04
I N T E R U N I V E R S I T Y S T U D E N T - R U N I N T E R N AT I O N A L A F FA I R S M A G A Z I N E
SPRING 2013
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT
1
STAFF REID STANDISH The University of Glasgow Editor-in-Chief ALEXANDER DIRKSEN The University of Toronto Associate Editor ADAM KINGSMITH McMaster University Associate Editor ADAM CRISTOBAL Emily Carr University of Art + Design Design Editor KAISA HARTIKAINEN The University of Glasgow Communications Director
WRITERS Reid Standish Adam Kingsmith Alexander Dirksen Lani Seelinger Timothy Choi Paolo Sorbello Alexis Zimberg Gustavo Destro Ahtziri Gonzalez
CONTACT THEHIDDENTRANSCRIPT.COM thehiddentranscript@gmail.com @HTranscript
SPECIAL THANKS THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW Centre for Russian, Central and Eastern European Studies The Hidden Transcript reserves the right to edit all submissions for length, as well as stylistic, grammatical, and legal guidlines. The Hidden Transcript also reserves the right to reprint submissions at any time, in both written and electronic formats.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 04 08 14 18 20 24 28 32 36
THE CULTURAL HEGEMONY OF CAPITAL The greatest empire of the 21st century? / Adam Kingsmith THE KINGDOM OF THE GENETICALLY MODIFIED SEED Understanding the nexus of multinational corporations, civil society and the future of food / Reid Standish THE NEW GREAT GAME IN CENTRAL ASIA Modern rules for the oldest game on earth / Paolo Sorbello THE WHITE MAN’S UNBURDEN An analysis of imperialism through literature / Ahtziri Gonzalez FRANÇAFRIQUE ALIVE AND WELL How France still hasn’t let go of its African empire / Gustavo Destro THE LEGACY OF THE DUAL MONARCHY Why the Habsburg Empire still matters today / Lani Seelinger NOSTALGIA AND NOTIONS OF FALSE EMPIRE The (un)historical rise of the right in Hungary / Alexis Zimberg AN ORWELLIAN OVAL OFFICE A look inside the expansion of the executive branch / Alexander Dirksen IMPERIAL REACH ON THE CHEAP? +RZ &KLQD EHQHȴWV IURP $PHULFDQ supremacy / Timothy Choi
THIS ISSUE Many people think of empire as a thing of the past, a remnant of a forlorn colonial era that died with the Cold War. In its place, an apparent “End of History,â€? where the globalisation of Western liberal democracy and unmitigated transnational capital are seen as having signaled the successful end point of humanity’s sociocultural evolution. Yet, things have not exactly wrapped up nicely for history. New challenges to the status quo spring up every day - digital technologies are changing the rules of the game, corporations now ZLHOG PRUH LQČľXHQFH WKDQ QDWLRQ VWDWHV RUJDQL]HG FULPH LV PRUH LQČľXHQWLDO WKDQ HYHU DQG embattled nation-states are turning to increasingly violent means in an attempt to curb the disintegration of their monopoly on power. Instead of experiencing an end of history or empire, what we are seeing is a whole new chapter; a chapter that is much messier, more complicated, and with higher-stakes than ever before. That is why we have dedicated our latest issue to compiling these diverse perspectives on empire. Not an attempt to speculate, but in an attempt to understand. And as the quest for empire continues to intensify because more and more are contending for less and less, understanding will be needed above all else. One of the strengths of The Hidden Transcript KDV DOZD\V EHHQ LWV GLYHUVH FRQWULEXWRUV ZKR RÎ?HU XQLTXH LQVLJKWV LQWR WKH HYHQWV DQG LVVXHV WKDW LPSDFW DQG LQČľXHQFH WKH ZRUOG DURXQG XV 6XFK LV WKH FDVH IRU RXU IRXUWK LVVXH ZKRVH articles span a diverse subject matter pertaining to the broad theme of “empireâ€? in all its iterations. Associate Editor Adam Kingsmith opens the issue with his examination of the incredible reach of the global market system in “The Cultural Hegemony of Capital,â€? continuing his excellent coverage upon the transformative forces in the physical and digital world that have become a keystone of his column on the Hidden Transcript website. In “The .LQJGRP RI WKH *HQHWLFDOO\ 0RGLČ´HG 6HHG Č‹ (GLWRU LQ &KLHI 5HLG 6WDQGLVK GHOYHV LQWR D YHU\ GLÎ?HUHQW W\SH RI JOREDO empire - the misunderstood world of GMOs and the long-term impact of agricultural empires. From the “Monsanto 3URWHFWLRQ $FWČ‹ WR WKH OREE\LQJ HÎ?RUWV RI PXOWLQDWLRQDO FRUSRUDWLRQV WKLV LV D PXVW UHDG IRU WKRVH FRQFHUQHG DERXW WKH FURSV ZKLFK Č´OO RXU JURFHU\ DLVOHV 7KH JHRSROLWLFDO KRWVSRW RI &HQWUDO $VLD LV WKH IRFXV RI ČŠ7KH 1HZ *UHDW *DPH LQ Central Asiaâ€? by Paolo Sorbello — with the American withdrawal from Afghanistan and the imminent political rivalries in the region, it is an area of increased focus for the world’s more powerful states. From a look to the future the focus shifts to the past - how the concept of colonial empire has been embodied in literature is the fascinating backdrop for “The White Man Unburdenâ€? by regular Hidden Transcript columnist Ahtziri *RQ]DOH] &RORQLDO OHJDFLHV DUH DOVR WKH IRFDO SRLQW IRU ČŠ)UDQFDIULTXH $OLYH DQG :HOO Č‹ E\ +LGGHQ 7UDQVFULSW FROXPQLVW Gustavo Destro. This trend continues as Lani Seelinger and Alexis Zimberg examine historical empires, looking at GLÎ?HUHQW VHFWLRQV RI +XQJDU\ IURP WKH +DEVEXUJ (PSLUH WR UHVXUJLQJ QDWLRQDOLVP LQ FHQWUDO (XURSH The issue concludes with two pieces on the world’s “superpowerâ€? and the domestic and international impacts of its SROLWLFDO ČŠHPSLUH Č‹ ΖQ ČŠ$Q 2UZHOOLDQ 2YDO 2É?FH Č‹ $VVRFLDWH (GLWRU $OH[DQGHU 'LUNVHQ ORRNV DW WKH OLQJHULQJ LPSDFWV RI the “War on Terrorâ€? which go largely unnoticed by the American people, but which nevertheless raise considerable concerns over citizen privacy, freedom and rights. The issue concludes with a piece from longtime contributor Tim &KRL ZKR H[DPLQHV WKH RGG IDFW WKDW $PHULFDQ PLOLWDU\ VXSUHPDF\ DFWXDOO\ EHQHČ´WV &KLQD From all of us at The Hidden Transcript ZH KRSH \RX HQMR\ WKH XQLTXH SHUVSHFWLYHV KHOG LQ WKHVH SDJHV DQG ZH thank you for your continued readership. — EDITORIAL TEAM
THE CULTURAL HEGEMONY OF CAPITAL THE GREATEST EMPIRE OF THE 21ST CENTURY? ADAM KINGSMITH McMaster University Hamilton, Canada
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the petty spatial limitations of the nation-state. Its
amount of time and resources on the pursuit of
borders circumnavigate the globe, from Boston to
gratifying experiences as opposed to mildly amusing
Barcelona to Beijing and back again. It is bigger than
consumer goods? You’d think so, but then why is it
Russia, more populated than China, and more pow-
in our contemporary consumer culture we never
erful than America. And its hegemony derives from
seriously speak of progress in terms of general
manipulating the beliefs, perceptions, values, and
public health and overall happiness?
cultural ethos of our so-called “progressive� society.
Sure, we make insincere references to glossy
Its advocates — wealth-obsessed titans of indus-
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try, do this so their ruling-class principles become
Millennium Development Goals, but for the most
the world view, imposed and accepted as cultural
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norms and universally valid dominant ideologies,
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rates, and stock market values which serve as mark-
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ers of societal progress.
for everyone participating. This empire is the global market system, and its cultural hegemony is so absolute, so omnipresent, so banal, that those dominated by it — both governments and their citizens alike — are utterly oblivious to their servitude. For true empire comes from dominating discourse so outright, that one never has to use force to achieve power. Bold claims — I know. But perhaps we all need to stop mindlessly consuming for a moment and really think about it. EXPOSING THE EMPIRE Prior to the 2008 economic meltdown, the largest 100 economies in the world, 51 are multinational FRUSRUDWLRQV 01& $V RI FRUSRUDWLRQV make the top 100 largest global economies. Due to
THIS EMPIRE IS THE GLOBAL MARKET SYSTEM, AND THOSE DOMINATED BY IT ARE UTTERLY OBLIVIOUS TO THEIR SERVITUDE. FOR TRUE EMPIRE COMES FROM DOMINATING DISCOURSE SO OUTRIGHT, THAT ONE NEVER HAS TO USE FORCE TO ACHIEVE POWER.
their relative size, economic wealth, and technological PRQRSROLHV WKH\ ZLHOG VLJQLČ´FDQW LQČľXHQFH RYHU local and national governments through the threat RI PDUNHW ZLWKGUDZDO 7KXV 01&V XVH WKHVH SRZHU relations to exploit local labour, funnel resources
Yet these abstractions reveal very little when it FRPHV WR TXDOLW\ RI OLIH Take GDP for example. It is as much of a measure of
away for foreign export, and continue to expand
the market value of all goods and services produced
disparity gaps between classes and nations in a
within a country over a given period of time, as it is
21st century version of economic imperialism.
a marker of industrial misappropriation and societal
But this isn’t news. Anyone who skims the news
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or environmental degradation, and it only indicates
countries like a personal piggy bank. However, what
average output per-person, not how this output is
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disproportionally divvied-up amongst the population.
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This means that while someone who only works
the developed world as well, advocates of the global
four days a week may be much happier, that extra
market system are discreetly practicing dominant
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hegemony over populations in the developed world.
in an unhappy country where the people are over-
For example, wouldn’t it make sense for an advanced
worked, the environment is overexploited, and the
industrialised society such as ours to value wellbeing
majority of wealth is highly concentrated, the GDP
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
The greatest empire of the 21st century transcends
5
THE TOP 50 GLOBAL ECONOMIES IN MIILLIONS OF US DOLLARS
1European Union $17,549,214 US
2USA
$15,094,000 US
11 India $576,824 US
$1,736,051 US
22 Sweden
$538,131 US
31 South Africa 41 Greece
$298,734 US
$1,490,810 US
23 Poland
$278,671 US
43 Finland
$266,071 US
may in fact be relatively high. In fact, as opposed to fostering overall happiness and
$3,570,557 US
$1,371,764 US
$511,533 US
33 Sinopec Group $375,214 US
44 State Grid
5Germany
14 Australia
24 Belgium
$514,496 US
$386,463 US
42 Malaysia
$5,867,154 US
13 Spain
32 BP
$408,23 US
4Japan
$7,298,097 US
12 Canada
$1,847,981 US
21 Saudi Arabia
3China
$259,142 US
15 Mexico
$1,155,316 US
25 Norway
$485,803 US
34 UAE
$360,245 US
35 China National Petrol $352,338 US
45 Chile
$248,5854 US
to an employer, and said employer selling the fruits of these labours to the consumer in the form of
general public health, many of the services that con-
goods and services, with both the employee and
tribute to the continued growth of such “progressive�
the employer performing duel roles by simultane-
economic indicators — military spending, surveillance,
ously participating in the consumption process as
incarceration, over-policing, media regulation, and
feverent consumers themselves.
the burning of fossil fuels, actually serve to make people unhappy.
The global market system is then based on the assumption that there will always be enough
What these economic indicators really measure is
demand in society to move enough capital around
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at a rate that keeps the cyclical consumption going
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— the faster the rate, the more growth is assumed.
sumption, not happiness, which is the driving force behind our contemporary consumer culture.
The inherent problem is that this pressure to keep producing and consuming in order to sustain the cycle leads to waste and exploitation. Hence
HEGEMONY IN ACTION
everything created for sale is inferior as soon as it
Modern consumption — more accurately titled
gets produced — both indirectly by using cheap
cyclical consumption, has three major players —
materials and labour in order to keep costs low, and
the employee, the employer, and the consumer,
directly through a planned obsolesce which forces
and it is an ongoing process of monetary exchange
consumers to incessantly upgrade to newer models.
via production and consumption which cannot be
This often leads to the intentional hindering of
allowed to stop or slow down if our current socio-
the development of new technologies and mate-
economic system is to survive.
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It works by an employee selling his or her labour
— i.e. the death of the electric car, in order to keep
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
7 6France
$2,773,072 US
7Brazil
$2,476,652 US
16 South Korea $484,489 US
$345,649 US
46 Chevron
$245,621 US
47 Hong Kong
$243,666 US
$331,655 US
48 Israel
$242,929 US
30 Austria
$445,989 US
38 Columbia
$332,677 US
$17,549,214 US
29 Argentina
$446,950 US
37 Denmark
20 Switzerland
$773,091 US
28 Wal-Mart Stores
$452,92 US
$1,857,770 US
19 Turkey
$836,257 US
27 Exxon Mobil
10 Russia
$2,194,750 US
18 Netherlands
$846,832 US
36 Thailand
9Italy
$2,431,589 US
17 Indonesia
$1,116,247 US
26 Royal Dutch Shell
8United Kingdom
$418,484 US
39 Iran
$331,015 US
49 Singapore
$239,700 US
40 Venezuela
$316,482 US
50 Portugal
$237,522 US
consumption rates unsustainably high. Moreover,
do with this continual cycle of exploit, purchase,
corporations engage in the relentless brainwashing
consume and waste. Instead, the very word means the
of consumers via commercial advertising where
careful, thrifty, environmentally minded management
many spend more on ads then on the products the
RI UHVRXUFHV Čƒ DQ HÉ?FLHQW DQG FRQVHUYDWLYH DOORFDWLRQ
ads are selling.
of materials for the production and distrib--ution of
As you can see, product durability and consumer agency are inversely correlated to our current
life-supporting goods. (DUWK LV D Č´QLWH SODQHW DQG OLYLQJ WKH ZD\ ZH FXU-
V\VWHP RI HFRQRPLF ČŠJURZWK Č‹ 7KHUHIRUH HÉ?FLHQF\
rently live is anything but “economical.� A system that
sustainability, and preservation are enemies of the
deliberately promotes continual and even acceler-
current processes of cyclical consumption.
ated consumption for the sake of some abstract
1R LQGXVWU\ KDV D VHULRXV LQWHUHVW LQ ORQJ WHUP
indicators of “economic growth� which actually serve
Č´[HV &ULPH GLVHDVH WHUURULVP HQYLURQPHQWDO GHJUD-
to make us substantially less happy is illogical and
dation, even warfare — in our current socio-economic
even suicidal.
paradigm, these are all good things insofar as they
Yet, that is true hegemony — an empire so domi-
keep people employed — thereby earning capital,
nant, so authoritative, that few are ever even aware
and feeding it back into the cycle by supporting more
WKDW LW H[LVWV $QG XQWLO ZH ZRUN WR FULWLFDOO\ TXHVWLRQ
consumption.
why it is that we need to consume so much, waste so
This is how we slowly but surely get the hegemonic
much, and allow wealth gaps to increase both within
wool pulled over our eyes — waste, overconsump-
our own country, and between the developed and
tion and unsustainability rule the day, and progress
developing worlds, the rulers of capital — not the
LV GHČ´QHG QRW E\ KHDOWK DQG KDSSLQHVV EXW E\ DQ
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augmented materialism and greed. Ironically, the term “economy� has nothing to
THE KINGDOM OF THE GENETICALLY MODIFIED SEED UNDERSTANDING THE NEXUS OF MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS, CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE FUTURE OF FOOD REID STANDISH The University of Glasgow Glasgow, Scotland
life’s savings on expensive GM seeds. The problem
ample of the collusion between big business and
is compounded by the fact that all of the above posi-
government. Slipped into the Agricultural Appropri-
tions may actually be true.
ations Bill, which passed through Congress in April 2013, was a small provision with big implications.
PLANTING THE SEEDS FOR CORPORATE GROWTH
The provision, which was added as part of a spend-
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ing bill that President Obama was eager to sign,
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U.S. and in several other countries. Production in
from litigation in the face of health risks. Later
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dubbed the “Monsanto Protection Act� by activists
still accounts for about half of total global area, but
who oppose the corporate behemoth and biotech
from the initial years over a million hectares have
leader, the bill sparked intense debate on what is
been sown outside the United States. Since then,
one of the world’s most divisive issues.
the areas under GM production have expanded
Since their inception, GM crops have emerged as
rapidly across the globe, at a rate over 10 per cent
a nexus for a host of competing political, social, and
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cade. By 2005, 21 countries around the world were
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producing GM crops, most notably amongst them:
GM varieties to environmental and anti-globaliza-
the U.S., China, Argentina, Brazil, and India. Today,
tion groups who see the crops as exploitative and
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dangerous. Even though the Monsanto Protection Act is set to expire after a few months, it highlights the debate on GM crops between critics, supporters and everyone caught in between. At the heart of the GM debate is the issue of food SURGXFWLRQ IRU WKH IXWXUH +RZHYHU WKH GLÉ?FXOW\ is that the issue is shaded in so many varieties of JUH\ 2YHU WKH QH[W \HDUV \LHOGV LQ FURSV QHHG WR rise by around 1.5 per cent a year in order to feed mankind. GM technology may be able to help shore this gap. GM maize, which has had by far the most genetic research, has achieved yields above 1.5 per cent. If genetic research can be extended to wheat, rice, and soybeans, a huge portion of the food gap PD\ EH Č´OOHG E\ +RZHYHU WKLV LV D ELJ LI 0XOtinational biotech corporations have generally shied away from this avenue of research and opposition
GM CROPS COME WITH A HOST OF POTENTIALLY REVOLUTIONARY BENEFITS. YET, IN PRACTICE, MOST FARMERS HAVE BEEN EFFECTIVELY PRICED OUT OF GM CROPS OR HAVE ACCUMULATED MASSIVE DEBTS, WHICH HAVE CAUSED BANKRUPTCY.
groups have outright denied it. 7KHUH DUH VRPH VXFK DV WKH %ULWLVK EDVHG 1XÉ?HOG Council on Bioethics, who view the technology itself
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as sound, but see it as shrouded in a corporate,
changes because the science of agricultural biotech-
patent-based model that prevents the technology
nology was a major departure from conventional
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breeding. Moreover, the process of developing a GM
there are supporters at each extreme, who either
crop, from laboratory experimentation to the farm-
see the corporate dominance of giants such as
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Monsanto as a necessary evil that pays for ground-
process, but also biosafety testing, and commercial-
breaking research and development, and others
ization. Due to these hurdles, a substantial amount
who see GM crops as 21st century serfdom, forcing
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poor farmer’s into debt and contractual bondage
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that they can never escape as they spend their
The change that was to follow was mostly U.S.
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
There couldn’t have been a more illustrative ex-
9
1996 1997
1.7 11.0
1998
27.9
1999
39.9
2000
44.2
2001
52.6
2002
58.7
2003
67.7
2004
81.0
2005
90.0
2006
102.0
2007
114.3
2008
125.0
2009
134.0
2010
148.0
2011
160.0
2012
170.3
GLOBAL AREA OF BIOTECH CROPS 1996-2012 IN MILLIONS OF HECTARES
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new conditions for GM crops to thrive as an indus-
market became revolutionized, with multinational
try. Chemical companies, like Monsanto, lobbied for
corporations like Monsanto as regent at the top.
new regulations about licensing technology from universities. In turn, the U.S. government adopted
REAPING WHAT YOU SOW
pro-biotech policies, including sizable funding for
The spread of GM crops has varied greatly across
research. The U.S. government then lifted restric-
the globe, mostly due to varying levels of farmer
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demand and the high costs of seeds due to patents.
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However, there have also been a variety of advan-
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tages associated with GM crops to help warrant the
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high cost of seeds. For instance, the pest-resistant
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GM crop, Bt cotton, has been shown to be superior
their own intellectual property.
to conventional varieties in a multitude of studies
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in an environment of weak patents in the U.S. and
the extra costs of Bt cotton have had detrimental
beyond. Patents were limited to horticultural crops
impacts on the livelihoods of local farmers. Seed
and to plants covered through the Plant Variety
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costs for non-GM varieties, while in China they are
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vention. UPOV provided 20 years of a loose form of
GM crops come with a host of potentially revolu-
patent protection, but still allowed farmers to save
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seedsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;something that removed the corporate
exports, a competitive niche on international agri-
incentive for investment because customers would
culture markets, increased farm incomes, reduced
only need to buy seeds once. Moreover, under
poverty, reduced hunger, improved food security,
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and decreased chemical use, thereby reducing envi-
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ronmental and health hazards. Yet, in practice, most
However, the environment changed substantially
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crops or have accumulated massive debts, which
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have caused bankruptcy.
plant varieties and genes could be patented. In
This has mostly developed because multinational
the same year, the Bayh-Dole Act authorized the
corporations, who are investing large sums in bio-
patenting of federally funded research. This meant
technology and plant breeding, need large markets
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for their products and strong patent protection to
patent their discoveries and license them to com-
guard their investments. As a result, investments
mercial investors, which ultimately made biotech-
in more poor-friendly GM seeds that cater to the
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needs of developing world farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;like increased
These landmarks were followed by more lobby-
\LHOGVČ&#x192;KDYH EHHQ QHJOHFWHG Î&#x2013;QVWHDG WKH Č´UVW
ing by the biotech industry for tighter intellectual
generation of GM crops is a story of a product that
property protection globally through the WTO and
bypasses the needs of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s poor and hungry.
other trade agreements. The enforcement and
This has led to two major, and somewhat contra-
spread of the international patent regime was a
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vital force in being able to create the necessary re-
movement and a black market for GM seeds.
search to bring GM crops to market. However, the
The criticisms levied by anti-GM advocates tend to
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vary, but are generally concerned with the corpo-
and spread has had a severe impact on several
rate nature of GM seeds and the corresponding
socioeconomic factors across the globe, leading
cycle of debt, issues of crop-diversity and a lack of
many small farmers to being priced out of the
testing for GM crops before their introduction into
EHQHČ´WV WKDW ELRWHFK KDV WR RÎ?HU 5HJDUGOHVV RYHU
the marketplace. Like many aspects of the GM sto-
the course of a few decades, the regulatory envi-
ry, the outcome of lobbying by the anti-GM move-
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
lead, with both private and public sectors creating
11
ment has been contradictory and has had many unintended results. For instance, organizations with anti-GM agen-
lowers or outright removes lofty pesticide costs. Yet, due to the lower levels of research and develRSPHQW LQ EODFN PDUNHW VHHGV WKHLU HÎ?HFWLYHQHVV LV
das such as Genewatch in India and The Land-
much lower than authorized seeds. Recent studies
less Movement in Brazil, have been able to make
in both India and China showed that the informal
VLJQLČ´FDQW LQURDGV LQWR FUHDWLQJ PRUH UHJXODWLRQ RQ
market seeds did not perform as well as the autho-
the approval of further GM varieties being brought
UL]HG *0 VHHGV 7KH QHW HÎ?HFW RI WKHVH VFHQDULRV
to market. While this could lead to better tested
is a theme that is universal across the globe as the
FURSV LQ WKH IXWXUH WKH HÎ?HFW VR IDU KDV EHHQ
seed market has been regulated through domestic
the strengthening of corporate control in the GM
and international institutional changes: those in
market. In both India and China, the cost of a more
greatest need have been phased out and made
stringent biosafety process and more obstacles be-
more or less redundant.
fore release have created a less competitive market, ZLWK ORFDO VHHG SURGXFHUVČ&#x192;WKRVH EHVW HTXLSSHG WR developed varieties for the needs of country-speFLČ´F PDUNHWVČ&#x192;QRW EHLQJ DEOH WR Č´QDQFH WKH QHZ stricter testing regulations. This has left Monsanto and its local joint ventures with virtual monopolies on most approved GM crops in several countries. Besides lobbying for tougher regulations, some anti-GM organizations have called for the abandonment of the technology altogether, calling genetic PRGLČ´FDWLRQ D KHDOWK ULVN 2QH RI WKH PRVW IDPRXV critics is the Prince of Wales himself. Prince Charles has long called for a moratorium on GM crops, call-
OVER THE NEXT 40 YEARS, YIELDS IN CROPS NEED TO RISE BY AROUND 1.5 PER CENT A YEAR IN ORDER TO FEED MANKIND. GM TECHNOLOGY MAY BE ABLE TO HELP SHORE THIS GAP.
ing them unsafe, while simultaneously championing WKH HÎ?HFWLYHQHVV RI RUJDQLF IDUPLQJ 2I FRXUVH Prince Charles is also the founder of the Duchy 2ULJLQDOV RUJDQLF IRRG FRPSDQ\ DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ KROGV D ODUJH Č´QDQFLDO VWDNH LQ WKH JURZWK RI RUJDQLF
FROM SEEDS TO HARVEST
farming and the downfall of its main competitorâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;GM
The political landscape surrounding GM crops is
crops. Like other aspects of the GM debate, even the
so divisive because it is an issue that encompasses
anti-GM movement remains shrouded in grey, unable
VR PDQ\ GLÎ?HUHQW VWRU\OLQHV 7KH SRWHQWLDO WKDW *0
WR VHSDUDWH LWV FDXVH IURP LWV Č´QDQFLDO LQWHUHVWV
technology holds is great and could lead to substan-
Meanwhile, caught between two giants, a black
tial breakthroughs in global food production and
market of GM seed dealers has developed. In many
poverty across the developing world. However, the
FRXQWULHV FRPSDQLHV UHTXLUH IDUPHUV WR VLJQ D
corporate nature of the GM system has prevented
contract agreeing not to save their own seeds, mak-
the technology from reaching its full potential. Also,
ing them buy GM seeds annually from a licensed
UHFHQW GHYHORSPHQWV KDYH EURXJKW WKH HÎ?HFWLYH-
supplier. In the U.S., enforcement is handled by the
QHVV RI *0 WHFKQRORJ\ LQWR TXHVWLRQ 1HZ UHVHDUFK
seed companies themselves, which have an incen-
IURP WKH 6ZLVV 1DWLRQDO 6FLHQFH )RXQGDWLRQ KDV
tive to take care of it. However, in many developing
found that Bt cotton crops, which contain a toxin
FRXQWULHV DJUHHPHQWV DUH PXFK PRUH GLÉ?FXOW WR
poisonous to bollworms, the primary pest of cotton,
enforce and like with many other forms of patented
have considerably weaker defenses against their
intellectual property, a burgeoning counterfeit black
secondary pests, such as aphids. While this does
market has emerged. These counterfeit seeds are
not imply that the technology is a fraud, it does,
VROG DW PXFK ORZHU SULFHV DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ KDYH
KRZHYHU UDLVH WKH TXHVWLRQ DERXW WKH HÎ?HFWLYHQHVV
reached a much wider market, allowing more farm-
of GM crops and whether they are everything that
HUV WR EHQHČ´W IURP SHVW UHVLVWDQW WHFKQRORJ\ ZKLFK
supporters have chalked them up to be.
ger to cry corporate wolf, while neglecting the commercial interests within their own lobby. Moreover, anti-GM civil society is yet to come to terms with the fact that the emergence of a black market of GM seeds is a sign that true demand for the product exists and that it could be the international patent system responsible for the disparities amongst WKRVH ZKR EHQHȴW IURP *0 WHFKQRORJ\ All of these interests converge within the topic of GM seeds. Like competing kingdoms on the same continent, the nexus of big business, globalized civil VRFLHW\ DQG TXHVWLRQV VXUURXQGLQJ WKH IXWXUH RI food production are often at odds with one anothHU 7LPH LV \HW WR WHOO LI RQH NLQJGRP FDQ FRQTXHU the other, but with developments like the Monsanto Protection Act as a reminder, the politicization of GM crops is still underway. It may not be empire in the conventional sense, but the kingdom of the seed is still expanding across the globe.
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
Meanwhile, the anti-GM movement has been ea-
13
THE NEW GREAT GAME IN CENTRAL ASIA MODERN RULES FOR THE OLDEST GAME ON EARTH PAOLO SORBELLO The University of Glasgow Glasgow, Scotland
Recent developments in Central Asia have shown
region, whether the West agrees or not. Russia,
WKH FRQČľXHQFH RI RYHUODSSLQJ LQWHUHVWV IURP DOO
China, and India are all looking at their landlocked
global powers. A heated debate has involved sev-
neighbors as partners for economic and political
eral think tanks in Washington on the future of the
opportunities, not just as an arena for military
86 LQYROYHPHQW LQ WKH UHJLRQ DIWHU WKH SXOORXW
showdowns.
from Afghanistan. European states and supranational organizations seek bilateral and multilateral
BACKGROUND
ties with these faraway countries, while sending
(YHU VLQFH WKH WK FHQWXU\ &HQWUDO $VLD KDV EHHQ
warning messages about their democratic develop-
the apple of contention for both Imperial Russia
ment.
DQG WKH 8QLWHG .LQJGRP 7KH EDWWOH IRU LWV FRQTXHVW
Here is where most of the media coverage on the
was called â&#x20AC;&#x153;the Great Gameâ&#x20AC;? and stretched through
matter stops. But beyond our western perspective
the ancient paths of the Silk Road, encompassing
we can see that there are more geopolitical and
what is nowadays considered Greater Central Asia
geoeconomic actors that can play a role in the
ZKLFK LQFOXGHV $IJKDQLVWDQ 7KH Č´YH FRXQWULHV
infrastructure development have increased friendly
LQ ZHUH ORQJ GRPLQDWHG EXW QHYHU IXOO\
relations, albeit not to the level desired by Brussels.
FRQTXHUHG .D]DNKVWDQ .\UJ\]VWDQ 7DMLNLVWDQ
The supercilious behavior displayed by the European
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were subjugated by
supranational bodies is not shared by European
Russian-speaking centers of power, the Empire and
multinational companies, who turn a blind eye to
the Soviet Union, but maintained a strong identity
TXHVWLRQV EH\RQG PDUNHW LQWHUHVWV
and cultivated the seeds for a renaissance. Î&#x2013;Q WKH V WKH :HVW HQWHUHG HFRQRPLF UHODWLRQV
The Russian Federation is enjoying a period of good relations with Central Asian countries,
with the newly-independent Central Asian countries.
especially with its most direct southern neighbor,
The initial success in setting foot in the heart of
Kazakhstan. However, Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attempts at oth-
Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s former imperial backyard was a political
erwise clinching military agreements have usually
victory for the Western powers. The focus of
failed. Energy relations have been satisfactory and
their fears, militarily and economically, had always
PXWXDOO\ EHQHČ´FLDO IRU DOPRVW WZHQW\ \HDUV EHIRUH
been Moscow, due to its proximity and its aggres-
&KLQD EUXVTXHO\ HQWHUHG LQ WKH RLO DQG JDV VHFWRU
sive foreign policy towards post-Soviet states. In-
RI .D]DNKVWDQ DQG 7XUNPHQLVWDQ DQG Č´QDQFHG WKH
WHUHVWLQJO\ &HQWUDO $VLDQ VWDWHV FKLHČľ\ .D]DNKVWDQ
construction of new eastward pipelines.
Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, have chosen to avoid
By breaking the Russian status of monopsnonist,
a revival of the Cold War, or of the Great Game for that matter. Instead, they have been striving for a multi-vector foreign policy, including China and India among their economic and military allies. All-powerful players see the area as a land for conTXHVW VRPH HYHQ Č&#x160;IRU VDOHČ&#x2039; ZKHUHDV WKH OHDGHUV of the region are trying to establish themselves as the main actors in the region, for the sake of the region. The conventional view is that the Russian Federation and the United States are competing superpowers that are engaged in a tug-of-war over a territory rich in natural resources and strategically close to many geopolitical hotspots: Afghanistan, Î&#x2013;UDQ 3DNLVWDQ DQG WKH &DXFDVXV Î&#x2013;I ZH WDNH RÎ? the Cold War blinders, though, we might look at a
ALL-POWERFUL PLAYERS SEE THE AREA AS A LAND FOR CONQUEST, WHEREAS THE LEADERS OF THE REGION ARE TRYING TO ESTABLISH THEMSELVES AS THE MAIN ACTORS IN THE REGION, FOR THE SAKE OF THE REGION.
broader map that includes other major powers: China and India, alongside with Europe. Once our vision is wider and we gather the point of view of
sole buyer of Central Asian hydrocarbons thanks
the regional powers as well, the task of analyzing
to the Soviet-era pipeline network, China has
Central Asia becomes easier and more interesting.
decided to up the ante in the new power scheme. %HLMLQJČ&#x2021;V Č´UVW VWHS ZDV WR FRQFRFW WKH VHFXULW\ JURXS
GLOBAL POWERS AND CENTRAL ASIA
RI 6KDQJKDL ERUQ LQ UHQDPHG 6KDQJKDL
The old dichotomy between Russia and the West
Cooperation Organization and revitalized in 2001),
FDQQRW Č´W ZLWK WKH FRPSOH[LW\ RI WKLV SDUW RI WKH
which aimed to establish collaboration on issues of
world. First of all, the script of the United States
extremism and separatism between Russia, Central
is changing with the decision to withdraw from
Asia, and China. The second step has evidently been
Afghanistan. The lines that this actor will recite after
taken in the direction of economic penetration,
ZLOO EH D VXUSULVH WR WKH DXGLHQFH RI REVHUYHUV
rather than military confrontation.
On the other side of the Atlantic, European institu-
India is a latecomer to the Central Asian stage.
tions are proving weak on two levels: militarily, they
The fact that India was the stronghold of the British
VHUYH DV WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH 1$72 PLVVLRQ QRW
Empire during the Great Game, often conceals the
as its backbone; projects in education, trade, and
great importance represented by the reciprocal
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
that gained independence from the Soviet Union
15
LQČľXHQFH EHWZHHQ &HQWUDO $VLD DQG WKH Î&#x2013;QGLDQ
sides looking at the whole power map surrounding
VXEFRQWLQHQW GXULQJ WKH 0XJKDO HPSLUH WK WK
the Eurasian steppe, it might be useful to explore its
century). Today, India has become a leading eco-
inner relevance, the role of local governments and
nomic power in the region and around the globe.
peoples.
The waning of the war in Afghanistan has given rise
Central Asian leaders reinvented an identity for
to the prospective construction of the TAPI pipeline,
their countries after the collapse of the Soviet
which would allow the transfer of natural gas from
8QLRQ 1DWLRQDO DQWKHPV ČľDJV DQG GHPRJUDSKLF
Turkmenistan, through Afghanistan and Pakistan,
UHFRQČ´JXUDWLRQV WRRN SODFH DIWHU ZKHQ 5XV-
WR Î&#x2013;QGLD 6XFK D GHDO FRXOG RÎ?VHW (XURSHČ&#x2021;V GUHDPV
siaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s timid foreign policy made room for business
IRU WKH YLDELOLW\ RI D 6RXWKHUQ &RUULGRU 1DEXFFR
penetration from the West into the region. The
which would then lack suppliers. In addition, TAPI
growth in economic exchange with Europe and the
could strengthen the ties between countries whose
US, together with a more aggressive approach from
history of stability is short or non-existent. Between
Moscow, presented Central Asia with the opportuni-
DQG Î&#x2013;QGLDČ&#x2021;V WUDGH UHODWLRQV ZLWK .D]DNK-
ty to balance their diplomatic and economic activity
stan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan have soared,
between former rivals. Running with the hare and
displaying the renewed interest of India, once the
KXQWLQJ ZLWK WKH KRXQGV 1XUVXOWDQ 1D]DUED\HY DQG
mother of the southern civilizations of Central Asia.
Islam Karimov, presidents of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan respectively, gained the most from a situation
A VIEW FROM THE REGION
RI YDU\LQJ HTXLOLEULD 2QFH &KLQD DQG Î&#x2013;QGLD HQWHUHG
All exogenous actors considered are important be-
the picture, the multi-vector foreign policy advertised
FDXVH RI WKHLU LQČľXHQFH LQ WKH UHJLRQ +RZHYHU EH-
LQ RÉ?FLDO GRFXPHQWV LQ $VWDQD DQG 7DVKNHQW FRXOG
In the past few years, however, trouble in Tajiki-
retreat of Western military presence from Central $VLD DUH JRLQJ WR GLPLQLVK 1$72Č&#x2021;V UROH LQ WKH UHJLRQ
stan, contention between Kazakhstan and Uzbeki-
now the weakest player in the area. The resulting
stan in the area of the ever-shrinking Aral Sea, and
YRLG ZLOO EH Č´OOHG E\ PRUH UHJLRQ VSHFLČ´F RUJDQL-
internal instability in Kyrgyzstan could not be swiftly
zations, most probably the SCO, given the involve-
resolved, notwithstanding the diplomatic activity by
ment of China.
the SCO. Its most notable actions were the ones
With economic factors winning the lionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s share
rebuking the Westâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s involvement in the region: at
RI LQČľXHQFH RYHU UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH UHJLRQ
the Astana summit in 2005 a joint statement called
DQG WKH SRZHUV &KLQD DQG Î&#x2013;QGLD Č´QG WKHPVHOYHV
IRU WKH Č´UVW WLPH WKH RFFXS\LQJ DOOLDQFH LQ $IJKDQL-
in pole-position to gain the most from their Cen-
stan to â&#x20AC;&#x153;set a timetable for their troops to withdraw
tral Asian neighbors. The absence of concern for
from Central Asia military basesâ&#x20AC;?. The main focus of
human rights or the rule-of-law enables Beijing and
the declaration was the American airbase in Manas,
1HZ 'HOKL WR LQWHUDFW ZLWK &HQWUDO $VLDQ FDSLWDOV RQ
Kyrgyzstan. The SCO statement did not receive
a pure business basis. The lengthy process of trying
a strong follow-up from the Kyrgyz government,
to build the Southern Corridor to link Central Asian
which was undergoing tumultuous months.
and Caucasian hydrocarbons with the EU consum-
Direct confrontations vis-Ă -vis Operation Enduring
HUV KDV FDXVHG 1DEXFFR WR IDOO WR WKH ERWWRP RI
)UHHGRP 2() HPHUJHG LQ ZKHQ .XUPDQEHN
the priority list for Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and
Bakiyev forced the renegotiation of the terms for
Uzbekistan. While European and American lobbyists
the base. The last troubled years have seen various
IRU WKH 1DEXFFR SURMHFW DUJXHG LQ WKH KDOO DERXW
Kyrgyz leaders making political use of the threat to
how to address countries that did not fully meet
shut down military operations in Manas once the
their democratic standards, Chinese and Indian
OHDVH LV RYHU LQ 7XUNPHQLVWDQ LV FRQVWDQWO\ RXW
businessmen were shaking hands behind closed
of the diplomatic talks and isolated from interna-
doors with Central Asian leaders.
tional dialogue due to its dreadful dictatorship. Even
0LOLWDULO\ 1$72Č&#x2021;V GLVHQWDQJOHPHQW DQG 1$72Č&#x2021;V
the controversy on the status of the Caspian basin
disappearance from Central Asia are not conse-
cannot be resolved due to Ashgabatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resistance.
TXHQWLDO Î&#x2013;W EHFDPH FOHDU DW WKH &KLFDJR 6XPPLW RI
A comprehensive, yet unorthodox analysis of the
May 2012 that after combat operations are over in
main actors in the region suggests that, the legit-
LWV SUHVHQFH LQ WKH UHJLRQ ZLOO EH PDLQWDLQHG
imacy of the leaders rests on thin ice, as peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
albeit to a lesser degree. Analysts argue that only
demands diverge from government plans. Be it to
the EUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic and diplomatic â&#x20AC;&#x153;soft powerâ&#x20AC;? can
please investors or to placate western human rights
VXEVWLWXWH WKH KHDY\ SUHVHQFH RI 1$72Č&#x2021;V IRUFHV LQ
organizations, the oligarchies of each Central Asian
WKH UHJLRQ 7KLV ZRXOG FRQVHTXHQWO\ DOOHYLDWH WKH
country have favored an uneven development and
feeling of a foreign occupation in the minds of Cen-
a climate of corruption that worked against the
tral Asian peoples.
emancipation of the people from oppressive rule.
This â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gameâ&#x20AC;? is clearly of a new kind. The former
The distance between rulers and ruled might be
imperial contenders are gone and the new players
narrowed with the substitution of ageing leaders
have just learned rules and limitations. As long as
OLNH .DULPRY RU 1D]DUED\HY ZKR KDYH HPERGLHG
the region remains at the center of the power com-
the icons of power in the region.
pass, Central Asian countries will be able to control their fate by choosing a favorable balance between
THE NEW, COMPLEX BALANCE
their powerful neighbors and the West. The issue of
Recently, the balance sheet of the relations be-
D SRVW .DULPRY DQG SRVW 1D]DUED\HY WUDQVLWLRQ DQG
tween countries in the region and powers outside
WKH TXHVWLRQ RI VWDELOLW\ LQ .\UJ\]VWDQ DQG 7DMLNLVWDQ
the region has followed a waning military-intensive
might bring about a renewed thrust by Central
pattern with partners from the north-west (USA, EU,
$VLDQ OHDGHUV LQ VHDUFK IRU GLYHUVLČ´HG VRXUFHV RI
Russia) and a ramping economic relationship with
cooperation.
China and India to the south-east. The end of the war in Afghanistan and the likelihood of a massive
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
materialize in all directions of the compass.
17
THE WHITE MAN’S UNBURDEN AN ANALYSIS OF IMPERIALISM THROUGH LITERATURE AHTZIRI GONZALEZ Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education Monterrey, Mexico
based on an unfair economic relationship of natural
system in which a single supreme ethnic group
resources and labor exploitation. There is no racial
rules among an extensive territory comprising a
mixing, local languages are preserved, and there is
number of nations. This means that in all cases,
a higher level of cultural alienation.
LW LQYROYHV FRQWURO GRPLQDWLRQ FRQTXHVW DQG
In contrast, we have the work by Jose Rizal, a
authoritarian power from one party to the other,
wealthy Filipino nationalist and reformist. While
causing a complex dynamic of socially constructed
VWXG\LQJ LQ 6SDLQ KH ZURWH WKH QRYHO Č&#x160;1ROL 0H
UDFLVP 7KLV KDV EHHQ MXVWLČ´HG E\ WKH FRQTXHURU
Tangereâ&#x20AC;? (Touch me not), in which he denounces
DQG DFFHSWHG E\ WKH FRQTXHUHG EHFDXVH RI UHOLJLRQ
the authoritarian rule of the Spanish in the Philip-
alleged racial supremacy, and even the burden of
pines, focusing mainly in the abuse of power by the
bringing progress to the new territories; causing
Catholic Church, and the strongly hierarchical colo-
WKH SHUSHWXDWLRQ RI WKH VWDWXV TXR XQWLO WKHVH LGHDV
nial society. This piece describes a higher imperial
EHFRPH ZLGHO\ TXHVWLRQHG DQ HPSLUH IDOOV DQG
involvement level, in which the colonial powers mix
another one rises.
with the local people and create a new race and cul-
Throughout history, these social and political
ture, a common trait of the Spanish empire in Latin
HYHQWV KDYH EHHQ WKH LQVSLUDWLRQ IRU GLÎ?HUHQW NLQGV
America or the Philippines. In these cases, language
of cultural expressions, of which with no doubt the
and religion were forced and adopted by the State,
most representative is literature. Written works
and social status was determined by the â&#x20AC;&#x153;purenessâ&#x20AC;?
have helped to foster revolution or perpetuate
of blood, but still some mixed races could have
supremacy, create awareness about exploitation
access to education and power to some extent. It
or promote racial discrimination, and nowadays
was these outliers that eventually led the social and
they help us to understand the social context lived
political revolutions that followed, wanting a higher
GXULQJ WKHVH HSRFKV 'HVSLWH RIWHQ EHLQJ Č´FWLRQ
involvement in politics and decision-making pro-
several books written during the times of empire,
cesses. Rizal himself later became an independence
by people living in this era, have served as political
leader and remains a national hero.
tools and also as important historic documents, and
Finally, no study about colonial literature can miss
therefore, literature should be taken into consider-
Rudyard Kipling, an Englishman born in India, and a
ation for any analysis of imperialism.
controversial interpreter of how the British Empire
Actually, few historical events have produced as
was experienced. His works describe the social sys-
many literary works as colonial domination, partic-
tem with no moral judgments. He travelled through
ularly the 20th century European imperialism. With
the British territories and wrote about the atrocities
most of the world controlled by a few nations, poli-
that he saw, but with a certain degree of approval
tics, society, and economy were naturally shaped by
as he viewed them helping to preserve the colonial
this phenomenon.
order. His works were widely read in the United
For example, Joseph Conrad, a Polish writer who
.LQJGRP PDNLQJ KLP KLJKO\ LQČľXHQWLDO RQ KRZ WKH
worked a short time for a foreign company in cen-
regular citizens perceived the role of the British in
tral Africa, in his famous novel â&#x20AC;&#x153;Heart of Darknessâ&#x20AC;?
Asia and Africa.
denounced the atrocities being committed in Congo
&RQFOXGLQJ WKHUH LV D SUROLČ´F RÎ?HULQJ RI FRORQLDO
by the Belgians. In this piece, biased by his views as
literature than can help exemplify the context and
a foreigner, he notes the exploitation and constant
social systems created by empires. Supporting or
violation of the most basic human rights of natives
denouncing it, authors have reached wide audienc-
at river stations, where steamboats traded. At the
es becoming advocates for change or perpetuators
same time, he also shows the social acceptance of
of the imperial zeitgeist. Literature has been the
these activities: how the foreign contractors did not
channel to express generalized views about this
realize they were doing something wrong, and were
political order, sometimes even to describe the
used to seeing Africans as objects or a machin-
morality of a society. If colonialism was the white
ery-like labour force. This book shows a kind of
manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s burden, literature was then their outlet to
imperialism built as a commercial venture, in which
unburden themselves.
WKH UHODWLRQVKLS RI WKH FRQTXHURU DQG FRQTXHUHG LV
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
Î&#x2013;Q LWV PRVW EDVLF GHČ´QLWLRQ DQ HPSLUH LV D SROLWLFDO
19
FRANĂ&#x2021;AFRIQUE ALIVE AND WELL HOW FRANCE STILL HASNâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;T LET GO OF ITS AFRICAN EMPIRE GUSTAVO DESTRO Simon Fraser University Vancouver, Canada
Franceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s colonial empire was never a source of
a population of some 10 million. France divided this
pride for its population as the British Empire was
vast territory into eight colonies, loosely drawing up
for Brits. There are no bombastic patriotic songs
borders on the map but never truly caring to mark
VXFK DV Č&#x2020;5XOH %ULWDQQLDČ&#x2021; QR Č´OPV RU ERRNV JORULI\LQJ
LW RQ WKH JURXQG VLQFH DOO RI LW ZDV RÉ?FLDOO\ SDUW RI D
the exploits of the men who pushed deep into the
VLQJOH HQWLW\ Č&#x201A; OČ&#x2021;$IULTXH RFFLGHQWDOH IUDQŠDLVH RU $2)
depths of a continent that both frightened and
VHH PDS Č&#x201A; UXQ IURP RÉ?FHV LQ 'DNDU 6HQHJDO :KDW
IDVFLQDWHG (XURSHDQV 5DWKHU )UDQFH FRQTXHUHG LWV
is most ridiculous is that France never expected
RYHUVHDV FRORQLHV GXULQJ WKH ODWH WK FHQWXU\ LQ
its colonies to become independent, so they never
the period known as the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;scramble for Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; simply
took the borders seriously.
because it was the prestigious thing to do. France wished to explore the mineral and agricul-
Although for the average French citizen the empire overseas was not a source of pride or
tural wealth of the region and since Britain was not
concern, for the national leaders it was everything.
interested in the Sahara or the Sahel, it gave the
7KH SHULRG RI WKH ODWH WK FHQWXU\ ZDV RQH ZKHUH
)UHQFK IUHH UHLJQ %\ LW FRQWUROOHG PLOOLRQ
the rivalry between world powers was measured by
VTXDUH PLOHV RI UDLQIRUHVW VDYDQQD DQG GHVHUW ZLWK
who had the greatest control of land overseas, with
nominally lost all of its African territories, and like it
dominating the mindset of educated men. Within
had always done, France refused to let go.
this mindset, the best way to prove superiority lay
However, France remained with a foot in the door.
in how much â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;untamedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; territory a state could bring
By subversion and economic manipulation, it held
under its control.
PDQ\ RI LWV IRUPHU FRORQLHV Č´UPO\ ZLWKLQ LWV VSKHUH
This mentality of complete control was one which
RI LQČľXHQFH 7KRXJK RQH FRXOG PDNH WKH FDVH WKDW
was long-lasting and tough to die. When the pro-
Britain has the same system still at work, in the form
cess of decolonization began, France was reluctant
of the commonwealth, the reality is that Britain
to let go. Devastated by both World Wars â&#x20AC;&#x201C; psycho-
had long ago given up on trying to tell its former
logically even more so than physically â&#x20AC;&#x201C; some saw
colonies what to do, let alone making them do it.
the loss of colonies as further proof of the lack of
France, on the other hand, spent the second half of
power and prestige of the French nation and so
the twentieth century with its hands in Africa.
FKRVH WR Č´JKW RQ Immediately after the end of the Second World War, the Fourth French Republic was instituted and with the introduction of its constitution came a change in the colonial system. Overseas colonies were now part of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;French Unionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and though the name changed, little else did. At the same time, tensions escalated in French Indochina (now Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) and leadersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; stubbornness in keeping the empire together led to a protracted DQG XQSRSXODU ZDU IRXJKW XQWLO $ GHFLVLYH defeat at Dien Bien Phu signalled the end of any chance of maintaining a French presence in the region. Immediately after the defeat in Southeast Asia, the struggle to keep the empire together shifted much closer to homeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;to Algeria. Algeria was of paramount importance because it ZDV RÉ?FLDOO\ QRW D FRORQ\ EXW D UHJLRQ RI )UDQFH like Brittany, Lorraine, or Ă&#x17D;le-de-France itself. The
NEW PRESIDENT FRANĂ&#x2021;OIS HOLLANDE DEEMED, LAST OCTOBER THAT: â&#x20AC;&#x153;THERE IS FRANCE, AND THEN THERE IS AFRICA.â&#x20AC;? BOTH WOULD BE PLACED ON EQUAL FOOTING AND TREATED AS EQUALS. FRANĂ&#x2021;AFRIQUE WAS TO BE OVER AND DONE. ONLY IT WASNâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;T.
French population of Algeria was itself one million strong and the vast majority of those had familial roots in Algeria going back decades, they did not
The clearest evidence of this is the African ElysĂŠe
consider themselves mere colonists, and neither
cell, the sector of the French foreign ministry that
did the French government.
VROHO\ KDQGOHG $IULFDQ DÎ?DLUV 7KLV QHRFRORQLDOLVP
The indigenous population, however, disagreed
has been present in French foreign policy ever since
and rose in protest of what it saw as broken prom-
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ises by the Fourth Republic, calling for the removal
trusted advisor, was the architect of this plan, which
of the French presence in Algeria and full sovereign-
constituted installing pro-France rulers in the for-
W\ )UDQFH FRPLQJ RÎ? WKH KXPLOLDWLRQ LQ Î&#x2013;QGRFKLQD
mer African colonies, backed by French soldiers and
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the long arm of the French Secret Service.
DQRWKHU ORQJ ZDU VWDUWHG LQ As the Algerian War worsened, so did the status of
France fought tooth and nail to stem the tide of communism to enter its former colonies. At times it
)UHQFK FRQWURO RYHU LWV $IULFDQ WHUULWRULHV %\
succeeded, but not always. The Republic of the Con-
nearly all states chose to move for independence
go became the Marxist-Leninist Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Republic of
instead of remaining under French control. The
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transition was peaceful but with this exodus and
of Dahomey fell to Socialist forces, becoming the
WKH HQG RI WKH $OJHULDQ :DU LQ )UDQFH KDG
Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Republic of Benin. France maintained a
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
ideas of national superiority and social Darwinism
21
WHITE KING BLACK QUEEN WHITE BISHOP BLACK KNIGHT WHITE ROOK BLACK ROOK WHITE PAWN BLACK PAWN
FRANCE GREAT BRITAIN BELGIUM SPAIN ITALY GERMANY PORTUGAL INDEPENDENT
COLONIAL AFRICA CIRCA 1914
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close ties to the new Congolese government, but
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not with the one in Benin, leading to one of the
Only it wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t.
most bizarre events in post-colonial African history.
When Touareg rebels, allied with components of al
Î&#x2013;WV PRVW KLJK SURČ´OH FDVH RI PHGGOLQJ LQ WKH DÎ?DLUV
Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), began driving
of former colonies can be seen during the attempt-
south through northern Mali, driving the national
ed coup against the Marxist-Leninist government of
army south and proclaiming a Free State of Aza-
%HQLQ LQ
wad, a coup dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ĂŠtat took place in the Malian capital
In a way this system of control was not unusual,
of Bamako.After a round of diplomacy, a new unity
not during a Cold War scenario and not from a
JRYHUQPHQW ZDV LQVWDOOHG WKRXJK VWLOO LQČľXHQFHG
recently vacant empire. What makes the French
by the military junta. Throughout the uncertainty in
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the capital, the rebels and Islamists pushed further
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VRXWK LQ D QHZ RÎ?HQVLYH WKDW FDSWXUHG VHYHUDO
past couple of decades by French politicians, but
towns.
the reality is that it has become central to French foreign policy, whether leaders like it or not. 1LFRODV 6DUNR]\Č&#x2021;V Č´UVW RÉ?FLDO RYHUVHDV WULS LQ
The new government promptly asked for assisWDQFH Č´UVW IURP WKH $IULFDQ 8QLRQ WKHQ WKH (&2:AS (Economic Community of West African States),
was to visit some of Franceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s former colonies in Afri-
and when even that proved futile, they turned to
ca. Sarkozy spoke of the close relationship between
France. From the communication that has been
France and the African continent, and of moving on
made public between the Malian interim president,
WRJHWKHU TXLHWO\ LJQRULQJ WKH DFWLRQV RI WKH SDVW
Dioncounda TraorĂŠ and President Hollande, one
Only France was not willing to let go.
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In the 2010 presidential elections in Cote dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ivo-
head again. First TraorĂŠ asks for French military
ire, opposition candidate Alassane Ouattara was
assistance, to which the ElysĂŠe cell replied asking
declared the winner of presidential elections over
TraorĂŠ to specify what kind of military help he need-
incumbent Laurent Gbagbo, a decision upheld
ed, hinting heavily towards simply air strikes. Only
by all independent international observers. The
once TraorĂŠ did send the â&#x20AC;&#x153;correctâ&#x20AC;? plea, the ElysĂŠe
decision, however, was reversed by the President
cell realized that air strikes would not be enough
of the Constitutional Council, an ally of Gabagboâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s.
to stop the rebel advance. As a result, President
7HQVLRQV HVFDODWHG DQG WKH FRXQWU\ HÎ?HFWLYHO\ VSOLW
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in two, with the north supporting Ouattara, and
deployed and aid the Malian government.
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Though the French intervention has been a suc-
a full-blown civil war when Ouattara declared, â&#x20AC;&#x153;all
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peaceful routes for Gbagbo to admit defeat have
action marks the second time in less than three
been exhausted.â&#x20AC;?
years that France has intervened in force in one of
7KH YLROHQFH SURPSWHG 81 LQWHUYHQWLRQ DQG DW
its former colonies, seemingly ramping up the man-
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7KH Č´JKW IRU WKH ELJJHVW FLW\ LQ &RWH GČ&#x2021;Î&#x2013;YRLUH $ELGMDQ
that France has brought the Touareg rebels to their
was aided by the presence of a French military
side â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the very same rebels who were allied with
EDVH DW 3RUW %RXÂW QH[W WR WKH DLUSRUW 7KH 81
AQIM not six months prior, but who fell out with
lists the number of troops deployed during the
the Islamists once those became too heavy handed
FRQČľLFW DW PDQ\ RI ZKLFK ZHUH )UHQFK
even for the desert rebels. The rebels, in turn, do
The French military presence was paramount to
not communicate and do not undertake operations
the victory that led to Gbagboâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surrender, and it
with the Malian government, instead using the
marked a return to the interventionist policies of
French government as a mediator. The fact that
France in its former colonies.
there is no communication between what were the
1HZ SUHVLGHQW )UDQŠRLV +ROODQGH KRSHG IRU D UHversal in that trend. He deemed, last October that: â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is France, and then there is Africa,â&#x20AC;? he said.
initial combatants bodes ill for the nation once the French forces leave â&#x20AC;&#x201C; if they ever do.
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
close eye on both nations, being able to create
23
THE LEGACY OF THE DUAL MONARCHY WHY THE HABSBURG EMPIRE STILL MATTERS TODAY LANI SEELINGER The University of Glasgow Glasgow, Scotland
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monarchy, Croatia, which fell under the Hungarian
War I certainly testifies to the dissatisfaction of a
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large percentage of its population, and no one today
GLVEDQGHG LQ %RVQLD DQG +HU]HJRYLQD ZDV
is advocating for a return to a comparable state,
an autonomous province jointly controlled under the
but some of the tensions still remaining in the area
two monarchies. Even with these arrangements, of
once ruled by the Dual Monarchy, the Austro-Hungarian
course, many nations remained without their own
(PSLUH EHJ WKH TXHVWLRQ Č&#x201A; ZDV WKLV HPSLUH JRRG
sovereignty â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Czechs, Poles, Romanians, and
for the region over which it held sway?
Slovaks, just to name a few.
Î&#x2013;Q LWV Č´QDO LWHUDWLRQ $XVWULD +XQJDU\ LQFOXGHG
It was largely the demands of groups like these
at least parts of 13 present-day countries, and
that, in addition to the other turmoil at the end of
its population was comprised of countless ethnic
World War I, necessitated the breakup of the Empire.
groups. The Empire consisted of two monar-
The goal at the time was to shape the region into
chies, Austria and Hungary, and within those two
nation-states according to the right of national
monarchies there were three autonomous regions
self-determination thereby eliminating minorities
â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Polish Galicia, which was a part of the Austrian
within nations, which in the end only happened to a
territory, of course; the Czechs and Slovaks com-
to oust the ethnic Hungarians from the ruling elite. In the post-Communist period, some ethnic Hun-
bined themselves into one nation, as did the Serbs,
garians began demanding autonomy, but the two
Croats, and Slovenes; and Poland was granted its
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own state. The multi-ethnic state had not worked. It
together to protect the rights of both Hungarians in
was time for a new experiment.
Romania and Romanians in Hungary. This treaty still
Close to a century later, of course, after another
holds today, and while of course there are various
ZDU DQG \HDUV RI &RPPXQLVP WKH PDS RI ZKDW
parties with nationalist demands, in this case they
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remain on the fringe.
relationships between the people who live there,
The case of Slovakia is more salient at the mo-
and, to some extent, the states that now make up
ment. When the borders of Czechoslovakia were
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GUDZQ LQ DQG ZKHQ WKH FRXQWU\ ZDV UHFUH-
Empire that was. This legacy is most visible in regions heavily populated by minority groups. A good example of minority policy functioning well is South Tyrol, a northern province of Italy that is populated almost entirely by German speakers. It once belonged to Austria-Hungary, until Italy annexed it after World War I. After that, the region changed hands and V\VWHPV RI JRYHUQDQFH VHYHUDO WLPHV XQWLO when Austria and Italy agreed that the region would remain part of Italy, but would be granted extensive autonomy. German and Italian are now ERWK RÉ?FLDO ODQJXDJHV RI WKH UHJLRQ DQG WKH FDVH now acts as a model for other areas hoping to solve interethnic disputes. Moving eastwards, one does not have to go far to encounter some of these interethnic disputes. Hungary, which lost much of its land following the breakup of the Empire, is at the center of many of
THE MINORITY POLICIES USED BY AUSTRIA-HUNGARY WERE BY NO MEANS PERFECT. IF THEY HAD BEEN, NONE OF THE COUNTRIES THAT WERE A PART OF THE EMPIRE WOULD HAVE DEMANDED INDEPENDENCE. BUT IN SOME WAYS, THE MULTIETHNIC STATE SEEMS TO HAVE SUITED THE AREA BETTER.
these. While the Kingdom of Hungary was in power, they often enacted policies of Magyarization that attempted to make native populations more Hun-
DWHG LQ DIWHU :RUOG :DU Î&#x2013;Î&#x2013; D ODUJH QXPEHU RI
garian â&#x20AC;&#x201C; essentially, policies of forced assimilation.
Hungarians ended up living in what is now southern
When the regions once subjected to Magyarization
Slovakia. Again, during the Kingdom of Hungary, the
had new rulers, there was often backlash against
Hungarians had attempted, with much success, to
this. This is especially notable in two cases: Transyl-
Magyarize the whole area. This, of course, resulted in
vania and Slovakia.
D VLJQLČ´FDQW EDFNODVK IURP WKH 6ORYDN VLGH DOWKRXJK
Although Transylvania is currently a part of Romania, Hungarians have lived there for over a millennium. They did not comprise a majority during
LW ZDV GHOD\HG WKH +XQJDULDQV VWLOO KDG HTXDO ULJKWV as a minority nation in the interwar period. However, after World War II, the newly reinstated
the last period of Austro-Hungarian rule, but as the
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UXOLQJ JURXS WKH\ GLG QRW JUDQW HTXDO ULJKWV WR WKH
Hungarians of their Czechoslovak citizenship and
Romanians who outnumbered them. At the end of
then deport them. Predictably, the remaining Hun-
World War I, the Romanians declared independence
garians then became the objects of much pressure
from the Empire, and began enforcing a policy of
to Slovakize, which even went so far as changing
Romanianization, which included banning the use of
Hungarian names to be more Slovak. While this
Hungarian language in government and attempted
pressure subsided eventually under Communism,
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
OLPLWHG H[WHQW $XVWULD DQG +XQJDU\ ORVW VLJQLČ´FDQW
25
dress the issue. The area that once was the Sudeten-
not been especially friendly to the Hungarian mi-
land is now entirely Czech, with only German writing
nority. One of the main points of contention is the
on buildings to remind its inhabitants of its past.
language law of Slovakia, which forbids the use of
The minority policies used by Austria-Hungary
DQ\ ODQJXDJH EHVLGHV 6ORYDN LQ DQ RÉ?FLDO VHWWLQJ
were by no means perfect. If they had been, none
7KH ZKROH TXHVWLRQ EHFRPHV HYHQ PRUH KHDWHG
of the countries that were a part of the empire
when you take the current Hungarian political situa-
would have demanded independence. But in some
tion into account. Jobbik, a far-right nationalist party
ways, the multiethnic state seems to have suited
also called the Movement for a Better Hungary, is
WKH DUHD EHWWHU 1R PDWWHU ZKLFK ZD\ WKH ODQG LV
currently the third largest party in the country, and
divided, there will always be ethnic minorities, and
it is in coalition with Fidesz, the governing party.
when history factors into things, dissatisfaction can
Together, they have a supermajority in the Hungar-
TXLFNO\ EHFRPH GDQJHURXV 7KH RQO\ HÎ?HFWLYHO\
ian parliament, and the new constitution that went
monoethnic state is the Czech Republic, but they
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became that way through a brutal move against
to keep the governing party in power. In addition
their German population.
to their facist, racist, anti-Roma, and anti-Semitic
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ideology, part of their platform includes distinctly
cate a return to the huge empires of the past, and
irredentist sentiments â&#x20AC;&#x201C; or, more simply put, the de-
with good reason. But perhaps in a state with more
sire to reincorporate land that was once Hungaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s,
minorities, where more of the population belongs
that is, Greater Hungary. Southern Slovakia, where
to a minority, the minorities together could have a
Hungarians generally make up at least 50% of the
greater voice. Or, perhaps ideally, no majority would
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HYHQ H[LVW 1R PDMRULW\ H[LVWHG LQ $XVWULD +XQJDU\
So, what happens next? The situation as it stands
The tensions we see in the region now â&#x20AC;&#x201C; fairly minor
includes Hungarians in Slovakia who are unhappy
though they are, on the global scale â&#x20AC;&#x201C; are the direct
with the rights that they receive from their country
legacy of the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian
of residence, and a Hungarian nationalist party in
Empire and the transfer of power from old majority
a ruling position that wants to exacerbate those
nations to new ones.
feelings. This same thing happened not so long ago, not so far away â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in the Sudetenland, on the other side of Czechoslovakia. The Sudetenland was the home to many Germans, who had, upon the creation of Czechoslovakia, suddenly become a minority nation in an area where they used to be the ruling elite. Unhappy with their situation under the Czechoslovak government, they turned to nationalist parties and eventually DSSHDOHG WR WKH 1DWLRQDO 6RFLDOLVW 3DUW\ LQ QHLJKboring Germany. Hitler demanded and received the Sudetenland, which was one of the earlier moments in the chain of events that began World War II. After the war, the Czechoslovak government wanted nothing to do with the Sudeten Germans, whom they saw as traitors. In the same set of decrees that deported part of the Hungarian population from Slovakia, they expelled all of the Sudeten Germans and repopulated the area with Czechs and Slovaks. Vaclav Havel apologized for the actions of his counWU\ ZKHQ KH EHFDPH SUHVLGHQW LQ WKH HDUO\ V but no current Czech politician is really willing to ad-
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
the post-Communist governments of Slovakia have
27
NOSTALGIA & NOTIONS OF FALSE EMPIRE THE (UN)HISTORICAL RISE OF THE RIGHT IN HUNGRY ALEXIS ZIMBERG Georgetown University Washington DC, USA
1RVWDOJLD IRU E\JRQH JUHDWQHVVČ&#x192;IRU D SRZHUIXO
ed in a state of longing. Consider the half-mile
and reigning empireâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;drives and reinvigorates an
of murals that runs near the Filatorigat stop of
obsession with the long-since buried reality. The
Budapestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Suburban Rail system. These are where
Jobbik Political Party capitalizes on this national
artists come to paint large pieces that incorporate
yearning for stolen empire by incorporating it into
D FDUHIXO DUUD\ RI FRORUV DQG WHFKQLTXHV Č&#x160;*HW /RVW
their political platform as a central issue. Jobbik is
Trianon,â&#x20AC;? reads one scrawled, freehand marking
known to be a far-right political party that props
MX[WDSRVHG ZLWK ČľDQNLQJ DHVWKHWLFV 7KH FROORTXL-
itself up on anti-Semitism, anti-Roma positions, and
al reference toâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and rejection ofâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the Treaty of
general xenophobia. Shockingly (or, if you are a his-
7ULDQRQ ZKLFK LQ UHGHČ´QHG +XQJDU\Č&#x2021;V ERUGHUV
torian, perhaps not shockingly), as Hungary wades
as a part of a greater post-war peace agreement, is
through a tough economy, political movements
common parlance in Hungary. After all, the Treaty
OLNH -REELN JDUQHU VLJQLČ´FDQW SRSXODU VXSSRUW 7KH
of Trianon resulted in a devastating loss for the
group won 12.18 per cent of Parliamentary seats
Hungarian state.
in the 2010 election. Jobbikâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s projected success in
Î&#x2013;Q WKH 7UHDW\ RI 7ULDQRQ FROORTXLDOO\ UHIHUUHG WR as Trianon), Hungary lost approximately seventy SHUFHQW RI LWV WHUULWRU\ LQFOXGLQJ Č´YH PDMRU FLWLHV and its sea port) and about sixty percent of its population to neighboring Austria, Croatia, Czechoslovakia, Ukraine, and Romania. During World War II, the Arrow Cross party shook backroom hands ZLWK 1D]L *HUPDQ\ RÎ?HULQJ ZDUWLPH VXSSRUW WR Adolf Hitler and his team of Gestapos in exchange IRU D UHVWRUHG SUH YHUVLRQ RI +XQJDU\Č&#x2021;V PDS 1D]L *HUPDQ\ ORVW WKH ZDU DQG +XQJDU\ UHWDLQHG LWV PRGLČ´HG ERXQGDULHV JDLQLQJ LQVWHDG D VRUGLG SROLWLFDO KLVWRU\ WKDW QRZ LQYROYHV 1D]L FROODERUDWLRQ 6L[W\ Č´YH \HDUV ODWHU WKH 7ULDQRQ UKHWRULF UHPDLQV a forefront rally-point for Hungarian national politics and shared identity. Wheatpasted posters in Budapestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s District VI prop up the outline of pre-Trianon Hungary as map-as-logo political ideology. Benedict Anderson, in his book â&#x20AC;&#x153;Imagined Communities,â&#x20AC;? GHČ´QHV WKH PDS DV ORJR DV WKH UROH RI WKH LPDJH RI DQ RXWOLQHG FRXQWU\ LQ GHČ´QLQJ WKDW QDWLRQČ&#x2021;V VKDUHG
IS IT NECESSARY TO THREATEN HUNGARYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S DOMESTIC STABILITY AND STATUS WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION BY LATCHING ONTO SELF-AGGRANDIZING NOSTALGIA, A JUSTICE-THREATENING NATIONALISM, AND ULTIMATELY, A FALSE CONCEPTION OF EMPIRE THAT EXTENDS ITS BORDERS BEYOND THIS CENTURY?
identity. By reducing the Trianon political ideology to a logoâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the outlined map of former Hungaryâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; and using this term and logo in everyday interac-
+XQJDU\Č&#x2021;V VSULQJ 3DUOLDPHQWDU\ HOHFWLRQ LI
tions, the movement is legitimized and propelled
DFWXDOL]HG ZLOO TXDQWLWDWLYHO\ LOOXVWUDWH WKH SDUW\Č&#x2021;V
into acceptance. As the title of his work suggests,
present popularity.
$QGHUVRQ DOVR JRHV WR VLJQLČ´FDQW OHQJWKV WR H[SODLQ
A member of the European Union, Hungary is con-
why national identity is a socially and politically
sidered to be a generally free and democratic state.
constructed myth. If citizens can see themselves as
The people vote for their leadership through west-
Kazakhs not Soviets or Texans not Mexicans despite
ern-style campaigning and popular elections. Since
historical land control, why does Hungary have
his 2010 landslide victory, Viktor Orban and the
VXFK GLÉ?FXOW\ VHSDUDWLQJ LWV FXUUHQW UHDOLW\ IURP LWV
right-wing Fidesz party have guided the country into
ghostly reign? After all, the generation that actually
OHJDOLVWLF DXWKRULWDULDQLVP YLD DQ RÉ?FLDO FHQVRUVKLS
experienced the travesty of the Treaty of Trianon is
strategy, a single-party constitutional rewrite, and
no longer alive.
vehemently anti-minority policy-making. The current
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
Contemporary Hungary is perpetually suspend-
29
ground anyone that threatens to stand in their way.
makes certain that its actions are always sanc-
The utopian memory of an idealized nation-state so
tioned, even if they explicitly threaten human rights
commonly referenced in Hungarian politicsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;both
or social justice. It did not take much, however, for
in the Parliament and on the streetsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; threatens
this nationalistic right-wing party to gain power after
Hungaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to move forward and upward as a
the previous administration left the capitol on a low
nation and as an international team player.
note. The previous Prime Minister, Ferenc Gyurcsany of the Hungarian Socialist Party, lost all respect and authority after a recording released his confesVLRQ WKDW KH FDPRXČľDJHG D VHULHV RI SRRU GHFLVLRQV WKDW FDWDVWURSKLFDOO\ DÎ?HFWHG +XQJDU\Č&#x2021;V DOUHDG\ ČľDLOLQJ HFRQRP\ Î&#x2013;Q VZRRSHG )LGHV] DQG LWV \RXQJHU sibling Jobbik to re-inspire the people by reviving +XQJDULDQ JORU\ $QG WR VRPH H[WHQW WKHLU HÎ?RUWV have been successful. Fidesz and Jobbik have built beneath them a strong and faithful right wing. Yet, their rise to power and sharp focus on building a Hungarian Empire for Hungarians poses a few concerns: (1) Fideszâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s human rights violations and Jobbikâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Trianon rhetoric portray the country as headed in a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;backwardsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; direction in comparison to western norms; (2) their nationalist policies and rhetoric pit Hungarians against an increasingly angry European Union; (3) Hungarians abroad have certain citizen rights within Hungary, posing concern for Hungaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s neighbor relations (with Slovakia, Austria, and Romania in particular); and VLQFH WKH ULVH RI QDWLRQDO +XQJDULDQ LGHQWLW\ WKH European state has become an increasingly hostile environment for Jewish and Roma citizens. There is actually a politically correct term for all of this: magyarization. 7KH TXHVWLRQ PXVW EH DVNHG LV LW QHFHVVDU\ WR threaten Hungaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domestic stability and status within the European Union (arguably unstable itself to some degree) by latching onto self-aggrandizing nostalgia, a justice-threatening nationalism, and ultimately, a false conception of empire that extends its borders beyond this century? 2I FRXUVH QRW $IWHU DOO ZH Č´QG LW WR EH GDQJHURXV when an individual stands victim to these conceptions of self; why would we, the international community, allow a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political authority to behave this way? By reaching into the deep past for a legacy of Hungarian greatness, the current leaders of the small, European country are able to convince supporters of their divine ability to return to their throne at WKH KHDG RI D Č´FWLRQDO (PSLUH SXPPHOLQJ WR WKH
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
administration is composed of many-a-lawyer and
31
AN ORWELLIAN OVAL OFFICE A LOOK INSIDE THE EXPANSION OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH ALEXANDER DIRKSEN The University of Toronto Toronto, Canada
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most to be dreaded, because it comprises and develops
March over the use of drones may have captured
the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies;
headlines, the criticism was directed at a program
from these proceed debts and taxes; and armies,
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and debts, and taxes are the known instruments for
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bringing the many under the domination of the few.
deal between the U.S. and Pakistani administra-
In war, too, the discretionary power of the Executive is
tions. Since then these covert counterterrorism
H[WHQGHG LWV LQČľXHQFH LQ GHDOLQJ RXW RÉ?FHV KRQRUV
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and emoluments is multiplied; and all the means of
kistan, Yemen, Libya and Somalia, a list that is set to
seducing the minds, are added to those of subduing
expand in the very near future. According to Craig
the force, of the people ... No nation could preserve its
Whitlock of the Washington Post, new drone hubs
freedom in the midst of continual warfare.â&#x20AC;?
KDYH VSUXQJ XS LQ 'MLERXWL (WKLRSLD 1LJHU DQG WKH island of Seychelles, joining the drone launch sites
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; JAMES MADISON
on allied bases in Turkey, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and the Philippines. These silent stealths continue the aims of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;War on
On September 20, 2001, the world as we knew it
Terrorâ&#x20AC;? much more covertly than traditional boots
was forever altered. George W. Bush, Commander
on the ground could achieve, while the lack of a loss
in Chief of a people in mourning, set forth his vision
of American lives allowed the practice to continue
for a global â&#x20AC;&#x153;War on Terrorâ&#x20AC;? with which to avenge
without dramatic protest until only recently.
the attacks that had torn apart the nation. By OcWREHU WKH Č´UVW ZDU LQ LWV QDPH KDG EHJXQ and in March 2003 the howl of cruise missiles raining down upon Baghdad would signal the beginning of the second. It is an operation that has cost over WULOOLRQ DQG VWROHQ WKH OLYHV RI RYHU $PHULFDQ VROGLHUV DQG DQ HVWLPDWHG FLYLOLDQV LQ Î&#x2013;UDT DQG $IJKDQLVWDQ Î&#x2013;W SURYLGHG WKH MXVWLČ´FDWLRQ for an expansion of government capabilities and executive powers unlike any other in itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history, and DOORZHG IRU WKH XVH RI LQWHUURJDWLRQ WHFKQLTXHV WKDW GHČ´HG LQWHUQDWLRQDO KXPDQ ULJKWV :KDW LV HTXDOO\ terrifying, though, is that it is not over. Perpetual war is a state of being in Oceania, the G\VWRSLDQ ZRUOG FUDIWHG E\ *HRUJH 2UZHOO LQ
THE CONTROVERSIAL PATRIOT ACT, PASSED ON OCTOBER 26, 2001, GAVE UNPRECEDENTED SURVEILLANCE POWERS TO GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN ORDER TO PURSUE INVESTIGATIONS PERTAINING TO TERRORISM.
7KH FDXVH IRU FRQČľLFW LV XQFOHDU DQG WKH HQHP\ largely misunderstood in Orwellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classic and it is a SKHQRPHQRQ QR ORQJHU TXHVWLRQHG E\ WKH SRSulation at large. This lack of public engagement
Yet, while it may appear as though such strikes are
allows the state to pursue its agenda without fear
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of recourse, while the disconnect produced by their
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ambivalence makes it possible for the state to craft
to the most recent estimates by a research group
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at Stanford University, they have resulted in the
sound familiar, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s because they are. While the â&#x20AC;&#x153;War
deaths of between 2,500 and 3,300 civilians in
on Terrorâ&#x20AC;? ended in the minds of many Americans
Pakistan alone.
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Actions being undertaken in the Middle East may
Afghanistan, it has instead endured, in part behind
appear to be worlds away for the average American,
closed doors, and largely without the knowledge,
but the perpetual war has had an impact on the
consent or awareness of the American people.
domestic citizenry as well, most notably through
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Of all the enemies to public liberty war is, perhaps, the
33
2004
1
2005
3
2006
3
2007
5
2008
38
2009
55
2010
128
2011
75
2012 2013
48 12
CIA TOTAL DRONE STRIKES IN PAKISTAN 2004-2013
to an article penned by journalist James Bamford
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in :LUHG 0DJD]LQH, work has begun on a new data
lance powers to government agencies in order to
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pursue investigations pertaining to terrorism. The
1DWLRQDO 6HFXULW\ $JHQF\ DW D FRVW RI ELOOLRQ DQG
government has been forced to rescind or revise
is set to process yottabytes of data (for reference,
elements of the act since 2001 due to judicial rul-
a yottabyte is bigger than a terabyte, petabyte, exa-
ings deeming them unconstitutional, most recently
E\WH RU ]HWWDE\WH &KLOOLQJO\ WKH 16$ GHVFULEHV WKLV capability as one which â&#x20AC;&#x153;will enable us to easily turn the huge volume of incoming data into an asset to EH H[SORLWHG IRU WKH JRRG RI WKH 1DWLRQ Č&#x2039;
THE BIG BROTHER STYLE INTELLIGENCE COMPLEX IS A COSTLY ONE - THE TOTAL COST WAS EXPECTED TO ECLIPSE $75 BILLION LAST YEAR. AND ITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S SET TO GET WORSE.
The United States remains in a period of perpetual war. Instead of the antagonistic states Eurasia and Eastasia of Orwellian folklore, there is instead â&#x20AC;&#x153;terrorism,â&#x20AC;? a constantly shifting and evolving phenomHQRQ WKDW UHTXLUHV FRQVWDQW GLOLJHQFH DQG DWWHQWLRQ and may be used to justify increasing encroachments by government agencies in the name of national security. There is no doubt that threats to American national security exist. What remains up for debate is whether the urgency of these threats constitutes the necessity for a state of war, a political climate that inhibits transparency, legal practices and civil liberties. Unless Washington steps out
those in regards to national security letters, which
from its shadow of secrecy and brings this period of
had allowed the FBI to harness records on suspects
perpetual warfare to a close, the nation will truly be
without their knowledge. Estimates by the American
LQ SRVVHVVLRQ RI DQ 2UZHOOLDQ 2YDO 2É?FH
&LYLO /LEHUWLHV 8QLRQ VXJJHVW WKDW DSSHDOV KDYH EHHQ Č´OHG LQ FDVHV SHUWDLQLQJ WR QDWLRQDO VHFXULW\ EHWZHHQ DQG DORQH DQG GHVSLWH these setbacks the act has endured. With some of the Patriot Actâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most controversial provisions VHW WR H[SLUH LQ 6HFWLRQV DQG pertaining to collection of materials relevant to an investigation, wiretapping and the monitoring of non-U.S. citizens respectively), President Obama instead extended them until 2015. Data collection and surveillance on this scale UHTXLUHV FRQVLGHUDEOH KXPDQ DQG SK\VLFDO UHVRXUFHV ZKLFK KDYH VWHDGLO\ LQFUHDVHG LQ WKH SRVW era. According to an investigation conducted by The :DVKLQJWRQ 3RVW LQ Č&#x160;VRPH JRYHUQPHQW RUJDQL]DWLRQV DQG SULYDWH FRPSDQLHV ZRUN RQ programs related to counterterrorism, homeland security and intelligence in about 10,000 locations across the United States,â&#x20AC;? with over 850,000 individuals in possession of top-secret security clearances. The Big Brother style intelligence complex is a costly RQH WKH WRWDO FRVW ZDV H[SHFWHG WR HFOLSVH billion last year. And itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s set to get worse. According
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
the Patriot Act. The controversial legislation, passed
35
IMPERIAL REACH ON THE CHEAP? HOW CHINA BENEFITS FROM AMERICAN SUPREMECY TIM CHOI The University of Calgary Calgary, Canada
be restricted only to ports that directly ship to US
have been attributed to mainly domestic enablers,
shores. Thus, US maritime forces conduct training
such as the economic reforms initiated by Deng
missions with countries and navies around the
Xiaoping, or the massive population base from
world, even if those countries have very little direct
which entrepreneurs and state-sponsored enter-
trade with the United States. For example, every
prises could gather their workers. But too often, the
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role of external factors is overlooked - even less is
sends one of their minimally armed, Oliver Hazard
the role of the hegemonic, and now perceived to be
Perry class frigates, along African shores to train
rival, power: the United States. After all, the hege-
local forces in search-and-rescue, search-and-sei-
mon dominates and acts to remain dominant in the
zure, counter-narcotics, and other maritime security
international system, but how can such an entity
operations.
actually assist a weaker power in rising to a position that would challenge the hegemon itself? The United States of America, as the sole â&#x20AC;&#x153;superpowerâ&#x20AC;? on the planet for the majority of Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s post-Deng period, is no doubt the closest entity the world has seen to a global hegemon. With the ability WR DWWDFN RYHU D KXQGUHG WDUJHWV VRPH QDXWLFDO miles inland without ever being seen with the touch of a button, the US and its navy wield a power that is unmatched by any other country in the world. However, it is this very force that allows the US to assert its dominance while at the same time allowing weaker powers to strengthen themselves. Consider for a moment Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s great dependence
THE FORWARD PRESENCE OF THE REST OF THE EXPENSIVE AND HIGH-TECH US FLEET IS STILL ESSENTIAL FOR SECURING THE LIFEBLOOD OF THE CHINESE ECONOMY.
on imported oil. How does that oil get to Chinese factories? By massive oil tankers plying the oceansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; busy sea lanes. What ensures these (and other)
Such capacity-building missions employ low-end
tankers can travel in peace, free from harassment
warships (or even non-warships, such as the HSV
by ill-meaning actors? American sea power.
2 Swift) in order to increase training relevancy with
While it is true that a global presence of armed
countries that have only minor naval vessels. These
warships is hardly needed in an age where the
missions not only increase security for the United
biggest threat to the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sea lanes are the weak-
States, they also increase the competency of local
ening Somali pirates, there is much more than just
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pirate hunting and coercive diplomacy to the myr-
such institutions to provide local security has the
iad global activities overseen by the United Statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
extended impact of lowering insurance rates for
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shippers and allowing greater trade to more ports
also the Coast Guard. An integral part of American
around the globe.
maritime strategy in the 21st century is the concept
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of homeland defense in depth: the idea that threats
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to the American homeland, such as illicit substances
around the world and primarily by sea. If it were not
and terrorist materials, are best addressed at their
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points of departure in foreign ports long before
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certainly be reduced as higher insurance rates
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PDGH WKHLU HÎ?HFWV IHOW
under the supervision and guidance of the US Coast Guard. Because of the extensively integrated nature of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global economy, homeland defense cannot
However, American seapower contributes to Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rise and prosperity in more than just the above PHQWLRQHG ZD\V ZKLFK GR QRW UHTXLUH KLJK HQG warships - even China could invest in similar training
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
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37
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CONSUMPTION PRODUCTION
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CHINA’S OIL PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION 1990-2010
pan out in the coming years. With the United States
site experience. The forward presence of the rest of
now realizing the vast amounts of domestic oil that
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it can produce via fracking, the US is expected to
for securing the lifeblood of the Chinese economy.
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We return now to the oil tankers mentioned in the
next twenty years â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and free from Middle Eastern
beginning of this article.
imports long before that. With no energy interests
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maritime and naval component called the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Tanker
to patrol that region and its oil lanes. Of course,
:DUČ&#x2039; Č&#x201A; HVVHQWLDOO\ Î&#x2013;UDT DWWDFNLQJ Î&#x2013;UDQLDQ WDQNHUV LQ
American allies such as Korea and Japan will still
order to cripple the latterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s export economy, and
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Iran attacking tankers that went to neutral Gulf
it in its interests to protect shipping destined for
VWDWHV VXSSRUWLQJ Î&#x2013;UDT Î&#x2013;Q UHVSRQVH WR Î&#x2013;UDQČ&#x2021;V WDUJHW-
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ing of neutral tankers, American warships began
ing continues to be cut year after year, deployments
escorting convoys through the Strait of Hormuz in
to the Middle East will likely be reduced in favour of
order to deter Iran from further attacks. This was
sustaining the â&#x20AC;&#x153;pivotâ&#x20AC;? to Asia.
successful, but not without cost; two American frigates were heavily damaged â&#x20AC;&#x201C; one from an IraQLDQ PLQH DQG RQH IURP Î&#x2013;UDTL DLU ODXQFKHG ([RFHW missiles.
So where does this leave China, the rising superpower? )RU VWDUWHUV WKH OLQN WR D TXDUWHU RI LWV OLIHEORRG becomes a lot more tenuous in this future scenarLR 1R ORQJHU ZLOO LW EH DEOH WR UHO\ RQ WKH JUDFH RI American warships. If China wishes to ensure the stability of its oil imports, it has no choice but to
IF CHINA WISHES TO ENSURE THE STABILITY OF ITS OIL IMPORTS, IT HAS NO CHOICE BUT TO DEVELOP A BLUE-WATER FLEET CAPABLE OF SECURING ITS SEA LINES OF COMMUNICATION.
GHYHORS D EOXH ZDWHU ČľHHW FDSDEOH RI VHFXULQJ LWV sea lines of communication. The Chinese leadership appears to be aware of this, as can be seen by the rapid construction of advanced surface combatants over the last decade. The deployments to Somalia for counter-piracy patrols and escort for Chinese shipping are clear examples of China learning to invest in and becoming more responsible for its own economic and resource security. Should the sea lanes between the Middle East and Africa and Chinese shores ever become contested, China will be in a position to defend its lifelines. Unlike the United States of the early 1800s,
This period highlights the very real possibility of
China has had the leisure of building up its mari-
kinetic military action being taken against crucial
time forces without facing constant threats to its
elements of the global economy. It seems obvious
seaborne economy. In essence, Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global trade
that should the Persian Gulf again heat up, it would
â&#x20AC;&#x153;empireâ&#x20AC;?, to use the term loosely, was gained on the
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cheap. However, as America faces the possibility of
sit back and enjoy the assured delivery of its Middle
decreasing overlaps with China in mutual interests
Eastern oil. Although China does produce a large
L H 0LGGOH (DVW RLO WKH ODWWHU ZLOO Č´QG LW LQFUHDVLQJO\
amount of its own oil, the drastic rise in the mid-
expensive to maintain energy security. Time will tell
dle class since the Cold War has turned it from a
ZKHWKHU KHU LQYHVWPHQWV ZLOO EH VXÉ?FLHQW LQ WKH
net exporter to net importer â&#x20AC;&#x201C; half of its oil is now
coming decades.
imported, and around half of those are from the Middle East. Yet, while we can expect the Americans to play policeman in the Persian Gulf, this may not actually
THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT issue 04 spring 2013
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39