! 8 ' ( - " % $ C O 0 C) B G > > # *

# " " ! & " + 8 C% % . # + " & * + #

! $ " /# & * + ! # & $ * ! $ $ * 8 C K44 $ C% " %

Modal verbs # # " ! # + ! $ & /# "# 7

! $ ! * # *$ # ! $ "$ * + ! " * " "# % , % '

, ' # + & $ + ! $ / # # ! * 7

& # *$ # ! $ ) # *# # ++ 3 " & / " +0" $ 1 # # ! "# " + # *$ # + ! # / / # # " "3 $ / $ " * $ + &$

Conditionals $$ # & + " $ / # # " ! $ " # # # $ + ! + $ + # $$ + $0$$ &$ 8 C% % ? % )+ % % ? % 1 ''(

The passive voice :

" " $ +0" $ & " $$ # *$ #

# "$ ! # $ $ +

7 $

+ ! ! $ " + +0" $ $ * " + "# " C& 5=34$ B ! $ 7 + ! $ # *

+ "

" " $ +0" $ 8 C/ $ C& # + ! " 0" # *$ #

" 8 C $ C% I $ * # " 9

# + *$ # # !& + & /# "# " & & # $ )/ # # * &F " 1 $ )/ # # &F " 1 % , % + ,

% % , "

$ # # & % ! # + 0 " + * # ! & & # " " !! ! 8 C' (

Participles and subordinate clauses *$ # " $ "$ " * ++ $ + ! # # ; $ $ * &$ ! "# + # + $$ / * 7

" *$ " ! $ 7 " $ & + ! #8 $ $ $ , , , , , " # # + ! # / ! # +0" $ * * *# *$ # & "$ ) * " "# " " 1 ''-

C% % % %

Relative clauses # ! " !! # ; $ + *$ # $ "$ " $ " " $ " & + # # $ $ * " F " CĂ&#x2039;alĂľsĂ&#x2039;tĂľgĂ?ĂľmĂľz guĂ&#x2C6;nler . . . $ $ $ CĂ&#x2039;alĂľsĂ&#x2039;tĂľgĂ?ĂľmĂľz mesele . . . $ $ $ CĂ&#x2039;alĂľsĂ&#x2039;tĂľgĂ?ĂľmĂľz yer . . . $ $ $ *$ # $ " # + +0" $ + # $ # ! * # ! $ * # ! + ! 8 C % ( C% 9

Nominalised clauses *$ # # + / + ! $ * "$ # ! &F " &F " " ! $ ! # 0 # +

" "# # + $$ / * +0" $ " &$ % # #

" "# " 8 % to go$ % she went$ Her going $ % she went$ The fact that she went $ % for her to go$ % her going$

Nouns # * $

& # # / !&

" # $ $ $

# *$ # 9 " $ $ /# 0 * " + !& 3/ $ * + ! # $ * ! " 8 C% " $ C% $ C' $ C '''

4 ! + + ! # + "# # *#$ * $ # # " &$ &$ / # *$ # / + !

Pronouns : $ ! "# $

# *$ #8 # &F " 7

$ + ! # " " #

&F " " /# "# ! $$ * # *$ # & "# *

I&F " $

$ ! $$ "

" # 5

6 + ! + # ! # $ # "$ 8 C' " $ C " % $ C2 $ # # $ # 3 " !! $ " + #

8 C& $

Articles # # 0 "$ /# "# / "# & / F " ! $ * * + +

* 7 $ 8 C% $ C $ # "# " & / , +0" $ + #

" # $ & / " &$ " &$ $

# $ / # *$ # 8 C% " $ # # 0 "$ & " &F " ++ + ! "" * /# # # 0 ! * #

" * $ / # $$ 0 " &F " $ * ! "# 8 C* $ C% @ $

Adjectives B ! $/ ! #8 C+ $ ''=

Quantifiers # 5 * < 6 " , ,

& # /# # " &$ <" &$ " , C% # ++ " & / % % +0" $ + #3 *

+ # $ " !! $ " + 8 C " $

Adverbs & # ! + & $$ " $ + ! F " #8 C1 $ 1 " & #8 C1 $ C ( 0 &$ ! 8 cĂ&#x2039;ok sogĂ?uk "" * " 7 " * " + # *$ # + !

Conjunctions ! * # " F " # " " $ +0" $ + #

$ $ $ I+ # ! # / " & # " F " *$ # $ * " + & / + "

% % % # $ $ $ I # * + / /# "# ! # *$ # ; $

)" * " + " " 7 *$ #1 8 % % B 3 "$ + F 7 / # " F "

# $ * $ 8 C D ' " $ C D % " % $

''>

Prepositions : # " " + "$ , , % , % , % , % , , , , % , , C + ?

C% & $ C% $ ! ! $ # $ * # # / * ! $ $ C1 $ C+ / $

Vocabulary # $ $ 7 " $ " !! * & / *$ # # & + & / * + ! 4 "# "# enÂŻasyon )G I 1 kalite )G ; 1 ! + # / + $ + 9 + " sempatik )G " 1 kontrol )G 1 $ &$ " * + ! & ! &$ * # $ " ; $ + ! *$ # & " * + 3; 3 ! *$ # / "#

+ # # " ! " $$ " !! " + 8 , , , ,

, # , , , , , , , , , , , , , , C # D # &$ # * # % " % )+ $1 7 !% / $ " ! % " / % ) ! 1 ! # % $$

F "

''.

The language classroom " # $$ & + $ # ! "# * ! /# # 7 & # "# 7 " & *# $ 7 " "# * & " # # " # + * $ + $ * ! ! / # +0" ! * $ $ ! # ! & $ " # $ * $ & ! !

# *# # # * /

+ $ * * $$ # + " + $ 7

* $ / # $ $ $ * * B !! " "#

$ * * "# * ! " ! & $$ # " $$ /# # & " ! #

" # $ "# $ $ ! " " ! ! I"" $$ # ! " " " + # # ! 3 $ $ " & # "# # $ F # " " ! + # # ! $ # *#$ # / $ 6 + # ! # / ! !! $ /# # /

# $ * * # * ++ " & / # / $ * * !

$ *$ # *$ # ! &$ / $$ * ! $ / # ! "# & " " & $ +03 " $ 2 " ! + " # ! " ! $ 7 " " # " & + $ "# & " " ! ! # & 5 6 # !

'',

Speakers of South Asian languagesB# # # " $

Distribution : O : Q & : $ + "

Introduction ! 7 ! F $ * * # " + #

&" # + $ * * + # ) ! $ $ $ ! O $ * 1 ! !& + # + ! $ # # $$ 3 $ * * ! !& + # & "# + # 3 + ! $ /# "# + ! # "$ # $ $ * * + ) 1 : ) 1 *$ # ) * $ 1 $ ) $ 1 ) # $ 1 # $

) # 1 & ! ! * $ $ * * + : ) F # I

! O #! # : F & 1 $ + # $ * * # & & ! * # + # / $ # O * ! / # $ * " !! + + * $ F : F & )! + # $ E 1 ! $ $ + # $ * + # $ *$ # # & " ! 0 !$ &$ # # # / # " " !! + *$ # / $$ # & 7 " E " # *# # ! $ / /# "# # $$ # $ * * # # + # " ! *$ # " & $ ! ! + 7

& # / # # # *# $ $ + " + /# ! # ! * + # $ * * ! # *$ # / # 5 " " 6 & / # / * $ # /# # * * + " !! 5 *$ #6 B# E * # & # " + + / + ! # $ * * # # *$ # " / # ! &$ * + + ! # *# # &" -

# + " # "# # 3 $ * * + # # + $$ / * "# + # &$ ! + + $ * *

''?

+ + )

! * !! * ) # *# &$ / # ! * $ " $$ + "" 1 " + ! # "# # + / # ! " $ *$ # + # " + + # *$ # " !! ! $$ + # 3 $ * * ! $ + # ! " $ " & & + * # " $ 7 ! $ + /# "# # "$ # " $$ ; $ # # ! / $ + #

&" & +0" $$ + $ # *# + # + : # $ *3 &$ # + *$ # # "# $ + #

&" # &$ ! " & $ $ $ & ! $ ! & # " $ # # # " $ $ * * & " * # "# $ " $$ / # # * $ &$ ! # + # $ * * )/# # #

&" 1 ! " + # "#

# *$ # * ! $ ) # $

* 0" +

/# "# ! " &$ ! + + $ " $ # $ * * "# * # + *$ # " $ & $ / # "# + # $ ! K 1 + " " $ $ 6 ! # $ & # + ! / ! $ # # *$ # ! / # *$ #8 ! " + ! # " " ! & + " $ " " # # + ! # # : $ * * /# "# / + # & " " $! # $ * * #

/ " / + ! $ + *# " & # " / $ $ # *# # ! $ # & ! $$ / ! F # $ * * # *$ # / * ! * $ &$ ! + ! # $

Phonology General # # $ * " $ ! + # $ * * *$ # ++ ! " &$ # ++ ! " * " & / / $ " & / " 2# $ *$ # # '' / $ # # * '> " # $ / $ # ! & * # =( "

+ " " + $$ * # $ " + # *$ # $ $ <t< <d< # & #

+ $ " / # # &$ + # * & # # # ''@

+ + )

<t< <th< <d< <dh< # " $$ # E 7 " / # # + # * " $ & " & # # $ $ * <`< <`h< <ยฆ< <ยฆh< ! * # + + # $ * * /# "# * 5 # "" 6 *$ # 8 9 " $ # *$ # / # / $ " + # + / $ * # $

+ ! " & / ++ / $ 9 # " + # " $

" <p< <t< <tS< <k< / # $$ 9 # " + # *$ # $ $ " <t< <d<

# # E 7 " <`< <ยฆ< 9 ++ ! + ! *$ # ) & $ /1

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ 3 ; $ ! # $ * * # $ # + & " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <e< <{< + " + 8 ' <ยก< <O:< * $$ " + / # <A:< # ! / $ <A:< " $$ # " + "# + / = # # # * <eI< $$ " # "$ ! # # * <e:<8 <me:d< + # # # * <aI< <OI< & # $ &$ & $ <a:I<8 + > # # # * <@U< $$ " # "$ ! # # * <O:<8 <kO:`< +

''A

+ + )

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

w h

# # ! # ; $ 3 ; $ ! # $ * * # $ # + & " " $ / # +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - # " $

" <p< <t< <tS< <k< " / # $$ % # <p< # * # ! $ # ' # + " " <T< <D< $ " & # $ <th< # <d< " $ 8 <dem< + <f<

+ $ " & # <ph<8 # <phI`< + <pIt< + = # $ $ " <t< <d< * $ $ $ " & # E 7 " <`< <ÂŚ<8 # <ÂŚen< + <dem< + ) & 1 > # $ # # ! # + <v< </< # " & / # / ! F +0" $ + $ 8 . ! # $ * * <z< $$ # + <dZ< /

$ ! & * 3 / + ! $ , # $ * * $ " # # ! <Z< /# "# ! & $ $ <z< <S< <dZ< <j< "# / ? # 5 6 * $$ $ " & # 5"$ 6 @ <r< " + " $$ /#

/ ) & $ /1 / # ++ " * # ; $ + # " * / $ A ! # $ * * # $ # ! # + <s< <S< ! + + 7 ! $ * $ F 0 +0" $ * # & / # / " + * + / $

'=(

+ + )

Influence of spelling on pronunciation # " + # ! # " # $$ *

$ * $ "" * " 6 " + *$ # / " ; $ 3+ #+ $ # / + ! 8 - <r< " /# / "$ * /# " ! & + " $ " # ; $ + # " * / $ ++ " : ! " !! + $ # ! " &$ <di:@r< + # ! * / # ' / ! & " * + # # " " " "# / $ = # / + # * $ + "

/ + ! * " $

" <ÂŚevel@peÂŚ< + <A:skeÂŚ< + > # / + # $ $ ! & " <s< + " " $ * / $ /#

# $ & " <z<

Consonant clusters # * + " "$ "" * # & * * + *$ # / ! "# / # # $ * * "# "$ ! $ 0 8 - $ / 3 *! "$ & * * / # <s< ! & 07 & <I<8 + + " ' $ "$ + ! $ &$ & & & # + # # / $ <@<

# " 8 + + " = 4 $ "$ ! & ! $ $ & ! $ 0 & # !

+ " 8 + + " > 0 $ <l< <n< + $$ / * " "

" " ! $ $$ &$ / # "$ / $ <@< & + # <l< <n<

Rhythm and stress " + ! *$ # /# "#

3 ! $ * * /# "# /

& # # $ ! $/ " &$ # $ * * $$ &$ 3 !

" # '=-

+ + )

# #! /# "# & ! $ # * ! + $ *

# $$ &$ 2

# ! "" *$ & / $ $ $/ " &$ #

* + $$ &$ *$ # / " !3 # + + * +0" $ + + # $ * * - #

+ $ " / ! & $ " $ " * + 7 ! $ + $$ / * " "

* + # $ $$ &$ " $ $ " !! " "

' # * !! " $ " & / / #

# 0

$$ &$ & / # " $$ &$

$ + + /

" " # " $$ &$ + / $$ & # ! $ " + & / 9 " !&

+ " !& + F " / # # " " * # + ! = 4 $$ / $ &

$$ &$ # & # # + " " # " + .# # $ " !! / ! $$ " " 5/ + ! 6 *$ # $

! $ $ # + $$ 5 * + !6 $ $$ " $ $ *

Intonation # $$ * $ $ # "# " & # # $ * * # ! &$ ++ " + ! *$ # $ # + & $$ "# / # # " $ " ! # # ! " / # # ! $ *$ # " & + # # 5 *3 *6 !

+ # *$ # # ! $ + ! # $$ &$ 3 ! "# " + # $ * * + # * # " $ * + ; *$ # + 7

+ ! # $ * * # "# " 3 " * /# "# # + ; ! & 3+ $$ # ; $ # *$ # ! " $ " ! * : " $ $ $ ; 3 + !

+ !

$ &$ & " # #!

$$ " $ $ $ $ " &$ ! + + # $ * * " $$ # " + / + ! # " " * + "

! # " $ $ ! / # " '='

+ + )

Juncture # + " + * # + $ / + ! # * $

# " ! $ + " ! $ 7 " # + + *$ # $ $ $+ "

" $ &$ !

Orthography and punctuation # " E " $ + *$ # + ! # # ++ $ # & " $ ! " # $ * * ! 3 # " $$ * " / # # $ + ; " # ! ! ! " # + " $ $ /# "# * # # " # "

$ # ; $ + # + $$ & + # " + *$ # * # # /# $ & + " !! " $ ; ! # $ / + $ / * # " $ # *# $/ ! " $$ ! $ " + " ! & " # $ + *$ # /# # " $ &$ ! # + " !! " "# " " "# " " + ! # $ * * ; " !! 0 " + #

8 C+ < $

Grammar General # + $$ / * " # & " ! $ # & + # "

& / *$ # # ! ! + # 3 $ * * 4 # " " / # + # # $ * * ! ! $ # O * ! ! & & # /# & $ ; $$ # $$ " $ $! / # 7" # "$ $ $ : F & "# / $$ $ # $ + F # *# # $

+ * $ /# "# # $ !

# $ & # # $ * * + # # ; ++ * !! ) # + $$ / * "# 1 # 5 + "#6 + *$ # & $ ! $ # / ! "# ! # *#$ E " $ * * /# "# ! ! & " ! / # # # * $ $ $ '==

+ + )

+ ! % F " $ " & + % * $$ * $ ! + & " F * /# "# "$ ! $ *

+ ! % 7 $ ! $ & % + )! $ " *$ # & # " " !

$ * # + 7 $ & 1 $ *$ # * # ! " $ + ! # " !! )* 3 $1 + ! + $$ $ " ! + # " ! $ + ! + F " # / "$

" * # *$ # "$ + $ " + # ! $ / /# "# # & $ " 0 $$ " ! + # ++ " / $$ ! + # ! $ + ; $ " &$ ! + # $ + *$ #

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # ; $ + # 7 $ 2# " 0" * / ; ! $ & 3 9 + ++ + ! *$ # 9 /

$ 8 C' % ( - % ( ' * + ! & * * ! )/# "# " 3 & # 1 & + # &8 C- C D ( # ! / , ; & * $$ *

* * ; # +0 ! " " " + 8 - ( - $ )G % 1 = # " !! ; * + " + $$ ; " + # &F " $ ! nicht wahr?8 C- & " ( # $ " ! # *$ # ( > # " $ 7 $ & # ; $ + #

& " * + & $ + *$ #8 C- )+ 1 1

'=>

+ + )

Time, tense and aspect ! $ $ * # # # & $ *

+ " # *# * " ! $ $ " $ *$ # - 2 # # ! $$ * + " !! & "$ * /# "# $ *

+ ! # *$ # *

! & $ & $ * / # # # & $ + ! / # # " $ 7 $ 8 C' ? ' # ! $ ! & /# *$ # / $ + # + " 8 C+ )+ + 1 = # + " + ! *

+ ! # / # # + " & " + ! + ! # ! $ *$ #8 C )+ $ $ $1 > # "# /# "# $$

# * $ + * & 8 C1 )+ 1

! $ $ * # # *

+ " / " !! + " + " " # / * + # *

*$ # - 2 # & $ *

+ ! # *

! & $ & $ * / # #

! $ + ! / # # " $ 7 $ 8 C' )+ ' 1 ' # *

# / $ *

+ ++ # & * * 8 C1 ? ( C+ ? #

'=.

+ + )

# + $$ + + # ! "# ! + $ # *$ # 7

# + & & $ 8 C- )+ - 1

Conditionals " $$ + + # # " $ "$ & + $ $ * / # # +

&F " 8 C% " )+ % $ $ $1 ! " ! & + # ! $ # " $ "$ / $$ # ! "$ 8 C% " )+ % $ $ $1

Modal verbs # # " ; $ ! *$ # ! $ & ; "$ $ $ * " " & # + ; ! ! "# # *$ # " $ # *# 7 # * + # " ! 8 C' )+ ' 1 # + ; "# " + + " * & $ * + * $

# # + ! $ *

# + &F " 8 C* )+ $ $ $1 ! $ $ + 8 C' )+ ' 1 B $ + ; $ ! & # + $ " + 8 C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1 + " 7

+ & ;

! & " 3 /# + ; ! & * / 8 C- )+ ' (1 B ! 8 C% )+ & % (1 '=,

+ + )

Q & + / # * &$ &$ ! ! # $ /# + # *$ # 0 + & # + & "$ " # &F " & + 8 C% % )+ % $1 C% )+ % $1

Non-finite forms *$ # # & # 7

# + & $ /# # $ *$ 0 B + & / # / *$ # + ! " $ $ " !! 7

* # + /# # ! $ 9 + # 0 + $$ / & ; $ 9 ! & ! 8 C1 ? )+ $ $ $ ? 1 B $ # *$ # 0 + ; $ $ " + + !8 C+ )+ $ $ $ 1 C' )+ $ $ $ 1

Reflexive verbs ! E 7 " /# # # ! # 3 * " 8 C 9 $ . " " $

Word order $ # *# ! # $ * * ++ + ! *$ # # * # # $ " # & # + # " # + " $$ " + 7" " ; ) & 1

Articles # + # *$ # "$ + # ! +0" $ + $ * # # $ * * # ; $ + # 0 "$ $ # !& 5 6 " '=?

+ + )

! + # 0 B + " ; $ + ; *$ # /# $ + ! # "$ " $$

& + # 0 "$

Gender, number and case * !! " $$ # ! " $ + ! % 7" /# $ 7 " " # "$

0" # $ $ $ ! * # + ! + + # / * F " & ! $ ++ + ! )5 * ! 61 "" * # * + # * * # # * + !

$ ! & # / # " " $ ) &F " &F " " 1 " : * # + * # # 9 # ; $ + 9 & ! $ ! * $$ * # * " &$ ! *$ # + # $ +0" $ * # * * # # * $ ! & $ & " ! + # ! " $ 8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 # *$ #

" "$ $ $ * # + &$ ; " + $$ / &

# ! &$ ! + # $ $ * * $ #

" /# *$ # + / # + " ! $ 7 $ ! 8 C )+ 1 :$ $ + + ! & # $ + # 0 $ / $ & # + * $ * * + ! " $ ! "# * # ! $ + ! + # $ $ # ! "" + # "" $ * + + ! *$ # $ $ # $ ! ++ " & / *$ # # + /# " $ $ # ! " " +

*$ # 2 $ * $ /# ! # " &$ *$ #

$ $8 C $ C1 $ :$ $ + + *$ 2# " $ $ $ # ; $ + + # !8 C' )+ ' 1

'=@

+ + )

Adjectives and adverbs F " " # # ; $ + *$ # # / $ * * # " ! &$ + ! $ & + / " !! + " + # / 8 - # " $ + ! + # " ! $ + & * ! $ " " + # 8 C # " ; $ ! " + # + # *$ # " ! $ + ! &$ + ! " !! 8 C1 ' ! # ! " & / + * & / & # *$ # 8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 = # F " & + ; $ * + & ! # & #8 C1 " )+ $ $ $ 1 C9 " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $ 1

Prepositions and particles B &$ +0" $ " + ! + # $ * * & $$ + ! + * "$ * #

3 " / #

$ ) % 1 / #

# $ & C1

1 + # ! " !! "" # ! $ $ $ + * # / * & $ * / # # # / $ & $ * * $ " ! &$ 7

I $ + / + # ! " !! " + " & " # 8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 C+ ? # )+ $ $ $ # 1 & # * " &F " *$ # $ / # 8 C' $ C $ C% $ # 0 $ $ ! + # $ & $ $ &$ " + 8 C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1 '=A

+ + )

C1 )+ 1 1

Subordinate clauses # $ * * * $$ $

+ + " ! $ 7 & "$ # *$ # + * ! $ $$ $ " " +03 " $ # + $$ 7 " & $ + *$ # # $ * # ! " ! $ 7 + & "$ * $ " "# # # " " $$ & & $ $ "$ /# + # " " 8 C' " )+ 1 C) " )+ ' 1

Vocabulary *$ # $ / $ * !& $$ # $ * * " $$ " " / # ! "# $ * # $$ * # $ $ + *$ # /# / $$ &$ / * $ + " & $ / # $$ "# $ / # / !! $ + &$ & " *$ # # & " # " # & * 0" $ "# * & " # / & $ # *$ # & " # " $ $ " $ 7 + ! * + # " * + / 7 ! $ / $$ ! # + +0" $ /# "# ! # ! + # ! # $$ & / + ! *$ # & # " # + & * 0" $ $ 8 ' + A % ' + ) % ' + ) % ' + . " ! $ $ hotal # ! $ ; $ + # *$ # & $ "$ " + Z furlong / " # " " ! & " # " /# + " / # # 7 crossing # roof + ! # & " * + # /#

* & 6 # / # # / 5 / / $$ # / ! & " 6N

'>(

+ + )

Culture + "# * " ! # E " + # " $ + # * " " !! + + # $ * * $ # &" # $ " + # "# + # / / $$ ! "# " " + $ + ! # *#& * " ! # + ! $ " $ / / # & " $" $ ! " " /# "# ! 0 # " / # # "

! # " $$ ; $ * "# ! 0 # $ " + ! + ! $ $ $

# $$3+ ! $ "$

Samples of Hindi and Urdu A passage of Hindi printed in the Nagari script

A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation ek

din begam saĂ&#x2026;habaĂ&#x2026; ke sir

menĂ&#x2021; dard hone lagaĂ&#x2026;

I * ! # & 36 # unhonĂ&#x2021;ne launĂ&#x2021;dĂľĂ&#x2026; se Ă&#x2021;

kahaĂ&#x2026; Âą jaĂ&#x2026;-kar

3& ! + ! bulaĂ&#x2026; laĂ&#x2026;.

kisĂľĂ&#x2026;

3& & *

5# *3*

hakĂľĂ&#x2026;m ke yahaĂ&#x2026;nĂ&#x2021; se

mirzaĂ&#x2026; saĂ&#x2026;hib ko

K # &

davaĂ&#x2026;

" $$ & * ! " 36 # + ! ! " laĂ&#x2026;enĂ&#x2021;.

daur , jaldĂľĂ&#x2026; kar.

Ă&#x2021; )# 1 ! 3& * # ! 6 mirzaĂ&#x2026;jĂľĂ&#x2026;

ne kahaĂ&#x2026; Âą cal

K F &

abhĂľĂ&#x2026;

launĂ&#x2021;dĂľĂ&#x2026; gayĂľĂ&#x2026; to Ă&#x2021;

/ #

aĂ&#x2026;te hainĂ&#x2021;.

begam

5 F 3 / )/ 1 " ! 6 * !

'>-

+ + ) saĂ&#x2026;habaĂ&#x2026; kaĂ&#x2026; mizaĂ&#x2026;j

garm thaĂ&#x2026;. itnĂľĂ&#x2026;

taĂ&#x2026;b

kahaĂ&#x2026;nĂ&#x2021;

# & 36 ! # / 3! "# " /# ki

unke sir

menĂ&#x2021; dard ho aur pati

# # # kheltaĂ&#x2026;

rahe.

shatranj

& # & "#

cehraĂ&#x2026; surkh ho gayaĂ&#x2026;. launĂ&#x2021;dĂľĂ&#x2026; se Ă&#x2021;

$ * ! 4 " & " ! kahaĂ&#x2026; Âą jaĂ&#x2026;-kar

kah, abhĂľĂ&#x2026;

+ !

calie,

nahĂľĂ&#x2026;nĂ&#x2021; to

5 *3* 55 3 / $ 3# !3* vah ap hĂľĂ&#x2026;

hakĂľĂ&#x2026;m ke yahaĂ&#x2026;nĂ&#x2021; jaĂ&#x2026;enĂ&#x2021;gĂľĂ&#x2026;.

# # " 36 # / $$ * 666

An idiomatic translation I * ! # & # # "# 5 " $$ K # & 6 # $ # ! 5 # ! * ! ! ! " + ! " 6 $ * # N6 2# # ! / # ! K F 5I++ * 6! F " ! * 6 * ! # & / + / " $

# / # # * # "# /# $ # # & / $ * "#

H + " E # # $ # ! * $$ # ! $

*# / # / # 6 * # " 6 # $+ )4 ! @ 9 & : ! B# 1

A passage of Urdu in Perso-Arabic calligraphy

A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation ab

savaĂ&#x2026;l

ye uthtaĂ&#x2026;

hai ki

agar vo

Ă&#x2021; / ; # * # + urduĂ&#x2026; vaĂ&#x2026;le

hindĂľĂ&#x2026; ke muta'alliq aur hindĂľĂ&#x2026; vaĂ&#x2026;le

/ $$ # 36 & socte

hainĂ&#x2021;, aur agar in

# * + '>'

sab kuch

thĂľĂ&#x2026;k hai jo

Ă&#x2021; # $$ ! # * *# /# "# urduĂ&#x2026; ke muta'alliq

/ $$ # 36 &

dononĂ&#x2021; zubaĂ&#x2026;nonĂ&#x2021;

kĂľĂ&#x2026; bunyaĂ&#x2026;d

masnuĂ&#x2026; ĂľĂ&#x2026;

# & # $ * * 36 + 0" $

+ + ) aur ghair-ÂŽtrĂľĂ&#x2026;

hai, to

phir is

kaĂ&#x2026; kyaĂ&#x2026;

sabab hai ki

dononĂ&#x2021;

$ # # 36 /# # # & # zubaĂ&#x2026;nonĂ&#x2021;

kĂľĂ&#x2026; din ba-din taraqqĂľĂ&#x2026;

rahĂľĂ&#x2026; hai aur in

kĂľĂ&#x2026;

$ * * 36 & 3 $ ! # 3 * # 36

maqbuĂ&#x2026;liyat avaĂ&#x2026;m men barh rahĂľĂ&#x2026; hai? Ă&#x2021; Ă&#x2021;

$ $

* / 3 * H

An idiomatic translation # ; / # + $$ # # # & # & " " # & + & # # $ * * 0" $ $ # /# # # & # $ * * $ * & # # $ ! * $ * / *H )4 ! 1 N 5J44 B # " $ $$1

'>=

Speakers of Dravidian languages: Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu !#

Distribution I O :I $ # + " ! Q ! # B && % # ! $3 * " !! ! # + # / $

Introduction + # &$ ! + " & + $ * * /# # $ *$ # # / # + # # $ * * 4 $ + # * ''?9'>= / $ * * **$ $ * * $ #% # ++ " $$ # # $ * ! # $ * 7 + ! # 3 $ * * + # &" # " *$ $

" !! / # *$ # # # $ * * + $ * * # + " !& + $ &$ ! /# $ * *$ # # "# $ / # # *$ # + ! $3 * $ & # ! * $$ $ + + # $ * *

Phonology Vowels # ! $ / $ ! " + 0 + # $ * / $ 8 <Ă&#x192;< <A<% <I< <I:<% <e< <e:<% <o< <o:<% <u< <u:< $$ # / $ # # * # *# $ / " 7 # / / $ <o< ) "$ # / $1 <o:< ) # $ * ; $ 1 # "$ " # *$ # # *# ! $ / $ "" " # # # * $ # / # # * 8 <aI< )$ # / $ 1 <aU< )$ # / $ 1 '>>

B !! &$ ! 8 - *$ # # # * & "" $ " ! $ " / # / $ / # $ *$

<pe(y)int< <pĂ&#x192;(w)Und< ' Q / $ ! & # $ * # "" " / # " $ "# 3 " $$ 54 / $ 6 " <phUÂŚvĂ&#x192;r;ÂŚ<% " !! $ " <UedZI``e8bu;< = 0 " $$ +0" $ * # " # / $ /# "# # "$ ! $ ; $3 % # / $ ! $ & " + / # #

Consonants - ! $ " " $$ & " / # E 7 9 #

/ # # + + # * " $ & " "# # + # # $ # + 3 ! + + 5 "" 6 & " $ $ * ! $ ' $ * * # " # !

# *$ # $ <p< <t< <k< /# "# ! $$ # + $ " " " $ % # " $$ & E 7 " ! # <b< <d< <g< " $ # * + 7 ! $ = # + ! $ *$ # " & / " "

) * <b d g z<1 # " ; $ ) * <p t k s<1 #

" ! $ /# $$ " " & " " # $ " &$ " + > ! $ " 5* ! 6 &$ " # 5 *$ 6 " ! & + $$ " / " ) + / " $ 1 B *$ # # " # $ ! $ # . <T< <D< " * +0" $ " # 7 ! ! $ ; $ $ # # $ 6 " ! " ! "$ <t< <d< , # <z< ! $% ! $ ? # <f< ! $% $ ! " *$ # <f< <p< $ * " + & / + 7 ! $ @ <Z< 7 ! $ <S< & / "#

A 4 $ $ " # $ " 4 $ <ĂŞ< * ! <ĂŞg<8 5 6 '>.

-( # ! " *$ # " & / $ 5"$ 6 <l< 0 $ 5 6 <l< +0" $ + ! $ % ! $ # + ++ " # & # * # # /

Syllable structure; consonant clusters ! $ # + ! " "$ # + " ! $3 * $ # &$ / # #

" + *$ # / ! $ / $$ " $ ! / <U< # + ! *$ # / + " $ "

Stress and rhythm # &$ ! $ * $ ! $ # + + # # $ * * # / 8 - ! $ # "

/# "# * $ $$ &$

/ # $ * / $ "$ $$ &$ * * ! " 3 & #

' /# # $ *$ # $ * $ + ! * / 7

! " "# / #

" # #! ! *

Morphology and syntax General ! $ ! # $ * 5 **$ *6 5" " *6 # * !! " $ ! " $ ! 5 " 6 ; "

+07 / !8 [azhitta:rgal.]

9 +07 9 $ $ +07 Q $ # + 5/ 6 # + # # ! ! $ *$ #8 ! $ / ! " $ ! # *$ # / $ & 7

& $ ++ / & $ * * ++ +

"# # & & / + "# # ! $

! /# E ! $ ! # " &$ +0" $ '>,

* * " " " # " !! $ " # * !! + 3 $ * * "# " ! $ 73 $ F " & % * # / /# "# *$ # / " "$ "

Word order and sentence structure 0 " ! 0 $ ! )& 5 $ 6 & $ /1 Q &

" ! # + ! $ " ! & " 7 $ /# "# " $ & * ! ! ! $ " " & + ! / # 0 & / # 7

&F " &F " # ! " $ $ + " + ! $ " + * " + * * " /# 3 * " ) # 7 # + # "# + 7 ! $ 1 $$ + # + ! & E " $ 6 *$ #

Complex sentences B ! $ ! "$ " ! "$ ! $ $ # "# " 3 " " /# "# & 7

& " F " *$ # ! & " # / ! $

7 ! # + $/ ! # $ #

7 $ " B $ " " " $ &$ ! " & / 0 30 + ! $/ "$ 3 " ! $ " # / " ! $ 7 $ # 0 & ! % $$ # & / $$ " $ 3$ + ! ! " # *$ # * + ! + 0 &

& "$

Indirect speech *$ # " "# " ++ + ! # ! $ ; $ $ ! 0 # ! +0" $ *

Relatives ! $ # $ # ! $ ; $ + *$ # $ " $ * "$ & + # ) # $ + 5 # 6 5 6 + 5 # 6 5 61 '>?

# + 0 *$ # $ " +0" $ ! * # !

Interrogatives and negatives 0 # *$ # + 7 $ + ; * / + ; # $ )D ! ! $ & * "$ 1 D * ! & $ " & *$ * ! 8 - " (

Tenses ! $ # " ! $ 7 ! + / # ! * # $/ " "$ $ # + # *$ # ; $ 4 7 ! $ # 5+ 6 " 7

# & $ " F " / # ! * # # * C% % $ )+ ' % % 1 C/ # $ )+ / # $1 C % $ )+ % % 1

Articles ! $ $ " /# / " $$ "$ # *# ! / " * ! + # + *$ # "$ : " &$ $ 0 # "$ ! +0" $ " $ ! $ * + , $ * 7" ! ! # " " 7

Emphatic and reflexive pronouns ! $ # ! # " E 7 ! $ * $ # *$ # ; $ C' $ C % $ C% $ C $ C+ " $ '>@

Adjectives and adverbs # ! & " + / # "# # / # & ) ! & + "#1 ! $ 7

" ! $ ! * & " $ "$ & "# * # F " F " & " $$ + ! #

Hierarchy and honorifics ! $ # $ * " " + " * # $ +

# ! + $ / * # / # *$ # !

! # # !

* ! # *

Speech and writing # * & / # / * $$ $ * * # ! $ $ + 3 $ & 3+ ! $ $ / *$ #

A literal translation of a Tamil text, with a normal English gloss This one man-of one day-of (adj.) living.

# + ! 6 $ *

You (hon.) having-dared-being-if having-done-being-able small-nesses,

# ! *# # " !! + # compel-being-forced-being-if having-shown-being-able daring,

# * ! *# # $ + # & + " having-wished-being-if having-received-being-able diseases,

# ! *# # * + #

having-touched/taken-being-if attained-being-possible disrepute/shame,

# # ! ! *# # "# + # $$ / $+ & "# these-indeed that-man life.

# # ! 6 $ + '>A

+ That-man-that next day (acc.) about we knowing taking need-not.

# + 0 & # 7

Why-asked-if that-man-to-also Âą us-among many-to like-indeed Âą

" + # ! 9 + ! ! * 9 tomorrow different-one day-indeed!

! / #

) * F 1

Reference # ! #! ) B & : "# -A@A

'.(

Speakers of West African languages :# $ * *

Introduction # $ * * + 2 + " ! + $ * $ $ * 2 # "# ! ++ ! # *

+ $ # ! $$ ; $$ 3 * &$ # /# "# # "# ! / # * # ! # $ " / $ / $$ & + " * $ * * $ / # ! $$ ! # & / / $$ 4 ! *$ # $ * * "# * + / ! + $ "$

+ # + 2 + " "" * # +0" $ " $ * * ) *$ # 4 "#1 # " $ * * # $ * * + * ! $ * 7 + " &F " $ " $ $ " $ # ! ! + * / * + " $ " 4 "# " $ $ *$ # " !! * * + / ! # + # ! # * 4 # # "# " + *$ # 4 "# +0" $ " $ * * # * E " *$ # "# * ! $ ! # # # ! # * + $ "# $ * + # $ + $ ! " $ + / / + *$ # $$ # /# # # $ ! " ! *$ # $ "" $$ / # $ $ ! " ! " # # *#$ " $ "

$ # # ! ! $ ! 7" #

/ # + * *$ # " $ "# *$ # " # / $ " + * ! 7 $ * * $ " * " * " ! " $$ * *$ # *$ & ! 2 + " $$ " $ # $ $ +0" $ " * / $$ & " # # *# / $$ & E " ! + # + + " * !! & + ) # ! "# + #

+ / * + ! $$ * /# "# # " 1 # *$ # + 2 + " "$ * # !& ) $$ + ! # " $ 1 $ & '.-

+ ' )

/# "# # # " $ $ / / # # B ! *$ # # # ; $ / # 4 "# & " " $ / + 0 " ) & '. " + # $ 1 *$ # # + " # ) + ! B ! 1 " ! $ * B# * $ # B 4 * # " ! # / * 4 "# E " *$ # $ & ! # $ * * &

/ # 4 "# "" # *$ # + " # " " # /# $ + 2 + " 7" + 3

& " $ 7" ! 7 + $ * ! * $ ! " $ "# E # &3 # # ! ! + # ! # * *$ # 2 + " ) + ! *$ # & 1 + $$ / 8 . / 8 4 $ # # P & # #/ & # # & &$ # ! ! # *#$ $ + $$ 2 + " $ * * # & *$ E 3 " & & " # $ * $ & # / /# # " & ! ! * $ *$ # . B 8 # * + $ * * )! $ / 4 1 # # # # + "" / ) $$ " 1 # # *& # # # . + * 8 $ $ *$ # 4 / & ! $ O # / ! # # # )G * 1 # # . B 8 2 $ + # . * 8 $ $ *$ # & ! $ + # $ * * $ # *# # E " + # ! 0 " $ * *

&$ $ & " $ 2 + " &$ !

+ $ /# # *$ # * ! $ # &$ ! ! & $ # + " + " & +

# " !! ! 2 + " $ * * "# $ " ! $ ! $ / $ ! $ $ # $ ! + + " + *$ # $ " !! " $ $ + # * $ $ " $ $ * # /# "# ) " $$ # + ! 1 ! # # "$ + 2 + " *$ # "# *

'.'

+ ' )

Phonology General 2 + " $ * * # + / / $ # *$ # + / 0 $ " " "$ # ! *$ # / $ ++ & 2 + " ! ! 0 $ " " ! 2 + " $ * *

& # $ $$ &$ 3 ! # + * 2 + " *$ # F

& # ! * )/ # $$ * $

$$ &$ ! "# + ! # 1 )/ # / & ! "# $$ 1

Vowels - <i:< <I< + " $ & # & * " #

! ! + # " + / # <eI<8 + ! !

' <e< and <z:< + " $8 # <z:< # ! " " $ &$ ! ! & + # " + / # <A:<8 = <{< <A:< <Ă&#x192;< " + 8 ! <{< <Ă&#x192;< " + / # <e<8 / # > <O< <O:< <@U< " + 8 . <U< " + / # <u:<8 , <@< $ <z:< " * +0" $ $ $+ & $ )! " $$ 1 & " 2 + " * $$ / # / $ +

$$ &$ $ # " *$ # / # $ ! * "$ ++ " + 7 ! $ & / " # 0 0 "$ " 7 ! $ <A:< <de< * " <A:< ? " ! / $ $ * # $$ / $ & " # # " # " + & / " " $

Consonants - <T< <D< $$ pronounced <d< <t<8 + % + % + " ' <ĂŞ< " !! $ " <n< <ĂŞg<8 ĂŞ + = ! <l< <r< " + 8 + # ! '.=

+ ' )

& / " + & / + 7 ! $ % " > Q " 0 $ " & " # " * / $

# 8 + % + % + % + " . B "$ " +0" $ " $$ /# 0 $ /#

! " & ! 8 + # % + % + " , 4 $ "$ "# " " " $ &$ ! # ! + +0" $ "" F " 4 # # + * $ " 3

# " + " "# /# "# # " ! 3 # ! # "" / $ "

Influence of spelling on pronunciation # $ & ! / $ # # $ & " / " !! $ * # + $$ + ! ! $ & # $$ * ! $ & # E " + $$ * # " "# / & " / # <ยก< <O:< + <ร < : " + $ $ ++ " $$ * + " " $$ + $$ / * # ""

+ $ + " ! # "# * ! "# $ 8 % % "

Rhythm and stress 2 + " $ * * " $$ $$ &$ 3 ! /# "# *$ ++ " # # #! + 2 + " *$ #

3 ! "#

$$ + ! $ B

% did I green red ( $ " $

Intonation 2 + " $ * * " $$ $ "# $ 7 " $ ! + *$ $$ &$ / $$ # 07 ; " + " + " 7 # # " " + " $ $ * /# $ " & * " &$ + + # + ! # ; * # + 2 + " *$ #

$ * $ $ ! + , ; + / # #

" 0 $ + $$ + ! 3; I # '.>

+ ' )

$ # 7" ! * # # *#$ " + # +0" $ /# + " ! / # 07 # & 0 *$ # " " $! !

&$ * # # *$ # # " + # !

Punctuation # # # # # / $$ + " + ! " !! + " " $ & + "#8 C1 " I # " !! ! * + " $ " !! & / " ! $ " ) + " " $ $ / # " 1 + " " 0 2 + "

Grammar General / $ & +0" $ + " $ ! $ + $ * $ & # * !! + 2 + " $ * * & "# + *$ # 2 + " ; " $ " # " " + " + ! # + $$ / * $ " / # *# # $ & ! # * + " $/

"$ * $ " $ +

Verbs - # * $ * # + 7 $ # ! $ " + ; &$ ! 8 C+ ? " $ C1 $ C1 ' " !! /# & # " + " F "3 8 C% $ C1 $ ? , ; " ! $ 8 C " ( = # 0 + ! + " &$ ! 8 '..

+ ' )

. ,

C1 $ C1 $ C% B# " + + ! " ! &$ ! : 3 *

+ ! ! & / *$ $ " / # " + * 8 C% $ C% $ C% # + " + ; $ ! 8 C% $ C% 5=J4 # + " * $$ & $ " + 8 C% $ N $+ + # + # & $ " 8 C )+ 1 % % ) * % * % 1 & /# # " " + ! % / $ & !

Modal verbs $ & $ + ! + $ / $$ # /# $ # *# ! " ) * , , 1 / $$ 8 & & # 7 + 8 C% % # $ C/ $ / + + $$ / & 8 C-

Nouns, articles and determiners - # ++ " & / " &$ " &$ / $$ ! " &$ / *$ "$

0 8 C' $ C1 ! $ ! "" / # # 8 * ; ' I # ! / # "$ ! ! & $ " 3 & $ 8 '.,

+ ' )

= >

C ) ! + ! $ " $ & 1 C $ C1 + + "" + * 8 C% # 0 "$ + / *$ ! / # ! $ 8 C & ( C1 < @ $ C + ) 1 7

+ ; + ! * 8 C $ C- " % $ C% * $ " + # * ++ " + ! * 8 C $ CB $ C ; "

Intensification and comparison -

! & " + / # 8 C 0 C1 ' ? + 8 C " = + + $ + ! $ 3 ! # " $ ! 8 C% > B ! ! & + + ! 8 C )+ ; 1

Pronouns - 1 + + # ! + ! $ + ! $ 8 C% ' E 7 + + 8 C = " / * # " ) '.?

+ ' )

# # " " 1 ++ / " ! $

"$ # $ + /

Subordinate clauses + ! " $ " " &$ ! 8 C% % " C% " $

( # # ! $ + ! &$ ! " !! $ " " $ + + * # + 8 C%

' ; " + $ " "# / $$ 8 C2 $ C% $ C% " ; * # + ! " 8 C% $ C1 "

"$ & + $$ / & # ! "$ % "$ " / +0" $ 8 C) " % $ C1 " % $

$ "$ " !! $ " &$ ! " $$ # + 8 C % $

'.@

+ ' )

Vocabulary and culture 2# *$ # " $ * * + * $ * * & " ! ! 7 # + # 3 %

# # / E " # # / " $ + " # ! $ # + # " $$ # " + # "# "$ ! / $ # *$ # # + " ! # 2 + " " *$ # #

$ & " "# " " / % " " & $ * $ 7

" ! * $ + * !! % ! "# / $$ 0 +0" $ " * # / + * 5" " *6 " + ! # ! " + ! # # ! # $ + 7 ! $ "" % 1 )+ 1 1% ' % " $$ + /# "# " !! $ 2 + " *$ #H # $ " # * + + ! $ $ / * * * /# "# * 2 + " " $ H "# ;

! # *#$ & &$ 2 + " $ * * "# & " $ + $ * + " " ; " & $ " *$ # &

* ! # ! + ! & +

&$ # * + 0" & * # + $ " ! $ * + " $ $+3 ! ! 3 $ / " / # 7"

+ # " "# & " " B# " + &$ 0" + " + $$ + ! $ / # &F " / " + ! #

+ / / # " 0" + $

&$ # " # 7 " # -A.( + * $ + " $ *$ # **

&$ $ & # $ * * + ! "# + +0" $ F " $ $ # "

! ! " $

'.A

Swahili speakers $$

Distribution U O P IU D B ! ! $ / I! U !&

Introduction / # $ # ! ! $ * * + " / # $ ,( ! $$ I $ ! / # $ # ! # * 8 ! " # + # $ * * / # $ # $ $ * * + K + # + + " $ $ * * + U # +0" $ $ * * + O $ ! $ ! 7 B $ + " /# / $ & # $ " $ $ & " * !& + / # * / * $ " "# " # / # $ / ! * * $ * * $ # # " # & &$ * + ! # O $ # $ * * & # / # + " " # # ! / # $ " ! + ! # & " / sawaĂ&#x2026;h il ! * # $ * * " !& + / + & " * / # $ * *

$$ + " / # $ & $ * # + ! $ + $ * * /# "# & ! + " # + $ / *#$ + ! $ B ! # / / # # + Q " % + ! # + Q " "

! $ / # $ " ! $ $ " $ + $ * * ) & $ /1 & # ! / $ $ * * &$ " + " # / # # # $ * * $$ # ! * " $ ! # $ 3 * " $ "# " " " + # ! + ! + # & 3 ! & / # $ # "# ! & $ # $ * * $ * * # # + $$ / * "# " " 8 ',(

- / $ * * $! $$ + !

" + 07 $ ! # 07 / $$ " ! " * /# "$

# 8 mtu G watu G kiko G viko G # !& + "$

$ *# $ + ! $ * * # / # $ # ! 0+ "$

# + / # ! # $ * * ' @ $ * * # ! # " # # / # " & *# " " $ $ # / # # & ! + +07 " $$ / 7 ! $ + / # $ / $$ +0" 8 Kisu kile kikubwa kimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $ Visu vile vikubwa vimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $ = ) $$ $ * * # **$ * ! # 3 $ * " $ " )/ ! " * !! " $ "$ 1 / # $ 7 ! $ 8 wameshindwa wa G me G < " ! shinda G ! + # & kushinda ; w G

)! * ; 1 > + $ * * # ! $ !8 9 $ * * $8 # / $ $$ & + ! ! $ " + / # $ 9 :# ! " $$ # $ * * $ ! &$ ! $ + # ! # # ! 0 / $ # ! ) & $ /1 # # * # " ! $ ! $ 7" # ! + # # $ * * # & /

! O# 5"$ " 6 / # $ # & / ! & " + / + & " * # # ! + # $ 0 * "# " " + $ * * / $$ & # # ! ++ " & / / # $ # # $ * * $ # + / / + & " * #

& / * # / # ! " $ " + $ # ! $$ !& + "$

# " $$ # " / # $ ! & * " $ $ * * # " !!

# + $$ / & / # $ 6 +0" $ $ * *$ # / $$ # + & $ " &$ $ * 7 + # $ * * / $$ ',-

Phonology General # ! ++ " & / / # $ *$ # + $$ / 8 9 / # $ # $ 0 / $ " # '' + *$ # 9 *$ # # '> " % / # $ # '@ 9 / # $ "# $ / $ / # " "

$$ " "$ 9 / # $ $$ " $$ &$ / $ 9 # / $ * * # ++ ! + /

9 # ! /# ++

Vowels # / $ # & ** *$ &$ ! + / # $

$ * *$ # # 0 / $ + / # $ + $$ / 8 ) ,i< # $ *# $ # *# # # ; $ ,e< *$ # <u< ,a< # # # *# + # + / #

*$ # ; $ ,o< # ! /# & / # *$ # <ยก< <@U< Q $$ $$ *$ # / $ # # * ! # + " &$ ! # " + / # $ $ # / # $

# # " & * # * *$ # # &$ ! " ! & # $ ! $ * # 3 * # + *$ # # &$ ! ! & !! " $ & # * !8

','

/ # $ # !

<i<

<e<

<a<

<o< <u<

*$ # # ! ) :1 <i:< <I < <I@< <eI< <e< <e@< <ร < <{ < <z: < <A:< <aU< <aI< <ยก< <O:< <@U< <OI< <U< <U@< <u:<

O /

# # & 4 + + # * ! & # )+ * $ ! " 1 : $ ! Z )-A,?1

# *$ # # ! <@< ! + ! # * ! # ; $ / # $ ; " $ " " / # $

* # $ ! *$ ! $ & # # * # " !& $ # * ! *# & 3 " <{geIn< " 0" " " * +0" $ "$ 8 ,i:< <I<

,{< <e< ,{< <ร < ,{< <A:< ,A:< <ร < ,I< <e<

,z:< <ร < ,e< <z:<

,ยก< <O:< <@U< ,e< <eI< ,U< <u:<

,{< <z:< ',=

Consonants $$ # *$ # " # # *# ; $ / # $ 7" <r< /# "# / # $ $ $ $$ $ $$ " # <r<. # " ! + $ " " $ / # $ /# "# " " &$ ! # $ " &$ # ! $ & E " # 6 *$ # + ! # # 0 $ * * + # / # $ : " &$ &$ ! "$ 8 - <l< <r< + " + & # /# / # $ " # $ * * 8 + $ '. <h< ! ! 8 + = <T< <D< "" / # $ / + ! & " & # $ * * "# / ! $ " 8 # <t< <s< ! & + <T< <d< <z< + <D<8 + % + " > # + $$ / * " ! ! $ " + / # $ # $ * * " + " 8 ,g< <k<8

,b< <p<8 ,dZ< <tS<8 <t< <d<8 . <s< $ " <S< ! $ " + / # $ /# "# " " *$ #8 + , U / # $ # $ * * <g< " <k< <z< <s<8 + + $ ? $ U / # $ <d< <l< ! & +

! <l< <r<% ! ! <b< <w<

Syllabic intrusion and addition B "$ ! "# / # $ # *$ # / # $ # + # " "$ / # 5 6 / $ / # $ 7 / $ " * " 8 ,ekIsplaneISon< + # ,sItIrenITI< +

Influence of spelling on pronunciation " # * $ " " & / # * # "

!& $ / # $ # / $ $ ! $ & # * 3 $ + *$ # $$ * # &$ ! + $ " &$ 8 ',>

- $ $ ! & " * $ ' " " $ / $$ &

* / # $ $ * + + "

Rhythm and stress / # $ $$ &$ 3 ! $ * * /# *$ #

3 ! $ * * " ; " / # $ * $$ &$ *$ # $! ; $

2 + ! *$ # &

! & * # * " / # $ " !! / # $$ # $ * *

# $ ! $$ &$ + / B *$ # # " $ / $ ' " ' " ' "

Intonation / # $ # " $ $ / + $$ /# "# " *$ # /# *$ # $ $/ "$ + / # $ + 7 ! $ * ; *$ #

Grammar General 4 ! # " + $ * * & / $$ $ & # # " $ ++ " & / # * !! " $

! + *$ # / # $ # "$

! !3 " **$ # $ & + / # $ $ # !& + 7 ! $ " ! " $ E " $ " + * $$ * * + * !! " $ ! * Aliweka kalamu mezani. )G 1 C D 1 A

* !

weka

kalamu

meza

! $ &8 8 8 $ " ! !

',.

/ # $ # # * ; $ # *$ # 7 $ &

! + * ; " * ! $ " / # $ # "$ # * ! * *$ # # 7 " ; $ / # $ /# "# $ " + ! "# # # 7 ! $ & )mezani1

" " + ! $ 3 $ E "

"$ 2 9 3Q3I 3Q3 I3I 9 ! $

# ! )

! & ; 1 & / # $ $$ $ * * " $ ! # $ / + " + * & *$ #

Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7 $ # ; $ / # $ # + & ! ! 8 C1 $ C1 ( C' ( ' ! ! "

$ 8 C? % % $ = - , ; ! $ & "# * + # * # " $$ & # ; ! 8 C ( > D / # ; / + $$ / # # 5 ! J * 6 # 5 * J ! 68 C1 ( C' ( . / & "# * &$ 8 C1 ; $ C $ ) $ # " 5 "$ ! 6 1

Time and tense ! " & # + $$ / * ! ) 07 18 - 3na38 : !

Watoto wanasoma )G

$ , 1 / # $ & $ ++ & / *

! $ # / # " + *$ #8 C $

',,

$ ++ " & + " 3" "$ & "# " " 8 C% $ C% $ # " !! # !

+ # 3 # # * $ + ! + # ! $ 8 C $ & "$ -na- " $ & ! " # ! # " 7 2# " *$ # #

$ ! " "#8 C $ C. $ ' -li-8 : !

Nilikwenda mjini jana )G % 1 / $$ & & # # ! + # & 9 # " kwenda 9 ! "# * # $ /# " *$ #8 C% $ ! ! # 7 $ ; $ # ! -li- "

7 $ 8 C% $ I # &$ ! * # ! $ *$ # "$ 8 9 + # * $ +07 + * $ & 8 C + C + " 9 E " * ; * + ! 8 C ( C $ 9 * # ! $ + # + " 8 C' # )+ ' # 1 9 * # ! $ + # + " /# "# 7 / # $ 8 C D 1 / $ 9 * # + # + # 5 $ 68 C- $ C% $ : &$ ! $ + ! # + & " -ka-8 Nilikwenda mjini nikamwona Moyo )G % " % & 1 # 07 -ka- " # " + $$ / # + ; " + " ! + # " *$ # $ + # / $$ # # !

+ # " F " $ $ # + $ " !! " /

',?

" 2# ! & " " + ! $ # ! & # / ! / # $ 7 *$ #8 C% % $ = -ta38 4 ) $ # ! + + " 1 Nitakwenda mjini kesho )G % 1 # , + + ! & *$ # " ; $ + # 07 -ta- "$ * "" /# # + + ! *$ #8 C $ CN " $ # -ta- 07 $ / # $ " 7 # *$ # ; 8 C% $ C& # $ # # # ! # ! "#

# $ & # / # $ " * "# $ # *$ # 8 C1 " % )+ 1 # 1 # # " !! / $$ # "# * + ! $$ $ + " $ + ! / # $

Aspect * &$ " $ ! & + ! ! # " $ !& + &$ ! # $ * * / # $ ++ ! " # / " 3 $ ! * # ! 8 - -me- # 07 " " # # & " ! $ # $ + /# "# $$ $ # ! & $$ $ + # + " *$ #8 Wanangu wameÂŽka )G & 1 / " 7 " $ / # # *$ # * 8 Chumba kimechafuka )G 1 Tumesikia )G ' $ , ' 1 # ! "" + / # $ "" $$ * # + " + # ! $ "# " 7 B $ / # $ + ; $ + $ # + " " $ 1 5=J4 # / # $ " # -na- 078 C1 5=J4$ ',@

# " !! # " + + 8 C1 # 1 # $ ' -ki- " / # # -me- 07 # -ki- 07 " " # * ! $ $ / # # " & " ! $ 8 Tuliwaona watoto wakisoma )$ ' 1 ! ! $$ $ " " *$ # $

"# 8 C $ C1 $ C1 )/# ! & ! " # + # -ki- 071 -ki- $ " $ ! 8 Mungu akipenda )G % B 1 " # ; $ *$ # / # $ ! + ++ " $ "$ " $ !

"$ 8 C% % % & $ C% % " % & $ C% % " % & $

Modal verbs $ $$ 7

& ! + & E " !& + ! "$ *8 9 # + + 8 C) $ 9 4 $ " " 8 C% $

Other verb forms - # & $ + ! / # $ # ! # 0 + ! # $ ! &$ ! 8 C $ C )+ 1 C $ ' Q & # *$ # ! & / # $ 8 C) $ C+ " $ ',A

= Q & + # & $ / # $ ! & + $$ / & & / # * E " 8 C1 $ C1 $ > / # $ & ! & + #

& ! + E " 8 kupiga G kupigwa G # / # $ " ++ + ! *$ # # ! &$ ! 8 C) $ C. $ C $ . D * " !! $ ! / # $ # ! $ * sivyo? )G (18 C- " ( , / * ; " $ $ " ! $ & 3 / " !! " # / # $ / ndiyo siyo + *#$ $ "" $ # * $

8 % C D # / * ; ! *# & ! $ *8 + ( - $ )G - " % 1

Non-verb sentences # " !! / # $ * $ " ! ! & ! $ " 8 Kikapu kiko jikoni )$ O O O O , 1 Q $ I+ # / # J 0 " $

" 8 C $ $ C $ ? $

Miscellaneous $$ # + $$ / * & &$ / # $ + " 8 C% $ C% % $ C@ )+ 1 C% $ ' $ '?(

Articles and determiners # 0 0 "$ $ * * # ! &$ ! $ 8 - # !

+ "$ 8 C' % ( ' # + # / * "$ 8 C9 $ = B + + 8 C $ > + # 0 "$ / # 8 C 9 / C< $ B !! / # # ! "$ 8 - B + + , , 8 C " $ ' + + 8 C) & $ = B + + , , 8 C+ $ C $ > B + + 8 C , $ . B + + 8 C1 ( 1 $

Nouns $ * * "$

! ++ + ! *$ # # ! &$ ! "$ *8 9 + " &$ 8 C " ; " " " " 9 * $ $ & + ! / # * $ 8 C $ 9 * $ $ # * $ 8 C " " 9 4 $ ! + # 3 * /# "# 7 / # $ 8 C

9 B + + F " ) + # *# + $ # $ * 18 , " , "

'?-

Pronouns # & ** *$ &$ ! # + $ * # & / ! " 3 $ + ! + ! /# "# ! / # $ # $ * * 8 C+ $ # ! F &$ ! # + + + / # $ 8 C! $ C1 ( # $ # ; ! ! ! # &F " 07 $ * "# 8 C% $ ! # " + ! ! ! $ 8 C& % $ C& & $

Adjectives and adverbs F " " + $$ / # / # $ # + F " *$ # " " &$ ! # ! &$ !

" ! $ 7 F " $ $ * " ! 8 Mtoto wangu ni mrefu sawa na wako )G & 1 # E " + " ! $ + ! /# "#

* $$ & / $ kuliko kupita # $ ! 8 C ) # 0 sana # ; $ + 1 C $ C1 % $ C $ + ! # +0" $ / # & "$ & $ / # &$ ! / # & "$ 8 - I!

+ & 8 ) ( % $ ) ! 1 C% % $ ' 4 $ " ! " " / # F " 8 C $ C% = 4 $ & + ! 8 C $ I # ! $ "$ " )+ 1 ; )+ ; 1 & * "# * &$ '?'

Prepositions and particles # ! / # $ ++ + ! *$ # # 3 + " * &$ ! - I!

8 C+ # # $ C1 $ C+ ' + "

8 C ; $ C' ( = + " " I ! F &$ ! # / # $ #

$ " +07 )ni1 # ! * + /# "# "" * # " 7 $ *$ # + $ " $ $ & " + 8 mezani )G " " " " 1 nyumbani )G " " " " 1 mwituni )G " " " " " " 1 # # &$ ! + # ! * 0" & * # ! $ 3 katika /# "# " ! " " " " " $ # # ! " # ! $ 3 kwa /# "# " ! " " " " " 8 kwa miguu )G 1 kwa kisu )G 1 ! * # ! " !! 8 C C C C * C

C C C C $$ *$ # # $ & $ $ " &$ ! # ; $ $ * * # 5 $ & 6 /# "# & E " 7

/ & $ + $ # #

! / " ! &$ & " " / # # $ & $ "$ *$ # $ 8 C $ I # & * "

"$ 8 C $ C' $ '?=

Subordinate clauses # ; $ + # *$ # $ / # $ # " " amba /# "# E " # / " " $ * ! 8 Hiki ni kikapu ambacho nilikinunua )G 1 % 1 I + + # " # # & "$ "$ # &F " 07 -ki- # # $ $ $ + # "

% # "$ + # &F " &F " " ; $ " !! 8 C % $ C * P $ C % $

)

# ! " F " / # $ na )G 1 /# "# ! $ " " # $ " !! " 3 * " F "

"# juu ya hayo )G

1 kwa hivyo )G 1 # ; $ *$ # " " " # # " F " # $ " $ 8 C+ $ C # $ C+ # $ ? $ C1 $ : + & " $ " &$ ! # $$3 0 sana $ " $ *$ # " "

$ 8 C % $ C % $ # ; $ + )ingawa1 )lakini1 & # " "

" 8 C) $ C " $

Vocabulary # + $$ / * & " + ! # & " # "# # $ ; $ / # $ & " + ! " $ + # 8 '?>

, , ,

, , , , , , C D , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

, , , , , ,

, , , , ,

, # + $$ / * 7 ! $ + + " ! " *$ # " !! # *# ! + * &$ "" & $ 8 $ $ $ )G 1 $ $ $ )G $ $ $1 )G 1 ) &1 * % & )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1

Culture /# # *# + " / $$ * # # $ "# # / $ + # "# ! ! ! $ # # 0 # ! ! # "# + " " ! $ $ / * + " & $ * 8 # ! / $$ # / $ + " $ * * ) $$ + # ! 1 & + # $ *$ # # ""

$ * *$ # '?.

* # ! +0" $ ; ! &$ # * "# /# # "# + " / $ / $$ ! !& # + $$ / * 8 - # * "# $ * $ + & # # " $ + # # " + $ * * + + $$ / ! !& + ++ + ! # !

# 7 $ # / $$ & # ! "# ! / $" ! * + * $+ $ * $ /# # ! $ " $ $ * * F &$ # $ "# ! ++ " $ & $$ # $ + ! / #/# $ $ # / # $ + ! # # " ' 4 ; " $

&$ & $ " $ ; " 3 $ $ # / $ * "# # $ + "# # " ! $ / / $ + $ # & + "" / # # F & # & # & & " $ + " 4 7 ! $ # / $ & " $ " 8 5 $$ & # ! &$ 2# H6 "# # ! + " + # ! &$ # & *

! + # / $ "$ * + " # $ "# & "# / $ & ! ++ "# " / # ; & # 6 # $ # + ! $ " ! # # / $$ = * ! ! "" &$ " " ! + " " 4 7 ! $ ! + " " * * / # * # #

* K ! & # *# ++ I # # # # * # ! "# ! " !! # / # ! /# ! + $ + 0 * * # $ & " $ $ # " $ 5" ! # 6 & " * / # # + 0 * > /# / # / * ! $ " + ! $ 7 " # $ $/ & / $" ! ! # /

* 6 * * ! # ! $ 7 $ /# * + $ $ # *# # $ & # ! + " " * 7 " ! . 4 & $ " $

I # " $ ! * " # $ & " * ++ " 4 7 ! $ / ! # $

" + $$ ! $ * # $ & &$ " 7 " ! " # " !! & $ + ! * * ! $ # " $

" + ! $ # + + $

I+ # / # # ++ " 7" + ! $ "" # $$ " + $ & # # 0 $ '?,

"" &$ + / " &$ K # " $$ + &

A sample of written Swahili with a word-for-word translation Hapo kale

paka hakukaa

katika nyumba za watu; alikaa

+ ! $ " $ " # + ! % # mwituni au maguguni tu.

+ & # wakatembea

Paka mmoja alikuwa raÂŽki

$ B

pamoja, na

ya sungura

# / + + #

paka akastaajabia

werevu

# / * # " # ! "$

+ raÂŽki

yake; lakini siku moja funo

akagombana

+ # % & # * * # / # sungura akamwua

kwa pembe zake. Sasa kwa kuwa raÂŽki

# # ! $$ / # # # # +

& +

yake amekufa paka akafuatana na yule funo # # " # "" ! / # # ) # 1

An idiomatic translation $ * ! * # " $ ! 6 # 8 # $ $ # + # & # " " / # + + # / & / # # !% # " ! # "$

+ # + & ; $$ / # # # $$ # ! / # # + # # " # + / # " & * * " ! / # # )4 ! ) % * * ) & : $ 7 1

Acknowledgement # # / $ $ # $3 # # + # B + + " * * * + # " !! $ + + #

'??

Bibliography $ 7 : )-A?'1 ) % * * ) $ & 4 #/ :

! " $ # I )-A>> -= # !

-A,,1 + B 8 *! & * )-A,, ' 1 * ) # * 8 "# )-A@-1 + * $ & B ! & $$ 8 $ * O * : $

$$ Q : )-AA,1 - + 8 *# 2# $ 2 $+ )-A,A1 + C D 8 #

'?@

Malay/Indonesian speakers P P *

Distribution : B I4 I 4 I I4 P : B I4 :I I4 % # / " +

# ! " + # $ * "# $ * + ! $ 3& " $ + $ ! * # * $$ B# 3

* # & + # $ $ ! + + ! # $ & $ + B# !

$ # B " $ # I"

Introduction # $ $ < ) < 1 $ * * & $ * # / * + $ * * + $ +0" $ $ * * + # " 8 $ * 3 ! + + ! $ $ 7

& * $ & +0" $ & # " $ $ ! + " !! " + ! $ " $ * ! + $ # / " % + " ! " # $ # " $ +

$ " !! " / $$ $ / * " !! $ $ < " " # *$ $ * * $ / "$ $ $ $ * * ! ! ++ " & / # / $ 7 " " * !! " $ "# " + + " * # 3 + ! ! $$ $$ * &$

"# $ $ & # " # $ * " &$ ! # ! " $ * * # *$ # $ * * ; ! $

'?A

& ,%

Phonology General # $ < *$ # # $ * " $ ! ++ *$ # # '' / $ # # * '> " # $ 7 / $ <i e a @ o u< # # # * /# $ $ # $ # / $ <E O z< + "

< # -A " ) & " *$ # $

<f v T D S z x [< # &

! $ #

! + ! < * * ! $ 7 *

# $ * * 1 ! + # + + < /# "# * 5 $ < "" 6 *$ # " & $ /

Vowels

{

eI aI OI

A: ยก

O: U

aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

e@ U@

aI@ aU@

$$ / $ ! " &$ ! ! 7 / # # ! # ; $ ; $ < # $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ 3

# # ! ! " ! &$ ! # + $$ / * # ! " !! " + 8 - $$ / $ / # # 7" + <@< " / # ! $

" ! &$ $ * #8 , " , " , " , $ ' B E + <{< <e< <e<8 ! ,het<% ! ,enk@l<% ! ,grem@)r1<. = : " + <ยก< ) 1 / # " &$ $ 3 * > *$ # # # * ! & $ / $ ! 3 ! $ * ! ! # / # " &$ *$

'@(

& ,%

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

รช

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ <

# $ & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *#

! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " !

&$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - # *$ $ <?< )$ # " " " + 1

" # ! < ! "" $

6 " ' # ! + # $ $ $ <รก< )$ # 1 *$ # <nj< ! & $ <n< <รก< = < / " " <b d g< # + " <v z S< # ++ " <tS dZ< $ $ # # + *$ # / " $$ + # " 8 5 6 ) 1 5 6 ) 1 5 6 ) 1 " . <f< + ; $ $ " & <p< & $

8 5 6 ) 1 5 6<5 6 ) 1 5 @ 6 ) 1 , <v< < % /# "" & + / $ $ $ $ $ " <v< & <f< <p< " $$ #

+ / ? * $$ " <T< <t<8 + + 5 6 + <D< $ <d<8 5 6 + % 5 6 + @ # ++ " <tS dZ< ! ! $ $ $ + " 8 + + <S< ! & " <s<8 + A " 3 " $ " <r< ) 1 $ * $$ $ $ / # " $$ '@-

& ,%

$ * $$ <r< # + / & $ * # # " * / $8 5 6 + <peIp@:< + -( " * <h< # *$ # $ / * * # # ++ ; $ + ! *$ # <h< ! <h<% ! <?< -- $ $ + / " "$ ! < / 3 $ / 30 $ % # ! + ; $ "" * $3 $ &$ " ! $ < / " 3 / $3" $ $ ! $ + "$ *$ # / 8 5 6 + + "#/ / $ # ! $ / 8 5s@k@rip6 + 5fil@m6 + 5p@rojek6 + 5k@linik6 + "

Spelling and pronunciation $ < / $$ $ # / # " % # *$ # / /# # $$ * ! "# # " " " &$ ! *$ # / " * $ / < + ; $ !

$ 8 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 "

Rhythm and stress 2

+ $ ! /# $ # + $ 0 $% < + # # " + *$ # / + < # $$ &$ 3 ! # #! # ++ " & / * +

& ! $$% /# " *$ # # " !

+ ! E

4 " / $! " # * *$ # 7 $ & 3 " # + $$ 5/ 6 " < $ * *$ # $ / $$ + " " + ! $ / # $ / "" # #!

Intonation D ** ++ ! & * $ * /# $ # ! # / $$ # *# $ $ / 0 $ "# # ; $ + *$ # # $ &$ !

'@'

& ,%

Orthography and punctuation $ < / # ) ! 1 " # 3 / * &$ ! + + *$ # < / + *$ # $ * " ! $ 7 " " " % /# # # ! " " & 3 7 "

Grammar Word order $ < / ! $ # + *$ #8 &F " 9 &9 &F " " $ "# # / # &F " ! & # / # ! & E " 6 ! *$ #

Number < E " + !& # " & ! $ $ & $ " )kucing-kucing = 1 # *# # # + ! $ < # &$ ! & # / # *$ # $ $ *

/ # # 3 & * ! % $ $ * " $ $ $ $ & + !& $ $ ; 0 8 C+ $ C C C $ " & " " 8 C1 $ * $ $ $ + ! + ; 0 ! $/ " " $ 8 C $ C C C

Countability

0" $ ! $ $ *$ # !

8 C I C '@=

& ,%

& " /# "# " & !

" " $ 8 C # C

Gender 7

* !! " $$ < I / dia ) , , 1 + # 3 * $ &F " &F " ! !

8 C2 # $ +

$ 1 $

Personal pronouns < + # /# *$ # / $ $ ! # " 8 C& $ & $ % ? $

Genitive and possessive pronouns :

$ < " & # / & & 3nya & # + $ dia ) , , 1 mereka ) , , 1 # +0" $ / # # ++ *$ # ! " $ 8 C

C 2 . C C C C

Relative pronouns $ < # $ $ / yang /# "# "

# *$ # 3 K "# # " !! 8 C9 $ C I '@>

& ,%

$ ! & $ " & $ 8 C %

Reflexive pronouns # $ $ $ + # E 7 diri *$ # ! " ! $ " " $ ! 8 C) $ C $ C' $ C& " $

< % $ 0 #

Topicalisation structures < + *$ # + ; $ ! # )5 " $ 61 " " & $ " * # ! # & * * + " " $$ # < 8 $ $ @ % ; $ CA % ? $ & % $ $ + " * /# # &F " &F " + #

" # # " ! $ + !8 + ? " $ & " $ & " $

It and there *$ # " / # # !! &F " +0" $ + $ # ; $ < " # / ada ) , , 18 Ada

sebatang

pen di atas meja.

B ,1 ,% )"$

0 1 $ "# # " !! 8 C' # $ C) $ C% $ '@.

& ,%

Articles/determiners # " ! $ 7 + # *$ # "$ ! / ! + $ $ - < # "$ $ # *# # ! ini ) 1 itu ) 1 " $ + "

! # ! * + 5 # 6 # + $ $ " ; $ # 0 "$ *$ #8 C1 # ( ' ! / # < $ " $ $ /# "# ! $ $ "$ / # *$ # $ $8 C% $ = # 0 "$ " $ $ & +

$ * " " + !

; # & " 8 C C > $ $ $ ! # 0 "$ 8 C& % . # 0 "$ ! & + # 0 " 8 )! * 1 C $

Verbs < & ! + !& % 7 $ $ ! " " # ! 0" $ # +0" $ ! * # " !3 $ 7 + # *$ # & #

Time, tense and aspect Sudah/telah/pernah " " " ! $ # ! +

* & < # # * " * # *$ # " & / ! $ + " # " &$ +0" $ / # *$ # + " & + ! " $ 8 C% $ C% $ C% $

'@,

& ,%

C* % $ C% $ C%

< # ! $ & sekarang ) " 1 & + + & * + " 0 # # ! + *8 C/ $ C1 $ C1

# " $ "$ akan < " + ! # &$ ! * * # * # *$ # + ! 8 C $ C $ C + $

* $ < 7

" )5 3 # 3 "

3 +61 & * sedang<semasa/sewaktu/sementara / # & " & 3 * * " # *$ # + ! ; $ & # 7 $ 8 C $ C $ C 3 $ C $

To be Berada adalah ialah " # *$ # " $ % # + ; $ $ Adiknya (berada) di rumah - , , , Fatimah (adalah/ialah) guru sekolah A , # " $ " # 7

" + 7 " 8 Yusoff sangat gembira - $ )- , $1

'@?

& ,%

# 3 * + " " + /# "# + ! " " $ + ; $ # !

+ + ! + # 8 C1 $ , 1 $ C $ , $ C $ , $

Non-finite forms 0 7 < # + ! + " + & $ 8 C $ C& $ C' " % $ C& $ C% $

Modal auxiliary verbs $ < # &$ ! * # " $ + ! ) " 1 # " ! $ 7 ! $ 7 $ ! + *$ # " $$ " < / ! ! $ / # " $ * / * + ! + /# "# ! & * $ < *$ # ! " $ " 8 - $ 9 !

- " ( 9 & $ @ ( 9 / $$ *

+ $ 9 * ! 1 ( @ $ 9 ! $ $ - " ( 9 +0 ! 1 $ 9 ! & & $ @ $ 9 !

& $ & $ 9 " - $ 9 " - $ 9 &$ * <" ! $ ! $ ! $ $ * # * & & 7

# ! $ ! * 8 C& ) $ , % ) $ $ $ ) ) $1 C% + $ , & + $ ) + $1 '@@

& ,%

C+ A $ , C% D A $ ) A $1 C& # $ , % $ ) % # $1 C& $ , % $ ) & $1

Active and passive I$ $ $ / *

+ ! ! + ; $ # # ! $ * * /# "# # * + " + " + ! $ #

+ !

* $$ 4 # & "

+ ! ++ $ # / $ * * < 0 *$ #

+0" $ 8 C ) $ C $ CA + $

Question forms and question tags ! $ 3; < $$ / # ++ + " 8 ; + $$ 3! ; + " ; B !! $ " $ + ! < *$ #8 C) ( C' ) ( C' ( C' ( C' ) ( D * *$ # & " $ / + ! ( (8 C+ " ( C " (

Negatives $ < # * "$ " " " " ! $ 8 C% $ C+ $ C $ '@A

& ,%

C% % $ C1 $

Complex sentences $ < / " ! $ 7 " 2# $ # ! # ! " # ! / $$ ! + $ ++ & / "$ B F "

$ * 7

! & $ " ! " $ 8 C? # $ C% # % $ C%

% ; % $ " / # ! & & $ " 8 C' % % 8 $

Prepositions "" # + # " " + & F " 7

" " " " " $ $ # +0" $ "# * # *# 07 7

$ " " " " $ *$ # # ; $ $ # + " + ! & # + / ! " $ ! 8 C1 & $ % $ C1 $ C1 $ ! $ &$ ! ! / # & $ "$ 8 C9 $

Adjectives and adverbs ! & & + F " " + # E " + # ! # * 8 C- ; $ C) $ C% $ $ 'A(

& ,%

B + / # # + "# $ "" 8 1 $ # $ $ $

B !! / # F " " & * * + " ! " $ + ! $ < 8 C& $ C1 $ C1 $ C% " 9

Vocabulary and style Range and choice of vocabulary " < $ ! $ $ " * + " & $ * ! " $

" !! 7

+ + ! & " + ! + 7

8 )+ 1% , )+ I 1% )+ , # 1 " # " & " $ *3/

8 % )+ % 1% % )+ % 1% )+ 1 $ * " !! $ # / ! # < # ! & E " 6 + *$ #8 - $ C

Transfer 7 " $ + & / * " $$ + "# " $ ! $ " + ! *$ # < * * $ * $ / &$

& ! & ! $ & # < $$ * + /

$ talipon, bankrup, ekonomi, industri, psikologia

'A-

& ,%

Confusions < $ # " &$ &$ ! * # * + *$ # / # # *$ < ; $ 7 ! $ 8 , % % $ , , C D $ C $ , & $ , , + C D $ C+ $ ,

' $ ,

' % ( , ' $ ,

$ ,

% $ , % $ , - (

Culture and language $ *$ # ! & " /3 $ * + *$ # * * / $$ ! + $ " ! # +

$ " ! " 0 $ # # *$ # "# " 0* # "$

! "# 7 " ! 0 !$ +

$ + ! $ $ # / # $ 4 ! $ "# # $ $/

" + $$ !

$ * &$ " 4 * "# / $$ 0 # $ $ * * ! 8

# $ * " $ ! ! $ # * !! # E 7 ! " * !& # $ " + / $

$ ; # / # + ; " + # # " !& + " " # / "# ! $ " ! $ ! # / 3 * $ * * 4 * ! * $ 7"

$ * $ 3

# # *# " * + $ < *$ # & $ * $ $

$ *$ # # / ! $ * * "# $ + 3 # " " !! " / /# $ $ <

"# $ "; 7 & $ *$ # # $ * ! $ " $ + *$ # # ! 3 $ 4 * 3 " + * 3 "# /# *$ # 3$ " ++ " / 'A'

& ,%

" $ # & " ! # $ $ * * + " $ # " ! / $$ " ! /# #

" $ * " $ / $$ & ! $ # + /# $ # $ $ * * # ! ! + " !3 ! " # +0" $ $ * * $ " + & # " $

$ $$ / & ! * * ! + " / *$ # $ $$ / $ " + 3 " / "# * & / *$ # < " !! $ "

/ "# * / # <

A sample of Malay with a word-for-word translation # "$ + ! $ " $ / $ *$ # $ + ! # ! " * & $ / Internet telah mengubah wajah

# "# * $ &

perpustakaan dan bagaimana

" $ &

pustakawan bertugas hari ini.

$ #

# /

Perpustakaan tidaklagi

# &

terbendung

! " 0

oleh empat dinding. Ia telah berkembang ke ruang siber

& +

/ $$

# 7

" " &

Ramai pustakawan telahpun masuk ke dalam ruang siber untuk

$ &

mendapatkan sumber dalam talian.

Sesetengah pustakawan

$ $+ +

pula telah membantu menyusun sumber

$ # # $

" " & + $ &

melalui home page

* " # *# # ! *

masing-masing. Pengguna perpustakaan kini dapat melawat

! !

$ &

/ "

terkenal di seluruh dunia /# "# + ! /# $ / $

ke perpustakaan yang

$ &

Mereka boleh membuat carian pengarang, tajuk ataupun

"# #

subjek dalam internet. Semuanya ini

&F " $$ dari

dapat dibuat dengan selesa

# " & ! / #

" !+

rumah atau pejabat dengan mengklik butang tetikus

+ ! #

+0" / #

"$ " & ! 'A=

& ,% ataupun menaip pada papan kekunci komputer

" !

Apakah antara perpustakaan dalam talian?

2# ! * $ & yang

Apakah antara buku

$ H 2# ! * &

terdapat di dalam Internet? Apakah pustakawan akan menjadi

/# "# 0 H 2# $ & pustakawan siber? Ini

$ &

/ $$ & " !

adalah antara perbincangan artikel di bawah

" & H #

! * "

"$ & $ /

# # "# * # " + $ & # / $ &

/ # $ & $ * " 0 # + / $$ + & $ * # 7 " & " $ &

# * " & " $ " 3$ " ! $ &

# $ # $ * # ! $ # # ! * & / + $ &$ + ! $ & # / $ # " $ ! # "# $ "# &F "

"# # $$ # " & # " !+ + # # ! +0" # "$ " + ! * # & 2# ! + # 3$ $ & H 2# ! + # & $ &$ # H $ & & " ! * " & H # ! * # # *#$ *# + # "$ & $ /

'A>

& ,%

A sample of student's writing

'A.

Japanese speakers # !

Distribution : O /

Introduction & &$ $ O

&$ "# * $ # $ B# ! & " 7 ! #

$ * * # *# / $ " $ 7 *$ # 0 "# # 6 $ * * # $ I + # # # & " + "

" ++ $ # / $ * * # + $$ / * + *! + ! ! * K $ / + / *$ # $$ # $ 6 &$ !8 * " # C D $ $

7 " $$ 8 % $ # +0" $ & * * !! " $ $ 7 " $ # " 6 $ * * * $ # $ " $ & " + # / $ * * 4 $ 5 " $ * * 6 0 $ * # 3 +3" 7 + *! + $ * " $$ # * $ & # * 7 $ # $ + & # 8 " & + + "# " $ "$ " ; $ " $ $ "# " + " & $ * !! # " + *$ # # 3 + 7 & /# # # & * +0" $ ) 7"

$ 1 $ ! " & * # ! $ * " $$ # "# & ! " $ # ! !& + / /# "# " # ! & / ++ $ 9 ! 3 ! / * 9 # # & + / # * $ # $ ; E "# # *#$ 'A,

% +

# " ! ! ! & /# 5 0 # 6 " # # ! K * & $ # # / "# * ! # # ! $ # # * ++ " & / *$ # 3 $ * * # * /# $ & #

" / # $ * * $ * 9 # *# / ! 0 $ 7 # $ * * "$

# !

Phonology General # # $ ! # " & # !& +

# & # $ 0 / $ # *# # ! & " $ $ * # $$ &$ " ! $ )* $$ / $ J " / $ $ 1 # + / " "$ $ # + 0 # ! " ! $ 7 "

" !& + *$ # # " # ! # * +0" $ " * "" $ /# I+ " ; " ! $ " " / # + $ $

* !! "# " + / / $ & &$ # !

" + / # ! # !&

$ + * $ /# #

" " $ / "# $ F / ! ! & ! ! ! " $ ! + "# 07 " / # / #

* + ! # +

! & " *$ #

Vowels ! + # ! " &$ &$ ! + $ 8 - <O:< <@U< & # " $ * <o:< " * " + $ ' <{< <ร < & # " <a< " * " +

$ = <z:< & " ! <A:<8 + > <@< & " ! <A:< $ $ " & # # / $ ** & # $$ *8 <kยกmpo:zA:< + 'A?

. # # * * <@< " / # <A:< 8 <DeA:foA:< + , <I< <U< " )/# 1 ! " 7 ! * # ! +0" $ + *$ # $ # ? <u:< : " " ! & / $

Consonants ! + # ! " &$ &$ ! 8 - <l< <r< & # " <r< ) E $! $

# <d<1 " * " + $ ' <h< ! & " & $ & $ + <F< & + <u:<8 + + <i:< <h< ! $! $ <S< ) # " + *$ ! $ 1 = B $ <f< ! & " $! $ <h< & + <O:<8 + > <T< <D< "" # ! & " <s< <z< <S< <dZ<8 + % + . <v< ! & " <b<8 + , <g< ! & " <ĂŞg< & / / $ 8 + ? <n< + / $ ! )/ # $ + # / $1 ! & " ! <m< <ĂŞ< * " 7 8 + @ <t< <d< <s< <z< + "# * & + <I< <i:< + $$ / 8 ,t< & " ! <tS<8 + ,d< & " ! <dZ<8 + ,s< & " ! <S<8 + ,z< & " ! <dZ<8 + A <t< <d< + "# * & + <U< <u:< + $$ / 8 ,t< & " ! <ts<8 + ,d< & " ! <dZ< <z<8 +

Syllable structure and word-linking *$ # " "$ +0" $ + $ # + & # ! & * # / $ /# "# $ 5 ++6 0 $ " + " ! & " <teburu< <matSi< 0 # # # 5 *3 ++6 / $ $ /# / $ & * # + $$ / * / 8 #

" $ $ " &$ /# # 0 $ " <n< $ * <r< * $ + " " ! & ; # 'A@

Rhythm, stress and intonation # * # * *

3 & # $ $ ! $$ $ & / # "

! + # / $ * * # # ; $ + 5/ 6

+ ! + / $ $ ! + $ " # #

$$ &$ : " 3 $ " !! & # $ * * "$ 8 9 * # /# $ "#3 * + # " /# !& * / " + " $ / * * $ " ! * % 9 & * # "#3 * # / $ ! ; & # , $$ # # " 30 $ ; "$ ka% # ; 3 * "$ ne # / " + $$ # / " 0 ! * ! + # $ " $ & *$ # 0 7

& & $ "$ # # *$ # + # *#$ *# + ! " )+ " * # + ! /# "#

$ # + ! + ! /# "# / # $ 1 *$ # " 3

# + # & " " $ $ " & " $ $ " "$ 7 $ + # / # + / # ; " $ $ /

# *# &$ ! ! "" / # " ! / # / & / / # "" " # " E " / # # *$ #

"# rekoodo ) 1

Summary # + $$ / * " / $$ * ! + # E + # / $ " $$ &$ " / 3$ * + + "" 8 $ $ L<<za tSi:mu FĂľ: jĂľ:dZĂľari 1wi~ habu rosto dZisu 1jia:<<zeiru habu tsu: meiku a biĂŞA: eho:to i~ CĂľ:tSA:<<M

Orthography and writing $ * $$ # * +0" $ / # *$ #

$$ * # / * # & " + # * $ ! * # / * ! )/# "# " !& B# 3 'AA

* ! / # $$ & " "# " 1 2 "

+ ! $ ! # /# # $ *$ # + ! + ; 5roĂ&#x2026;maji' $ /# "# " !! + " ! # *

Grammar Word order 5 &F " 9 &F " 9 &6 $ * * D $ 0 " ; $3 0 " " " !! & " ! 2# " *$ # + $$ / # "$

! * & * " F " + $$ / # "$ % " "$ # / * * +0 !

+ $$ / # " $ & + $$ / $ 7 " $ & $$ F " $ # / $ * " # & ! $$ 8 kore wa

nan

desu ka?

L " "$ M )G ' (1 watashi wa

;

kakimashita1

kore o

% )G % 1 ano hito

takai desu

)G 1 Tookyoo wa

Nippon no

shuto

desu

2 )G 2 1

$ ; " $ * # & " / + *$ #

" : /# "# " " +0" $ "$ &F " / # # $ & 8 C+ " $ " / # 5 3 *68 $ # &$ 3

* " * " $ 8 ' ( % -

# # / + $$ / * 7 ! $ ; + ! * B ! & $$6 @ ) $ * -AA-1

=((

Topicalisation " !! + # " + " )/# "# ! & # &F " 1 & " $ # & * * 9 #

# *$ # " $ O

# " $ ! " $$ / *$ # " $$ + &F "

/ $$8 C ) * % 1 ! " $ & " $ + " 3 8 C% $

Verbs # & $+3" 8 7" + # " $ da )G 1 & " " / ; * # &F " &F " & 7

Wasureta. )G % 1 # " $ $ &F " &F " *$ # ( - $ '

$ # " $ + ) 5 F " & 6 & $ /18 C% ? *$ # 7

" # ! *

# *# "# * # + ! + # & / # 3 / & + ! / # 7 $ & # 0 *$ # & # +0" $ " " B + # + "

$ 7 $ $ 8 C% $ C' ? # & "# * + !&

$ + * # *$ # # 3 * $ C+ # + ; * " &$ ! ) ; + $$ ! & "$ 30 $ ka / # "# * + / % * # / & "# * # & + ! 1 C- ( C $ 0 ; * " ! $ " ! $ + 3 &$ + !8 =(-

C- " ( C " ( : $ & + " ! $ " # + 8 C% $ / % ! # " $ +0" $ / # !& ; "# %

$ $ $ % ; $ $ $

Tenses $ * # # ! +0" $ # $ / # # " ! $ 7 *$ # < " ! " 3 * & * !! "$ # + # + # + 8 C% $ "" $ " + & / *

+ " + ! " "# ! # + # * $ $ * !

*$ #8 C+

Conditionals $ " $ ) * % % $ $ $1 + ! $$ " + ! $ " $ # $ ! F &$ ! +

+ /# # # ! # ! "# " + + ! * $ " $ / # $$ # " ! $ 7 # &$ ! + " " ! 8 # * # * $

/ $$ " + $ 7 $ + # ! * $ "

"# # " $ ! 8 C% % " % $ C'

Passives # +07

& * + ++ + ! *$ # +0" $ " " * *$ #

$ "# 8 CN 2 C% % $ C% 5= $ C& $ C # =('

! &F "

& $

! 0 +0" $ " " " $ . 344 I # # #

" & ! " /#

&$ *$ # )+ " #

&F " " + /# ++ " & # " & /# / $ & # " " &F " + # ; $ " " 1 C1 )+ 1 1 C+ )+ 1 1 + # + ! #

+ *$ # $ &8 C% ++ " # / $ * " 7

*$ # $ ! / # # 7

8 C% $ C $ #

$ /# $$ " # / " 8 C' 2 (

Complementation Q & "$ ! $ ! $ / & $ " * + # ! + # "$ koto no # $

# # $ 0 " + * # "# " 7 ! $ 0 8 % you to go$ % your going % the fact that you're going. % for you to go$

Relatives $ 7 ) 1 ! & ! 0 & " ! $ 7 # /# "# " ! & + # # # + $$ / * $ 8 )G 1 )G % D % )G %" " $ $ $1 # ! # $ # +0" $ * *$ # $ " " * $ "$ # + ! $ =(=

* # ! * + $ $ $ & * * $3 " " 8 C % $ C/ %

Nouns $ * "$

+ + B# * " $ + "

F " & ) * # + $$ / * "$ 1 # " $ ! *$ #8 C $ C' " ! + $ $ " * # $ ! ! "# # ! *$ #8 # " + ! " 3$ * * $ $ ) 1 # & # # *$ # $ " & * * # $ 8 C& $

Number and the use of articles + * $ ! + !& + $ $

+07 ) * * + " 1 & + # " 7 !

$ $ "$ # * ! $$ $$ + * $ # + $ ! # " * $ $ # / $ $ " # " & / " !

)" &$ " &$ 1 " * !& " & $ ! F &$ ! $ "# $$ " &$ 0" " $$ " + / *$ # 7" + "$ # !& 3" & $ &$ !8 C% 2 " $ $ # $ 2 $ *$ $ $ ! $ 7 + "# * $ $ "$ +0" $ # & ! + $ # & * & " # # & ! " "# " + "$ !& " $ "$ $ ! $ $ 8 =(>

C' A $ ) $ C% + > # $

Pronouns *$ # $ # ; $ 4 " anata kimi omae kisama #

6 ! $ # ! ! * # + ! +

"# / "

" ! $ " + * $ # # $ " + "# " *$ # + !&

# " $ + "# " *$ # "$ * & + # !

* ! & & # ! $ # 3 & 7 ! $ + # &$ ! 8 1

( - " % $ C " % $ $ $ ( - " % $ :

! # " " * 73

8 C+ $ *$ # 0 $ # ! +0" $ ) " $ # "# " & / 1 + # $ C' $

Adjectives and adverbs # "$

+ 5 F " 6 /# "# & # $ * $ $ & 8 # " & E " # / " 8 yokatta )G 1 yokattara )G > 1 # " $ *$ # F " $ & $ # 7 + ! * # " $ 8 C C' + # F " 5 &F " 6 + * #

6 # 6 + $ * $ ! % 2 ( ! * 2 ( # 7 ! $ # F " kowai ! %, , - % / # # 3 &F " / $$ ! , & %, , , # $$ $ " + 6 + $$ $ *$ # F " =(.

# * !! + " $ # ! + *$ # F " ! & 8 C $ !& + *$ # & " & + $$ / & F " $ " ! $ !

)+ " 1 # ; $ # 3 & $ " ! $ ! 8 C% $ C% $ C% $ * # & / * &$ 3* &$ F " ! & + * ! #

$ 8 C% $ C% $ B ! $ E " 7 " !! ! 8 C% $ 2 / * # ; ' ( ' ( % # ! / % mae ! 8 C% $ C+ $ # !

+ " + F " * *

" /# "# * +

Determiners &$ ! + ; 0 "$ , , , , , , , , ; , + $ " " $$ " " $ 8 C% ; ? $ & , , " & " 8 C& $ + $

Conjunctions and complex sentences *$ # " F " $/ # ! $ 3 3 ; $ ) + " " $ $ ++ + ! * /# # # " " F " & "$ * " !! ; $ ! $ to * & " *$ # / 0 =(,

; ! #

" $ / mo " $ $ $ $ C D $ $ $ C D $ $ $ " ! # " # + & 7 " # ! &$ # ! * # ! * + *$ # " F " "$ 3" F " + &$ 3 "$ : # & " + # $/

" # "$ 3" !& * $ + *$ # " F " # * " # ! / # 3"$ " 8 C% $ % # $ % % $ + % $

Vocabulary # + " # $ * # " & $ + *$ # - $+ # ! $ 7 " ! "# + # " $$ ; # # ! * + " 7 $ / & " !

"$ $ /# # / 9

! * # # $ /

# B# "# " # " # # + "" ! $$ $ * " & $ ' # + / & 9 *$ # < *$ #9 " 3 # ! 7" $$ = * !& + *$ # / 9 # *# + & $ " * &$ + ! 9 "# " $$ # &$ #! + $ " !! " $ $ ! * K I # ! # $ $ # " # $$ 9 sake "# " miso 9 # ! 52 6 * " ; 3 *$ # ! 8 Lion # Pocari Sweat + 3 7 " # + / + $ + $ konsento )G 1 $ " * $ ensuto )G 1 masukomi )G 1 /# "#

# "

! # # " I+ # $ 7 " $ + $$ # / & + # ! $ # & & / " & $ * !! * # ++ 3 $ + ! *$ # & / " & # + " okiru ! kiru ! # ; $ + " 3 "" / # ! & /# *$ # F " 8 C% 2 " % $ # *# # ; $ + I + C D /# "# * 6 =(?

# ! @ $/ + ! # / ) ( - " % $ # ! $ /# "# # # " ! $ " + " * # + ! "" * /# # !

; 9 + # & + < " & " + + # # + $ # & yameru " ! $ $ $ % # " "# & ! 8 C9 $ C% $ Itadakimasu 9 & + * 9 $ * !& + " $$ 7

# *$ # ; $ /# "# # " + ! "# !&

! $ 7 & $ + % $ $ $ # $ # *$ # !&

& * * " * " ! $ ! Hiroi semai ! $ & $ ? )! * # *$ + $ E " $ * / 1 $ &$ ! ! $ " +

# $ * !& + *$ # / % # / # " # + & ! 0 # # $ * " * &$ *$ # 7 ! $ 8 C D>

D> C D> C D> C D ! + # 5 *$ #6 / 7

# ! 3 * / / 8

C D> C D

Style &$ ! / # # / / + # # *#

$$ * * * !! ! & + $ $

3 + & " # * + + ! $ ! * ! $ " ! # & $ # *$ # & " " # * + # ! $ " " " & $ $+ # * " + & " $ * $ " ! + / 3 # 3"# " " ! ! + # =(@

# " ! & * * # $ # ; $ / " 2 $ * * % ! + # ! / & + " $ $ ! + ! # + # 2

The language classroom $$ / # A(^ 7 & .(^ $ *# + *$ # "# $ " $$ * & $ * !& * "# $ # * + 9 # * $ 9 & # &F " # / $$ & * # ! ""

# " 7 ! /# *$ # $ ! $ * :

+ # # "# $ # $ " * $ # $$ &

+ $$ / # ! "# $ # $ * " $ $ $ * * * ! $ # $ " *$ #3$ * * & " / & / $ $ &$ # 3 + $ " ++ + ! " " / # *$ # & * * & # $ 0 3 $ * * *$ #3 * " 7 9 * # # $ # $ 9 ! " " &$ + ! $ # $ * + # + ! $ / # "# 3 ! $

/# ! "# # # 5" " 6 / $ * + * !! $ !3& 3 ! ) # # " 7 $ 1 " & $ # + + ! " $$

+ $$ / 8 / * * * $ *% /# $ * #

& * /# # " ++ # / ! $ $ 3"# " Chokuyaku )/ 3+ 3/ $ + $ *$ # & K 1 ! "# + $ ! $ # *# "# $ " * # * 3 * / $ *# # + * *

$$ $ % & ! $ * * "# $ / ! # * $ 9 # *# ! " $ ! ! # " & 5 # 6 &$ "% * * / * " & " + $ # ! " $$ + + "$

/# * " $$ + ) # 1 3 / % $ * # *# " $ /# " + " / # " ! $$ " # 6 # # &$ " /# "# ! # 52# # + H6 " + "

" & + $$ + $ * + $

$ " # 3 "# $ ! !&

! & $ # # & **

" ! $ 3 $ "

& ! ! ++ #

+ # / $$ + & $ # + / * * / # + =(A

Chinese speakers * B# *

Distribution : I: 6 : B I4 B 2 :I $ % # $ $ * " !! + B# # *# #3 I" # # ! " & 0+ # + # / $ 6 $ + B#

Introduction # B# $ * * # Han $ * * # B# " $$ " $$ " + ! $ " /# "# ! & "$

0 *# $ " * ) ! ! + ++ $ * * 18 # B# ) $ / 1 2 * O # # P # ) B 1 2# $ # $ + $ " # ! # * + ! B# B# # B# # $ " + ?( " + # B# $ $ * # & + ! B# /# "# # "" / $ * * + $$ B# # & ! # $ $ * * # B# $ " # $ / $ * * & $ ! & " + $$ " $ $ $ # &$ ! "

# "# & $ * " !! + $$ $ " B# *$ # & $ * / ++ $ * * + ! $ ) 3 & 3 1 # ! " $ ++ " +0" $ $$ * + *$ # $ * * $ * ! & 7 "

Phonology General # # $ * " $ ! + B# ++ + ! # + *$ # ! *$ # # ! # B# " # $ I # !&$ B# # ! & =-(

" $ # ! " # " " +

F " $$ + +0" $ * $ B#

0 *$ # # " # &$ $ * # $ * *

Vowels - # ! / $ " *$ # # B# *$ # / $ "$ "# # ! + + " $ # B# / $ # ! # ! ++

; * # # ! ' # " & / <i:< <I< # ; $ B# " + "# = # ! $ <u:< <U< $ * " + + " & / * > <{< "" B# $ ! $ & " + / # <A:< <ร < <e< # / "# ! *# & " <k{] p< . <ยก< # ; $ B# ! ! ! $ <O:< <aU< <U< + / $ + " ! *# & " <SUt< , <ร < ! ! $ " & <a< /# "# "$ 7 ! B# # ! ? B# # # * $$ " / # ; "

! $$ * $ ! ! # # *$ # " # + ! # # / # *# " & / # / " ! / $

Consonants - # # + <p< <b< <t< <d< <k< <g< # * <b< <d< <g< " *$ # & # /# $ " $

B# B# $ # " + * *$ # ' <v< & + ! ! B# $ " $ ! !

$ <w< <f<8 ! & " % " = B# $ " # <n< * # $ " 0 +0" $ * # + " + ! > <T< <D< "" B# <T< $ $ & $ " & <t< <f< <s< <D< & <d< <z< + 7 ! $ ! & " % ! & " =--

. <h< & " # $ $ + " )

" # 1 /# "# 7 ! B# " , B# $ " # <z< # $

& <s<8 ! & " ? <dZ< <tS< <S< $ ! $ * + # ++ B# " $ 6 " + # # 3 + # $ " $ + * @ ! # B# 0 <l< <r< +0" $ * # $ * # + ! " " F & 5E $ " 6 " A 4 $ " * $ " &$ ! # + / 0 $ " B# $ # 7 / $ # # " " $ *# *$ $ $ 8 + " ! & " <dร k@< <dร ?<% ! & " <waIfu:< <waI?< -( <l< 0 $ " $ $ +0" $ 8 ! & $ " & <r< + $$ / & <@< ! $ 8 + " ! & " <bIl@< <bI?<

Consonant clusters - $ " "$ $ " * B# " &$ ! # " !! $ *# / $ & / # " " * + " ' 4 $ "$ ! &$ ! $ $ ! $ $$ &$ ! $ + # "$ )+ " & * # $ " 1 ! & " <dยกg@z< <dยกg<% ! & " <krisipu:si:< <krisipu:<

Rhythm and stress " $$ &$ + $

+ ; B# # *$ # # $$ &$ B# $$ " ! ! $ # *$ # * + / # " "# * #

! *$ # $$ &$ * # /

$$ &$ + $$ # # " " 8 ' ' ' )/ #

" <{nd<1 ' ' ' '? ' '* )/ # & # ! # 1 2# " # "" # *$ # / + ! #

! ! 0 # ! # " # # ! # !8 ' ' =-'

Intonation : "# "# * B# ) # 5 61 ! $ * # / /# " # / # ! % "

# / $ $ # *$ # + ++ " # ! * + /# $ " # + +0" $ + B# * + ! $ / # # B# $ 0 # ! * + ! " $ ) + # *# + $$ * 1 $ $$ &$ # # "# ! E F 5 *3 *6 *$ #

Juncture # ! $$ & " + & " B# $ $ 6 * *$ # / # # F * # ! ! #$ 5 ! +

"#6 # " & # "" ++ " + B# "" " &$ " " #

Orthography; reading and writing Spelling # / * ! + B# 3 $ # & " B# $

# + # * +0" $ $ * *$ # $$ * $$ + B !! ! "$ 8 - 4 $ $ $$ * " 8

$ $ ' : &$ ! * + ! # $ " + # + $$ * $ *$ #8 C ' = * + ! $ 6 " " " 8 $ $ $

$ > I!

+ $$ &$ 8 C

Reading and writing $ # & " " B# $ / # ; / &$ ! + $ " * # / # + ! 5 6 "# /

! " !& ! + # " ! " * ! + =-=

B# $ / ! $ $ $ * ! + ) " / ! " # B# 1 # " ! "# 7 ! B# $ # + $$ # $ / * *$ # $ # $$ $ $ + 0" " $ # & " # / * # # #

&$ ! + B# $

Grammar General # " ! $ & / # " " " + *$ # B# # * " &$ * # * 5& "6 /# "# 5 *# /6

Parts of speech : + "# B# $/ + ! $$ * # # &$ # " ! # * !! " $ "$

0" #

! / ! + ++ " $ + " $ $ # # ! !& # "$

+ *$ # /

# + " " # ! + $ * # $ / "# ! + # + "# " # + " # " + " " " $ & + $0$$ & / + ! " "$

8 C+ $ C% $ C1 $ C% $

Sentence structure B# " + / # 5 " $ 6 &F " &F " /# "# * !! " $$ "# + ! # + # " ) *$ # O % 1 # $/ + ""

+ $$ *$ # " " " + " $$ + " $ &F " + $$ / & &F " )/# "# ! # " $ $ + "

1 C. )! * . O 1 =->

Verb forms B# 3 E " $ * * 2# *$ # "# & "# * * & + ! B# 7

& ! + & $ / " 7 *$ # E " ! * $$ " + * " + 3 ; 8 - &F " 9 & " " 8 C? $ C $ ' * $ & + ! 8 C I = " + " ! $ 7 & + ! 8 C $

Time, tense and aspect - B# 7

# " " + ! ++ $ + ! *$ # " F * # & 7

! $

# +0" $ # $ * *$ # "

$ # " !! 8 C% $ C% $ C& $ C+ $ ' ! # # + $ !

# # ! + #

" ! 4 7 ! $ # # # # 5 6 " 5 ! 6 # # + 0 KK$ * " $ 8 $ $ = : *

" " +0" $ 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C% $ > B " * " & 7 $ ! 3 " $$ /# "# " &$ ! & $ "$ " * + ! + 7 ! $ $ "

$ " /# # 5 6 ; 8 C' $ C+ $

=-.

Verb complementation - I+ & " 8 C1 $ C+ $ ' : + " ! $ ! " +0" $ + " $ 8 C% $ C $ C& $ C+ $ = " $ $ +0" $ + # B# ++ & / # + 0 )/ # / # 1 " $ " $ * I + ; $ # ! $ 8 C% # )+ # 1 C% % $ C- $ C+ $ > F " & + ; $ " $ B# # # & & /# + $$ / & " F " C% $ C+ $

Auxiliaries; questions and negatives B# 7 $ + ! ; * # + , " &$ ! 8 C1 ( C% $ D * ! * % ( % ( " !! $ B# # + " $$3 (, ( *$ #8 C1 " ( C- " (

Modals B ! * + *$ # ! $ # " ; $ B# ! $ " & $ # ! * /# "# # B# " &$ ! " 4 " % " B# ! $ yĂľnggai. ! +0" $ # " & $ / " # *# + / B# $ 8 =-,

% $ ' $ I # /# $ *$ # ! $ " / * + ! * + $ * # # B# " B# $ # + # ! + ; $ # # $ ! + $ 7

# " # *$ # ! $ " % # / $ + 7 ! $ & $ $ + " % # # % I " $ ! # B !! " *$ # ; $ + ! + " ;

** /# "# ! $ $ " $ $ & * &$ ! $ )

" 1 ; $ B# + + $ " ! $ / # # *$ # " ! & 4 7 ! $ # ! "# # * 8 - 9 $ ' - " $ = @ ( /# / $ ! $$ & ! $ 8 - - $ ' ' " ( = @ (

Subjunctives B# ++ &F " + ! " ! # + $ $ $ " *$ # &F " 5 $ 6 & ! $ 8 C% % " % $ C% # $ C% $ C% $

Relatives *$ # $ " +0" $ + B# $ /# +

! $ * # ! " / # K ) * # 1 " " " ! # &$ ! " $ ! / # $ " "$ # !

+ +0" $ * 8 C $ C % $ C% =-?

Passives B# $ + # &$ ! * *$ #

" 8 C $ C' $ : *

+ "

" $ $ +0" $ 8 C) $ C

Articles # "$ B# 0 # # ! " $ " " $ # ! ! "

"$ 8 C* $ C% $ "

8 C1 $ C1 $ " + # + 0 0 "$ 8 C[ - $ C1 $

Gender # * " # + ! + # B# 8 + 7 ! $ # # ! B# $ + + $ ++ # ! *$ #8 C% " $ C $ 1 ( C2 $ 1 $

Number :$ $ $ 7

B# & 8 C% - $ C% $ # " $ $ "# /# # $ &$ ! / # # " + 0 $ " "$

=-@

The countable/uncountable distinction B# ! ! 0 # *$ # " " + " & $ # * 4 7 ! $ ; " " $$ & " # B# ! " "# 8 C* $ C+ $

Pronouns *$ # ! "# ! # B# /# "# # ! /# # ! & C% $ C $ 2 # $ B# ! " & / # &F " " ) * %1 # &F " " ) * 1 2 #

* # ! ) * 1 + ! 3 ! ) * 1 ! ! "# # / * " * + *$ #8 C% $ C $

Word order & B# / " $ & # ! ; *$ # * " ! & * ! & $ / *$ 8 C- ( C' ( C' ( C' (

' + B# !& " ; " ; #

! ! $ "# 8 C1 $ C+

=-A

' $ * & $ # " / # / 3 8 C. $ C1 " % $

Postmodifiers ! 0 B# ! /# # # / #

"$ " ! & + # # ! + *$ # ! 0

+ # " ! # " $ # ! * 8 C $ C $ C $

Position of adverbials B# & $ $$ " ! & + & F "

" $ $ $ + " 8 C D % )+ % 1 C D )+ ' $1

Conjunctions and compound sentences " !! ! $ " " F " + " "

" # B# ; $ $$ 8 C) " $ C % " % $

Prepositions # + *$ # # *#$ ! " +0" $ + $ + $$ " !! 8 C' ( C% - & $ C1 $ C # $ ='(

Vocabulary False equivalents *$ # B# / $ * $ ! * / + ! ! # $ " 7 " ; $ # *# B# " * $ # + $ * 7 + $ ; $ /# "# + $ 5B# *$ #6 " $ 4 7 ! $ # + $ ; $ + zhidao $ # " 8 C1 $ /# # " 8 1 $

Phrasal and prepositional verbs # & # ; $ B# +0" $ # $ * # ! 4 " B# $ $ $ 8 9 # # 9 $ 1 # # 1 $ " + " !! + "# ! $ 8 C )+ 1 C )+ 1

Idiomatic expressions ! +0" $ + # B# + # $ * * $ I # " $ # + " $ " /# B# *$ # " $$ ! $ ++ 7

+ $0$ #

! + " 4 " # " !! B# * * $ " $ 8 1 ( ' ( - $ ) B# + ; $ # # 7 3

* * *$ # $ N1 I # 7 ! $ "$ 8 C ( )+ (1 C )+ & 1 C9 )+ ' (1 ='-

Culture $ B# " $ $ " # *# $ $ * *$ # $ * * "# " 7 " 0 # # $ ! &$ + +

+ ! / * # $ / ! B# 6 ! # $ *

* ++ " /# "# 5 $ &$ 6 5+ 6 # " & * " " $ * "# /# # "# $ * 5$ * /# $ # * + 6 # $ & # / $ "# # *#$ " B# " $ " $$ * & * /$ * &$ # I + " B# $$ * "

* * ! # + $ * $ + + B# " ! ! I + # # $$ # & " / + B# # "# " # & $ & # 3 $$ # ! # $ * 0" # / *$ # $ B# ! ! B# " 3 &$ ! ! ! # 7 + " "

Sample of written Chinese Transliteration of Chinese text with a word-for-word translation

lirong:

$ *8 lai

xin

shou dao le, xiexie ni de wen hou. meiyou zaoxie

hui

xin,

qing

" ! $ "

# *

yuanliang!

$ $ + * N ni

jinlai

shenti zenmeyang? xuexi shunli

" $ & # /H yiding

xiang wangchang yiyang guo de hen yukuai

" $

=''

ma?

! # L * MH

! $

@ ba?

L "$ * " 0 ! MH wo hen hao, zuijin

you le

/ $$ " $ # L "$ " * "# * + M

nuĂ&#x2C6;pengyou, jiao shizhu, hen mei * $3+ " $$ # K# & + $ zuotian

shi chuxi,

jia li * # # !

wo qu ta

& / 6 he

ta quanjia

yikuair

guo

nian.

jia

/ # # /# $ + ! $ * # / # # ! keting

de tianhuaban, jiaju

*3 ! + " $ * daochu

gua zhe

zhihua,

lipin,

he qiang shang

+ / $$3

ge zhong

/# # * L "$ " * M $$ hai

zhuang shang le

E / $ $$3

L "$ " * "# * +

caise dengpao. shizhu jianyi zuo youxi " $ & $& # K# ** $ * ! ba

yanjing meng qilai

L "$ " * + &F " M mo liwu.

wo mo dao de hen hao,

+ $

+ $3*

shizhu didi de

* # K# & #

bucuo.

wo wanr de hen kaixin, zhidao tian kuai liang

cai

zou. lin

zou

$ &

shi

# $ $ *#

dajia yue hao xinnian

$ * $ ! $$ * wo jia.

zhen xiwang ni

xiexie ni

qing

! # $$ / #

wo he

/ ye

lai.

neng lai!

didi

xiatian

dao

jia

zuoke

# !

wo zai guowai xuexi de jiejie neishihou

0 $ " ! ! &

huilai le,

lai

$ " " ! N

# ! & # !! women yiding

diertian

/ " " !

# ! wo xiang

$ L "$ " * "# * + M

# ='=

@ wenwen, ta nengbuneng gen women yikuair

# " 3 3" / #

bu duo

xie le, qing

daiwen

lai?

* # " ! H quanjia

! / $ ! & # $+ $$ + ! $ hao. pan

zaori huixin!

/ $$ $ + / $ $ N zhu ni

xinnian

kuaile!

/ # / # N cimin

" !

yijiubasi nian yuandan

-A@>

/ 6

An idiomatic translation / P 6 -A@> * # + $ # + # * 6! # 6 / $ :$ + * ! N / # & " $ H # * * * / $$ / #

H F * $ + $H 6! / $$ 6 * * $3+ / ! # K# # 6

& + $ P / / P 6 / # $ "

# * / # # + ! $ # *3 ! + # # /

" / # $$ + E / " $ $ *# # * * + ! # " $ * # + # / $$ # K# ** # / $ * ! 2 / / / #

" # 0 / * # * / *

/ # # K# 6 & # * # $ $ ! 6 $ $ $ / + $ + / $$ * ! ! # #

" + # / P $$ / # " $ & # N # + * ! & # ! / # #

!! 2 / $ $ " ! /# * & / $$ & & " & # / /# # # " $ " ! / # H 6$$ # + / :$ * ! * + ! $ 6! $ * + / ! "# # * + ! / P B !

='>

Korean speakers *3

Distribution OI B# O K # K& % * 0" ! *3 * # O # ) "$ * / 1 B $ / U $

Introduction # O $ * * * & ! "# $ & $ * * $ # # $3 $ " $ * * + ! $ # $ !

! $ & / O # # 7 ! $ & # O $$ ! B# "# " $ # *# # " B# /

! ! # # # O $ * * $ * / # ! O " ! / + 7 " * # / $ ; $ # $ $ * * O / & $ ?' ! $$ $ ,A ! $$ $ * # O $ $ # ! * # ! $$ & # +0" $ $ * * + & # # O ) ! " " : $ 6 &$ " + O 1 # O ) &$ " + O 1 & # + # / " # $ ! ++ "

$$ * " & $ "# " # O # $ " "$ * # # " $ $ /# "# +

O # ++ " + " + ! $ " # /# "# " ! # ! ! $$ " ! # &$ # $ ! # + $ " ! # * +03 " $ * *$ # # + # # ! $ " # # ! "$ $ 7 ! # + *$ # # # + O 9 # " " & #

"# 9 # $ *# * + # $ "

='.

Phonology General # O $ # & " + '> $ 8 / $ -> " 3

*$ " !& # # >( " & " + # O $ * * 9 *# ! $ / $ -= # # * -A " Q / $ "" $$ O $ # *# ! O / & * / # / $ $ ) $ " ! "# "# $ + 7 ! $ 1 & * / # / $ "# /

" $$ " O / # " * "

! $ # *$ # <ĂŞ< # # *# # " # O / # 5 ! 6 5K 6 " # $ *< # / $ " Q " " " " ++

Vowels O $ " $$ 7 " # + $$ / * &$ ! 8 - <O:< <@U< & # " <o< ' <Ă&#x192;<

! $ # O <A< )/# "# $ * # 1 # # / $ + $$ ! /# & / <kĂ&#x192;p< <kA:p< ) 1 = <{< ) 1 +

! $ <e< > # O ; $ + <z:< /# "# ! &

! $ <O:< <@< <wz:< " $ $ &$ ! " # "

# +0" $ * # * & / I # " + <z:< + ! # O # / # # $ * # / $ /# #

# * # " " )"+ " " " " 1 . + $ *< # / $ " O * + $$ * # # $ " + / # / $3 $ * # " *$ # + 7 ! $ # & / <I< ) 1 <i:< ) 1

Consonants # + $$ / * " $ $ " &$ ! 8 - " ! & " " * #

# " ! & + + " " # + " *$ # ++ + ! " =',

; $ " $ # & / ! & +0" $ + $ * ' <r< <l< & # ! "# " O 9 / # / $$3 / " ; " + O + $ *$ # : " + <r< " $ $ +0" $ 9 <belI belI dIpIk@lt< O $ ! *# = " <v<

! $ <b< + & " ! <b@< > <f<

! $ <p< # $ * & " $$ $ & # I & " ! . <z< +

! $ <dZ< P + 7 ! $ + & " ! <dZu:< , <S<8 $ # *# # + O O # +0" $ " * ! *$ # ! "# <Si:< ) # 1 +

! $ <s< 2# + # + / O " $$ $ / $ # & " ! <pISI< ? <tS< + O & 0 $ / # <S< <dZ< <z< <t< # " " ! $ * <I< <@< / $ " $$ & " ! <tSztSI< * & " ! <dZodZI< & " ! "# * &$ # & " ! <mIkst@< @ <T< is assimilated <s< <D< <d< O * *$ # $ + ! $ * # 0 "$ )& " + # * !! " $ 7 " 1 & /# " #

! $ & # " + ! A <s< <z< 0 $ $ $ # # * $ + &

+ " 9 & +

/# "# # / # O * !! # # & " #

7 O L 5 6 & $ / M & <mĂ&#x192;nTs< <kl@UDz< + " * 3 " +0" $ + # & 7# & # + ! + *$ # /

# # & O + $ * ! " $$ # # & " ! + # $ * * * # + ""

Speech style, stress and intonation 7 ! $ ! # # *$ # "# # $ / # O ! $ # $$ &$

$! $$ $ $$ & " *$ # / $$ &$ ! # /# O / E * $ 4 # ! " $ / O "

$ # / #

" ) ! # "# & * ! # 3! * +07 & "# * * # + # / # " 5 "

" 6 & $ / 1 # ++ " #

* / " ! ='?

# ! * + " " ! $ $ + * # O $ ; " " & " " # O # *$ # * # # / $ * * # " B $ # O $ * *$ # + ! & # + & * # *$ # # " ! O *$ # +0" $ O # ! "# " " / # *$ # # / # " & * !! / # + $$ * & * "# " " $$ + ! ;

# # , ; * + , ;

; " $ ! $ ! 9 # *#

+ $

+ # *$ #

Orthography and writing O $ # " !& $ * ! # $ $ # + ! # " $ /# "# /

" / # # $ /# # &$ / ! $ / * # $$ &$ & + ! * "$ # # / # * O $ # $ # & & ! + # 3 " $$ "B 3 "# ! # O &$ " 3 ) 7" # / + + * 1 & $$ # O * * & $$& # $ # &

+ ! $ O # # $ $ +0" $ & " ! * "" ! *$ # I& $ "# $ & *# *$ # # / * & # " ! $ $ $ # ! # *# # $ # $$ # O *# ! *# $$ " ! # +0" $ 9 + /# "# "# # $ & /

Punctuation # O "# " " & " $ # + ; ! 7"$ ! ! + $$ ; ! ! $

# ! *$ # # + # " !! ! 3" $ " $ " +0" $ # / 8 $ # *# # " !! 7 O $ $$ #

" & / / + $0$ $$ + # + " O #

# O # ; $ & * +07 + / * # O / " * # ! # / " " $ + "# " # / + ='@

& * 7 ! & ! + * # * /# "# $ + ! $ " ! " $ O

Grammar Sentence structure $ # &F " 9 &9 &F " / + ! $ * * "$ * *$ # O / ) $ * / # # : # 1 &F " 9 &F " 9 & / # # $ & " $ " + # **$ " + # $ * * #

! 0 * * !! " $ " + " $ " ! # + O # " / O

Verbs # 7 $ & O # O & $/

& / ) 5D / 6 & $ / 1 4 # 3 ! # & ! # *$ # & " + # " ! $ 7 ! + +07 & 7" + # & # " & " $+ O & /# "# $$ # ; $ *$ # & ! " $ /# "# " & # "# " " + # * ! ! #

6 $ 6 + $ * # *$ # ; $ 4 7 ! $ 8

" ) ) $

"# $ % *$ #

"# $ $ *$ #

# E / # # $ O H

E / # $ O 3 H

='A

/ $$ & & # O $ + ! # & /# * F " *$ # # & " # " $ + " + # & 7 O # F " $ & ++ " F " / # # + " 4 #

&$ + ! & + ! F " O # + ! 3 + # *$ # & + 7 ! $ * + O ) 5 +07 6 1

To be; there is and it is # # + *$ # 9 # 9 + O & # + ! " * , # ! &F " % # # O $ / $$ "

" "#

C& # + $ C $ # # * " * # " # *$ # % # O ; $ + # " ! # * $ ' # # ; $ + * ! " & & * $ " / # ! # 3! * +07 # # # + # " *$ # # & " * # *$ # & # $ + ! # + " + 8 C% # )+ % 1

Complex verbs B ! $ 7 & + ! & " !& * / & # 5 ! 3 6 & /# "# ! & " F " $ ! ! 7

! * /# "# *$ # / $ ; $ / + 7 ! $ % $ $ $ *$ # 7

"# & O

Conjugation of verbs O & $ * $ *$ # & " + 5 & !6 5 & *6 # ! # ! /# $ # * " F * # / $ $ + + ! $ $

O * # $ & ++ + ! +

)" ! &$ ==(

4 "# + ! 1 & $ & ++ $ 7 " $ &

++ & * O ! & $ $ & # " ! ! $ " + # *$ # & ! # +07 ! $ # + *$ # & " " # / /# # # &F " * $ $ $ & " F * "" * $ * + ; O !

*$ # + # # " # / ! $ # & + $0$$ * " ! &$ + " & ! J " " *$ #

Tense and aspect # # *

" " & ! + +07

# + " " O O $ # # +0" $ # $ 7 " $ * # + ! # /# $ # + # ! $ *$ # " $$ / # ! " ) " 5==71 &$ !

+ O +0" $ * # * & / # + # + " + " & / # + "

! $ + ! # *

" " O & " !& + # *

+07 )/# "# ++ # + 1 / # # / + # " $ & / # " ) F " $1 & ) & 1 O # + ! $ # " " # & 9 /# #

! $ *$ # " # + # *

+ ! *$ # " + 7 ! $ # " ! # # ! ) " !& / # + ! + " 1 + # $ + $ O

% $

A $

( O # # 7 < " + ! 8 + ! $ *

! $ *

& # "

$ # ! / *$ # + / # &

" / # + ! + " # ==-

+ ! O + " + ) $ # *# # + + ! ! $ & 1 % 9 $ $

E%F 9 $ # $

# & # + # & " $ / # $ $ $ *$ # # + " $ * O $ 6 * + # + & + ! + # $$ # # + ! + # + *$ # 7

O & # + # ! +

+07 # "# / $$ 0 # O $ # $ # +0" $ * # * # + # " # *$ # $ + # + # ! " ! $

Conditionals # $ / " $ + ! O 7

* $

& $ " $ O # # " ! &$ ! " ! * ! * # *$ # " $$ / + # ! " + # + " + ! ) % 1 /# "#

3 7 O

Direct and indirect speech 2 3+ 3/ * + /# ! & " O & ; ! & + * ) " " " 1 " "# * " + # * $

&$ *$ #% & * * # * + " # " + ! " # * $

&$ $ *$ # " "# # &F " + # ; " ! $ " + " "# * + ! # * $ # " 6 + / # "# * + # / + 7 ! $ ' % " $$ $ $ $ & O $

Modal verbs O # $ # ! $ 7 $ & 8 # ; $ + /# "# $ # /# $ * + *$ # =='

! $ & ! &

! $ O $ # # / # ! # $ # &$ ! + * # * ! * # + $$ * + *$ # ! $ &

Passives #

O 7

& +07 # # & 7 $ & J " $ *$ # * * #

" $ O $ # $ $ +0" $ / # ! $

$ # *# # "$ # # + 7 ! $ C% # + $$ / * " &$ ! # / - # + ! 7 O $ * "# 8 C1 ( )+ 1 (1 ' & J " ! / # & + +0" $ ! * " * "# 8 C $ = $ " # + " " 7 O

* #

! $ * # + ! * +0" $ # " /# # $ &$ * !! " $ + ! " ! &$ # * # # ! + ! / $$ & # ! " 7 O / $$ # +0" $ $ * # " $ " % )/# ++

" # 1 ! $ & " $ # *# #

! # *

" O ! $ # " > 4 $$ & / # / &F " $ " $$ &$ ! " #

/ $$ & +

Questions and answers # 7 $ & O ; + !

*$ # # # / ; / " * # *$ # " " " " # * & +07 I " # & " ; + ! *$ # ! "# !& ; + ! % 2 % , &$

$$ + +0" $ # $ # $ + *$ # O / * ; / # 5- 6 /# # * / # # 5/ 6 /# # * $ * "# 8 ===

(6 C - $ 9 /# # 6 $ ! # ! C / $ 9 /# # $ ! # ! #

& $ + ! * !! $ N

Tag questions and reply questions O # / &$

+ ! /# "# ! * ! / # +0 ! * ! " $ & # # * ; $ ; " 7 # ( & # % " ( % 0 % 0 / $ & $ & # ! / O / $ ( (" ( ! $ $ # O 7

" * (" (" ( # $ O # + & / $ & # * ; *$ # * !! " $ + ! # $$

! & " * /#

&$ $ & " + + ! $ " ! $ 7 & $ & " # O ; $ ** $ " + " 0 " #

) + & "# "# " * # ! $$ "# $ ! # * + 7 ! $ N1

Short answers # $ + +0" $ # $ ! * + &$

& $ O )B ! % 0 ! & 0 4 "# 2 \0 / # watasimo

$ + # *$ # 7

+ %0 + %0 + % + % " 1

Phrasal verbs :# $ & 7 O " $ +0" $ + O $ /# $ # + # $ 0 # * # & / $ & $ 1 N # $ & $ 1 # $ "# + ! $ 8 % % " % $ / # O + ! $ / # $ * ! & 7 $ ! $ &$ $ *! # / $$ ! # $ & ! "" &$ 8 "# 8 52# + 6 / / H6 : $ 8 5 N6 ==>

"# 8 52# + ! F $ *H6 : $ 8 5 # ! N6

Relative clauses # *$ #3 * $ + O / $$ $ O * !! + # # * # + $$ / * $ $ $ / $$ *

! + # / # + " + $0$$ O # # ! 0 " /# ! 0

# * /# "# / "# & /# # $ &

/ $$ "$

B# 3 * & & 3 3 3 J $ $ +07 "$

3 3 J $ $ +07 &

+ # ! F ++ " / $$ # $ # "# * # F ! # O $ # ! & " ! * "" ! # 5 *# 3& "# *6 " + *$ # 2# $ O $ ! ! # + ! # " 7 + "$ $ + " * !! 3 " $ 7 " # + ! $ " $$ # & # + # ! & # "# / *

Nouns O " & "$ # * !! " $ * ! $$ # $ $ + ! $ # *# " & ! $ $ & * # +07 duĂ&#x2020;l # ! & ! /# # ! * + $ $ & # # / yunpil + 7 ! $ ! ! # + # 5 $ " 6 + # $ $ * $ * # O $ + *$ # $ ! # $ $ 3 # / "# / * & $ + ; $ + $ " /# * $ ! "# /# "# # & " O / # # 3 & O O # / # ! # $ +0" $ / # # *$ # " + # " " + " & $ * " " " / ! + ; $ " !& O + !

" ! 8 a-chim-bab G ! * J ! $ G % chaek-sang G & J &$ G % mul-gae G / J * G O ! & " * " # "# " ! ==.

$ + *$ # ) $+ & * 7 ! $ $& + & J " !& 1 # *$ # " & / $$ &$ ! O / * /# # # # " ! # * # "# C + # + # ) $$ & $$ * $ 1 " !!

Suffixes after nouns O # 07 9 $ +07 # ! + # & # + " $$ ++ + ! # + *$ # +07 # $ + " # *$ # O +07 # " !! # + ! * # * $ $ $ + " * ! " $ 7 ! )+ 7 ! $ 1 ( % # : 61 # $ + " + ! $ & # "# / * O # / # &$ ! / # *$ # +07 /# "# # ; $ O 8 &$ # + * ) , + 7 ! $ 1 + + ! * F " & # " " + # 5/ + ! $ 6 ; $ O & " * + # $ + $ / + * * # "; + *$ # " & $

Pronouns : O + 8 $

)+ ! & # + +07 # $ 1 ! 3

* : $ O # # ++ $ $ + # 0" + ! 9 $+3 ++ " * $ # 0" # E " # + # $ $ # * + " & # / # ! "# ! $ *$ # !

+ / +0" $ O $ $ # *# # / $$ ! * # ! " 7 /# "# # & $ / $ & +0" O # *$ # / ) 0 + 7 ! $ # & " ! O " ! $ / # +07 7

* ! 9 &

/ # &F " #

O /# # &F " + # " ! "$ /# ! ! # * & $ * # $ *$ # " "# 8 C% C1 $ ==,

4 # + ! # ) ! !& * # O ! $

*$ # 1 ! # / & O /# "# *$ # $ * " "# 8 C8 " # ! $ " * 8 ! 3

O ! ! " $ & $ # & " + " $ # *$ # & $ # "# # $ $ & / # *$ # $ + ; $ O 4 7 ! $ "# ! 0 # ! $ & *

# # 8 C1 (

Adjectives O F " # " # F " *$ # # + $$ / # &F " & # $ & ) 5Q & 6 & 1 # " # # " & / * &$ 3 * &$ F " # & *$ # # O $ $ & + * ! # $ + 7 ! $ 8 C% # $ C% $

Adverbials # ++ " & / O *$ # & $ /# "# " # O $ ! +0" $ # + " # O & ) $ ! *$ # 1 + ! # & + F " I # / O & $ # / ! ! $ / # *$ # # # O "# $"# $ $ "$

+ # & $ O

& + ! + ; " ! $ " * & $ $$ !! $ & + # / )/# # + "#1 "$ " # ! 0 $ + ! O *$ # " # + $ " " * + & $ *$ # + 7 ! $ 8 C% ? # $ & # / # O # ! # * ! $ # *$ # & J F " " 9 7" # /# ! 0 # " + O ! & $ F " 8 ?# I $ & $ F " $ & + 7 ! $ 8 CA # C D$ ==?

# O & " * " " " &$ + $$ / & & F " $ * "# 8 C + $ C $ C $

Vocabulary O # $ * " & $ ! + /# "# 0 ; $ *$ # $ # *# + /# + "# *$ # / $$ & # O )4 7 ! $ # * + / " & * # / / " I " 7

& & J # F " $ & O 1 # + ! " & $ $ * +0" $ + O /# # $ & $ + ! # # ! " + " * / " & $ / # 7 ! $ # / * # / + " * !! 3 " $$ ) "# $ " & $ $ * "$ O $ # + ! # " # " 7 3+ O < *$ # / $ 1 O 9 *$ # " ! ! $ &$

# $ & " * $ ! # ! / # *$ # $ 6 " # $ $ O # & " + ! " 7"$ ! / ! O $ " * " ! &$ / *$ # # "# & * * $ / $$ & $ $ 0 # # $ * !& + *$ # / O ! + /# "# / # " * &$ *$ # " $$ / * + # & " + $$ & "

# " + # / & " ! * ! 3 3$ / # "# * ! O $ *$ # ! 7 7 *$ # $ * * ! / + # ! * !! " $ # 3 $ * " $ ++ " & / # / $ * * O $ 0

* & ! # / ! "# *$ # # $ / / / $$ *$ # / # # & ! O # ! / # # # " + $ + 8 # / # ++ ! * O & $$ " " * &$ *$ # / # + $$ / * # $ @ % ? : ) 7" $$ 1 ) O 1 )+ # " 3 ++ & $ / /# "# " "" + ! # *1 ==@

)+ 1 ) $ ! 1 )+ $ 1 ) ++ " ! 1 C D ) + " ! 1 )+ 1 ) + # $ # + ! 0

" 1 ) # O 1 ) + # $ * + " & + # * ! 1 )+ $ *3$ ** # 3$ ** 1 ) + $$ + "# " " / " 3 1 ) ! 1 )+ $ " 1 )+ # " 1 ) "# 1 ) + * 1 )+ $

$1 )+ + / !! * E 1

Honorific vocabulary O "# " & $ " " # # $+3 ++ " ! # # O $ / $$ 0 & !&

" + # 0 ; $ + ! *$ # # " $$ + " $ "#

" $ " ; + * *$ # # "# $ $ O ! & # $ # & / # # $ # &F " & * "

& # * !! " $ " ; " O + 7" # *$ # # *$ # $ + O # $ ! "# / +07 "# " " + 7

# O $ + *$ # # & " ! / + #

& $ + " " + * *$ #

Body language and gesture ! # * " $ $

# / / # + " $ ! & $ * ) "# + O " ! " &

$ / $$ 0 # ! 7 ! $ $ " * + /# * * 3 * &$ " 1 O ! ! !

! $ # * ! 7

* "" &$ 2# ! ==A

& /

& + *$ #

* " + " ! & O ! $

/# "# $ ! + " 7

* ! !&

! #

" $ * 9 & ! $ & + $

" " + $ ) O ! $ ! & !& * ! & ; 1 " + #

$ " + " $ " ! " $!

+ ! *$ # "# 6 " " $$ 7 ** 3 7

! $$ & ! *

$ " 9 # *# " / $$ " ! " # ! * 7

*$ # & # /

" ! $ 7

O & + " & / # $ + ! # * $ %

* * * $ $$ $ % C D ! $ $ * O & ! / # " & 7 $ " *$ # # " 7 ) $ 5 "# $ 6 & 5 # $ * * "$

!6 1

The language classroom O $ *$ # / # * ! # * !! # * + # ! " # *# # *# "# $ # " $ "$

K ,( $ # * "$

+ " "# $ # $ * * $ & # + * $ * *

# $ 6 " $$ # + 3+ * + $$ / & $ * & # # $$ $ $ $ ! + # / * ! # / * +

$ + ! + $ * * " 9 + # &F " 9 " # "# / $ # ! " " # ! " ; " O # $ $ 7 " + "# 7 " !! * " 3

* $ * ! ) $ " $ # * $ * " $ * ! " 0" &F " # & " # "# $ " " $ ! ! " ! + " $ $ " * ! $ # # $ $ 1 # ! $! !

&$ $ + * $ * *

/ $$ ! * ! + ! + " *$ # + # "# $ * &$ $ + $ $ & 0 + ! # " # "# ; & ! # + # $ "# $ ! # ! " ! $ &F " # # & + # " ! * $ " * $ +

$ $ # # ! &

# # # 7 & F + * $ * * $ # $ " " $ $ & " * # ++ " # =>(

" ! # + *$ # 7 + + # &$ 0 # ! + * 0$! / $$ & && # &$ ! / $$ / & # /

+ # + "# * $ # " $ # & $ " $ ! ! O "# $ # "# 6 # & $ + "#

# $ ! ! $ / $$ / # # # 4 # O $ + /# * 7 ! $ $ " / # & * " # /# # / $$ & " "

" ! $ & & # 7 $ /# " & $ + # " ! $ "

$ # $ &$ ++ " # O 6 " "$

+ ! + 7 " # " * * / $$ ! * * & # "# $ $ 0 # ) " $$ & * 1 ! " !+ &$ / # $ 3 $ 7 " ) " * / # 1 # / # $+3 $ " $$ # $ * " / # # "# $ & " " & "# + + 6 O + $$ / # ! $ * / ! $ ! + /# "# "# * / # + " # /# ! # ! 7 " $ ) ! $ " " " + " 1 $ /# "# # O + $ # # # " ! / # + $$ / # $$

$ # *# $ 7 " $$ " " # 7 " # / # # * & $ * # "# I # " 8 " " * )B ! 5 * * 6 /# "# ! # $ " & & * * * "# $ 2 " 1 # "# ! + $ # O # $ # !

+ *$ #3 * " 9 & # "

# " & # # E " + # $ * * "# + ! 3 + *$ # / $$ & + 3 /# $! * 0 O $ # " 9 & # & " * # ! ! ! "

/# # # # & " # ! # " # / " $ /# "# !

$ + "# / # ! * + # *# + $

+ " + # $ " 2# ! *$ #

" $

" ++

& # O " $ $ " 7 /# $ #

! & * # * + **

$ # "# ! 0 # $ + $ ! "# " 7 $ " " $ $$ # * "$

# $ / # " E " * "# $ ! ! / + + $ + # ++ " # ++ " # * =>-

! " + # $ * * "$

$ E " " # "$

! # " !! " $ / $ # $ & " ! / + # ! " + 3" $ $ * / $ /# "# *$ # + ! " !! " / $$ & ! "# ! ++ " + $ " ! 9 # ! " + # $ + 9 # 6 "# $

A sample of written Korean

Transliteration and word-for-word translation se-jong dae wangi namgin upjuk

3 * *

$ +

gutun

hunminjongum

jung

tukhi jungyohan

"# ! ! * ! ! ida. kuttae kkaji hanguk enun hanguk

"" ! $ #! # ! F * ! $ # malun

ttaro

itsut jiman guljaga

upsutgi ttaemune

$ * * $ # & / * ! oledongan hanja

bilusu

& "

ssutta.

$ * ! "# "# " & /

An idiomatic translation ! * # "# ! $ + & # & # O * F * & + # ! ! # ! F * ! # $ # *# # O # # / $ * * # & / B# "# " & " # # / * ! + # /

=>'

Thai speakers ! #

Distribution

Introduction # )+ ! $ " $$ 5 ! 61 ! !& + # + ! $ + $ * * /# "# / + + ! # Q ! # # # $ $ * * + # $ "# & 0+ ! $$ $ " * $ $ " + # # # # # + # " & # $ * * + # B $ * * #

& # "# $ + +0" $

# *# # " # $ B# $ $ * * / # # ! * + "#

$$ &$ & * ! & # "# /# "# " # # 0 9 ! $ / # *# * + $$ * 3 E " $ * * ! "# + * $ $ 7 " ! $$ & "% # *# " * + $ $$ & " / + * & / * " 3 $ $ + ! # "$

" $ $ * * : $ # / $ # & " " # / * $$ + ! " / "

# * + ! $ + *# % / ! $ * * /#

" "" # + " ! + ! + " 3 *$ # "# + $$ " !!

Phonology General # * 0" ++ " & / # # $ * " $ ! + # *$ # # # '- " # ! ' / $ # ! # # " ! # " $

=>=

<p}< <t}< <k}< " # ! ! $ $$ #

) 1 + <p< <t< <k< # *$ # *$ # # ! + " # # # # +0" $ " * # ) * <T< <D< <v< <z< <S< <Z<1 Q / $ $ * # * 0" # / # & " " ! & / $ * # / $ # *$ # / # 5 # "" 6 & " # 0 *$ # / # # # $ * " $ ! 2# $ # ! 7 + + * "" # & " $ $ " " ! * ! # # # "" # $ # " & 7 $ # & *

/ * # / ++ & ++ # "$

! !

! *$ # $ / ) "$ * & ! + # + " ! * 1 #

# # $ & " ! + " $ ! $ $ * ! * " *$ # / # / % " # ! # / & * 3

* # "

+ " & "#

*$ #9 # " * $ + *$ # / # " ! "$ + " $ *$ # " / $ / $ " # # ; $ ! + # ! " !! + + 5 # "" 6 *$ # 8 9

# 0 $ $$ &$ + / 9 : &$ ! " $ * " 0 $ " " "$ 9 "" ++ " * + !8 1 "

* $$ &$ % &1 " * ; $ / *# ! * "# $$ &$ % "1 *$ $ & + $ / $ % 1 + # / $ <@< & / " $ " "$ % 1 " + " "$ # + / *$ "

Vowels

{

A: ยก

U aU @U I@

u: ร

z: @

=>>

eI aI OI e@ U@

aU@ aU@

# # ! # ; $ ; $ #

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ $ # *# ! " + ! $$ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ / - <{< + ; $ " $ * / $ <{:< ' # # * <eI< <@U< <e@< + ; $ " $ * / $ <e:< <o:< <{:< " $ = *$ # / * / $ + ; $ # # 0 $ / $ $ * # "" !! #

$ " # 0 $ $$ &$

Consonants

tS dZ k

m n

ĂŞ

D j

w h

# # ! # ; $ ; $ #

# $ # + & " " $ / # * +0" $ # # ! ! " &$ ! 4 $ " !! & $ /

*$ #8

<v<

<T<

- " * *$ # $ " + /# "# # *# ; $ # # $ $ ! # + $$ / * & 8 <D<

< S< < z <

# 7 ! 8

<w<

<t< <s<

<d< <t< <s<

<tS< <s<

+ # # " / $$ " * &$ ! + " $ + # /# # "" # # $ *# 0 $ " # ! 0 $ "$ $ *$ # 0 $ " " "$ $ &$ * " $ "# * " "# 3 + ! ! # / % ! " $ "# * 3 * & *$ 0 $ " 8 <d< <T< <D< <s< <z< <S< <Z< <tS< <dZ<

*$ #8

<v< <f<

<t<

# 7 ! 8

<p<

<l< <n<

=>.

= <g< <dZ< + " " " & #

/# # "" # & * * + / > $ # *# <r< 7 # &$ ! ! #

# / $ * * /# # ! + & <l< # * # " /# * *$ # . # *$ $ # ! # # / $$ + # & * * + *$ # / # # $ / $ % # " "" ++ " "$ F "

Consonant clusters *$ # # ! "# / * + " "$ # # % " "$ "" # + / # ! * # $ / 3 *! "$ /# "# "" # 8 <dr< <fr< <fl< <fj< <tw< <sl< <sw< <sm< <sp< <sk< and <st< " * *$ # / /# "# "$ "" # # / $

! ! " * # + $$ 3

$$ &$ 8 & " ! & " ! ! $ "

/ # *$ # # 3 *! $ "$ 8 & " ! & " ! # # / # ; $ $ <gr< <gl< <kr< <kl< <kw< <pr< <pl< " !! " $$ * + # # " *! + / 3 *! " "$ # & * * + # / # / $ khray )G (1 plaa )G 1 + ; $ " khay paa # /# 5 " 6 / $ #

# / $ * * ! " # "

*$ # 5 6 + 5 6 + % 5 6 + " 5 6 *$ # 0 $ "$ # # / # &$ ! $$ ! / + 5 " *6 # ! *$ ! * &$ 0 $ " *# $$ # 0 *! + # "$

# & " ! 5 6 & " ! 5 6

=>,

Rhythm and stress $$ &$ # " " 07 # * ; $ / *# ! * "# $$ &$ # * # / # # + " # $ "# $ " *$ $$ &$ ) + * +

$$ &$ *$ #1 " # "" ++ " /# + *$ # # *$ ! " !! ! + #

# 0 $ $$ &$ + $ $$ & " *$ # / ' ' ' " ! $ 7 +

+ 7 ! $ $ ! * " $ ! * $ $ &$ ! " $

Intonation # ++ + ! # + *$ # * & " $$ ! $$ & " $ * * # # # 3 3 / "# " $ # *# ; # + ; $ ! & 5; / 6 # + " /# "# # # * # ! " $$ + " $ # " + *$ # ; " : " $ # $ & # + $ ; % # /# $ + $ &$ / 5 "$ 6 # + " + ! ! + # + "

+ $0$$ & *$ # 2# $ * + ! # *$ # # $ "$ ; $ * # & ; ! + # # & $ $

Juncture # !

&$ " / " "$ + ! # F " + 0 $ $ " % # *$ $ & + $ / $ $ "$ $ & / 0 $ " $ / $ # $ $ & / + # # " "# *

# $ " *$ # # *# F " ) * <wUdZ@<% <ge)p1b{k<1 $

# " 0" $$

Influence of spelling on pronunciation # $ * *$ # & $ ! ! ! 3 " * / / & " + # " &$ ! ! "# & / $$ * " *$ # " $ &$ ! /# "# ! * + $ " $ 8 =>?

- " /# " <T< /# <D< )

! * + " # # " " $ ++ & / # / 1 ' " /# " <s< /# <z< = 4 $ ! " " + #

/ $ / "# " > # $ " / "# / # # * 5/ 6 " + * / + ! . # # $$ * + " !! *$ # $ / + " 3 *$ # " /# "# #

! $ * ! " /# "# $ ! ! 0 # + /# $ * / # # / *$ # " 7

Orthography and punctuation Spelling and writing # / / # $ # & " ! /# "# "

# * + ! $ + *# # " & / $ / " # + # / $ !& $ / # ! / & # " ! & $ / ! # $ + ! + $$ / * # *# 9 ! * # " # # /

& " % # " # "" "" $$ # / * * $$ " " ! *$ # # 7 # ! $ # & $ *

" &$ ! + ! # $ * " * $ / % # / # $ $ /$ * + *$ # ! & +0" $ + ! $ / # # ! $ # & " # / $

Punctuation

$$ # " ! # $ # *# "

& / * + / " # # # & ! 7 ! / # / " ! ; ! 7"$ ! ! " !! " + & + $ & % # # / $

" !! / : " ; &$ ! # $ % + !

+ ; /# $ # " " + /# "

" ! & "$

=>@

Grammar General # * !! " $ " + # ++ + ! # + *$ # :$ $ + & ! $$ ! % /#

* # & / * $ $ $ # ! " $ " # & # + " $ /

# # & E " # F " & " $ + " & /# $ # # ! $ ! ! " ! $ 7 / # ++ + E " * ++ * + ! " # "# I + # + / & + ! $ # + /

" ! $ 5 &F " J & J &F " 6% # / # &F "

" !! $ ! # /# "$ $ /# /#

Auxiliaries; questions and negatives # 7 $ & # - # " + ! ; & # + ; / /# "# $ " # + # " " # ; / # ; $ *$ # # / $$ +

! $ & * # / $ $ $ 3 8 C1 ( ) $ # E " & 1 ' * ; 9 / 9 + ; $ " " + # " $$ / * 5 6 /# *$ # ; 5 6 - " ( - C% D 6 = " 0" ; "# ' ( ' ( 1 ( # " ; $ # & " # 0 / " "" # # & * * # + # " # $ ! "

" $ 8 C' ( C1 ( 1 ( + ; $ # 7"$ + 1 ( # & + ! $ 8 C1 ( > * # + ! & * # * / maĂ&#x192;y + + # & B + ! ! /# # #

/ # $ & $ $ * " $ 8 C1 $ C1 $ =>A

Time, tense and aspect # # & # E " + ! % *$ / pay )G 1 "

! $ & $ $$ " 7 "$ !& * & /# #

& $ + ! * *

" $ / $$ !! $ + + # & "$ + # ! 3 + " ! $ $$ ; *# # & / # 3 & ! 0 Q & E " " ! $ 7 & # + ! &$ & "$ # $ ! + # ! & + ! + # *$ # & # # ! ! +0" $ + ! /# "# # + $ / $$ ! # $ $ & " " C- * $ C+ $ C% $ # / # # /# & * # & + ! + & "# ! " $$ & # * &$ ! / # " # # * !! # ! & * + " & + $ * " # # + # "$ # & $ ! F /# "# # * " ! / # $ + *$ # #

# $ & & ! /# "# * "$

+ ! 7 $

Articles # "$ # + " + & / 0 0 "$ / $$ /# ! "$ "" + ; $ 8 C1 $ C' ( C $

Adjectives and adverbs F " & # "" + # & /# "# # ! + # $ + " & ! * ) # # ; $ + " $ / # F " 1 # # 7

roĂ&#x201A;t dii )G 1 " & " # # ) 1

" ) 1 $ # & + ! *$ # " 8 C $ C $ =.(

# # " & / F " < & #

*$ # ) * , , 1 # $ # F " $ + ! *$ #8 C- $ # " ! $ * + F " & # + ! & # + # ; $ + C D " $ !! $ + # & / $ # *$ # +07 + ; $ * & # $ 8 C $ C% $

Nouns # # # * " # " & / * $ $ $ + ! B 7 * $$ +0" " /# # # * $ $ $ + " & " /# ! & ! " # ! $

5 $ $ / 6 /# "# "" 07 $ # 7 " ! " $ " # $ ! + ; * # * $ + ! + *$ # ) # ! + !1 /# $ $ # $ & 8 C% $ * # / ! & & ! # # # ! # 0 $ 0 $ " "$ % ! $ ! # &$ ! $ " " " " / + ! ! " $ 7

# ! " ! $ 7 # *$ # $ # + " $ 5 "$

0 6 / $ & 7

# 8 ) 1 J ) !& 1 J )"$

0 1 # # $ ! " + " & + $ $ $ + !& " !! 8 C% $

Pronouns # ! + # " &$ ! " ! $ 7 # # + ! $ * * / # / * + / " $ # + & # # "# ! " O ! $ ! / $ 0 " * $ ! " *$ # &$ ! + # # $ =.-

& " # / $ * * ! ++ " & # * !& # # ! " $ + ! 0 3 # /# $ # ! " !! $ # 3 ! " & / * / # # $ # # $

+ ; $ "# * &$ *$ #8 C& " $ C $ ) $ # $ " + /# "# "" " !3 ! $ # 1 # ! # 3 $ ++ * 9 * # !& # $ * " + *

! $ 8 C& ) $ 1 $ C& $ 1 $ # # + ! " &F " &F " + " % #

# :

# 7

# ! 5 J J < 6 $ # *# # # / + $ + ; $ ! # " $ ! $ 8 C " !! # ! # &F " + ! " +

+ " $ "$ /# /# & * $ & # ! # + ; $ " # " ! 3 ! " *$ #8 C& $

Prepositions *$ # # # ; $ $ $ + # $ * +0" $ *$ # 5 & J 6 5 F " J 6 " !& /# "# #

*$ 3/ # & ; $ # $ "# 8 C% $ C' , $ C1 , $

Subordinate clauses # $ &$ 7 " +0" $ " * # " " & " ! $ 7 " / # & "$ % * # ! " !! * + # ! + ! $ "$

=.'

+ # &$ ! # # # $ $ " $ + ; $ " + 8 C& % $ $ $ B $ "$ # + ; $ ! # / + #

! ! " *$ # I # " $ " " "3 * + ! $ $ $ + ! # "$ 8 C) $ $ $ $ $ $ C $ $ $ $ $ $

Vocabulary $$ : $ # & + " * / /

# % # / # E 7 + / "# $ * " ! *

# $ " &$ !& + *$ # $ / & * # # $ 7 " "# & / * * # " /# "# ! # $ 0 +0" $ # /# * # / *$ # + 7 ! $ 8 paĂ&#x201A;t-tĂŁĂ k sa3taa sa3traZ fuZ t3bOOn paZ m ?En3kO3hOO + ! # $ / # ! $ & / # # *$ # $ 7 " # # $ # + # * + # 2 $ /# " / ! + ! $ / # ! " *

" & $ # + " # ! # / # $ ! " !! " " ! " *$ # # $

! # 7 *$ # " & $ $ * $ $ ! # + " /# "# * ! # $ * # 7 + $ * " !! " $$

Culture $$ * # # / $ * *$ # B ! " # $ * * & # ! +

# "

! $ + F &

; /$ * + # $ * * + # + ! " &$ 0 " $ " 0" "# # # ++ * " ! + ! # " # & * " + ! # & * " * & + " $ # $ * * # & " " $ * "# ! $ * =.=

*$ # "$

+ ! $ / # $ $ + *$ # $ $ $ & / $$ * / # " &$ ! + ! * + " + ! /# "# # / $$ * $ $ & 0 /# "# # + $ $

" !! ! *$ # # & *

$ + $ $ ! # # + & " ! $ $ ! # " "# $ " " $ ! + ! / # ; $ + $ * * " ! $ % * 7 "# $

+ *$ # # ! $ $ / # " ! "# ! ! # ++ # $ " & E & # ! # $ "# $ B# $ + ! $ & " * + " # " & " ! + # & "# # $$ * / # " $ /# # " & % # # ! + # + * / * "# *$ # # $ & + # "# $$ # *#$ " " &$ 0* "$

# $ $ $ # 0 & /# /# 5 "# & # 6 # * ! + " !! $ # *# # # $ 3& "# / $ & / $$3 0 ! # * & " $ $ # + ! # ! " $ ; * / $ &$ I /# 2 ! ! ++ # ! +

8 "

! # " + $ # ) # " $ $ $ 1 " $ ! # ++ "

+ # "# " $ # $ 2# " ! " $ "# * * * * $ 6 " " " & &$ ! " * /$ *

$ # ! + $ # & ! " " !! " 3 "#% $ $ # ! + $ # # $ * # * " # &$ " & 7 ! $ + * !! $ * / $ "# " " "$

# 2 "# # $ $ & ! # # " # "# " $ % $ $ # $ & / # " $$ ! 54 " 6 $ ! ! # ! $ ) * & $ * $ * + ; /# "# # $ " / & # * " ; ; " $ " 1 ! & # "# / # # "$

/ # / * "

! # / # # " ! ! $ $ # / * * ! " ! # / F 0 ! ! " $ $$ " 3 " # "$

! /# # $ / $$ &$ $ "$

=.>

A sample of written Thai Type-written Thai

A direct transliteration prachaakOOn thaaĂŞ phaĂ&#x192; ak taĂ&#x192; ay mii laĂ&#x201A; ksanaĂ tEĂ EktaĂ aĂŞ caĂ ak prachaakOOn Ă Ăľn baĂ&#x192; aĂŞ nay thaaĂŞ phĂŁĂ&#x2020;wphan lEĂ&#x201A; ? ruĂ&#x192;upraĂ&#x192; aĂŞ naĂ&#x192; ataa kaĂ p thaaĂŞ phaĂ&#x192; ak Ăľ Ă an khwaam pen yu Ă u lEĂ&#x201A; ? aachĂŁĂ&#x201A;ip naĂ&#x201A; n su Ă an yaĂ y kOĂ&#x192; khĂľĂľ saĂ&#x2020;mniaĂŞ phaasaĂ&#x2020;a su kaan kasikam tEĂ E mii khaĂ&#x192; aw nOĂ&#x201A; Oy kwaĂ a phaĂ&#x192; ak klaaĂŞ mii phoĂ?nlamaĂ&#x201A; ay maĂ&#x192; ak sĂľĂ&#x192; ĂŞ phOO ca pen raaydaĂ&#x192; ay dii thaĂ&#x192; a kaan khoĂ&#x2020;n soĂ ĂŞ saduĂ ak haĂ&#x2020;a talaĂ at daĂ&#x192; ay klay klay phalĂŁĂ tphoĂ&#x2020;n thĂŁĂ i pen raaydaĂ&#x192; ay khĂľĂ&#x192; n naĂ&#x192; a khĂľĂ&#x192; n taa kwaĂ a Ă&#x192; ĂŞ pluĂ uk kan maĂ&#x192; ak nay caĂŞwaĂ t tOOn phoĂ&#x2020;nlamaĂ&#x201A; ay khĂľĂľ yaaĂŞ phaaraa sĂľ taĂ&#x192; ay lEĂ&#x201A; ? muĂ&#x2020;aĂŞrEĂ&#x192; E diibuĂ k nay baaĂŞ thOĂ&#x201A; OĂŞthKĂ&#x192;i

A word-for-word translation / * # # "# " " ++ + ! / * # ! /# / + " ! $ 7 # + " / #

$ * * + $ * +

& * * " $ & # " + / # * ! $ # + ! "# /# "# +0" / $$ & " ! * + " " 0 ! " + + " /# "# " ! + " ! # + && /# "# * / * # ! "# " # ! !

An idiomatic translation # $ + # # ++ ! /# + ! # $ + # * # " ! $ 7 # " $ " # $ * * + # / + $ * "" " " # ! $ $ * " $ # $

" # # =..

B $ * # $ + + +0" & * * " ! + " ! " & + / " /# "# & * ! " &$ " ! # + # && /# "# * / # # " # ! !

=.,

The cassette and CD

I # "" ! * "

B + #

$ * * + # & / " 8 - * # " # # / # " & $ /% ' " * # # / / % = * $ # # * $ /# "# + $$ / % > * * & + $ + # $ $ " + & # 0 $ * * # / # " ! $ + " $$ ! 3" $$

"# /# "# " !! "# " " # $ * " $ " " +0" $ ! & 7 ! $ 0 # * 7 & E " + +0" $ ! ! # # / # + # "# & + # & 0 + # /# F "# $$ * # $ 0 $ * * + # $ $ # "$ * !

The introduction to the picture story & " 2 + " $ 1 " " $ " $ % ; # $ * " # " * " $ % # $ % " "

$ ) " # " " * 9 . $ A " # $ 1 $ ; $ # * $ # #! # * + # * # " $ ! $$ " 0" &$ !

=.?

$ $ $ $ / # <j< ) $ " " 9 . 1 2 $ $ $ $ <dZ< ) $ 1 2 $ $ $ 0 $ <n< + / $ ) $ * " " " 1 + $ $ $ $ "$ ) $ " " " 1 $ $ $ 0 $ " " ) 1 ) $ " " 1 $ $ $ " + <l< <r< ) $ " "

" " " * 9 " 1 $ $ $ " + <D< <T< ) $ + " " # " " " " " " 1 # $ $ $ " $ "$ <kstr< $ $ $ " + <z:< ) $ " 1 $ $ $ " + $ "$ <aeks< # $ $ $ $ * # $ $ $ "$ <ksTt< $ $ $ " + <ci< c <S< $ $ $ / + ! +

$ $ $ " + 0 $ "$ ) $ " " " " " 1 $ $ $ " + ! $ <ĂŞ*<

$ $ $ " + <O8< ) $ " # " " 1 $ $ $ $ <j< $ $ $ # #! F " / + ! + $ $ $ $ / # <w< $ $ $

0 $ $ $ $ " + <tu< c <tS< ) $ 1 $$ &$

# $ $ $ "$ + 7 " " " # ! " / # $ $ $ /# $ # <h< ! & $ # $ & ; $ $ $ " + <w<

=.@

The conclusion of the story to be told in the speaker's own words At the Lost Property Office

/ & #

" /

=.A

The Shopping List reading passage # $ " 7 ! $ + # >> *$ # # ! % # $$ # #! # / # # ! F " $ ! " " !! - + " # / " " " / $ ! $$ # # /

)<s@m< <@v< <f@< <@n< <t@<1 # !

% " 2 " " ( " # " " " " " " " " " " " " I " " " " " # " " 2 $

<j< <g< <Ãª< <S< <dZ< <D< <z< <i:< <T< <b< <I< <f< <S< <e< <r< <j< <p< <{< <b< <g< <a:< <h< <f< <k< <dZ< <Â¡< <f< <p< <t< <O:< <b< <p< <U< <k< <b< <n< <b< <t< <u:< <g< <z:< <D< <T< <i< <eI< <p< <@U< <d< <v< <s< <aI< <l< <w< <n< <aU< <m< <n< <aU@< <U@< <OI< <v< <I@< <b< <d< <e@< <dZ< <w< <s< <p< <k< <v< <Z< <g< <z< <Â¡< <dZ< <u:< <tS< <d< <z< <T< <k< <n<

"$ F "

ÃªS ÃªdZ d3j )<dZ<1 Ãªz pl Tr nz ks ts plz dZt ndb kp nt vb bz gl zd pl ts tw mbr fl mpj mb t3t nzt ksp ts kr sps nm ndZ dZ3dZ tS3tS tT

<T< <v< <tS< <h< <dZ< Ãªksv lpdZ

/ 8 # " ! " # $ # / ; $

/# $ " " # $ # # !

# 0 $ !

=,(

Contents of the cassette + 5:

- ' = > . , ? @ A -( -- -' -= -> -.

"# / # / * ! + ! ! ! + ! / K $ 4 "# + ! 4 " 4 "# + ! / K $ $ # + ! # + ! 7 " B $ : * + ! : * $ : * + ! K $

+ 3:

-, -? -@ -A '( '- '' '= '> '. ', '? '@

: $ # 4 & " # ! $ P & + ! * / # $ + ! K B# O #

=,-

Learner English -8 "#

>> ! 7 '8 : $ # # >( ! 7

Contents of the CD

- ' = > . , ? @ A -( -- -' -= -> -. -, -? -@ -A '( '- '' '= '> '. ', '?

" "# / # / * ! + ! ! 4 "# + ! 4 " $ # + ! # + ! 7 " B $ : * + ! : * $ : * + ! K $

: $ # 4 & " # ! $ P & + ! * / # $ + ! K B# O #

?- ! =( " 7

=,'