Koreana Autumn 1992 (English)

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"Fan"tasia Performed for over 2,000 years, the Korean Fan Dance gives an entrancing glimpse into one of the world's most intriguing cultures. Nowhere is the innate beauty and charm of the Korean people more gracefully revealed. This is a land of mystery and revelation. Ancient palaces and Buddhist temples whisper of fabled dynasties past. While skyrise cities, colorful seaports, mountain resorts and exotic restaurants invite you to enjoy the dynamic present. But your best discovery will be the Korean people.

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For more information, please contact: Korea National Tourism Corp., Head office. 10. Ta-dong. Chung-gu. Seoul. Korea C. P.O. Box 903. Seoul. Korea Tel: (02\ 757-6030 Fax: 102\ 757-5997 Telex: KOTOCR K28555

Korea Foundation

KOREANA Vo1.6/No.3 Autumn 1992

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50

The Painters Tools

The Korean Painting Tradition

By LeeKyungsu

By Ahn Hwijxm

56

14 Buddhist Painting from the Kory6 Period

An Interview with

Choi Wan-soo

By Chang In-yong

A Mirror of Religious Values and Aristocratic Tastes

62

By Mun Myungdae

A Treasury of Korean Painting

20

70

Chos6nEra Landscape and Genre Painting

Sea Poems

By ChOng Chi-yang Translated by Kevin CYRourke

By Hub Younghwan

26 A Scholars Art Painting in the Tradition of the Chinese Southern School

CURRENTS

By Ahn Hwijxm

34 Faces from the Past Korea's Portrait Paintings

By Cbo Sunmie

74

AKorean Growth Industry

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Literary Awards_:_

By LeeKyung cbull '·

77 Chung Trio Performs as UNDCP Goodwill Ambassadors

42 Minhwa: A Precious Look at Traditional Korean life

By Eom So Yron

By julie Pickering

80 Open-air Concerts : ABreath of Fresh Air in the Year of Dance

By Kim Cbae-hyun

KOREANAis published quarterly by the Korea Foundation 52f:J 5-ga Namdaemunno, Chung-gu, Seoul, Korea KOREANAwas registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Information, the Republic of Korea, on August 8, 1987. Registration No. Ba-1033. © The Korea Foundation 1<})2. All rights re:xmRd No jXlrt of this publication may be reprrxluced in anyform without the priorjXmnimon of the Korea RJundation The opinions~ l7y the authors do not na:;es;arily -rejJrl!$nt those of the editors of KOREANA or the Korea Foundation PUBIJSHER/EDITOR : Hyuck-In Lew EDITOR-IN.QIIEF : Kwon-sang Park MANAGING EDITOR :Julie Pickering ART DIRECTOR : Park Seung-u TEXT EDITOR : Chang In-Yong CIRCULATION: Overseas: The Korea Foundation GP.O. Box 2147, Seoul, Korea Te~ (02) 752-<i171 Fax: (02) 757-2049 Domestic: Myung-Hwa Sa C.P.O. Box 7852, Seoul, Korea Te~ (02) 274-5443, 2f:J9-2209 Advertising inquiries should be addressed to: AD SEOUL RM 6ol, Lions Building, 50-2ga, Chungmuro, Chung-gu, Seoul, Korea Te~ (02) 274-8336 Fax: (02) 274-8337 LAYOUT & D~IGN: Art Space Publications 30-9 Kwanhoon-dong, Chongno-ku, Seoul, Korea Tel: (02) 734-7184 Fax: (02) 737-9377 PRINTING: Samsung Namkuk Printing Co., Ltd 167-'§) Hwayang-dong, Songdong-gu, Seoul, Korea Te~ (02) 468.{i361-5 Printed in Korea: October I, 1<})2. Price per copy: US$5 (W 3,500)

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art is undoubtedly the creation of the individual it can never be separated from the society and culture in which that artist lives and works. For this reason, art is not simply a thing of beauty, although this is, of course, its primary function It is also an indispensable tooL a mirror of history and culture.

Nowhere is this more evident than in the study of Korean art history and Korean painting in particular. In this issue of KOREANA we have focused on Korea's painting tradition in the hope of promoting not only a better understanding of the genre itself but also of Korean culture in general Geographical proximity and the long history of cultural ties with China had a profound influence on Korean painting from early times. Similarities in subject matter, philosophical background and style are evident in all genres. At the same time, however, Korean artists always approached Chinese tradition from their distinctly Korean viewpoint For example, while the earliest evidence of Korean painting, murals found on the walls of ancient Koguryo (37B.C-AD.668) tombs, shows the powerful influence of northern Chinese culture, their rhythmic forms and forceful lines eloquently portray the extraordinary vitality of our Korean ancestors.

Similarly, the elegant eclecticism of paintings from the Paekche Kingdom (18B.C.-AD.660) reflect both sea contact with southern Chinese culture and the preservation of Koguryo styles imported from the north A unified national culture was achieved during the Unified Silla period (668-935). Cultural exchanges with Tang China increased during this period which saw an active development of portraiture, landscape and Buddhist paintings.

A broader variety of subjects and styles flourished during the Koryo Kingdom (918-1392) in response to greater practical demand as well as the spiritual needs of the times. Two schools of painting developed for the first time: one comprising professional artists and another comprising aristocratic and literati painters who painted as a hobby or for personal cultivation This distinction became more conspicuous during the Choson Kingdom (1392-1910), a time of rich intellectual ferment exhibited in all the arts. Realistic landscape paintings, genre paintings, and minhwa, or folk paintings, vibrantly communicate the spirit and realities of K;orean society during this period As always, our coverage is limited in terms of both time and space but we hope that the survey provided here will help our readers better understand and appreciate Korea's traditional culture.

Kwon-Sang Park

Ahn Hwi:Joon Professor of Art History Seoul National University

n culture as in fine arts, tradition is. not simply a legacy from the past While associated with the past, tradition also acts as a vital force enriching life in the present and fertilizing the cultural soil for future innovation.

The richer and greater a tradition from the past is and the better it is understood and upheld by its inheritors, the greater chance it has of developing into a more advanced culture.

Conversely, if a tradition is weak and neither well understood nor well utilized, there is less chance for cultural development By its very nature, tradition brings consistency to the culture of a particular group and makes it distinct from other groups. Korean culture thus has attributes and traditional characteristics of its own. No culture, however, can continue to develop or perpetuate its tradition without contacts with outside elements. It can survive and advance only when it embraces fine elements of other cultures while upholding its own tradition. Thus a culture has both its own unique originality and international universality Korean culture is no exception, and this also applies to Korea's traditional painting.

Originality and universality are relative elements that interact with each other to shape the character of a particular culture. Any cultural group is bound to collapse if it stubbornly persists in its originality alone and rejects international universality. On the

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Detail from the burial chamber of the Tomb of the Dancers (Muryong-ch'ang), Koguryo, late 5th-early 6th centuries.

other hand, its own tradition will be obliterated if it blindly pursues universality and neglects its originality The sound development of cultural tradition is achieved through the harmonization of these two reciprocal elements. How to achieve this harmony is an issue that should be actively pursued in all cultural realms.

Tradition changes according to regional and temporal factors, as well as a variety of other elements. It is never standardized nor unitary, though the mainstream remains constant Tradition, in short, is a complex thing and should not be viewed from one particular point Facile as it might appear, a great deal of study is needed to understand a tradition, and this study should be pursued all the more thoroughly if we are to put our knowledge to practical use and contribute to the development of a culture.

7

Interest in traditional culture has been increasing dramatically in Korea in recent years, but this does not necessarily mean that people understand its significance. This is especially true in the fine arts. Two contrasting tendendes prevail in Korea's art community today: one follows tradition blindly without developing it in a modern perspective; and the other rejects tradition indiscriminately without even attempting to understand it Both tendencies are liabilities from the perspective of developing a new culture based on tradition An understanding of tradition in its proper context is thus extremely important. At this point we need to review the relationship between tradition and the creative arts. Tradition and creative activities are inseparable. Every new artistic trend, however radical, has its roots somewhere in the traditional arts that existed before it. This is born out throughout history by great artistic masters the world over, who testify through their works that the mainspring of their creativity grew from a thorough understanding of traditional art. Traditional art by no means is a deterrent to creative activities. Rather, an insufficient understanding of it can reduce the artist's work to superficiality. The blind acceptance or rejection of tradition are both undesirable from the viewpoint of creativity, for only a true understanding of tradition can bting forth healthy creative activity.

I will now review the mainstream of Korean traditional painting and appraise the role of tradition in modern painting. By traditional painting, I do not simply mean Korean painting or Koreanized painting but also the paintings of ancient times as opposed to modern painting.

The Three Kingdoms, Unified Silla and Parhae Korean painting has developed steadily throughout its long history from the Three Kingdoms period (1st century BC-7th century AD.) to mod8

ern times, in spite of frequent political crises and invasions. Absorbing foreign influences, Chinese in particular, on a selective basis, Korean painting has developed its own independent styles and, to a great extent, has influenced the development of Japanese painting. Through frequent and active contact with foreign arts and artists, Korean artists cultivated their own painting styles distinct from those of other countries. At once characteristically Korean and internationally universal, the Korean painting tradition has contJ.ibuted considerably to the artistic development of East Asia and the world How should we view the relationship between traditional Korean painting and Chinese painting? Chinese painting undoubtedly had a great influence on Korea, but this fact in itself has also cona¡ibuted to a slanted view of Korean painting. While there is no question that Chinese painting stimulated the development of Korean painting, several points must be kept in mind if we are to understand the relationship between the arts of these two countJ.ies.

First of all, ancient Koreans made a deliberate effort to absorb Chinese atts. Chinese painting did not appear in Korea of its own accord From the Three Kingdoms period to the Choson period (1392-1910), it was customary to dispatch a professional painter along with the government envoy to China, this artist's main mission being to lea rn new trends in Chinese painting and purchase paintings at whatever cost. Second, Koreans chose to accept only the elements they deemed beneficial to their painting and pleasing to domestic tastes. The Korean aesthetic sense was very much at work in the process of selective acceptance of foreign elements.

The third and most important point is that Koreans did not stop at imitating Chinese elements but, much to their credit, always assimilated and

developed them further to create artistic styles of their own. Sometimes they developed a new creation, more advanced than the Chinese original, as exemplified by the Buddhist paintings of the Koryo period (918-1392) and portraits, landscapes and genre paintings of the Chos6n period Much as today's modern Koreans absorb Western art to create something of their own, their forebears developed their own aesthetic standard with the help of Chinese art and painting. And just as Western art is internationally accepted today, so was Chinese art in ancient times. The relationship between Korean traditional painting and Chinese painting should be re-evaluated from a fresh, sound perspective.

Korean painting, like Korean architectme, sculptme and handiqafts, represents a pattern of cultural achievement typical of the creative vigor and aesthetic sense of the Korean people.

Painting in its true sense was first produced, and the painting tradition thus began to be formed, in the Three Kingdoms period. The three countries, Koguryo, Silla, and Paekche, absorbed foreign influences and developed artistic styles distinct from each other while maintaining a close intenelationship.

The painting style of Koguryo (37B. C.-A.D.668) which ruled the northern part of the Korean peninsula was marked by vitality and rhythmic movement as shown in the murals found in the tombs near Tong-gou in ManchUtia and Pyongyang. Best represented in the hunting scene in the Tomb of the Dancers, this spirited style originated in the early days of the kingdom and became firmly established in the later period. The murals in the Tomb of Four Cardinal Deities in Tong-gou and Chinp'a-ri No. 1 Tomb are also good examples of Koguryo's energetic, rhythmic style.

Judging from these murals, painting began to develop in Koguryo around the 4th century at the latest, firmly

"Heavenly Horse Painting'' from the Tomb of the Heavenly Horse, Kyongju, Silla, 5th-6th centuries.

established its own tradition by the 6th century, and matured fully in the early 7th century The Kogury6 painting style was transmitted to the Paekche Kingdom (18BC-AD.660). Influenced artistically

by Kogury6 and the Southern Dynasties of China, especially the Liang (502-557), Paekche developed elegant and refined styles quite special to it. As exemplified by the Lotus Flower and Flying Clouds painted in the Nungsan-ri Tomb and the ornamental tiles with landscape designs in relief, excavated from Kyuam-ri, the artistic work of Paekche is elegant and relaxed, a remarkable contrast to the dynamic Kogwy6 style.

The painting style of Silla (57B.C.A.D.668) is evident in a number of folk paintings, including the Heavenly Horse Painting ( Ch'6nmado) excavated in Ky6ngju Obviously influenced

by Kogwy6 and Paekche, these paintings, though inferior, show qualities

quite distinct from the other two countries. While the paintings of Kogury6 are dynamic and rhythmic and those of Paekche elegant and refined, the paintings of Silla are somewhat speculative and meticulous.

Lotus flowers in an ancient tomb in Koa-dong, Kory6ng represent the painting of the Kaya Kingdom ( 42532). Though they are seriously damaged, the eight-petaled, double-layered flowers are remarkably well depicted in strong colors, indicating that Ka ya enjoyed an advanced painting tradition, undoubtedly brilliant and refined.

Thus each of the ancient nations of the Korean peninsula developed its own style despite strong influences from China and close cultural interchanges amongst themselves. Their painting styles and tradition were transmitted to Japan and contributed to the development of Japanese art These diverse painting styles are

believed to have integrated and blended into one after Silla's unification of Korea in 668, as was also the case with Buddhist sculpture and handicrafts. Andent records, available only in fragments, indicate that pottraits for the royal court's entertainment, bluegreen colored landscapes, and Buddhist paintings prevailed at the time as a result of active cultural exchanges with Tang China ''Heaven and Hell," the frontispiece of a scroll of Avatamsaka Sutra, depicts well-balanced human figures in elaborate lines. It is an eloquent testimony to the great heights achieved in Buddhist painting during the Unified Silla period, much like Buddhist sculpture in the mid-8th centwy It is quite certain that Parhae (698926), established in Manchuria by Kogury6 refugees after the downfall of their kingdom, also achieved a fine painting tradition. Judging from the figures portrayed in the tomb of 9

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LotusandOoud, ceilingofthecoffinchamber, Niingsan-ri Tomb, Paekche(7thcentury), Puyo County,SouthOiungch'ong Province.

Princess Ch6nghyo(757-792), Parhae developed an excellent painting style in the tradition of Kogury6 with elements absorbed from Tang painting.

Especially noteworthy are the lavish depiction of human figures, the flowing lines, and beautiful colors.

TheKoryo Period(918-1392) The art of painting flourished in great variety during the Kory6 period A new tradition developed as paintings began to be produced not only for practical purposes but also for appreciation and spiritual cultivation by artists for whom painting was an avocation and not a profession.

Unlike previous periods, members of the nobility and Buddhist clergy often enjoyed painting and so contributed to the broadening of the art One of the important developments in this period was the emergence of a trend to paint landscape based on actual sketches. Historical records 10

indicate Kory6's greatest painter Yi Ny6ng painted "Yes6ng River View" and 'South Gate of Ch'6nsusa Temple" In addition, works by unknown Kory6 artists, such as "Mt Kumgang," "Landscape of Chinyang" and "Eight Views of Songdo," of which only records remain today, testify to the prevalence of this trend Though it was not linked directly to the Chos6n era school of Chong SOn (1676-1759) who painted landscapes based upon actual Korean scenes and subjects, the new trend nevertheless set the precedent for the depiction of actual Korean scenery For one thing, the trend indicates painting was already naturalized in the Korean cultural climate and had developed an independent tradition by the early 12th century when Yi Ny6ng was active Kory6 Buddhist paintings, as seen in several dozen works extant in Japan, are extremely elaborate and, much

like the celadon ware of the same period, evince a penchant for aristocratic artistry. They are all marked with the same stylistic idiosyncrasies in composition, pose of figures, and rendering of folds and patterns in dra~ry

The Chosen Period (1392-1910) It was during the Chos6n period that Korean painting came into full bloom and established a firm tradition Talented painters from the Royal Academy of Painting (Tohwas6) and prominent literati-painters contributed greatly to the development of traditional styles. Painting became more diverse and Korean elements more prominent than in the preceding period, especially in terms of composition, brushwork, treatment of space, and the depiction of trees.

Selectively absorbing the styles of Chinese masters from the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing periods, Korean

painters were able to evolve their own styles. They also played an important part in the development of ink painting in Japan In this sense, the tradition of Choson painting was international and at the same time very distinctive It was during the reign of King Sejong (r. 1419-50) that the Korean tradition was firmly established, thanks to great masters like An Kyon, Kang Hili-an and Prince Anp'yong. These early Choson painters based their work on the Kory6 painting tradition and at the same time absorbed and assimilated highly advanced Chinese traditions to develop their own styles.

An Kyon was especially successful in developing an individual style based on the style of Guo Xi of Northern Song China. An's style was characterized by an unbalanced yet harmonious composition, a concept of space that valued blankness, an efficient application of diagonal movement, and highly distinctive brushwork He exercised great influence on the painters who followed him The painters of the 16th century showed a strong tendency toward conventionality and adhered to the style of the previous century, a fact which reaffirms the generally held belief that the roots of the Korean painting tradition were firmly implanted by the early Choson period The Korean style of painting was able to maintain its unique character despite the four destructive foreign invasions that swept the country in the mid.Chos6n period (ca.155CH700) mainly because the tradition was so firmly established in the earlier period During this politically turbulent era, the early Choson tradition was handed down through the perpetuation of the An Kyon school, the emergence of the Zhe school, and the development of a number of distinctly Korean artistic idioms as seen in the depiction of birds and animals and ink paintings of flowers and birds,

plums and grapes. Kim Che, Yi Kyong-yun, Kim Myong-guk and Cho S6k were artists active during this peri-

cx:L The Korean style became even more pronounced in the paintings of the late Chos6n period (ca.1700-1850), which were comparable to the early Choson paintings in terms of artistic standards. Whereas the early painters developed a native style by carrying on the tradition of Kory6 and absorbing Chinese influences of Song and Ming, the style of the later period manifested a national awareness on the part of the artists even as they embraced Ming and Qing styles.

This national awareness surged during the reigns of Yongjo (r. 1724-76) and Chongjo (r.177&1800) and played a vital role in society and culture in general during the late Chos6n period Just as many scholars of the time turned away from pedantic NeoConfucian precepts in favor of the progressive ideals of "Practical Learning" (Sirhak), painters began to base their work on the native scenes and life style of their country New social trends brought forth a number of new artistic trends, which may be summarized as follows: the Chinese Zhe school style, favored during the mid-Choson period, was replaced by the Chinese Southern School style; Chong Son and his followers adopted and transformed the techniques of the Chinese Southern School for use in the painting of Korean landscapes; Kim Hong-do, Sin Yun-bok and their followers produced a large number of genre paintings depicting scenes of daily life with a sense of humor and affection; and Western methods of painting were introduced to Korea via Qing China.

By using the tradition of the previous era as their springboard and riding the influx of new international artistic trends, the painters of the late Chos6n period were able to develop a new tradition and produce paintings marked with an individual personali-

ty and national flavor much stronger than in other periods.

Another notable aspect of the paintings of this period is the introduction of Western methods from China.

Western techniques of shading and perspective were brought to Qing by Jesuit missionaries and were, in turn, introduced to Korea by members of the Korean mission toYenjing.

Western techniques began to be adopted by 18th century painters, including Kim Tu-ryang, Kang Sehwang and Yi Hili-yang. They also found their way into academy painters' renditions of royal ceremonies as well as in folk paintings, such as ch'aekkori (paintings of books and scholars utensils).

The methods absorbed by Korean painters at the time, however, were very different from today's oil painting.

Shading and perspective, which the artists blended into their ink paintings, were the only Western elements introduced. The new technique was far from prevalent but spread broadly enough to herald the modernization of Korean art It also provided a turning point for the development of a totally unusual style in the 19th century In the meantime, during the final years of Choson (ca. 1850-1910), the landscape and genre painting styles found in ~he earlier period declined, giving way to the Chinese Southern School style (Namclxmghwa) promoted by Kim Chong-hili and his adherents. In addition, a fresh and unusual style was initiated by a number of markedly individualistic artists, including Kim Chong-hili and his followers, Cho Hili-ryong, Ho Ryan, Chon Ki and Kim Su-ch'ol While Kim Chonghili kept alive the scholarly style of the Chinese Southern Schoo~ Kim Such'ol and Kim Ch'ang-su developed new modes based on that style Their work foreshadowed the predominance of the Chinese style in modem Korean ink painting. Despite the pervasive influences of the late Qing styles, the painting of this period was 11

marked by strong individuality and became the basis for modern Korean painting.

Social and political upheavals in the late 19th century caused a decline in painting, even though literati painters, such as Yi Ha-ung, Min Yong-ik and other followers of Kim Chong-hui, were quite prolific with their ink brush renderings of orchids. So too was Chong Hak-kyo with his depictions of strangely shaped rocks.

One figure who stands out in this period of relative artistic stagnation was Chang Sung-op. Excelling in a wide range of subjects including landscapes and flowers, Chang exercised profound influence over later painters.

His style was passed on to modern Korean painters by his two followers, An Jung-sik and Cho Sok-chin.

Together with Ho Ryon, Chang dearly played an important role in the emergence of modern Korean painting.

Although he was endowed with outstanding skill, Chang lacked the lofty spirit of a learned man, for he had no opportunity to study the theories of eminent scholars, such as Prince Anp'yong and Kang Se-hwang, with which earlier masters, such as An Kyon, Chong SOn and Kim Hongdo, were familiar. Chang's style was characterized by powerful brushwork and vivid coloring that is apparent in his landscapes, but his paintings remained inferior in spirit to the work of earlier masters. Another regrettable point is that his work is permeated by a strong Chinese ambience in both style and content

A Difficult Period for Traditional Painting Korean painters selectively absorbed Chinese styles throughout the long history of Korean painting while at the same time maintaining and creating their own styles.

Following the political disorder brought on by the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, however, the tra12

ditional styles of Kon an painting tended to deteriorate.

Traditional painting bore the brunt of the Japanese colonial authorities' policies aimed at systematically obliterating Korea's cultural tradition.

Historians patronized by the Japanese exaggerated Chinese influences on Korean culture as a means of belittling Korea's individuality as well as justifying Japan's colonial rule. This socalled "colonial view of history" pervaded every cultural sphere, so that the public became uncertain of or even oblivious to their own cultural tradition. The impact on Korean painting was extremely damaging and the scars remain today Korean traditional painting was deliberately excluded from academic studies and educational programs and undermined by an upsurge in the influence of Japanese painting.

The Japanese predilection for wellmanicured styles like that of the MaXia school established during the Southern Song period meant Korean painting was condemned as crude and branded as a mere imitation of Chinese painting. Victimized by the colonial view of history for so long, the tradition of Korean painting withered, resulting in a vacuum into which Japanese styles moved with remarkable ease. Prejudices about Korean painting and Japan's influence during this period persisted long after Japanese colonization ended.

Western oil painting was introduced at this time and grew to be very influential. The Choson Art Exhibition was launched in 1921 as an example of the Japanese colonial regime's "enlightened administration." Held annually until1944, this exhibition played a decisive role in smothering Korean painting in Japanese influences. Innumerable Korean artists were indoctrinated in Japanese-style painting at Japanese art schools and had no choice but to participate in the Exhibition in order to become successful artists.

As a result, the Korean painting community underwent a process of Japanization, which in turn caused a deterioration of Korea's painting tradition The Japanization of the Korean peninsula did not simply mean the transplant of foreign painting styles but also meant the contamination of Korean aesthetics. Japanese styles and aesthetic standards which entrenched themselves so deeply in Korean art during those years remain very much alive in some of Korea's established artists and, through them, have been transmitted to younger generations of artists.

In many ways, Korean painting

owes its survival to the Calligraphy and Painting Society led by An Jungsik and Cho S6k-chin. Founded in 1918, the society was these Korean painters' answer to the Japanese Chos6n Art Exhibition Representing a nationalistic art movement, it succeeded in organizing 15 annual exhibitions from 1921 until it was closed down by the Japanese in 1935.

However, the quality of the participating painters' work was already much inferior to that of Chos6n period artists.

The waning of Chinese influences that had long been a stimulant to the development of Korean painting, the

deterioration of Korean painting in general since the days of Chang Sling6p, and a combination of social and political factors brought on by Japanese colonial policy coalesced to throw traditional Korean painting into its most serious crisis. However, it managed to survive, though barely, thanks to the activities of a few nationalist artists. After Korea's liberation from Japan, the tradition of Korean painting was revived by a number of outstanding artists, who have even succeeded in making some fresh developments.

Traditional painting deserves more intensive study. At this point, we need

An KyotL ''DreamJoumeytothePeach Blossom Land,"(detail of a handscroll), 38.7x106.5cm, colors on silk, Tenri University, Japan.

an artistic climate which encourages a thorough understanding of tradition in order to form the basis for the development of new styles. Tradition is not an obsolete relic of the past but an organic thing that enriches the present and inspires the future. As amply demonstrated by its past tradition, Korean painting will continue to develop brilliantly under the leadership of gifted, hardworking artists. â&#x20AC;˘ 13

Buddhist Painting from the Kory6 Period AMirror of Religious Values and Aristocratic Tastes MunMyung-dae Professor of Art History Dongguk University

he Buddhist paintings of the Kory6 period (9181392) were recognized as masterpieces throughout contemporary East Asia thanks to their brilliant colors, elegant forms, rich ornamentation, lucid brushwork, and religious symbolism.

Fortunately, many of these works survive today. More than 100 scrolls and murals have been located both in Korea and abroad (the great majority are in Japan), and even more paintings are likely to be discovered in the future in Korea and Japan An understanding of the changing themes and stylistic characteristics of Kory6 Buddhist paintings is vital to grasping Korean art history as a whole. At the same time, such an understanding also helps deepen our knowledge of Buddhist art in other Asian countries, especially the art of China, during this period Through these religious paintings, we can also look into the general cultural life of the Korean people during the medieval period when Buddhism flourished as the state religion for four centuries.

Themes and Styles Kory6 Buddhist paintings are distinguished by several characteristics.

First, they could be called "aristocratic paintings" since they were painted to suit the tastes of the aristocratic class.

The royal and noble households of Kory6 patronized Buddhism, and their wealthy members sponsored 14

the production of many ritual paintings of outstanding quality. Naturally, these paintings reflected the luxurious tastes of their benefactors who, in the early days of the dynasty, were usually local gentry, but who later included aristocrats in the capital who rushed to support pious projects. The paintings were often produced as a gesture to pray for peace in the kingdom and prosperity for the royal household As time passed, however, more paintings were executed to invoke the well-being and power of the individual benefactors and their families.

This trend grew in importance during the latter half of Kory6, particularly under the de facto government of the military. Accordingly, Buddhist paintings catering to the powerful nobility came to represent the general aesthetic tendency at this time.

Second, paintings illustrating the contents of two major scriptures-'rrhe Avatamsaka Sutra" (Hwa6mgy6n[j) and 'rrhe Lotus Sutra" (P6phwagy5ng or 'rrhe Saddharrna Pundarika Sutra"-} prevailed since the majority of Korean Buddhists in early Kory6 followed Kyojong the Textual School, which emphasized reading, rather than 56njong the Contemplative Zen School, which focused on cultivating the spiritual essence of the human mind for a sudden enlightenment.

These scriptures were illuminated by meticulously executed frontispieces.

Among the icon paintings derived from the Hwa6m Sect, a bodhisattva

triad of Vairocana (piro), Manjusri ( munsu) and Samantadhadra (pohy6n), which was enshrined at P6pwangsa Temple, are most deserving of our attention. Both Popwangsa and Pusoksa Temples housed portraits of high pri~sts who propagated the Hwa6m doctrine in Korea. Another popular tl)eme for paintings from the Avatamsaka Sutra was the episode involving Sudhana, or S6njae Tongja, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom. In a pilgrimage to attain enlightenment, the boy Sudhana visited 55 different teachers to eventually receive the greatest help from Avalokitesvara, or Kwanseum Posal (Kuanyin), the Bodhisattva of Compassion "The Maitreya Triads" at Kumjangsa and Kumsansa Temples as well as a fro~tispiece for "The Maitreya Sutra" (MiriJkky6n[j) attest to the teachings of the p6psangjong or Yogacara Sect, which relied mainly on "The Lotus Sutra" as its doctrinal source.

It is only natural that many Buddhist paintings dating to the second half of the Kory6 period depict themes from the Contemplative School since that became the main stream of Buddhism at that time.

Portraits of Dharma and revered Zen masters as well as diagrams of the various sects were among the most popular paintings during these years.

Third, numerous pictures of Amitabha (Amit'abu4 the Buddha of the Western Paradise), Avalokitesvara, and Tsitigarbha ( Chijang the Ruler of

Anonymous. "Amitabha Triad," (Koryo, circa 14th century), llOxSOcm, colors on silk, Ho-Am Art Museum.

the Underworld) with the Ten Judges of Hell (Siwang) were produced under the patronage of the royal and aristocratic families who wished to perpetuate their power and wealth forever, both in this world and beyond. These pictures had been popular icons among Korean Buddhists since the Unified Silla period (7th-early lOth centuries) but had never been so widely distributed The Kory6 Amitabha paintings portrayed a variety of images: a single deity seated upon an elaborate architectonic throne, a triad of standing or seated deities, or Amitabha seated on a throne with his two attendant bodhisattvas standing on either side. One prominent piece from this genre is a hanging scroll portraying Amitabha accompanied by his two main attendants, Avalokitesvara and Mahathana (Taesejt), representing the principle of mercy and the conceptualization of power, respectively The painting was enshrined at Paegunam Hermitage on Mt Powol. Also worthy of note are a portrait of Amitabha dedicated to Prince Sohy6n, a picture of Amitabha with eight bodhisattvas at Suj6ngam Hermitage on Mt. Odae, and a depiction of Avalokitesvara in a white robe housed at Kukch6ngsa Temple.

Other popular types of Buddhist paintings from this period include: Naey6nf}io, showing Amitabha guiding worshippers to his Western Paradise, Kwangy'5ngpy'5nsan[]io, or ''The Frontispiece for the Sutra on the Meditation of Amitayas," "The Water15

So Ku-bang, "AvalokitesvaraBodhisattva," (Kixy0,1323), 165.5:x1015cm,colorsonsilk, Sumitomo Family Collection, Japan.

Moon Avalokitesvara 11 (Sowolkwanumdo), portraying Kwanseum in a meditative posture, looking over water by moonlight; and Chijangposaldo, depicting Tsitigarbha, the 16

Ruler of the Underworld Throughout the Kory6 period, an enormous number of ritual paintings were produced for use in large-scale temple ceremonies supplicating

deities, such as Vajradhara (Inwan[j) and Indira ( Ches6k), for assistance in repelling foreign invasions and controlling internal revolts. These paintings were also painted on the gates of various temple structures.

Fourth, the writing of sutras by hand (sag)X)n[j) and carving of woodblocks ( mokp'angy6n[j) were both considered sacred acts by Buddhists throughout East Asia, including Kory6. Aside from the promulgation of the Buddhist faith, the devotees believed that through these meritorious practices they would be guaranteed rebirth in a higher state or in paradise and would be freed from all worldly distress, such as illness and suffering The hand-copying and illuminating Buddhist manuscripts attained remarkable artistic heights during Kory6. Illuminated sutras were lavishly embellished with the most precious materials available, gold and silver mulberry paper dyed in deep indigo blue or purple. Historical records indicate the Royal Sutra Scriptorium employed skilled professional calligraphers to produce valuable manuscripts. The scriptorium was divided into two sections: The Scriptorium of Gold Letters (Kumjawon); and the Scriptorium of Silver Lett~rs ( Unjawon)_ The sumptuous manuscripts were commissioned by the palace and aristocratic families in supplication for the prosperity of the kingdom and their own personal happiness and longevity The sheer quantity and quality of the extended sutra manuscripts from the Kory6 period are considerable. Neither this skill nor volume was ever duplicated again The hand-copying of scriptures was eventually replaced by bulk printing following _the ¡discovery of woodblock printing. The woodblocks were often composed of two sections; a picture filled the upper half illustrating the content of the text in the lower half. In the case of

important scriptures, such as 11The Avatamsaka Sutra,11 each section of script was illuminated by an additional frontispiece. Metal plates replaced woodblocks after the invention of metal type and grew increasingly popular to eventually outnumber hand-drawn pictures during the Chos6n period (1392-1910).

Fifth, the great majority of Koryo Buddhist paintings were produced in the form of murals. In fact, most works recognized as masterpieces and objects of worship by the elite class were executed on the walls of temples. However, production of hanging scrolls for ritual use in the palace and aristocratic households was soon introduced, and this genre began to increase in number.

Particularly, the court of King Uijong (r.1146-1170) commissioned artists to produce a large number of portraits of Avalokitesvara and Indira for distribution to temples outside the capital. At the same time, pictures of the Bodhisattva of Compassion were produced in sets of 40 small pieces to be distributed to temples and individual believers in the belief that 11infinite charity11 would be achieved by doing so. Thanks perhaps to this craze in the mass production and distribution of small icon paintings, hanging scrolls of Kwanseum or Chijang bodhisattvas dating to the Koryo period are relatively plentiful today. During the subsequent Chos6n period, hanging scrolls accounted for the mainstream of Buddhist paintings.

Transitions in Style and Technique The periodization of Koryo era art history can vary according to one1s point of view and area of focus.

However, I believe a perusal of the styles and themes found in extant works suggests the general history of Koryo as well as the history of Koryo painting may be divided into four rough periods. Firs~ both the general history and the art history of Koryo

Anonymous. 'Tsitigarbha Bodhisattva,'' (Koryo, circa 14th century), 1043x55.6cm, colorsonsilk, Ho-AmArtMuseWIL

17

must be divided into two basic periods, which can in turn be divided into early and late periods. The first basic period covers the years from the founding of the dynasty in 918 to a major revolt by military officers in 1170, and the second basic period stretches from 1170 when the military seized power until the fall of the dynasty in 1392. The first period is then divided into two halves, the first stretching from 918 to around 1046, and the second from 1046 to 1170.

The second period is divided into two portions, 1170-1270 and 1270-1392.

These divisions have been made in view of a number of factors including, first of all, social changes experienced in Kory6. Koryo society is often described as an aristocratic society based on a bureaucratic system.

It is generally agreed that the foundation of the aristocratic order was laid during the reign of King Songjong (r. 981-997). Under SOngjong, officials were, for the first time, dispatched from the capital to head administrative units in the provinces. SOngjong also reformed the local government structure, inaugurating the kingdom1s county functionary system, and thereby causing a downgrading of the position of the local gentry Thus, the Koryo system of government based on an aristocratic order was completed before Munjong (r.10461083) came to the throne in 1046.

Under the reign of Munjong, Kory61s aristocratic society began to matme.

Aristocratic rule in Koryo was grounded on the principle of civil supremacy, and, as a result, military officers were relegated to an inferior position in the government and society. Mistreatment of the military reached new heights under the rule of the hedonistic King Uijong. In 1170, the 24th year of Uijongs rule, clisgruntled officers and soldiers united in an attempt to end this humiliation as they escorted the king and his retinue of civil officials to a temple outside Kaes6ng.

18

Anonymous. 'Bralunadeva," Mural in Chosadang Hall of PusOksa Temple, (Koryo, 12th¡13th centuries), approx. 205x7Scm.

This military revolt greatly altered the course of Koryo society and resulted in the establishment of military rule. The ensuing power struggle among the military men themselves and uprisings by slaves caused considerable disorder. Finally, General Ch1oe Ch1ung-hon brought the situation under control and succeeded in establishing a personal dictatorship. The monarchy ruled as puppets under the control of Ch1oe and his family for nearly eight decades. The de facto military government weakened, however, in the midst of extended struggles against Mongol invaders, and, in the meantime, a new bureaucratic class appeared in the wake of the disintegration of aristocratic government during the period of military control.

This class of Neo-Confucian literati, or sadaebu, was not only well-educated but also adept at the administration of government affairs. These scholarbmeaucrats came to perform an even more important role after the collapse of military rule.

Interestingly, the social transitions of Koryo coincided to a great degree with changes in religious thought, more specifically, the major streams in the Buddhist faith. During the early years of the dynasty, the Textual (Kyq) and Contemplative (Son, or Zen) schools were in a state of equilibrium, while Confucianism influenced its governing system as a practical political ideology. Then efforts began to unite the two schools under the doctrine of Ch'6nfafjong a sect of the Textual School, and to build a strong central power base for the administration of the Buddhist community across the country. During this period of mellowing aristocratic culture, Confucianism also made notable progress, and national and private academies grew to become important educational institutions.

The Contemplative School gained power as the mainstream Buddhist faith in the early years of the second

half of the dynasty, and it wasn't long before the Buddhist community was engaged in an endeavor to unite under the S6n doctrine. At the same time, Neo-Confucianism emerged as the guiding ideology for the new elite class of scholar-bureaucrats, who would soon play the central role in introducing a new dynasty.

These changes in political, social and religious structure were accompanied by changes in the fine arts.

Immediately after the advent of Kory6, the nation's fine arts were marked by the harmonious coexistence of three elements: the realistic Silla style; the naturalistic Kory6 style symbolizing the rising power of a new monarchy; and the dynamic and original style found in provincial art.

These elements gradually merged under a new idealism and further developed to initiate a blossoming of a new art distinguished by elegant and luxurious aristocratic tastes in the latter half of the dynasty. The aristocratic style took firm roots in Kory6 art and spread throughout all social classes toward the end of the dynasty.

Some Characteristics of Koryo Buddhist Paintings A typical Kory6 Buddhist icon painting presents the main deity as an overpowering, gigantic form.

Secondary figures, such as attendants and worshippers, are almost always crowded in the bottom half of the work, below the deity's knees.

Sometimes, the halos around their heads seem to support the main deity, who is usually a buddha or bodhisattva.

It is not clear whether this particular composition existed in the Silla period, but Tang China evidently did not have a comparable tradition in its Buddhist iconography. No doubt the Chos6n Buddhist painters seldom used this style.

The unique composition of Kory6 icon paintings reflects the broad gap between the powerful aristocracy

Anonymous.''VJ.rupska," Mural of Chosadang Hall of Pusoksa Temple, (Koryo, circa 14th century),

approx.205x7Scm.

and the commoners, as well as the distinction between¡civil and military officials, and the miserable conditions of slaves. Naturally disharmony among these classes was a source of constant struggle and revolts by the less privileged.

Another noteworthy feature is the tendency for the main deities to be presented as large, impressive figures in the middle of the compositions found in the frontispieces of such widely-read scriptures as "The Sutra on the Meditation of Amitayas,""The Avatamsaka Sutra," and "The Maitreya Sutra." This style formed the basis for Chos6n era Buddhist icons.

The buddhas and bodhisattvas in Kory6 icon paintings are portrayed in leisurely royal poses as stately, glamorous figures with handsome faces and corporal bodies. Kory6 painters did not embrace naturalism as their guide but rather took canonical descriptions for the basis of their works. Indian bodhisattvas were famous for their jewelry, and Kory6 artists obviously enjoyed decking their subjects in elaborate brooches, anklets, bracelets, arm bands and earrings. The draperies portrayed in these works are reminiscent of the long, graceful curves of Kory6 celadons and seem to outshine even the jew.elry in their richness .

However, the transparency which gives the deities a mysterious sense of lightness is what makes these works truly magnificent. The paintings are rendered in brilliant mineral colors, such as red, blue and green, and finished with intricate gold outlining.

The Kory6 artists endowed their Buddhist deities with power, grace and delicacy. Their works not only evoked religious awe and reverence in the viewer, but also vividly expressed the Kory6 nobility's refined tastes and conception of beauty.+

19

ChosOnEra Landscape and Genre Painting ealistic Landscape Painting The distinguished scholar-cum-calligrapher of the late Chas6n Kingdom Kim Chong-hui (1783-1856) once described the artistic process as follows: "The brain moves the arm, the arm moves the hand, and the hand moves the brush" For Kim, the artist's mind, his thoughts, were what determined his paintings or calligraphy.

Thus, the differences we find in various paintings and works of calligraphy are attributable to the differences in each artist's thought and personal style.

It is for this reason that the landscape paintings of the middle and late Choson periods are so different from those of earlier periods. Realistic landscapes came to replace the more idealized works of the early Choson period This shift was the result of diverse intellectual changes which converged in the form of a clearer Korean cultural identity. For instance, the philosopher Yi I (1536-1584) pulled together different strands of Neo-Confucian thought to create a complete Korean system, helping his disciples launch a movement promoting a distinctly Korean philosophy; Chong Ch'ol (1536-1593) wrote poetic masterpieces in hangul, the indigenous Korean writing system, thus triggering a boom in Korean language literature; and Han SOk-bong (1543-1605), one of Choson's most eminent calligraphers, developed his own distinctive style 20

Huh Young-hwan Professor of Art Histo1y Sung-shin Women's University

which was later named after its creator.

This new tendency for scholars and artists to articulate their own ideas and styles prompted painters to depart from the previously unquestioned depiction of imaginary Chinese landscapes in the Chinese style. They began to portray real Korean landscapes which they could see with their own eyes, thus revolutionizing Chos6n pericxi painting.

The pioneer of realistic landscape painting was Cho Sok (1595-1668).

Cho toured scenic spots throughout the kingdom and expressed his impressions through poetry and painting. His ideas and artistic style were carried on and refined by his son, Cho Ji-un (1637-1691), and perfected by Chong SOn (167&1759).

A succession of 20 or more talented artists carried on the realistic landscape tradition through the 18th and 19th centuries, thus making a most significant contribution to Korea's artistic achievements. Leading artists during this period included Cho Yong-sok (168&1761), Kim Tu-ryang (1691-1763), Ho P'il (1709-1768), Kim Yun-gyom (1711-1775), Kang Hui-on (1710-1784), Kang Se-hwang (1713-1791), Kim Unghwan (1742-1789), Ch'oe Puk (17381786), Kim Tuk-sin (1754-1822), Kim SOk-sin (1758-?), and Kim Yang-sin (late 18th century-early 19th century).

One of the most prolific and distinguished painters of the Choson era, Chong SOn was extremely active during his 83 years, and more than 500 of

his works remain today. Thoroughly at home with the principles of the I Qing, or Book of Changes, and NeoConfucianism, Chong was an ardent traveller who toured the country to render the beauty of Korean landscapes in his paintings. He was patticularly interested in capturing the breathtaking beauty of Mt Kumgang which he visited seven times and depicted in hundreds of works.

Chong excelled other painters not only in his zeal to depict uniquely Korean themes but also in his creativity of composition and style. His masterpieces include: "Mt Kumgang," a 14panel work; "Haeinsa Temple," "Album of Mt. Kumgang Paintings," a 13-leaf album; "Album of Paintings of Scenic Places in Kyonam," a 21-leaf album; "Viewing the Waterfall; and "Clearing Aft~r the Rain on Mt Inwang."

Cho Yong-sok, ten years Chong's junior, was well aware of the prominent painter's life, thought, and work since the two lived in the same village. Cho's writings provide us with a valuable understanding of Chong's artistic world. Himself a gifted painter, Cho left several literati paintings as well as many genre paintings.

The most representative of his works extant today are: "Viewing the Waterfall;" "An Ox Left Out in a Snowcovered Field;" "An Old Tree," "Fishing on the River;" and "Cooling Oneself under a Willow Tree."

A professional court painter affiliated with the Royal Academy of Painting (Tohwas6), Kim Tu-ryang left

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ChOng Son. •·Mt.Kiimgang; 130.6x941cm, colors on paper, Ho-Am Art Museum.

21

many fine landscape paintings such as "Landscapes of the Four Seasons" and "Landscape in the Moonlight," Kim's father and son were also court painters. "Mountain and Stream Under the Moonlight," a work depicting a secluded forest flooded in moonlight on a late autumn night, is a masterpiece overflowing with Korean atmosphere and emotion Ho P'il was a poor scholar-painter who skillfully portrayed the noble thoughts and ethos of the Chason literati. Associating with the likes of Yi In-sang (1710-1760) and Kang Sehwang, Ho often went to Mt. Kumgang to paint. In one of his major works, Ho depicts the daily life of Du Fu (712-770), renowned poet of Tang dynasty China. Ho seems to have regarded Du Fu's life as a model for scholarly pursuits.

Yi In-sang also led a poor but honest life and left behind many works distinguished for their purity and freshness. His major works deal with themes such as scholars chatting under an enormous old tree, large trees and rocks, and a scholar seated beneath a pine tree enjoying a waterfall These themes probably appealed to Yi because they reflected the pure and simple life he himself led Yi also painted several works depicting Mt. Ktimgang.

Few painters can match Kim Yungyom in their devotion to the realistic landscape genre. In fact, Kim painted nothing else. He is believed to have learned his art from Chong SOn since his method of depicting rocks and pine trees is similar to Chong's.

However, Kim developed a distinct style best characterized by his tendency to emphasize certain elements of an object while omitting other details, his variation on the diagonal composition technique, and his three-dimensional portrayal of rocks using diluted ink and watercolors.

Like Cho Yong-sok, Kang Hui-on also lived near Chong SOn, 34 years his 22

Kim lli-cyang. "landscape in the Moonlight,' 82x49.2cm, colors on paper, National Museum.

In the arts, what matters is not what one paints but how one paints. The emergence of the realistic landscape school reflects an important change in both thought and style which in turn brought about a revolution in artistic method.

senior, and was in close contact with two other painters representative of 18th century landscape painting, Ka'ng Se-hwang and Kim Hong-do. The two Kangs were distant relatives and influenced each other artistically.

Kang Hui-on came to associate with Kim, 35 years his junior, through Kang Se-hwang. Thus, Kang Hui-on mingled with many of the very best painters of his era, a period of cultural renaissance. If a painter's work is not only an expression of his own artistic world but also a representation of the spirit of his time and regional characteristics, then Kang's "Mt lnwang'' must represent both the realistic landscape painting style he embraced and the spirit of the Sirlxlk (Practical Learning) School which blossomed in the 18th century.

The greatest of the 18th .c entury painters was Kang Se-hwang, a versatile artist, skilled not only at landscapes but also paintings of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, plum blossoms, chrysanthemums and orchids), birds and flowers, as well a gifted poet.

Kang left an indelible mark on the history of Korean painting with his 'rr'ravels to Songdo," an album of paintings depicting actual landscapes in Song do (now Kaesong in North Korea). Kang's creativity and distinctive ?tyle are revealed in this album through his harmonization of a literati painting style, bold and unrestrained brushwork, and the use of fresh colors reminiscent of a Western-style watercolor.

Kim Ung-hwan's work is also distinguished by its artistic originality. The eldest of a Kaes6ng family of first-class artists, Kim had a strong influence over his nephews, Kim Tuk-sin, Kim Sok-sin and Kim Yang-sin, as well as his sons-in-law, Chang Han-jong and Yi Myong-gi. Kim produced dozens of landscapes depicting Mt. Kumgang, including "Album of Mt. Kumgang Paintings" which is extant today.

Ch'oe Puk is known to have been an eccentric artist. Fresh data on his

life and work have been uncovered recently, encouraging new research and a reevaluation of his artistic achievements. His major works including 1'Landscape in Autumn,11 11A Deserted Mountain,11 and 1V"iewing the Waterfall Under a Tree11 are all excellent paintings.

An extraordinarily gifted painter, Kim Hong-do is better known as a portrait artist or genre painter than as a landscape artist. However, he produced many landscapes. In fact, his paintings of Mt. Kumgang equal Chong Son1s in both quantity and quality Kim is said to have produced 40 or 50 paintings of the mountain at one time, then placing them in an album. Three such albums survive today, testifying to his as a landscape painter. Indeed, the near-perfect composition, impeccable harmony of rocks, trees and human figures, and the realistic portrayal of the landscapes found in Kim Hong-dds landscape paintings are almost mystical Yi In-mun (1745-1821), a contemporary of Kim Hong-do, was also a superb painter of landscapes.

Although he mastered a variety of Chinese styles and even practiced them from time to time, Yi was basically an artist of the mid-18th century; like other artists of that era, he followed the prevailing realistic landscape aesthetic Prior to the age of 60, Yi generally produced neat, clean works using fine brushstrokes; however, in his later years, he relied on more vigorous, rough brushwork to produce works that transcended secular norms. Extant examples of these more masculine works include: 11 Pleasant Talks Under a Pine Tree,11 11A Gentlemen1s Gathering;11 11 Leisurely Talks Under a Pine Tree; 11 11 Mt. Kumgang; 11 11Snowy Landscape;11 and 1 'Landscape in Summer.11 The three Kim brothers, Tuk-sin, Sok-sin and Yang-sin, were the last major painters in the realistic landscape tradition. While they learned from Chong S6n and Kim Dng-hwan,

(refer to pg. 20) the Kims pursued their own styles. Although they were affiliated with the Royal Academy of Painting, they did not limit themselves to schematic or bureaucratic work.

Armed with a new way of thinking and a new style befitting their times, they transcended the bounds of court painting to enrich the landscape tradition they had inherited In the arts, what matters is not what one paints but how one paints a given object. The emergence of the realistic landscape school reflects an important change in both thought and style which in turn brought about a revolution in artistic method

Genre Painting The rise of realistic landscape painting in the mid-Chos6n period was paralleled by another significant phenomenon -- the popularization of genre painting. While genre painting did exist in the Three Kingdoms (57 B. C-658 AD.), the Unified Silla Kingdom (668-935), the Koryo Kingdom (9181392) and the early Choson period, it generally depicted the closed and luxurious life of the uppermost class of society I prefer to use the term 1genre painting 11 to refer to those works which began to appear in the 18th century, focusing on the everyday life of commoners. More specifically, the term refers to paintings based on such secular themes as the love affairs of gentlemen-scholars with kisaeng (professional female entertainers), merchants and farmers at work, the home life of ordinary housewives, vulgar stories that circulated among villagers, and even sexually arousing scenes.

To portray the diversity of everyday life, a painter had to observe the ordinary people with an affectionate eye as well as with a clear consciousness of himself as a commoner. This realization dawned on a few sensitive painters influenced by the Sirhak Movement. These pioneers were probably able to produce fine genre paintings because they were in touch

with the pulse of the land and conscious of the ethnic uniqueness of the Korean people, while at the same time remained faithful to their basic commitment to realistic portrayal.

And because their paintings were so Korean, they have transcended their narrow historical heritage to gain universal appeal today The genre painters of the late Chos6n period pondered how to best portray the lives of their contemporaries so when they created a work, it was full of a genuine vitality which lives on in the paintings. During the 200-year period in which genre paintings, the most 11Korean11 of all Korean artistic forms, flourished, the Sirhak Movement rose and spread as a innovative discipline based on a new consciousness of reality and individual identity; Western science and technology were introduced, spreading more pragmatic, realistic and rational ways of thinking; and the awakening consciousness of the common people and introduction of Catholicism fanned a new belief in equality and a growing criticism of the hierarchical Confucian society Products of this transitional period, it is no wonder genre painters candidly depicted the lives of ordinary Koreans.

The genre paintings of this period surge with a vitality born of the spirit of their times and the lives of the common people. But who created these remarkable works so rich in dignity and poetic sensibility?

The petiod from the early 18th century to the early 20th century saw the rise of the Sirhak Movement, Korean language literature, and realistic landscape and genre paintings. It was a time of cultural renaissance, of national enlightenment and an awakening of the Korean identity Outstanding genre painters included Yun Tu-so (1668-1715), Yun Tok-hui (1685, 1793), Yun Yong (1708-1740), Cho Yong-s6k (1686-1761), Kim Tu-ryang (1696-1763), Kim Hong-do (1745-1818?), Kim Tuksin (1754-1822), Sin Yun-bok (1758-?), 23

and Yu Suk (1827-1873).

Yun Tu-s6 left the best self-portrait by a Choson era painter. A greatgrandson of Yun SOn-do (1587-1671), an eminent poet who wrote many excellent Korean language poems, including 11The Fisherman's Calendar,11 Yun Tu-so was well-versed riot only in painting but also in Confucianism, military strategy, astronomy, geography, medicine, and music. He was a skilled painter of landscapes, portraits and animals, and as a pioneer in genre painting, he loved to deal with motifs from the daily life of commoners, such as women collecting wild greens and craftsmen at work A son of Yun Tu-so, Yun Tok-hui was also a fine landscape, portrait and animal painter following his father's style. One of his most representative works depicts three children playing jacks while another painting portrays a groom with a horse under a tree.

Yun Tu-s6's grandson, Yun Yong, was also a professional painter. His works include paintings of scholars and women collecting mugwort Cho Y6ng-s6k's work is generally more accurate and serious than that of the three Yuns. He left a fairly large number of works on diverse themes - fishing boats, scholars riding boats, a stable with horses, men cooling themselves under a tree on a hot summer day, traditional games, women sewing, etc. Of particular note is Cho's painting of farmers taking their midday meal in the fields, a work quite similar to a painting by Pak Su-kun (1914-1965), a contemporary painter whose favorite motif was the commoners' everyday lives.

These two painters succeeded in depicting a true image of the Korean people, an image that transcends time and place Although he was a good landscape and portrait painter, Kim Tu-ryang deserves our attention as a top-notch genre painter. His talent in this field is best demonstrated by his work depicting a shepherd boy taking a nap and 24

Top, Kim Hong-do. 'Wrestling,"28x24cm, colors on paper, National Musewn.

Middle, Kim Hong-do. "AVillage Schoo~" 28x24cm, colors on paper, National Musewn.

Bottom, Kim Hong-do:Roof Tiling," 28x24cm, colors on paper, National Musewn.

a painting portraying rural village life throughout the four seasons. Kim's genre paintings set against a backdrop of scenic mountains and streams are also interesting because they reveal not only the influences of the Chinese Zhe School and Wenren painting methods but also Western painting styles. His paintings of farm laborers influenced the work of Kim Hong-do and Kim TUk-sin The best genre paintings of the Choson period are indisputably the masterpieces left behind by Kim Hong-do. A master at all kinds of painting, Kim's creativity, originality and personality are revealed in the themes, composition and style of his genre paintings as in all his other works. The National Museum has a large collection of Kim's genre paintings and every one is a masterpiece.

The themes are vatied roof-tiling; barmaids; washing clothes at a well; matmaking; a village schoo~ a blacksmith's forge, a wedding procession None of these masterpieces could have been produced if the painter were not endowed with great imaginative powers, a fervent love for ordinary people, and superb painting skills.

Kim also produced a large number of biographical series (p'y6ngsaeng:io) and ajipto, paintings of gatherings of gentlemen, which reveal his belief that 'pamtings were an important form of historical record. Kim probably produced these types of paintings upon request; however, his other genre paintings must have been done of his own volition. They are full of life and refreshing appeal because Kim painted them from the common life he loved so much to observe Some of Kim Hong-do's sensitivity and talent is visible in the works of Kim TUk-sin who imitated the master in his portrayal of human figures, houses, trees and ordinary animals.

The disciple also left an album of genre paintings in which the human figures seem very much alive. His favorite subjects were traditional

)

Sin Yun-bok. ''Bathing in the VhlleY,' 28Jx35.2cm, colors on paper, Kansong Art Museum

'

games, shoemaking, and outdoor recreation scenes.

When it comes to colorful genre paintings with a distinct hint of sensuality, no one can beat Sin Yun-bok (1758-?). Although they both lived in Seoul, Sin's artistic world was quite different from that of Kim Hong-do, 13 years his senior. The two share little in the way of motif, composition, the portrayal of human figures, color, or atmosphere. In a word, Sin's work is almost too romantic and erotic. His best works depict tavern scenes, shamans, sword dances, spring outings, women bathing on Tano(the fifth day of the fifth lunar month), kisaeng houses, and lovers in the moonlight. Sin's paintings always manage to arouse curious feelings in

The best genre painters were in touch with the pulse of the land and conscious of the ethnic uniqueness of the Korean people. And because their paintings were so Korean, they have transcended their narrow historical heritage to gain universal appeal today.

the viewer.

The realistic landscape and genre paintings of the mid-Chos6n era reflect the changing nature of that society and its people. When seen from the broader perspective of Chos6n era painting as a whole, the transformation in style represented in these works is nothing less than revolutionary. It was through these works that painters were able to express their uniquely Korean thoughts and sentiments. â&#x20AC;˘

25

A Scholar's Art:

Painting in the Tradition of the Chinese Southern School

AhnHwijoon

Professor of Art History Seoul National University

aintings in the style of the Chinese Southern Schoo~ known as namjonghwa in Korean, hold an important place in the history of painting, not only of China, but of Korea and Japan as well The distinction between the Southern and Northern Schools of painting in these three East Asian countries originates with a number of Ming China artists, including Dong Qi-chang, Mo Shi-long and Chen Ji-m These artists made an attempt to distinguish between different schools of painting, mirroring the division between the Northern and Southern Sects of Ch'an Buddhism in Tang China, a division arising in the course of selecting their sixth patriarch. They classified artists by their social status or profession, rather than by their birthplace as had been the case previously. In other words, literati painters, whose work was strongly ideational, were generally classified as belonging to the Southern School, while those professional or court painters who turned out mostly realistic works with fine brushwork, often based on academicism, mechanism and formalism, were given the label of the Northern School The Ming theoreticians reviewed a large number of painters ranging from Wang Wei of the Tang era to their own contemporaries, including three major styles: the style of Jing Hao, Guan Tong and Fan Kuan; the school associated with Mi Fu and his son Mi You-ren; and a third school,

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first developed by Dong Yuan and Ju Ran of the Five Dynasties period and later handed down to the Four Masters of the late Yuan period and the Wu School of the Ming Dynasty The definition of the Southern School painting tradition used in Korea today, however, differs from that of these three Ming styles; for Koreans, a painter's social status or degree of learning was not the key factor. Instead, the term "Southern School painting" (Namjonghwa) generally refers to paintings that have their stylistic foundation in the traditions associated with Mi Fu and Mi You-ren, the Four Masters of the late Yuan Dynasty, the Wu Schoo~ and the Qing China artists who came after them In other words, the touchstone of a Southern School painting in Korea was its stylistic characteristics, not the spiritual dimension that the painter intended to express through that painting. For example, the work of a renowned scholar-painter was not automatically regarded as a Southern School painting unless it was rooted in the traditions of Mi Fu and Mi You-ren or Dong Yuan and Ju Ran By the same token, a professional or court painter could be called a Southern School painter, even if he was not of the literati elite, if his work was based on the traditions mentioned above.

The Late Chos<>n Period (circa 1700 -1850) The Southern School style of

Chinese painting began to gain popularity among Choson painters in the early 18th century However, it was probably introduced to Korea well before that From the early 18th century on, Korean painters embraced not only the Southern School style of Yuan and Ming China but also that of the Qing Dynasty which followed.

The Chinese artists most revered in Korea were the Four Masters of the late Yuan period, including Huang Gong-wang; Wen Zheng-ming and Dong Qi-chang of the Ming Dynasty; and the Four Wangs (Wang Shi-min, Wang Jian, Wang Hui, and Wang Yuan-qi), Shi Tao, Gao Qi-pei and Hong Ren of the Qing era. The styles of the Wu Schoo~ including the work of Shen Zhou of the Ming era, and Qing artists were accepted by many Korean artists such as Sim Sa-jong (1676-1759) and Kang Se-hwang (17131791), leading literati painters in Korea during that period. In particular, the "finger-painting" style of Gao Qi-pei was especially appealing to Sim Sajong, Yi In-mun (1745-1821) and H6 Ryon (1809-1892), who often practiced that technique. Generally speaking, the Southern School painters of the late Chos6n period tended to be indiscriminate in their reference to the styles of the major a.rtists of the Yuan, Ming and Qing eras and did not focus on the method of one painter or school As for composition, the paintings of the late Chos6n Kingdom show traces of traditions of the earlier period.

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ChOng Son. 'DwellinginlnwangMountain,"Z7.4xZ7.5cm,colorsonpaper, KansongArtMuseum.

However, the general preference shifted to the methcx:ls of the Four Masters of Yuan China, especially the work of Hwang Gong-wang and Ni Zan and the Wu School of the Ming period.

There were also changes in technique.

Choson painters began to depict the uneven surface of rocks in the shape of unfolding leaves, a technique favored by many Chinese Southern

The Southern School tradition reached its apex in the late Chosm period Outward styles flourished as did an amateurism dedicated to the simple pleasure of appreciation and the expression of a painter's spiritual dimension

School painters.

At first, Southern School painting was only popular with scholarpainters, but it gradually came to be accepted by many professional court painters as well. An inflow of new thoughts and styles served as the underpinning of this evolution in Southern School painting in Korea.

As mentioned above, Southern School 27

painting made significant progress, not only in terms of the portrayal of the spiritual dimension of the painter but also in the realm of style. It also contributed to the development of realistic landscape painting associated with Chong SOn (1676-1759) and his followers, helping them to create a uniquely Korean style of painting. This is one aspect of late Chos6n Southern School painting that deserves our attention Among late Choson (1700-1850) painters, Yun Tu-so (166&?) was perhaps the first to show an interest, albeit passive, in the Southern School style. While deeply attached to the style of the Chinese Zhe School which had prevailed during the rnidChoson period, Yun laid the foundation for the rise of genre painting. He was also interested in Western dvilization. In fact, Yun can be seen as a painter who cautiously pursued the new style, despite his strong penchant for conservatism Some of his works, such as "Wild Geese Landing on Smooth Sand" (Py5ngsa nagando) and ''Landscape" (Sansudo), reflect his deep interest in and study of the Southern School method Py5ngsa nagando is clearly influenced by Ni Zan in terms of composition and the depiction of tree branches. However, this picture does not depict rocks with the unique textural strokes that characterized the Southern School and Ni Zan himself.

From this, we can induce that Yun was conservative in certain respects and that, like most painters of his time, he came to learn about Southern School painting from manuals, rather than original Chinese works.

It was, however, Chong Son who wholeheartedly embraced the Southern School to break new ground in landscape painting. He not only contributed to the creation of realistic landscape painting but also to the dissemination of the Southern School style.

A neighbor and close friend of Chong SOn, Cho Yong-s6k (1686-1761) 28

mentioned in his book, K wanajeg6, that Chong established new painting norms independently and washed away undesirable practices from the past, making way for a new landscape style. A major scholar-painter himself, Cho also noted that Chong studied the work of Ni Zan, Mi Fu and Dong Qi-chang and broadly adopted the Southern School style. This point is well illustrated by Chong's ''Dwelling on Inwang Mountain" (In'fpkyug3do), which depicts a scholar-gentleman reading in a tile-roofed house against the background of a large garden with a pair of paulownia trees. The theme, composition, and style of this work is characteristic of a Southern School painting. This work was probably influenced by a similar landscape (Bi-wu-qing-shu-tu) by Sherr Zhou contained in the ''Painting Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden" (jie-si-yuan hua-zhuan), an album of copies of Southern School paintings from China However, the exact relationship between the two paintings is unclear because Chong created it in his own unique fashion after fully assimilating the Chinese original Since Chong SOn established a new genre of realistic landscape painting based on the Southern School method and was such an important influence over later painters, it is only natural that his followers would show a penchant for the Southern School style in their own works. In other words, the spread of realistic landscape painting contributed to the dissemination of the Southern School style.

A disdple of Chong SOn, Sim Sa-j6ng not only produced landscapes but also painted pictures of flowers and birds. In landscape painting, Sim broadly adopted the styles of the Four Masters of Yuan, the Wu School of Ming, and Gao Qi-pei of Qing as well as Mi Fu and Mi You-ren to develop his own style. He is believed to have deviated from his teacher's style to create paintings more Chinese and international in flavor. There is

also evidence that he carefully studied copies of original Southern School paintings from China. Later in his career, Sirn often used the fupi-cun, or axe-cut texture strokes used to emphasize textural quality of rocks with sharp, vertical planes which appeared to be cut by an ax. Given the fact that this technique was widely used by painters of the Northern School, Sim's style, especially in his later years, can be seen as eclectic, a mixture of both the Southern and Northern School traditions. A good example of this is " Landscape in the Manner of Sherr Zhou." This work exudes a strong Southern School flavor given its theme-the depiction of a gentleman-scholar reading in a houseand the way the hill, mountains, and tree branches are depicted However, the cliff on the left reflects the fupicun technique characteristic of the Northern School. Although Sim described this work as "a landscape executed in Sherr Zhou's manner," the painting reveals his own unique style which really had little to do with the Chinese master.

Considering his eclectic style, Sim had much in common with official court painters of the Ming era, such as Tang Yin and Qiu Ying. Perhaps this was because, despite being born into a nobl~ literati family, Sim was prevented from assuming a court position because of a treason charge made against one of his ancestors. As a result, he spent his life in despair.

Kang Se-hwang and Yi In-sang (1710-1760) made the greatest contributions to elevating the standards of Southern School painting in the late Chos6n era Kang associated with Sim Sa-jong, and the two produced joint albums together. Kang took great pains to establish his own distinctive style by thoroughly internalizing the styles of a broad range of Chinese masters, from Mi Fu to Zhu Da and Gao Qi-pei of Qing China His representative work, "Cooling Oneself Under Green Paulownia Trees"

KangSe-hwang. 'Cooling Oneself Under Green Paulownia Trees,'30x35.8cm, colors on paper, private collection, SeouL

(Py5kcxlx'5ngs6do), is an imitation of a Shen Zhou landscape found in the "Painting Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden" mentioned above. However, the open composition, free-flowing brushwork, and graceful coloring express the artist's unfettered creativity. Kang's other works, including "A Painting of Paeksok Pond" (Paeks6ktÂŁlmdo) in his album entitled

"A Trip to Songdo" (Songdokihaengch6p), show that he tried to break away from established norms and explore new horizons by combining the style of Mi Fu and the shading techniques of Western painting. As such, Kang refused to passively accept the Southern School style; instead he sought a completely new reinterpretation of the tradition. As a result, he

contributed to the advancement of Chos6n era Southern School painting and furthered its accommodation.

Kang's deep understanding of the Southern School traditions was handed down to his disciples, including Sin Ui (1769-1845) and Kim Hong-do (1745- after 1816), and other leading painters of that era Yi In-sang also studied the works of 29

Zhu Da and the An-hui School as well as copies of the ''Painting Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden." He was also influenced by Korean painters, such as Cho Yong-s6k and Kim Yunkyom (1711-?). However, Yi created his own new style which was quite different from Kang's. His works, such as ''Viewing a Waterfall Under a Pine Tree'' (Songhakwanbokto), are characterized by simple fresh composition, crooked pine trees, flat, sharplyedged rocks, and a sparse use of ink in the brushwork All these elements impart a rare elegance to his paintings.

Yi's style influenced not only his friend Yi Yun-yong (1714-1759), but also subsequent painters, such as Yun Je-hong and Yi Jae-kwan Chong Su-yong (18-19th century) and Yun ]e-hong (1764-?), who followed after Kang and Y~ endeavored to add a new dimension to Southern School painting. Both took the Southern School method as the foun-

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dation of their work and then built their own idiosyncratic styles. Chong left many realistic landscapes depicting the Han and Imjin Rivers as well as Mt. Kumgang. His portrayal of rocks and his dry brushwork show traces of influence from Yi In-sang and Hong Ren, a master of the An-hui School of Qing China. However, his works as a whole, even his landscapes, exude a strong air of the Southern School because of their fresh, simple and leisurely brushstrokes. Chong's thorough and creative reinterpretation of the Southern School method is well illustrated in his "Landscape in the Manner of Huang Gong-wang"

(Banghwanggongrnangsansudo), a work modeled after the Chinese artist's painting carried in an album entitled, Gu-shi-hua-bu. Although Chong referred to Huang's work, the reference was really limited to a spiritual dimension; in style, Chong went his own way. In fact, the work seems

somewhat loose and lacks in detail, but this is more than offset by its simple and fresh elegance. An example of rare refinement, the picture eloquently illustrates the progress made in Southern School painting between the time of Kang Se-hwang and Yi Insang and that of Chong Su-yong Unlike Chong, Yun Je-hong developed a soft, transparent style, similar to that characterizing Western watercolors, based on a thin, bright coloring technique. This style is clearly revealed in ''Viewing the Water Under a Pine Tree" (Songhakwansudo).

Yun's Southern School style landscapes are believed to have had a strong influence on later painters, such as Kim Su-ch'ol and Kim Ch'angsu in the 19th century. The works of the two Kims closely resemble Yun's ''Viewing the Water Under a I_1ne Tree."

The depiction of a slender, graceful pine tree, simplified human figures, the use of a light bluish tone, a rough-

ly drawn mountain towering above the clouds, dots scattered here and there to indicate liveliness-these elements combine to produce a free, sensitive style The Southern School style was not only adopted by literati painters but ¡ also by professional artists or those associated with the Royal Academy of Painting. This is evidenced by numerous works left by these painters. An excellent example is 11 Returning Home From Fishing 11 (Kwi.6do) by the professional painter Yi]ae-gwan (1783-1837). This depiction of a fisherman crossing a bridge in the moonlight on his way home from fishing is characterized by an unrestricted, open composition, vigorous brushstrokes, a harmonious use of thick and thin ink coloring, and a poetic ambiance. A masterpiece unmarred by the usual affectations of the professional painter, this work could only be produced by someone

with a deep understanding of the world of the Southern School Hence, it provides us with a glimpse of the standards of the Southern School painters at that time The Southern School tradition thus reached its apex in the late Chos6n period Outward styles were not the only things to flourish; an amateurism dedicated to the simple pleasure of appreciation and the expression of a painter's spiritual dimension also blossomed It was on the basis of these artists' work that many new artists, both literati and professional, dedicated themselves to the Southern School in later years.

The End of the ChosOO. Period (circa 1850-1910) The Southern School style became more dominant during the final decades of the Chos6n Kingdom.

Kim Ch6ng-hui and his followers, including Cho Hui-ryong (1789-1866),

Chon Gi (1825-1854) and H6 Ry6n, occupied center stage in the art community during this period Although there may have been some difference in degree, virtually all the leading painters of this time followed the Southern School This was definitely true of Kim Su-ch'61 and Kim Ch'angsu, who created unique styles on the basis of Yun Je-hong's influence, as well as Chang Sling-Op (1843-1897), the most prominent professional painter of the era Painters of this period had a broadened understanding of the Southern School tradition because the latest trends from Qing China were available to them The scholar Kim Ch6ng-hui introduced two new disciplines from the late Qing: the historiography of the Chinese classics; and epigraphy He was versatile in poetry; calligrap,hy and painting At the same time, Kim was in close contact with Qing calligraphers and scholars and was versatile

Left,KimChOng-hui "Pinesand Cypresses in Wmter,"23x69.2cm, ink on paper, private collection, Seoul Right, Kim ChOng-hili.

"Orchid,"30.6x5Scm, ink on paper, private collection

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in poetry, calligraphy and paintings in addition to having a deep understanding of the Four Masters of the late Yuan and the Wu School of the Ming Dynasty. Kim1s works, including his masterpiece, 11Pines and Cypresses in Winter,11 are characterized by a simple layout, an understated depiction of motifs using dry brushwork, and a tendency to emphasize the spiritual.

Many of his followers imitated these traits.

Cho Hui-ryongs 11A Study Amongst Plum Trees11 (Maehwas6okto) was unprecedented for its complete lack of blank space; its calligraphy-like strokes which bring the picture to life, and its bold use of ink. The painting shows Cho built his own attistic world using the Southern School style as a foundation Chon Gi was influenced by both Kim Chong-hili and Cho Hili-ryong His style also reveals contact with Kim Su-chbl Chon 1s most well-known work is 11 Streams and Mountains Overrun with Grass11 (Kyesanpbmudo), a simple painting using rough, elliptical brushwork and rich contrast in his use of ink. Kim Chong-hili was clearly Chon1s mentor, a fact born out by these stylistic elements as well as other points, such his depiction of houses and his calligraphic style Of all Kim1s disciples, it was Ho Ryon who received the strongest influence and greatest care. He was also deeply affected by Chinese artists, such as Huang Gong-wang and Ni Zan Among his works are interpretations of the styles of Shi Tao, a Qing artist, an indication that Ho studied Chinese paintings extensively.

Although Ho experimented with various motifs, including the so-called 11 Four Gentlemen 11 (plum, orchid, chrysanthemum and bamboo), pine trees, and strange rock formations, he strictly followed the Southern School method in his paintings. He avoided wet strokes and relied heavily on dry brushwork and light coloring. As a result, his work looks somewhat 32

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Kim Su-ch'ol ''Landscape in Summer," U4x46.5cm, colors on paper, Ho-Am Art Museum.

rough and sterile. Nevertheless, Ho1s paintings are definitely of the Southern School tradition as they avoid a sensitive portrayal of motifs.

Ho1s 11 Landscape in the Manner of Wandang11 (Bangwandangsansudo) (Wandang was his mentor 1s pen name) is a fresh, well-composed work executed with transparent brushwork In this painting, Ho successfully expresses in his own way what his teacher intended to express Ho1s style has been carried on to the present day through his son, Ho Hyong, his grandsons Ho Kon and Ho Paek-ryon, and other disciples, forming the mainstream of the Korean traditional painting community in the southwestern region of Korea Kim Su-ch 1ol and Kim Ch 1ang-su must not be omitted from any account of the Southern School of painting at the close of the Choson period Although their landscapes are unmistakably related to the Southern School styles, the two painters used a coloring technique more characteristic of Western watercolors and attempted to simplify the forms depicted in their paintings. In a word, their styles were highly eccentric. As mentioned above, the two artists were influenced

by Yun Je-hong and Sin Yun-bok and are also believed to have been affected by Cho Hui-ryong and Chon Gi. Their approach was, in fact, a sensitive and peculiar variation produced by the merging and simplification of the styles of senior artists and Chinese masters. Kim Su-ch1ol's 11Landscape in Summer11 (Hagy6ngsansudo) consists of a house for reading surrounded by several trees in the foreground, an open view of the water in the middle, and a mountain in the distance.

These motifs are put together in a simple composition and painted in fresh, sensitive colors, reminiscent of a Western watercolor. This piece represents a precious variation in the history of Korean painting that emerged on the foundation of the Southern School

Two main lineages can be discerned in the history of mcxiern and contemporary ink painting in Korea.One, as noted above, can be traced to H6 Ry6n, while the other is associated with Chang Sung-6p.Chang was an extremely talented painter, not only skilled in the painting of figures and landscapes in the Chinese style but also willing to accommodate, albeit partially, Western painting techniques.

He also produced Northern School landscapes and figure paintings.In Southern School landscapes, Chang followed the styles of the Four Masters of the late Yuan, but his approach was vigorous and idiosyncratic Chang's "Landscape in the Manner of Huang Gong-wang" (Banghwang jagusansus6) best reveals the distinctive characteristics of his works.The elaborate composition, the energetic and free-flowing brushwork, effective depiction of motifs, and coloring of objects in the artist's characteristic blue tones reveal Chang's outstanding skill and eccentric personality.Chang's depiction of tree branches, houses and mountains evidence a clear connection with the Southern School traditionHowever, it does not, in fact, have much to do with Huang Gong-wangs style, the Chinese painter mentioned in the title.Chang's reinterpretation is so complete there is virtually no relation with the original In general, Chang is credited with establishing a new artistic stream in the latter half of the 19th century, a time when the Southern School of painting began to stagnate.Chang's style gave birth to the two pillars of Korea's mcxiern ink painting; An Jungsik (1861-1919) and Cho S6k-chin (18531920)and lives on today through these men's disciples.

What can we glean from the above discussion?

First, most Southern School painters of the Chos6n period created their own individual styles.

Second, of all the diverse styles that emerged from the Chinese Southern SchooL the one associated with Mi Fu and his followers was adopted earliest and was in use longestlt was followed by the styles of the Four Masters of the late Yuan period and the Wu School of the Ming era Third, the works of Dong Yuan,]u Ran, the Four Masters of Yuan, and the Wu School of Ming were introduced to Chos6n society after a considerable time lagln my view; this can be explained by the fact that there were no direct sea exchanges between Chos6n and the southern region of China, the hub of the Southern School throughout the Yuan, Ming and Qing periods.

Fourth, in the process of absorbing Chinese styles, copies of Chinese paintings and painting manuals were at least as influentiaL if not more influentiaL than the originals.This point is supported by the fact that Southern School paintings began to prosper only after manuals of Chinese paintings were made available in the midChos6n periodln particular, the styles of Dong Yuan, ]u Ran, the Four Masters of Yuan, and the Wu School of Ming gained popularity only after various Chinese albums and manuals were intrcxiuced.Since original works rarely found their way to Chos6n, manuals were naturally more influentiallndeecl, as noted repeatedly above, Chos6n painters referred to many different Chinese manuals.

Fifth, it took a considerable length of time for any foreign trend to gain wide popularity in Korea.This was not only true of the Zhe School style which, although introduced in the early Chos6n period, only became popular much later; the same can be said for the Southern School style which was only partially accepted prior to mid-Chos6n and did not gain widespread acceptance until the late Chos6n era.This phenomena is believed to be related to the traditional Korean tendency toward conser-

vatism and traditionalism Sixth, while there were some exceptions, the Southern School of painting in Chos6n tended to concentrate on the digestion of external styles, while neglecting the pursuit of a spiritual dimension that underpinned the development of styles.This is indirectly evidenced by the failure of Chos6n painters to present systematic theories on the Southern School method.The fact that professional painters with the label"Southern School" produced works devoid of spiritual content also proves this point More than any other Oriental painting tradition, the Southern School genre emphasized the painter's inward spirit, ideas and the philosophy embodied in his work, rather than its outward formsHence, it was believed that ''the unique ambience of a cultivated gentleman" exudes from the brush only when the painter is mature enough to understand the truths of life and nature by reading tens of thousands of books and traveling extensivelyFrom this standpoint, it can be argued that by focusing on outward styles, Korean professionalpainters had, from the beginning, imposed certain limits on the evolution of Southern School painting.

Spiritual richness, that is, a wealth of new ideas and philosophies, was the foundation of the Southern School's success.This is still true today as we search for a new type of painting to suit these mcxiern timesFrom the history of the Southern School of painting during the Chos6n period, we realize once again that painting is after all a prcxiuct of man's mental and spiritual creativity as well as the craft of his hands.We must bear this in mind if we are to improve our art and artistic education today +

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Faces from the Past: Korea's Portrait Paintings

ChoSunmie

Professor of Art History Sungkyunkwan University

f the Korean portrait paintings extant ¡toclay, the oldest date back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.-AD. 668). Figure paintings, primarily of couples, have been found on mw-als in Kogury6 tombs, and evidence shows portrait paintings were produced throughout the Unified Silla (668-935) and Kory6 (918-1392) periods. The demand for portraits for ceremonial uses increased sharply dw-ing the Chos6n dynasty (1392-1910) when Confucianism was adopted as the guiding ideology and numerous ceremonies were observed in an effort to encourage filial piety and promote a respect for wisdom among the Korean people. As a result, there was a great demand for portraits of a variety of subjects.

Traditional poltrait paintings can be classified into six general categories based on the social status of the subject: portraits of kings; portraits of metitotious subjects; poltraits of elderly officials; poltraits of literat~ portraits of women; and portraits of Buddhist monks.

Portraits of Kings It is not clear when the first poltraits of kings were painted. However, Samguk sagi ("The History of the Three Kingdoms" written by the Kory6 scholar Kim Pu-sik in 1145) mentions royal portraits on the walls of Buddhist temples during the Unified Silla period The Kory6 coutt 34

¡ Anonymous. "Portrait of King Yongjo," (Late Chosi>n ), 110x68cm, colors on silk, Changd&kung Palace, Seoul

The demand for portraits for ceremonial uses increased sharply during the Chos6n dynasty when Confucianism was adopted as the guiding ideology and numerous ceremonies were observed in an effort to encourage filial piety and promote a respect for wisdom among the Korean people

had a pavilion in which the portraits of its kings were enshrined, and portraits of queens were also actively promoted However, only two royal portraits from the Kory6 period remain today: a sketchy painting of the Kory6 founder T'aejo (r.918-943); and one of King Kongmin (r1351-1374) and his Mongolian wife, Princes~ Noguk, which is now kept in a pavilion at the Chos6n royal ancestral shrine in Seoul A vast number of portraits were produced for the 27 kings of the Chos6n period. Yi S6ng-gye, the founding monarch also known as T'aejo, was the subject of 26 portraits, and a new poltrait of Y6ngjo (r.17241776), the 21st ruler, was commissioned every ten years.

Few of these royal poltraits, or 6fin, remain today, however. In fact, the only surviving portrait of T'aejo is a reproduction dating to 1892, although it appears to be a faithful copy of the original work, a full-length portrait of the founding monarch dressed in a formal robe and crown with his hands folded A half-length poltrait of Y6ngjo, housed in Seoul's Ch'angd6k Palace, depicts the monarch's face and provides a clear portrayal of his personal character. Originally housed in a shrine for his mother, this poltrait is relatively small compared to other Chos6n era royal pottraits, which generally presented a full-length frontal view of a dignified king standing as if he were addressing an audience of his retainers.

Sungpngwon ilgi (The Diary of the

Royal Secretariat), a Chos6n era document, includes an account of the procedures used in the production of royal portraits. First, a temporary office was established to supervise the work. Then artists were selected through examination or recommendation Rough drafts were made, and then the actual portrait was painted in ink on the silk canvas. Next came the coloring, mounting, affixing of a title, enshrining, and finally citation of the artists and ministers in charge.

Divination was used to determine auspidous days for each of these processes, and the king arid his ministers often examined the painting in progress.

In fact, the production of these royal portraits was tantamount to a major state event because the paintings symbolized the authority of kings and their aspirations for the perpetuation of the dynasty. Therefore each royal painting was produced with great care and effort Portraits of Meritorious Subjects The title 11 meritorious subject,11 or kongsin, was bestowed as an expression of appreciation by the king on those who performed distinguished services for the state. The king usually ordered the painting of the portraits of those awarded this status, a great honor not only for the kongsin themselves but also for their families for generations to come. The system served to enhance the power and prestige of the monarchy and warn citizens against disobeying their monarch The system of bestowing kongsin status on loyal servants is believed to have originated in Han China, but the earliest record of this practice in Korea dates to 940 when Koryo's T'aejo ordered the construction of a shrine at Sinhungsa Temple to honor those subjects who had served in the founding of the new dynasty. This shrine, Kongsindang, or the 11 Hall of Meritorious Subjects,11 housed the por-

Anonymous. 'Portraitof YuKiin atAge71,' (Chos0n 16th century), 180.5x103.5cm, colors on silk, private collection

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traits of meritorious subjects honored by their king for their roles in expelling foreign invaders, controlling internal revolts and other acts of national significance. Regrettably, none of these portraits remain today In the Chos6n Kingdom, no fewer than 28 different titles were used to commend the so-called "meritorious subjects." It was not uncommon for 100 or more retainers to be granted titles at one time. Such massive commendations were accompanied by an equally massive boom in portrait painting. Leading artists were usually mobilized for the task at the order of the king.

In almost all cases, the subject would Anonymous. "Portrait of Sin Im," sit in a chair with his hands folded in 43.7 x 32 .5cm, colors on silk, front of him. Dressed in his official Ho-AmArtMuseum.. robes and black silk hats, the subject wore his official emblem on his chest These chest patches serve as important materials for historical research as they reveal the subject's rank in the government at the time of the painting. As time passed, this style of portrait grew popular among the Chos6n 1394, shortly after the founding the elite, and many aristocrats, even those Chos6n dynasty. Even T'aejo, the without kongsin status, had their por- founding monarch, joined the agency traits painted in similar poses. ¡when he turned 60. Civil officials over seventy of the minor second Portraits of Elderly Officials rank (chong-i p 'um) or above were While fewer in number, kirodo, or given membership in the agency on a portraits of elderly officials, are consid- selective basis. The agency existed ered as important as those of meritori- through the end of the dynasty but it ous subjects because they were a was never more than symbolic in means of memorializing the subject. authority and had little actual power.

The word kiro refers to elderly men Nevertheless, it was a great honor for in their sixties or seventies, but it took civil officials of advanced age to be a much more than age for a man to member. qualify for one of these portraits. He Most of the portraits of elderly offihad to hold a respectable social posi- cials extant today are album leaves, tion and be known for his virtuous much like modern day school albums character and other personal today However, some folding screens attributes. and hanging scrolls do exist One foldSocieties of elderly men were com- ing screen depicts Kwon Tae-un and mon in China during the Tang and seven other newly initiated members Sung dynasties. In Korea, aristocratic of the KircJSo in 1689. The officials are men of letters formed fraternal soci- shown against a background of a eties during the Kory6 period. A Chinese-style mansion and garden court agency, known as the Kiroso, Also worthy of special mention are replaced these private gatherings in two 18th-century pieces executed by a 36

group of leading portrait painters, including Chang Ok and Cha~g Ky6ng-ju One of these album leaves dates to 1719, and the other was painted in 1744. Both contain small, halflength portraits of figures with stereotyped features and postures. The coloring was done in layers, a common Chos6n era technique, which made the faces more realistic looking.

Larger individual portraits were also produced privately

Portraits of the Literati Portraits of the literati, or sadaebu as the scholar-officials were called, are the most common form of portrait.

Many of these full-length paintings provide a most successful portrayal of their subjects. This is probably because the painters had more frequent contact with their subjects in a relaxed atmosphere. However, the quality of these pottraits varies widely; while those of meritorious subjects tend to maintain a certain standard of quality, although they can be quite stereotyped Historical records as well as the few extant examples of literati portraits indicate that such portraits were first produced during the Unified Silla period. The Kory6 period saw the active production of portraits of the learned nob!hty, and demands for such paintings began to increase drastically during the Chos6n period when Confucian social decorum required numerous ceremonies at ancestral shrines, private academies and public educational institutions. Portraits of ancestors or revered ancient sages were housed at all such sites.

In this respect, the literati portrait genre played a unique role in the development of Korea's portrait painting and was quite different from portrait painting in China or Japan. For example, in most portraits of Chinese scholars produced in the late Ming and Qing periods, the figures were portrayed with simple, abbreviated strokes. These pictures were usually

presented in handscrolls or album leaves since they were, for the most part, created for aesthetic appreciation In Japan, the portrait genre focused on emperors, monks and shoguns, and portraits of literati were relatively unpopular until recent times.

Portraits of Korean literati were usually produced in impressive sizes, 180 by lOOcm or larger, for ceremonial use.

Most often the subject was shown seated cross-legged, wearing elegant scholar 1s robes, called simui or hakcb'angiii. In some cases, the subject was seated on a chair, wearing his official uniform, much like the meritcr rious officials.

A portrait of Yi Ch1ae, painted in 1803, now on display at the National Museum, is typical of the portraits of Chos6n literati It is a half-length painting of Yi wearing a Confucian scholars robe and hat There is a pleasant contrast of black and white, and the multilayered coloring along contour lines give the face a three-dimensional effect Complimentary remarks written in blank spaces, including one inscription by the master calligrapher Yi Kwang-sa, add to the flavor of the portrait Self-portraits developed as a distinct portrait genre in the Orient from ancient times, but, unlike their European counterparts, such as Durer, Rembrandt or Van Gogh, few artists ever achieved much of a reputation for their genius or individuality in this field~ In China, the scholar official Zhao Qi is said to have painted a portrait of himself and a friend on the wall of his tomb during the Han period. The earliest record of a Korean self-portrait is that of King Kongmin in 14th century Kory6. Kongmin is said to have painted from a reflection in a mirror. During the Chos6n period, literati painters Kim Si-sup (14351493), Yun Tu-s6 (1668-1715), and Kang Se-hwang (1713-1791) all left self-portraits of themselves.Yun1s self-portrait is particularly impressive for its shrewd depiction of a handsome face

Yun Tu- so. "Self-Portrait," 38.5x2U5cm, colors on paper, private collection, Haenam, South Cholla Province

37

with a penetrating gaze and impressive side whiskers and beard Portraits of Women

\

\

\I

Anonymous. 'Portrait of Yi Ch'ae,' (Chos0n 1807199.2x58cm, colors on silk, National Museum.

38

Portraits of women are the least conspicuous category of Korean portrait painting. The earliest evidence of such portraits was found in the murals of Kogury6 tombs, such as Tomb No. 3 in Anak, the Tomb of the Four Deities (sasinchbng) in Maesalli, and the Tomb of the Twin Pillars (ssangy6ngchbng). The faces of the women depicted in all these wall paintings are unrealistic and stylized The women are all accompanied by men who appear to be their husbands. There are no records of women's portraits from the Unified Silla period During the Kory6 pericxl, portraits of queens are said to have been produced along with those of kings, but none remain today During the early Chos6n period, portraits of queens were painted together with those of the kings and enshrined in a hall for royal ancestral portraits. However, there is no record of the production of portraits of queens after the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598. In fac~ in August 1694, King Sukchong ordered a literati painter, Kim Chin-gyu, to paint a portrait of his wife, Queen Min, but he was sev~rely chastised by his ministers as well as Kim himself. The Confucian ethical code forbade the company of males and females over the age of seven, so it was unthinkable for a queen to sit for a male painter.

Sukchong eventually withdrew his instruction, and no portraits of queens were produced thereafter.

In the early Chos6n period, there seems to have been a popular trend among the literati to commission portraits of husbands and wives together.

Among the extant examples of this genre are paintings of Pak Y6n, a music scholar in the court of King Sejong (r.141&1450), and his wife, and of H6 Yon and his wife. Both portraits were restored after the original

colors faded. Regrettably, no other JX)rtraits of literati couples are known to have been painted after the midChos6n period Portraits of Buddhist Monks It is easy to assume that JX)rtraits of Buddhist monks preceded the development of portraits of people from other walks of life. However, historical documents and inscriptions on monuments from the Unified Silla pericxi do not contain any specific references to this genre During the Kory6 period, portraits of Buddhist monks were a common artistic form thanks to the growing popularity of Zen Buddhism, which emphasized the guidance of teachers, rather than the worship of specific Buddhas or Bcxihisattvas, in the attainment of enlightenment. Portraits of revered priests were produced and enshrined in temples across the country Complimentary salutations found on these JX)rtraits are included in various literary anthologies. Of particular note among the Kory6 portraits of high priests extant today are those of Pojo and Chin1gak, both enshrined in Kuksadang or the Hall of National Preceptors, at Songgwangsa Temple.

However, both works have lost much of their original value because of excessive restoration Portraits of Buddhist monks continued to be produced during the Chos6n period , although the Confucian rulers suppressed Buddhism. Many of the Chos6n era paintings are now preserved in the 11 Halls for High Priests,11 or Chosadang found at many temples. These paintings are divided into two general groups depending on the subject 1S pose. In the first style, typified by the portraits of high priests Hakcho and Muhak, the subject is portrayed fulllength, seated in a chair as was the custom from the late Kory6 period.

The subject is seen from the side in a three-quarter view, holding a staff in one hand and gripping the arm of his

'Portrait of ~YOng taesa,

'993x77.5cm, colors on silk, Dongguk University Museum.

39

chair with the other. His feet are elevated on a low stool. The second type of monk portrait is exemplified by the paintings of the renowned priests SOsan and Chaewol The subject is also seen from a three-quarter view at full-length but he is seated on a cushion and holds a staff in his left hand. The right hand either holds a rosary or rests on the subject's knee.

Few portraits of Buddhist monks have been preserved in their original state. Repeated restoration and copying have been necessary because of smoke damage from the incense and candles burned in Buddhist shrines and because of constant exposure to worshippers. These portraits also suffer stylistically because they were generally produced in mountain temples secluded from the outside world and so did not benefit from developments in poses, background, or brushwork and coloring techniques. Nevertheless, fine portraits do exist; for example, a portrait of the famous priest, Samyong Taesa, which is kept at Tonghwa-sa Temple in Taegu, powerfully portrays the subject's lofty spirit Most traditional portraits were painted by professional artists because skillful brushwork was considered a prerequisite for a realistic depiction of the subject In other words, verisimilitude was regarded as the key element in the Korean tradition of portrait painting. Painters always worked with the conviction that even the most insignificant strand of hair must be painted correctly.

No less important from the standpoint of the viewer, however, was the question of whether the soul or spirit of the subject was faithfully represented Therefore, artists always strived to locate the subject's soul. The most authoritative theory on this subject was that the soul lurks in the eyes. A discussion of the elaborate procedures surrounding the painting of a royal portrait recorded in "The Diary of the Royal Secretariat" from the Chason 40

'Portrait of Song Si ¡ yol ," 89.7x67Jcm, colors on silk, National Museum.

Portrait artists always strived to locate their subject's soul as its faithful representation was essential to a good portrait. Most people believed the soul lurked in the eyes, but sometimes it was found elsewhere. Therefore, the artist always scrutinized his subject carefully, using intuition to discover the soul's exact location.

Kingdom states the king's eyes were painted by the supervising artist in a solemn court ceremony observed at a date and time determined to be most auspicious by court fortunetellers.

The king and his ministers attended the ceremony to observe the painting of the eyes.

This theory could not be applied to all subjects, however. Sometimes, the strategic point where the soul was located could be the eyebrows, the nose, the mouth, the cheekbones, or even the whole face. Therefore, the artist always had to scrutinize his subject carefully, using intuition to determine where the individual's soul lay.

An episode involving Kang Sehwang, a master painter in 18th century Chason, reveals how important a brushstroke or two could be in this regard. Kang painted a sel(-portrait but was dissatisfied with the result It was only when his friend, 1m HUi-su, another prominent painter, added a few brushstrokes along the lower edge of the cheekbones that Kang felt his soul had been correctly portrayed Similarly, a portrait of Song Si-yol, a famous Confucian scholar and statesman of 17th century Chos6n, depicts an old man holding his shoulders awkwardly with his neck drawn back and face thrust forward. The painting may have little aesthetic appeal but it vividly depicts the man's spirit and tenacity.

Korean portrait painters did not limit their interests to the individual characteristics of their subjects, however. They also studied physiography to better understand the general features of the human body. At the same time, they attempted to understand the social background, profession and personal character of their subjects as the portraits were intended to present them in the best possible light. The portraits were designed to evoke in the viewer both positive memories and deep reverence for the subject.

The British scholar Arthur Waley aptly coined the expression "biogra-

phy + imagery" to describe this aspect of Oriental portrait painting.

It was only natural, therefore, that the portraits of kings were meant to symbolize the supreme authority of the dynasty. Painters did their best to portray a majestic image of their ruler in audience with his loyal subjects.

Meritorious subjects were most often portrayed as the embodiment of nobility and dignity, models for their descendants, and paintings of literati emphasized the subject1s intellectual character.

This tendency to portray idealized traits, in addition to the physical characteristics or personality of the subject, enhanced the value of the portrait as a historical testimonial. The portrait painter did not regard the physical appearance of his subject simply as a form for artistic expression, nor did the viewer seek simple only aesthetic enjoyment in these paintings. Rather, both the painter and the viewer saw these paintings as an expression of the unique character of the subject and his or her times.

Thus, when a king took refuge during a war, portraits of his royal predecessors were always taken along. The king and his ministers observed rites to appease the deceased kings1 souls and seek their assistance in overcoming the crisis. wmmoners also carried spirit tablets and portraits of their ancestors with them when they fled during times of war. If it was impossible to carry these items with them, they would place them in a large jar and bury them in a safe place. Few people took these precautions with genre or landscape paintings.

However, thanks to the Korean people's reverence of their ancestors, more than 1,000 traditional portraits have survived in the hands of private citizens and museums around Korea to provide us with works unique for their artistic value as well as historical significance +

Kang Se¡hwang. 'Self-Portrait,"

88.7x51cm, colors on silk, private collection, entrusted to National Museum

41

wa: A Precious Look at

Traditional Korean Life t wasn1t until the early 1970s that the Korean people began to take an interest in minbwa, or folk paintings. Prior to that time, these paintings lived in the shadow of what is generally known as 11 traditional painting. 11 People seem most attracted to those works that exude an unsophisticated, awkward or even childish ambience.

Perhaps their curiosity is piqued by the uniqueness, the strangeness of these paintings, particularly in comparison to the more familiar genre of traditional painting. However, one can hardly say such childish paintings are synonymous with minhwa. Many minhwa are in no way inferior to traditional paintings in terms of technique Here we encounter a problem that arises in any discussion of minhwa.

Living as we do in modern times, we often approach minbwa, born amidst the traditions of the past, from the viewpoint of Western art theory Another problem is the concept of the folk painting itself. Minhwa, the term most commonly used to refer to this genre, was first used in 1959 by Yanagi Munayoshi, a Japanese folk art scholar, in an article entitled 11 The Mysterious Choson Minhwar in Mingei magazine. Yanagi used the term minbwa in the sense that it was created by and for the people ( minjunf!), and purchased by the people Nevertheless, Yanagi1s compound word (min for 11people11 and hwa for 11 painting11) does not necessarily corre42

Haet'ae, a mythical unicorn-lion,

colors on paper, 45x34 em, private collection, Seoul

Folk painting was very popular by the end of the Chos6n Kingdom as dynamic changes shook the established order. Minhwa suited the tastes of the new class that emerged as a result of the unprecedented social mobility brought on by the thriving commoner economy. Art dealers and itinerant painters appeared, actively participating in the commercialization and distribution of folk paintings.

EomSoYeon Research Fellow National Folk Museum

spond to the Korean sensibility.

Furthermore, the Korean people have not firmly defined what is meant by the term 11 people11 (minjunf!), either socially, culturally, or historically It is only for the sake of convenience that we use the term minbwa since it has become familiar to us. In fact, a number of alternatiye terms have been suggested by scholars in this field for example, Kim Ho-y6n1s ky6re kurim (ethnic painting), Zo Zayong1s hanhwa (Korean painting), as well as terms such as kongyehwa (craft painting) or minsokhwa (folklore painting). Each of these terms has its own inherent limitations, however. With this in mind, I would like to discuss the origins of the minhwa genre, its distinguishing characteristics, and various types of minbwa Al( folk paintings share the following elements: extant folk paintings are generally between 200 and 300 years old; they are based on themes found in native religions; and the artists are

unknown The wide variety and titles of the folk paintings listed in annals from the Choson period (1392-1910), such as Tongguk Sesigi, Y6lyang Sesigi, and K)X5ng;lo Chafâ&#x201A;Źi> suggest a connection with kut, or shamanistic rites, since shamanism was the dominant religion at that time. These documents include references to paintings of images of ch'6yong(a plague spirit), a horned spirit, a general in a suit of armor (a common figure in kut), the

'Tiger and Magpie", colors on paper, 97x71 em, private collection, Seoul

43

South Pole star, a benevolent lady spirit, a man wearing a red robe and a black official1s hat, chickens, tigers, Chinese characters (including loyalty to parents, respect, loyalty to country, trust, manners, righteousness, humility, and humbleness) written with the sharpened end of a willow branch dipped in black ink, fish, crabs, prawns, swallows, a Taoist hermit riding on a deer, the 12,000 peaks of Mt. Kumgang, flowers, birds and butterflies.

There is no definitive evidence as to when this variety originated but in view of the fact¡that the themes usually deal with components of the native belief system, it can be assumed that many pictures were related to shamanism and kut Later, as more advanced religions, such as Buddhism and Taoism, were introduced, the pictures used in shamanistic rituals must have been incorporated into religious pictures bearing Buddhist and Taoist motifs. We can also assume that the paintings used in shamanistic rituals came to serve as a ruling device by the ruling class and later filtered down to the lower classes, thanks to policies promoting Buddhism and Confucianism during the Kory6 (9181392) and the Chos6n Kingdoms respectively. By the later Chos6n Kingdom, folk painting came to the fore, helped by a changing social consciousness.

With the passage of time, however, folk paintings had lost any clear conception of theme or subject matter. It was amidst this confusion that various different kinds of paintings merged and developed in new directions in the late Chos6n period Folk painting was very popular by the end of the Chos6n era (17th-19th century), a period characterized by dynamic changes in the established

order. Contradictory social conditions, sharpened after the invasions of Japan and China, together with the new thoughts, religions and objects introduced from abroad, stimulated change. A new class emerged as a result of the unprecedented social mobility brought about by the flourishing commoner economy This class sought a new form of art and so minhwa, previously scorned, rose to the forefront At the same time, art dealers and itinerant painters appeared, actively participating in the commercialization and distribution of folk paintings. As Won Tong-s6k noted in his article, 11 The World of Folk Painting, Brimming with the Life Force of the People's C6mniunity,11 11 Folk painting grew from the same historical context as the real landscape painting school and commoners1art It definitely did not happen by accident11 (HankyJre Sinmun, Feb.l, 1989) The popularity of minhwa fostered the development of distinct categories based on function: paintings for decorative use; paintings used in special events; and paintings used to ward off evil spirits. Decorative paintings can .be further divided into two categories: crude paintings (sokhwa) and New Years paintings (sehwa).

The term 11Crude painting11 (sokhwa) was first mentioned in Qjuy'5nmun, a work by Yi Kyu-kyong (1788-1865), a Sirhak (Practical Learning) scholar: 11 An ignorant old man eked out a living by putting up signs on the village walls. These crude paintings (sokhwa) are attached to folding screens, scrolls, and the walls of ordinary households.

In the beginning, these pictures had specific meanings, but now the painters don't seem to be aware of the underlying tales. I would like to write down some of the stories I know so I could hand them down to the chil-

According to traditional Korean belief, the tiger is the messenger of the mountain deities, while the magpie is the harbinger of good news and a messenger of the shrine deities who oversee human fortune and misfortune.

44

dren11 We can infer from the above that painters of sokhwa were uneducated, that sokhwa were used in ordinary households, and that their original meanings were not being preserved As a scholar of Practical Learning, Yi did, however, attribute value to the meaning of these pictures.

Nevertheless, from the viewpoint of the ordinary people, sokhwa were popular folk paintings that shared a place in their everyday lives along with concepts such as folk sayings (sok6n), customs (p'ungsok), and commoners1 entertainment (songnak).

Therefore, in sokhwa, practicality was more important than artistry New Year1s paintings (sehwa), also used for decoration, are mentioned in 11 The Annals of the Eastern Country11 ( Tongguk Sesigz) (1849), written by Hong S6k-mo. According to Hong, kings, princes and scholar-officials exchanged paintings on New Year1s Day in hopes of warding off evil spirits and bringing good fortune, and ordinary households followed suit in an effort to emulate the customs of the ruling class.

These pictures could be purchased at paper shops in Seoul and from the itinerant painte rs who wandered from town to town outside the Seoul are3:. These paintings were used inside and outside the ordinary household for a variety of purposes, more often for practical or incantatory reasons than for ascetic decoration Folk paintings used in special events are mentioned in the shaman song, Hanyangga (Song of Seoul). The paintings used to ward off evil spirits include depictions of dragons, tigers, haet'ae (mythical unicorn lion), and dogs. These figures were glued to the front gate, kitchen and pantry doors.

While I have discussed the various uses of minhwa above, these folk paintings can also be categorized in terms of subject matter.

Paintings of Flowers and Birds ~

1;rv-J

nwaJVUo The most common category of folk painting, many hwajxio are of superior quality thanks to their colorful and vivid renderings. Some paintings depict one subject, a plant, animal, mineral, or the atmosphere, for example, while others portray a combination of subjects.

are often depicted in harmony with the sun, moon, clouds, water, mountains, and rocks. Paintings of flowers and birds were usually attached to rather small folding screens consisting of eight sections and are used to decorate the rooms of newly-married couples or women

Paintings of Peonies

nzo1ando The peony symbolizes wealth and high social position Many morando contain strangely-formed rocks at the base of the flowers. The leaves are colored in green or blue, the blossoms in red or yellow, and the rocks in blue or red, the first set of colors indicating men, while the second denotes women These pictures express a wish for a comfortable life replete with wealth and high social status as well as harmony between the sexes. It was often used at a wedding, and sometimes it was placed in a newly married couple's room or in the shrine at a shaman's house.

Paintings of Lotus

_ yOnhuado

Painting of flowers and birds, colors on paper, 96x38.5 em, private collection, Plant paintings depict bamboo, pine, paulownia, pomegranates, and peonies, while animal paintings show deer, phoenix, rabbits, love-birds, and cranes, usually in pairs. These subjects

The lotus was originally found in Buddhist paintings, but it later came to signify high government officials in minhwa Customarily the lotus was not depicted by itself but as part of a lotus pond containing a school of fish, water birds, and butterflies. The painting usually filled up a folding screen with &10 sections. The colors used in folk paintings of lotus flowers are generally muted, evoking a cool image, and for this reason, these pictures were often used to decorate the home in the summer.

Paintings of Dragons

.)JOJtgdo It was not until the Han period in China that the dragon, an imaginary animal, was depicted as having a concrete shape. In Korea, the dragon first appeared in tomb murals from the Kogury6 Kingdom (37B.C.-A.D.668).

Two different dragons are generally found in folk paintings: the green dragon ( cli6ngyon~ which repels evil spirits; and the cloud dragon (unyon~ which brings rain The former is derived from a belief in the four deities, and often appears along with a painting of a white tiger.

Paintings of Magpies and Tigers

Chakbodo Chakhodo are composed of a tiger under a large pine tree in which a magpie sits squawking. The anthrophomorphous tiger wears a prosperous and comic expression.

The reason for depicting the fierce tiger in such a friendly manner lies in the long-held Korean belief that the tiger is the messenger for the mountain deities as well as a clever animal that assis~ human beings.

The magpie is believed to be the harbinger of good news and, at the same time, the messenger of the shrine deities who oversee human fortune and misfortune. The shrine deities are said to send the magpie to the four corners of the earth to relay their oracles to the tiger.

Paintings of Tiger Hide

hopfdo These paintings realistically depicting the patterns of the tiger hide were used as a decoration in place of expensive tiger hides. Customarily a 45

cloth bearing a tiger hide pattern was draped from a bride's palanquin on the trip to her in-law's for the wedding. The underlying belief was that, with the help of the tiger deity, the bride would be protected from harmful spirits and lead a peaceful life.

Paintings of Fish and Crabs

ohaedo These paintings originated in the drawings of Zhao Ke-xiong and Liu Cai of Northern Sung China, but in Korean folk paintings, depictions of fish and crabs are known for their liveliness and free-flowing brushstrokes. The fish appear in pairs, kissing or engaging in other sex play.

Carp, grey mullet, yellowtail, harvest fish, sharks, sole, stingrays, minnows, crabs, prawns and clams are among the species portrayed in 6haedo.

Landscape Paintings

sansudo Landscape paintings falling under the category of minhwa can be divided into two basic groupS: those following the Korean tradition; and those conforming to the Chinese tradition of landscape painting. The genre can also be classified according to stylistic expression: realistic paintings resembling maps; and highly stylized paintings offering a more stereotypical expression The latter portrays nature as a fantastic and idealistic space in harmony with the yin and yang of nature.

Sansudo most commonly depict Mt Kumgang, eight scenic points in the Kwandong area on the east coast of Korea, eight scenic points in the Apainting of fish and crabs, colors on paper, 106.5x48.5 em, Tongdok Women's University Museum

46

Kwanso area, nine scenic points in Kasan, nine scenic points in Hwayang, and eight scenic views near the Sosang River. Kwanso, Kosan, and Hwayang are all near the Pyongyang area.

Among these themes, the paintings of Mt. Kumgang are similar to traditional painting in terms of style and generally serialized in eight, ten, or 12section folding screens. It is not uncommon for famous spots to be indicated on the painting itself.

Minhwa depicting the Sosang River in China include wild geese flying over a sandy beach; sailboats returning to a harbor, night rain falling on the river, a Buddhist temple in the evening, the autumn moon reflected on a calm pond, snow falling on an evening river, a refreshing breeze in the mountains, and twilight in a fishing hamlet

Paintings of Manchurian Hunting Scenes

hory;Opto In these paintings, hunters dressed in Mongolian outfits chase mountain animals. The first hory6pto were found in the murals in tombs from the Koguryo Kingdom However, the prototype for the hunting scenes found in Korean folk painting is believed to have been 11 The Large Hunting Scene of Unsan, 11 by King Kongmin of the Koryo Kingdom.

The theme of these paintings is bravery; thus they were used to decorate military facilities and officers' quarters, or as good luck charms to ward off Manchu invasions.

Mt Kiimgang, colors on paper,

75x32 .5cm, Ymgnam University Museum.

47

Paintings of One Hundred Children

Paintings of the Life Cycle /

JXte1faao

/J._) /rti!f\Ut:rt;j(lO

These paintings depict frolicking children from heaven. They wear their hair shaved on either side in the Manchurian fashion and are engaged in various games: playing school, soldiers, or monkeys, hunting hawks with sticks, watching chicken fights, archery, horseback riding, stick fighting, and kite flying. These pictures are based on the story of a Tang Chinese man, Guo Cha-ui, who was the epitome of human happiness because he aged gracefully and spent his last years playing with his 100 grandsons.

People in later years enjoyed drawing 'Guo's Fun-loving Scenes," from which the scene of the 100 frolicking children was taken These paintings were best suited to children's and women's rooms, especially the rooms of new mothers, because of their fine details and vivid colors. These depictions of happy children reflected a wish for many healthy descendants.

These paintings depicted the lifecycle of a scholar-official. The pictures were applied to folding screens and depicted eight scenes: the scholarofficial's first birthday celebration, his studies, Confucian leisure activities, his wedding procession, his inauguration as a magistrate, inspection tours to his magistral region, his 60th birthday celebration, and his appointment to an honorary government position given at an advanced age

Paintings of the Ten Longevity Symbols

. tjJ;t t f tg:_ it:. zgd0 APainting of One Hundred Children(detail), colors on paper, 6S.Sx36.5cm, private collection, Seoul

Ten longevity Symbols, colors on paper, 11L5x415.5cm, private collection, Seoul

48

The sipjangsaengdo depict of the sipjangsaeng or ten longevity symbols (the sun, clouds, mountains, rocks, water, cranes, deer, turtles, pine trees, and the fungus of eternal

youth). The painting at the below, brilliantly depicting a fairyland where people never age, is believed to be the work of a professional painter.

Sipjangsaengdo were usually quite large, consisting of 8-12 sections on a folding screen, and were generally used by the upper classes for decoration during the New Year's holiday or on festive occasions, such as 60th birthday celebrations or silver wedding anniversaries. They were also placed behind the queen's throne

Paintings of Bookeases and Scholars' Rooms

llllttl i

ngclo. chttekkcJti This genre depicting the furnishings of a man's quarters was born of the taste for scholarly things prevalent in Confucian society. The genre began as the depiction of various containers, but in later times, a wide variety of

items that had nothing to do with books were portrayed: for example, fruit, vegetables, women's headgear, fish bowls, and brooms. These paintings served as good-luck charms.

Watermelons, for example, signified '1ongevity'' as the words "watermelon" (subak) and "longevity" (subok) are similar. On the other hand, the eggplant symbolized "many sons" for it resembles the penis.

These paintings are technically interesting because reverse perspective was used in such a way that distant objects were drawn larger than objects in the foreground, as if the viewer were looking out from the back.

APainting of Shamanistic Deity (chesokui) (detail), colors on paper, 62x39cm, Cheju University Museum.

shamanistic rites; and pictures of shamanistic deities.

Chesokui, seen above, occupied the highest rung in the ladder of shamanistic deities.

Paintings of Shamanistic Deities

/Itt tilt ) These portraits of the deities worshipped by the shaman can be divided into three categories: pictures used exclusively by the shaman; pictures of

The richness of the minhwa genre reflects the variety of life in old Korea While the subject matter and function of these paintings may vary widely, they are all uniquely Korean and provide us with a priceless mirror on traditional life +

49

The Painter's Tools

50

Lee Kyung-su Professor of Art Hongik University

andmade paper, writing brushes, ink-sticks, and inkstones have long been the tools of the Korean painter and calligrapher. Not only are these tools essential to traditional painting and calligraphy, but through their long history they have also come to have special meaning to the Korean people In traditional society, these four tools were called "the scholar's four friends''

or "the scholars four treasures," a sign of the respect accorded them as the essential companions of the literati class. In the context of the Confucian value system upon which the Chos6n Kingdom (1392-1910) was based, the social status of the literati was second only to that of the monarch. It was the literati's refinement that set them apart from other classes, and "the scholar's four friends" were the symbols of this scholarly cultivation.

Paper, brushes, ink, and inkstones were more than tools for artistic expression; they were symbols of lofty scholarly ethics, necessities for any Korean intellectual, and, in many cases, ostentatious status symbols.

During the Chos6n Kingdom, Korean painting was epitomized by s6hwC4 the art of painting and calligraphy For the great scholar-artists, artistic activity broadly consisted of the composition of poetry, calligraphy, and

lee Kyung-su, Professor of Art, Hongik University

In traditional society, paper, brushes, ink, and inkstones were more than tools for artistic expression; they were symbols of lofty scholarly ethics, necessities for any Korean intellectual, and, in many cases, ostentatious status symbols.

51

brush painting. Among the genres of that period, muninhwa-the paintings of literary men" or paintings in the tradition of the Southern School-were a particularly good example of s6hwa These paintings were supplemented by calligraphy, and their creation was, for the literati, a means of self-cultivation as each work required an understanding of philosophy, literature and art Inside each painting was a poem, and inside each poem was a painting.

PAPER The term 'traditional Korean paper," or hanji, refers to paper made by hand, generally out of the bark of mulberry trees native to the Korean peninsula, and is distinguished from traditional Chinese paper, (fÂŁlngjt), and hwaji, or Japanese paper. In 1888, toward the end of the Choson Kingdom, the Japanese imported paper manufactured on Western machinery into Korea. This paper, along with the paper manufactured at the Office of Paper Manufacturing in Seoul's Yongsan District in 1901, was referred to as yangji, or Western paper. It was from that point forward that paper made by traditional handmade methods was called hanji, or Korean paper.

Those experienced in the use of hanji have found it best expresses the Korean view of nature. There are a great many differences in the Western and Eastern ways of thinking. The two cultures' differing views of nature are just one case in point Westerners tend to take a confrontational attitude toward nature, compared to Orientals who are inclined to submit to nature and attempt to become one with the world around them This fundamental difference is richly manifest in the paintings of East and West and in the art materials used in each culture. For example, let us suppose we put some red oil paint on a white Western-style canvas. The red paint stands in sharp contrast to the 52

white canvas. On the other hand, when oriental red coloring is applied to Korean paper, it doesn't merely sit on top of the paper; the white paper and red coloring are, in fact, united to become pink paper. In other words, the properties called 'Korean paper" and "red coloring' combine to become "pink dyed Korean paper." This reveals the East-West dichotomy in a very material sense. If an additional coloring is added on top of this pink dyed Korean paper, a third color--a combination of the white of the paper, the red, and the other color-appears. However, on a Western canvas, the red paint appears red; when an additional color is applied on top, the red is hidden behind the new color, and this new color will again be hidden if another color is applied In other words, in Western painting, the color applied last will be the only color visible to the viewer. The canvas, the red paint, and the third new color are competing with one another. There is neither harmony nor agreement, only a state of tense confrontation. Such is the Western view of nature.

Most Western papers are thicker and less absorbent than Korean paper.

For this reason, a comparatively hard writing instrument is needed; fountain arid ballpoint pens were invented for this purpose. Korean paper, on the other hand, is extremely soft, and so requires a soft writing instrument; hence, the writing brush has been used in Korea since ancient times.

However, the very act of writing with a soft brush, rather than with a hardtipped pen, reveals the spiritual and emotional differences between Eastern and Western art It has been generally believed that the history of paper began in approximately 105A.D. in Later Han China when a process for making paper from old rags was first developed.

However, the recent discovery of paper from the Former Han period (1st and 2nd centuries B.C.) indicates

that paper was being made much earlier. There is unconfirmed speculation that these paper manufacturing techniques were conveyed to Korea sometime in the fourth or fifth centuries.

Japanese historical records include references to Tamjing (579-631), a Kogury6 monk-painter who introduced paper manufacturing to Japan in 610. The oldest evidence of Korean paper made from mulberry bark is a reference on a woodblock inscribed with "The Pure and Bright Dharani Sutra" which was discovered in the three-story pagoda of Shakyamuni at Kyongju's Pulguksa Temple.

BRUSHES The brush is not simply a practical writing implement to the Oriental people; over the centuries it has come to be a means for expressing their spiritual consciousness. Prior to the introduction of Western-style brushes to Korea by the Japanese after the Choson era, traditional brushes were an essential part of the intellectual's everyday life and not restricted to use in painting and calligraphy However, in modern times, they are used by calligraphers and painters only Records from the Samhan period indicate that the brush was first made frorp a wooden stick and deer and sheep hair by a man named Mong Tian from Qin China in the second century The discovery of an inkstone together with Korea's earliest brushes in a Three Kingdom era tomb at Taho-ri in Uichang County in South Kyongsang Province suggests the history of these tools in Korea is quite long.

Korean brushes have been made with a wide variety of different animal hairs over time, ranging from the fleece of sheep, horse, raccoon and dog hair, the tail hairs of weasels and squirrels, hairs from the back of cats, the underarm hair of roe deer, the tail feathers of birds, and the whiskers of mice.

Of course, brushes are also categorized according to use and size Those used for calligraphy or design were divided into a number of distinct categories according to the length and breadth of the bristles: eg. large, medium and small tips. The scrcal.l.ed "signboard brush" (aekjap'i[) was relatively large and normally used for signboards or calligraphy The bristles on jury6np'il, brushes used to write the couplets mounted on boards hung from the pillars of a house, were longer than 6cm and generally used for calligraphy . The bristles on brushes used to paint "The Four Gentlemen'' (bamboo, plum, orchid and chrysanthemum), symbols of the ideal attributes of a noble man, were longer and finer than jury6np'il and, as a resul~ were softer and more flexible The brushes most commonly used for painting had fine, flexible tips that enabled the painter to better portray intricate mountain landscapes and flowers. The tips on brushes used for the application of color were short and blunt My6nsangp'i4 the brushes used to portray facial features, were made of weasel-tail hair, which offered the painter greater flexibility Korean my6nsangp'il were famous for their high quality Special coloring brushes were used to apply background color, while a variety of other brushes, including brushes with flat bristles, were used for other detailed work The Korean use and basic conception of the brush is quite different from that of Western culture. For example, a wide variety of brushes, ranging in size, shape and texture, are used in Western-style oil painting, each expressing a distinct feeling.

However, an oriental brush can express a broad range of emotions depending on the way it is used An oil paint brush cannot imitate the way a single touch of an oriental brush changes shading or color. In this sense, the brushes used in oriental 54

painting and calligraphy are tools of what I call "composite expression," capaLe of expressing deep emotion through the delicate use of shading.

The artist grips the top of the brush and only the very tip of the brush touches the surface of the paper. The rest of the brush serves to transmit the artist's energy to the paper.

Another unique feature of traditional Korean painting is the care taken in each work. The artist executes a work only after great thought. Of course, this is partly because once a brushstroke has been applied to the paper, there is no taking it back.

However, a more important reason for this care is the spiritual aspect of the "composite expression" I have mentioned above. Great spiritual and emotional concentration is required to focus the artist's energy in traditional Korean painting. It seems the traditional oriental brush is best suited to this task because it allows the artist to reveal his or her true feelings on paper.

INK

Traditional ink-sticks appear to have been developed around the same period as the brush and inkstone.

Historical records from the Chinese Wei (?20-265) and]in (265-316) periods refer to the manufacture of round inkstones using pine soot and lacquer.

A Kory6 era book on writing implements (Munbangsago mukdam) includes a reference to the manufacture of ink-sticks from a combination of pine soot and glue made from deer hides (agyo) around 936. These inksticks were presented as gifts to the Chinese Tang court There are a number of different inks often categorized by color; most are black, of course, with a slight blue or red tinge, but colored inks are also made in the form of ink -sticks and ground in inkstone wells just like ink Ingredients used in ink-sticks can vary, but the basic components are

soot made from scorched rapeseed, sesame, camellia, or soybean oils, a glue manufactured from deer hides or other animal parts (agyo), fragrance, and carbon black In some cases, the soot from the dead branches and roots of pine trees and ground pine is used instead of soot from scorched oils. Agyo, the glue used to manufacture ink, is made by boiling the hides, tendons and cartilage of cows, horses, deer, fish and the like for a long period of time. Fragrances are attained from animals, as in the case of musk, or from various plant or tree barks, and herbs. In modern times, various petroleum products and man-made substances, such as carbon black, have been used together with agyo.

However, the best ink-sticks are made from traditional ingredients, such as pine or oil soot Ink-sticks are only produced at certain times of the year because the agyo has to be melted and mixed with the soot at just the right temperature and humidity Preservatives are not used in the better quality inksticks. The drying process is extremely sensitive so ink-sticks are never made in summer, and high quality ink-sticks cannot be made in winter since they must be dried naturally and never allowed to freeze The period from mid-October through April is considered the best time to manufacture ink-sticks.

The preparation and application of ink are crucial and vary widely according to the date of ink manufacture, the inkstone, water and paper used, and, of course, the artist First of all, color can vary from pure black to reddish or bluish tones.

Generally, a glossy black ink with a slightly purple or blue tinge is considered the best And most people agree the lighter weight the ink-stick, the better. This is because an agyo compound with strong adhering power is more effective and therefore can be used in smalleJ quantities. Once the ink-stick is dried, it is very light if the

agyo content is relatively low. Local temperature and humidity factors are probably the reason why Chinese ink-sticks usually contain a 100: 120 combination of soot and agyo. The relatively heavy use of poor quality agyo accounts for both their weight and tendency to crumble with changes in climate. Korean ink-sticks, on the other hand, contain less agyo, although more than Japanese inksticks, and are generally considered lighter and of superior quality.

Quality is closely related to the water content of the ink-stick as well as the drying period The longer an ink-stick is dried, the better.

Koreans often say ink should be as clear and pure as a child's eyes. The best ink is made by placing a small amount of water in the inkstone well and rubbing the ink-stick slowly back and forth for a long time One should only make as much ink as one will use in one sitting. Of course, the amount of water added depends on how the ink is to be used. More water is needed for ink used in shading.

Liquid ink is often used today as are machines that rub the ink-stick back and forth automatically. However, neither of these methods is perfect. As the old saying goes, "rub an ink-stick with the strength of a sickly woman, but wield your brush with the strength of a bull" There was a reason why our ancestors spent so much time preparing their ink First, it gave them time to think about the painting or characters they were going to execute; and second, it took time for a clear, pure ink to emerge from an inkstick made of glue and soot. On the , other hand, once an artist picked up his brush, all his ehergy was focused on his work and burst onto the paper from the tip of the brush When the clear ink meets the paper through the artist's hand, a powerful spiritual energy is released This is why "the scholar's four friends" were often seen as one body in tune with the artist

INKSTONFS The role of the inkstone is very much like that of the ink In fact, the inkstone was and still is the subject of much discussion among painters and calligraphers who view it as an important tool and symbol of their work A fine inkstone reflects the character of its owner.

These four tools embody the Korean conception of artistic beauty: a healthy natural beauty, mstic and honest in expression. Indeed, the paper, brushes, ink-sticks and inkstones serve as symbols of the Korean heart and could even be called "the cradle of the Korean spirit"+

55

An Interview with Choi Wan- soo

Chang In-yong

Text Editor Koreana

Chief Curator of the Kansong Art Musewn ansong Art Museum, ¡Korea's oldest private museum, was established in 1938 by am Hyong-p'il, a private collector who, out of concern for the flood of Korean cultural relics and art treasures toJapan, used his personal fortune to buyupartobjectsatauctionin Seoul as well as items that had already bemtakmto.Japm.

The Kansong collection, presendy administered by Chm 's heirs, comprises over 1.2,000 objects, including more than l(),(XX) books,over500pain~and morethan;!Xlceramicitems.

Whilem<Nartmuseumsactivelypromote exhibitions and other public services, the Kansong Art Museum is famous for jealously guarding its collection and focusing on research and the education of art historians. KOREANA recendy had an opportunity to discuss this and other issues related to Korean art history with Choi Wan-soo, Chief CuratorfortheKaosoogArtMuseum.

KOREANA: Thank you for agreeing to this interview. I know you are busy

with your work here at the museum as well as with your own personal research, but wefelt KOREANA's readers could learn a great deal from the 56

Kansong Art Museum's work and from your own experience I understand you recently returned from a trip to Yongyang in North Kyongsang Province. I've always imagined you glued to your dRsk here at the museum, examining documents and artifacts. What were you doing in Y6ngyang?

CHOI: I went to Yongyang to check on the locale portrayed in a landscape painting by Chong SOn (1676-1759). It is a beautiful place but it broke my heart to see how the natural landscape had been destroyed by the construction of a cement highway.

Traditionally Koreans have believed that man must live in harmony with nature, but in modem times this belief has deteriorated Many people blame this on both Westernization and industrialization, but I see it as a result of a misinterpretation of Western civilization If you look back over Korea's long history, you will see that Koreans didn't always accept foreign cultures lock, stock and barrel They adopted elements of foreign civilization on a selective basis; never did they embrace foreign customs or objects blindly.

Theirs was a conscious cultural borrowing. The 500 year history of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) clearly demonstrates this.

In fact, there is a reason why we analyze Korean history in terms of dynastic periods. The collapse of a dynasty occurred when the various

political, social and economic conditions of that dynasty had reached a point where there was no alternative to a total transformation of the ruling

regime.

Let's take the Chos6n Dynasty as an example. The Koryo regime (9181392) had reached a point where it could not longer sustain itself on the basis of its ruling ideology, so neoConfudanism was adopted as the ruling ideology under a new regime. It took the Chos6n Dynasty 21J years to fully digest this new philosophy and develop it as an indigenous Korean philosophy. At the same time, the Choson leaders attempted to block out all competing ideologies.

I believe the Chos6n people did not fully understand neo-Confucianism until the time of Yi Hwang (1501-1570, one of Korea's most famous Confucian scholars known best by his pen name, Toegye), nearly 250 years after the founding of the dynasty. In Toegye's interpretation of Zhu Xi necr Confucianism, the principle of i, or reason, took primacy over k; matter.

T'oegye applied this principle to human nature asserting that the proper cultivation of i would naturally result in the five Confucian virtues: love, honesty, propriety, knowledge and reliability. This assimilation of necrConfudanism was taken one step further during the time of Yi I (15331584, another Confucian scholar known by his pen name, Yulgok) when there was an urgent demand for the Koreanization of neo-

Confucian thought This transformation was realized through Yulgok's interpretation of the basic principles and atmospheric forces of nature. For Yulgok, the principle of ki was given primacy and i was simply a principle involved in ki. In Yulgok's thinking, practical ethics was given greater emphasis than metaphysical theory.

One could say the goal in Zhu Xi neoConfucianism was the realization of an ideal society; however, after Yulgok created a uniquely Korean version of Zhu Xi thought, Koreans embarked on a more active, confident pursuit of their own culture.

KOREANA: How did these intellectual developments influence art during

this period?

CHOI: In the field of literature, for example, this was the period in which Chong Ch'61 (1537-1594) wrote his famous kasa poems. This era also gave birth to the distinctive calligraphy of Han S6k-bong (1543-1605) who had such an important influence on literati calligraphers. It is often said that Han's style was modelled after the aristocratic method of the Chin , China calligrapher Wang Xi-zhi (305365); however, one can also say that Han S6k-bong's style was the Chos6n style since it clearly embodied the fortitude, the manliness of Korea's natural scenery with all its craggy rocks.

Painting requires special talent.

Artists during this period of Chos6n may have had a new philosophy to

work with, but if they didn't have talent, they couldn't have painted anything of importance. For example, scholars devoted to the new philosophy would sometimes hire professional painters to provide illustrations to accompany their poems, but these painters could not create what the scholars were looking for because they weren't able to transcend thenarrow bounds of their own techniques and thinking.

KOREANA: Who was the first to express the new thinking through painting?

CHOI: Cho Sok (1595-1668), a literati painter well-versed in the principles of neo-Confucianism, was the first to consolidate the new thinking into painting. He was a follower of Yulgok's thinking. Actually, since Yulgok's neo-Confucianism was a reform ideology; it was only natural that there would be some friction between Yulgok's followers and the older, more conservative thinkers of that period. This led to the factional conflict between the Easterners (tong in), conservative followers of Tbegye, and the Westerners (s6in), disciples of Yulgok The negative elements of factionalism are often emphasized in accordance with a Japanese colonialist historical outlook However, I believe it was precisely because of this factionalism that the Chos6n Dynasty was able to last for 500 years. That is to

Choi Wan'SOO

If you look back over Korea's

long history, you will see that Koreansdidn'talwaysaccept foreign cultures lock, stock and barreL Theirs was aconscious cultural borrowing.

57

say, mutual criticism and checks on power provided Chos6n with the strength to sustain its rule for 500 years and prevented it from rotting from within Of course, documents from that era are chock-full of references to the evils of factionalism, and this tends to back up the modern belief that factionalism was a bad thing. However, in my view; periods plagued by factional conflict were usually extremely prosperous periods in the area of culture as well as other fields. When people referred to the period in which they lived as "a reign of peace," that is, a time of little factional conflict, invariably it was a period of decline when the kingdom was threatened with internal ruin I began my study of Korean history and art history because I realized that existing historical documents did not fully reveal this. We have to look at cultural history to get a true picture of what's going on Take the Japanese invasion of Korea at the end of the Ashikaga period (1336-1573), for instance. Chos6n was able to repel that attack of over 100,000 men because of the factionalism I mentioned. When the Chos6n Dynasty finally did collapse, it wasn't at the feet of 100,000 men during Hid~yoshi's invasion of 1592 It was at the feet of a couple hundred Japanese troops in the early 20th century The dynasty was ripe to fall because of its own internal conditions.

KOREANA: You were saying that a prosperous era) a strong and intellectually rich era)gives rise to cultural excellence as well How does this play out in Korea's art history?

CHOI: My study of art history has

Cho Sok 'Magpies in Old Tree", 113.5x583cm, Indian ink on silk, National Museum.

58

clearly proven to me that an age of excellence produces art works of excellence. The period during which Yulgok's reformist thought was developed and implemented is a fine example of this. The political fruition

of Yulgok's philosophical reforms was the 1623 Injo Restoration, a coup in which the Westerners faction replaced the ruling monarch Kwanghae with his nephew who came to be known as Injo. This was a very touchy time for the Choson Dynasty: Clearly, it was difficult for the conservative forces who had ruled the dynasty for the previous 250 years to accept the reformist ideology, and, at the same time, it was difficult for the reformist forces to gain a foothold since these conservative forces had a vested interest in the maintenance of existing political, military and economic systems. Fortunately, Manchu forces from the Chinese mainland invaded Korea around this time, and, as a resul~ the economic foundation of the conservative faction crumbled. Also many of the i1ipy6ng forces that defended Korea from the Manchu invasion were followers of Yulgok's reformist philosophy and so provided a military base for the takeover of the regime by reformist forces. The Injo Restoration was achieved when these reformist elements were able to seize control Cho Sok, the literati painter I mentioned, was honored for his service in the Injo Restoration, but after its successful completion, he relinquished all his posts to spend his life traveling the country, painting landscapes. He was a pioneer in the development of the realistic landscape school, a genre born of the rich intellectual ferment of this period However, it was Chong Son who perfected the genre. Indian ink painting originated in China and was practiced by countless masters over the centuries. Chong SOn scoured historical records and Chinese paintings and adapted elements of the Northern and Southern Schools of Chinese painting to create his own unique technique. The difference between the Northern and Southern Schools lies in their basic temperament and portrayal of nature. The Northern

School tended to portray craggy rocks, and the Southern School generally portrayed earthen mountains without rocks. The Chinese attempted to harmonize these two techniques but were unsuccessful In fac~ it was only Chong SOn, who evaluated these techniques as an impartial third party, that finally achieved a harmonization of the two techniques. He was able to do so because his thought was based on the prindples of neoConfudanism That is to say, the concept of the harmonization of the yin and the yang (umyangin Korean), an essential element of the Yi Qing which forms the basis of neoConfudan though~ made the harmonization of conflicting artistic philosophies possible

KOREANA: How did this harmo-

nization manifest itself in Chong SOn's paintings?

CHOI: A unique feature of Chong's paintings is their exquisite structure. ''Realistic landscape painting'' does not mean the painter portrayed a landscape exactly as he saw it. What makes Chong SOn's paintings great are the way the artist has transformed reality to make it seem as "pretty as a picture." We often say tha~ don't we?

When we see a beautiful landscape, we often remark 'Oh! It's as pretty as a picture." Chong Son achieved this effect by transforming the actual size of various elements in a landscape so, while it was "realistic," it also transcended reality and improved upon it I believe that Chong's successors failed to achieve the exquisite beauty of his works because they could not achieve this mysterious transformation Interestingly, Chong Son lived during a period of great cultural fertility, not only in painting but also in ceramics, architecture, Buddhist painting, music, musical instruments and the like. It was a period of development and experimentation in indigenous Korean art, a time of great cultural prosperity: This is not truly reflected in historical documents, however.

KOREAN A: I understand that in addition to your work with Korean painting you have also done a great deal if research on Buddhist sculpture How did you fJ!t into thatfield?

What makes Chong Son's paintings great are the way the artist has transformed reality to make it seem as "pretty as a picture." ChOng achieved this effect by transforming the actual size of various elements in a landscape so, while it was "realistic," it also transcended reality and improved upon it

CHOI: When I first entered Seoul National University's Department of History, I planned to study Buddhist history, but in order to do that, you have to understand the Buddhist scriptures. At that time, the only complete set of the Koryo Buddhist scriptures was a single copy at Seoul National University and it wasn't easy to get a hold of. I ended up studying the history of Buddhist art instead, although I still had a strong interest in 59

the history of Buddhism in general.

After graduating, I worked at the National Museum for about a year, and then the director of the musewn, Ch'oe Sun-u, asked me if I'd like to work at Kansong Art Museum. He brought me over to see the place, and the first thing I saw was a full set of the Buddhist scriptures! I took the job on the spot, without even asking how much they were going to pay.

That's when I began my work on Buddhist sculpture. At the time, research in the field was purely descriptive. I often found myself wondering about various issues but I never found an answer in any of the existing research. For example, take the head bump (kyejugo) you so often find on portrayals of the Buddha. No one knew what it meant! I ended up writing a major paper on it I entered the field to try to answer questions like that but I haven't achieved much, rm afraid

KOREANA: The paintings in the

Kansong collection are such marvelous treasures. How did they survive the Korean War? CHOI: When the North Koreans first captured Seoul, they planned to retain it as the capital, and so they left everything as it was. However, when things started to turn against them, they made preparations to move the contents of the National Museum, Ch'angdok Palace and Kansong Art Museum to P'yongyang. Son Chehyong (calligrapher) and Ch'oe Sun-u (art historian), who were curators at the National Museum at the time, were ordered to pack up the Kansong collection. The North Koreans assigned a guard to watch them as they worked but Son and Ch'oe did everything in their power to delay shipment of the collection For example, they would pack a box and then unpack it again saying the contents were mislabeled, or they would claim their boxes were the wrong size and 60

take extra time building new ones.

Still, the guard was a problem.

Fortunately, Chon Hyong-p'illoved a good drink so there was plenty of whisky stored at the museum. Son and Ch'oe used it to keep the guard occupied while they went about their "work." In the end, however, the North Koreans figured out what Son and Ch'oe were up to, but it was around that time that the guard didn't report for work one day. It was September 28 , 1950 , the day MacArthur made his surprise landing at Inch'on. The collection, and Son and Ch'oe, were saved, for the time being.

The collection was kept in those boxes and moved south when Seoul fell back into Communist hands in January 1951. However, since it was impossible to move the whole collection, Chon Hyong-p'il decided that they would have to leave the Chinese and Japanese works behind and take only the Korean pieces. The funny thing was that once he got to Pusan, Chon found that many of the pieces he had left behind were for sale on the open market there. He bought back as many as he could, but in the end more than 100,000 books and artifacts were lost during the War. When the UN. forces retook Seoul, Chon ordered the collection be moved back to Seoul. Just three days later, the villa in which they had been stored in Pusan burned to the ground Clearly the heavens looked kindly on Chon Hyong-p'il and his collection

KOREANA: The Kansong collection,

especially the wealth of paintinfy) you have here, is such an important cultural asset. In fact, without these works it would be impossible to compile the art history of Korea. However, since you allow neither photographs of any of the works in the collection nor the publication of existing plates, it is not only extremely difficult to prepare reference books on Korea's art history but I understand art histo-

rians also face many problems in their research. Is there any special reason why the Kansong Art Museum does not allow greater access to its collection?

CHOI: The artifacts here are a unique cultural legacy. If they aren't cared for properly they will deteriorate immediately. A museum has several different functions. One is to stage exhibitions, but also a museum has a responsibility to preserve the artifacts with which it is entrusted and to conduct research None of these three functions should be given precedence over the others.

This is all the more true when you realize that once a work has been allowed to deteriorate, there is nothing anyone can do to restore it Paintings are extremely sensitive to temperature and light. Just look at ~he paintings on exhibition at the National Museum. They aren't the same paintings I first saw 30 years ago when I started my work in this field That is because they have deteriorated right there on the walls of the museum. I believe we have a responsibility to preserve these paintings because, in fact, they are not simply our property but also the property of our children and the generations of children that will follow them. This is why we don't permit any photography or publication of our works.

KOREANA: But what about the pub-

lication of existing photographs or permitting limited photography so plates, slides and books could be made for sale? That would benefit the Museum as wel4 wouldn't it?

CHOI: That will all come in good time. There is no hurry. If we preserve the artifacts well, we can always branch into new areas in the future.

We don't feel compelled to do everything. If we allow someone to publish photos of our collection just once, then it will be difficult to stop the next guy from doing it. That's why

we haven1t permitted any photography or publishing, despite all the flak wf!ve taken for it I believe students of art history should have no problem pursuing their studies with the documentation already available. And we hold exhibitions every spring and fall, so if people want to see these works up close, they can always come then. There are no admission fees. The people that really want to learn a bout Korean art come to those exhibitions, but you won1t see any of the people who keep demanding that we open the collection to photographers.

Interestingly, you can tell if someone is truly interested in studying Korean art by the way they look at the paintings. There are plenty of people who aren't sincerely interested KOREANA: It must be difficult operating the museum, and there is so much cost involved in the spring and fall exhibitions.

CHOI: You 1re right. The people working here are unique. They're not like the average person They live for their work, not for money. At presen~ we depend on Chon Hy6ng-p1il1s children for all our operating expenses.

KOREANA: Finally, I'd like to ask your opinion on modern day artists working in the field cf Korean painting Many art critics say these artists are taking an experimental attitude toward painting in Indian ink but others argue they have fallen far behind the traditional standards of Korean painting How do you feel about today's artists?

CHOI: So you1re asking me to speak ill of other people! WelL in East Asia there is this idea of 11The Way. 11 It means that in all our undertakings' there is a road, a law that governs the way we do things. It1s a lot like the way a mountain path is worn in the ground by the people that climb that

mountain. It is only proper that people devoted to the study of painting learn the basic laws that govern painting. Now, geniuses may acquire knowledge of these laws on their own, but it is only after they have mastered these laws that they can build upon and transcend those laws to break new ground in the genre.

The artistic laws or techniques governing painting have been established by thousands of painters working throughout Korea1s long history, so anyone who wants to pursue Korean painting must first understand these laws. And it is ignorance alone that permits many artists today to ignore these laws. A painting that does not follow the laws ofpainting is not a painting. The value of a painting should be determined on the basis of its merit: whether it shows genius or no~ whether it reflects effort and dedication. But works that ignore the most basic laws of painting are simply frauds that no one should buy. +

Kansong Art Museum

61

ATreasury of

Korean Painting When all is said and done, the best way to truly appreciate Korean paintings is to look at them There is no denying the relevance of the theory and history behind each genre, but the old proverb, "A picture is worth a thousand words," worn as it is, always prevails in the end With this in mind, KOREANA has pr~ pared this pictorial section to provide our readers with a closer look at the works of ten of Korea's finest painters.

62

Ch6ngS6n 1676-1759 One of Chos6n's most prolific and distinguished painters, Chong rendered the beauty of Korean landscapes in his unique style of realistic landscape painting, based on the prindples of the Chinese Southern School but thoroughly Korean in theme, composition and style

'Clearing After the Rain on Mt Inwang,' (1751), Indian ink on paper, 79.2 x38.2cm, Ho-AmArt Museum.

63

Sim Sa-j6ng 1707-1769 Son of a respected literati family, Sim devoted his life to painting and never held official office. Although realistic landscape painting was in vogue during his lifetime, Sim was more interested in traditional Chinese painting

'Landscape Executed in the Manner of Shen Zhou', (1758), Indian ink and color on paper, 129,4 X 6L2cm, National Museum.

64

Kim Hong-do 1745 - 1816(?)

Best known for his witty genre paintings, Kim was also celebrated for his landscapes, portrayals of Taoist and Buddhist figures and still life paintings. While they show signs of influence by Chong Son and Kim Ung-hwan, Kim's works are unique in composition and technique

'Taoist Hermits" (part), (1776), Indian ink and color on paper, 1328 X 575.8cm, Ho-Am Art Museum.

65

Sin Yun-bok 1758-?

Little is known of Sin other than that he was the son of a court paillter and was a court paillter himself. An accomplished landscape paillter, Sin is best known for the polished romanticism of his genre paintings which were distinct in theme, technique and composition from the humorous scenes of the common people's lives portrayed by the other great genre paillter, Kim Hong-do.

'Portrait of a Beauty,' colors on silk, 113.9 x 45.6cm, Kansong Art Museum.

66

Kang Se-hwang 1713 -1791

. .

. an d art critic m An artist d . skllled ting Kang . calligraphy an pam : poetry, .

1 f'gure in the hteratl s a p1vota 1 H wa . f late Chason. e comm umty 0 d tilllifes in c: used on landscapes an s lOC his ear 1y years but later alsbecame of bamknown for his ink portray: v

boo trees.

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Kim Chong-hui 1786-1856 Government minister, Sirhak scholar, painter and cilligrapher, Kiln Chong-hili's calligraphy style has become the standard by which all Korean calligraphy is judged. His realistic landscape and genre works, so popular during the late Chos6n period, are not as highly regarded as his literati paintings.

'Pines and Cypresses in Wmter', (1844), Indian ink on paper, 23 x 69.2cm, private collection (Seepage3031)

H6Ry6n 1809-1892 A student of Kim Chong-hili, Ho was also deeply influenced by Chinese painters of the Southern School. Not only was he skilled in landscape painting, but he also was renowned for his portrayal of the "Four Gentlemen" (plwn, orchid, chrysanthemum and bamboo), other flowers, rocks, trees and the like.

'Landscape on a Fan,' (1866), Indian ink and color on a paper fan, 20 x 61cm, Seoul National University Museum.

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Chang Sung-Op 1843-1897 Orphaned early in life, Chang grew up in a foster family His genius for painting was discovered quite by acddent and he was soon recruited as a court painter. A flamboyant personality, Chang is said to have painted best under the influence of alcohol

YiSang-b6m 1897-1972

'Landscape,' (1960), 65xtOOcm, Indian ink on paper, private collectiolL

Son of a poor literati family, Yi's early works reveal the influence of his teacher, An J ung-sik, in their eclectic adaptation of the Southern Chinese School style His style began to change around 1923, however, with his portrayal of low hills in rapid, angular brush strokes. His post-war works expressed Korean lyricism through the portrayal of rural landscapes throughout the four seasons

Py6n Kwan-sik 1899-1976 'Landscape' (One of eight screen panels,) 136 x 325cm, Kansong Art Museum.

A grandson of one of Chos6n's last court painters, Cho S6k-jin, Py6n began studying painting under his grandfather in 1910. After studying in

"Fresh Breeze Over dear Water', (1961), 91xl17cm, Indian ink on paper, private collectiolL

Japan, Py6n returned to Korea to tour the country painting landscapes in his own unique style

69

Literary Awards-

A Korean Growth Industry?

Lee Kyung Chull Joong-ang llbo

f we were to make a list of all the awards offered in culture and the arts in Korea, there is no question that literary awards would take up the most space. According to the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation's JJ:lat m:ent ~there are presently 151literary awards offered each year, and this figure doesn't even include the "newcomer' awards aimed at discovering new talent or awards offered to literary figures under the auspices of general culture and art awards. If we add up all the awards pertaining to the literary field - the 151 purely literary prizes I've mentioned above plus the "newcomer" awards and the literary awards granted by various cultural organizations - it adds up to more than 500 each year. With approximately 3,0CfJ writers of various genres at present, that means one in every six writers is receiving a literary award of some kind. In fact, there are five writers who have received more than six awards each! Korea really is a literary paradise.

Every October, Koreans eagerly await the announcement of the Nobel Prize for Literature. The literary award is given extensive play in the Korean media while the other prizes for medicine, peace and economics are provided only cursory coverage. Koreans may not have their own Nobel Laureate for Literature but each year the local media fights tooth and nail to run

I

74

profiles of the prize winners and their works, whether the winner is a well-known author or a relatively obscure writer from South America or Africa The Korean people's keen interest in literature is born of their long history of respect for the literary arts.

Ancient records show Koreans enjoyed primitive poetry and songs well before the birth of Christ Just two examples of Korea's early literary excellence are Konghuin, a tearful story of a widow playing the lyre, written by Y6-ok, a female musician, in Ancient Chos6n, one of the first tribal states to rule on the Korean peninsula, and Kujiga (The Song of the Tortoise), part of the Kaya Kingdom's foundation myth, which bears a resemblance to the songs of Korean shamans.

As time passed, these primitive poems and songs gave way to a more advanced genre: hyangga, setform verse and songs originating around the fifth century during the Silla period. Beloved by the common people as well as the aristocracy and Buddhist monks, hyangga not only embodied a deep religious significance but also displayed a remarkable level of lyrical artistry Hyanf!fÂĽl developed over the course of time to give birth to sijo, a threeline poetic genre during the Kory6 Kingdom The sip, which so powerfully embodies the spirit and emotion of the Korean people, remains a popular literary form today

Within this rich literary tradition lies a profound respect for poets and writers. One clear example of this is the state examinations (kwag6) administered to recruit bureaucrats from the Kory6 period through the end of the 19th century. The kwag:J required applicants to produce both poetry and prose as a test of their character and knowledge. From early times, Koreans have held those who write well in high esteem The kwag6 was not simply a means of bureaucratic recruitment, however. It also served as an important literary event and survives today, albeit somewhat diminished in size , in the form of the paek'ilchang essay contests sponsored around the country by schools, literary clubs and newspapers. These essay contests are usually held outside on the grounds of old palaces or in parks during the spring. On the day of the contest, entrants are given a title and asked to write a poem or story within a fixed time. Awards are given for the best entries, much as young bureaucrats were chosen on the basis of their writing skills under the old kwag:J system The paek1khang tradition is just one way literary creativity is cultivated among ordinary Korean dtizens.

Aspiring writers are also recruited through a special system known as "the spring literary contests" (sinch'unmunye). All the major newspapers in Seoul as well as

many of the newspapers and magazines published on the provincial level sponsor literary contests, offering prizes in a variety of categories, including poetry, short stories and novels, plays, and literary criticism.

Some 100 writers make their official debuts each year through these contests. Every year approximately 10,000 literary aspirants submit works to these contests, quite a hefty number for a country of 50 million people. Winners receive around 2 million won in prize money, the status of a literary professional, and, of course we mustn't forge~ a chance to compete for one of those 151literary awards!

But whds sponsoring all these literary awards? Three are sponsored by public institutions, such as the Korean Arts and Culture Foundation, 66 by various literary organizations or associations, five by press organs, 55 by magazine and book publishers, 19 by individual award groups, and three by miscellaneous organizations.

One unique and problematic feature of Korea's system of literary awards is that fully 80 percent of all literary awards are sponsored by publishers or literary associations, which serve as social clubs for many literary figures.

The literary awards can also be broken down by genre: general awards which do not specify genre, 40; poetry 31; sijo 13, novels and short stories 19, children's literature 26;

With 3,000 writers competing for 150 literary awards, it's no wonder Korea has been called a literary paradise.

essays 4; plays 1; literary criticism 3; translation 2; and miscellaneous 12 A geographical breakdown shows 80 percent of the awards (120) are offered by sponsors in Seoul, while each of the provinces, except Chejudo, offers between two to six awards.

Most of Korea's literary awards are named for famous writers as are Japan's Akudagawa Literary Award and the 0. Henry Short Story Award in the United States. Thirtysome awards are named for literary luminaries from the Chos6n period, such as the kisaengpoetess Hwang Chin-i and Sirhak philosopher Pak Chi-won, or modern writers who made outstanding contributions to the development of Korean literature, such as Han Yong-un, Ch'oe Nam-s6n, Chu Yo-sop, Kim So-wol, Kim Tong-in, Yi Sang, Py6n Y6ngdo, Yi Py6ng-gi, Pak Chong-hwa, Yi On-sang, Yi Y6ng-do, Kim Yuch6ng, Kim Su-y6ng, Cho Y6nhy6n, Shin Tong-y6p, and others.

This tendency to name literary awards after deceased authors reflects the depth of Korea's literary tradition as well as the Korean people's esteem for those engaged in the literary arts.

An interesting by-product of this profusion of literary awards is the outpouring of alcohol it generates around the end of the year when award ceremonies are usually held Several award ceremonies are held each day, and the recipients naturally celebrate their achievements with a drink or two. As a resul~ by the end of December, nearly everyone in the literary community, be they wellknown writers or literary wannabe's, is pickled in drink These award ceremonies provide members of the literary community with an opportu-

75

nity to get to know each other and catch up on the latest gossip. They also serve to carry' on the literary tradition and promote creativity through lively discussion Nevertheless, the plethora of literary awards is not without its detractors, and whenever things get a little slow, reporters on the culture desks of local newspapers are sure to point out the problems inherent in 11 the mass production of literary awards.11 One obvious problem revolves around the question of prestige.

Award sponsors invariably insist their prize is awarded on the basis of the quality of the work in a selfless effort to stimulate creativity and advance the cause of Korean literature. However, given certain social traditions as well as Korea's tragic history, it's difficult to say which award is the most prestigious.

Generally speaking, literary prizes are not awarded so much on the basis of quality as on the basis of factors quite unrelated to literary merit For example, the government-sponsored Korean Literature Award is ostensibly awarded to the best literary work produced in a given year.

However, Korea's unique history of ideological division has distorted the award's original purpose so that it is only given to those works that are ideologically acceptable to the sponsoring organization, in other words, the government The acute ideological split between the two Koreas also divides the local literary community. There are the proponents of 11pure11 literature who pursue traditional or modern literary forms and the proponents of activist literature who take a realistic approach and tend to criticize contemporary society and government. Anti-government activist writers would never be awarded the Korean Literature Award which has

76

always been offered to pro-government proponents of ''pure'' literature.

More bluntly stated, the Korean Literature Award is a state-sponsored award given to literary sycophants, and, as a result, the prize enjoys little prestige despite its government sponsorship.

This does not mean, however, that literary prizes sponsored by literary organizations, magazines or publishers, approximately 80 percent of all literary awards, are without their own problems. There is a wealth of literary associations aimed at pro-

Generally speaking, literary prizes are not awarded so much on the basis of quality as on the basis of factors quite unrelated to literary merit, such as ideology, personal connections or selling potential

moting contacts between members of the literary community. The Korean Writers Association has many regional branches around the country, and literary groups organized around genre or alumni ties are also common. Most of these groups sponsor literary awards aimed at their own membership.

However, the winners are not determined on the basis of the quality of their works so much as on the basis of the writer's role in the organization. That is to say, the prizes are generally awarded to members who have contributed to the organization, and often on the basis of one's seniority within the organization,

without regard to the quality of the literary work While this is in keeping with the Korean tradition of respect for one's elders, it contributes little to the cultivation of quality literature.

The awards sponsored by literary magazines or publishers are, on the other hand, selected on the basis of the work, rather than the writer. At present, approximately 20 literary magazines are being published either on a monthly or quarterly basis, and it is common for the publishers of these magazines to publish books as well These firms use literary awards as a tool to assemble quality works for their magazines and books. If publishers want to sell magazines and books, they must have a reputation for quality.

Literary awards help them achieve this. It is for this reason that awards sponsored by publishers and magazines tend to focus on the quality of the work rather than the reputation or connections of the writer.

However, this commercialism is the problem In order to be commercially successfuL a work must be fun to read, and as a result purely literary works, capable of advancing the spirit of the times, are often overlooked The prestige of any a ward depends on the objectivity and impartiality of the judging process, and that judging process must focus on the work, rather than the author.

Literary prizes can contribute to the advancement of Korea's literary tradition if we break away from narrow factionalism and our tendency to focus on a writer's personal connections instead of his or her literary skills. By doing this, we will help our literary community produce works worthy not only of Korea's rich literary past but also deserving of the respect of readers throughout the world+

Chung Trio Performs as UNOCP Goodwill Ambassadors Julie Pickering Managing Editor KOREANA

or most of us, middle age is a time to stop and reflect, to look back over the road we've traveled and ahead to what awaits us. Sadly, many in their late-thirties or early forties believe the freedom of youth, that feeling that the world is full of opportunities just waiting to be taken, has slipped away They assume they have become what they're going to become and accept the world as it is. But for others, the freedom of youth is replaced by a new freedom, the realization that one finally has the power and knowledge to make a difference. It's a luxury in a way How many people actually have the time, energy and conviction to go beyond the daily business of life? Fortunately for us, there are some who take that step. Like the Chung Trio.

The Chung Trio consists of the elder sister Myung-hwa on cello, younger sister Kyung-hwa on violin, and brother Myung-whun at the piano, three accomplished musicians who have attained international renown, both as an ensemble and in their individual careers. Born to a musical family of seven children, the three Chungs' natural talents were recognized early on, and so, in the early 1960s, they set out to pursue their musical studies in the United States.

Myung-hwa graduated from Juilliard and won first place in the

It's easy to assume that these prodigies have led charmed lives, but, in fact, no musician becomes a success on his or her talent alone. The Chungs have worked hard to get where they are today, and all three would certainly credit their mother, Lee Wonsuk, for much of their ¡ success. It was Lee who provided her children with the opportunity to study music in the first place, and it was Lee who instilled in her children the will to persevere despite the many hardships they faced both in Korea and abroad

cello division at the Geneva International Music Competition in 1971 She has since performed with a number of prestigious orchestras including the London Royal Philharmonic, the Berlin Radio Symphony, and many others. She is presently based in New York where she teaches at the Mannes School of Music.

Kyung-hwa studied violin under Ivan Galamian in New York. She took second place in the Merry Widow Post Concours at the age of 17 and two years later shared first place at the Leventritt International Music Competition with Pinchas Zuckerman. Following her graduation from Juilliard, she played with the London Symphony Orchestra and the Berlin and New York Philharmonic Orchestras. She has since perfmmed around the world, averaging 100 appearances a year.

Her younger brother Myungwhun started playing the piano at the age of five and was only eight when he went to the United States with his sisters. He graduated from the Mannes School of Music in 1968 and placed second in the Tchaikovsky Competition in 1974.

He entered the conducting course at Juilliard the following year and was appointed vice conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 1978. Since that time he has conducted the Berlin and London Philharmonic Orchestras as well as the London Symphony Orchestra and Paris

77

The Chung Trio's performance at the Seoul Art Center, August, 1992

Orchestra In 1986, he was appointed standing conductor of the Saarbruecken Radio Symphony Orchestra and the first guest conductor of the Florence Opera House, and since May 1989 he has served as the music director and conductor of the Bastille Opera in Paris. He remains active as a pianist as well Its easy to assume that these prodigies have led charmed lives, but, in fact, no musician becomes a success on his or her talent alone. The Chungs have worked hard to get where they are today, and all three would certainly credit their mother, Lee Won-suk, for much of their success. It was Lee who provided her children with the opportunity to study music in the first place, and it was Lee who instilled in her children the will to persevere despite the many hardships they faced both in Korea and abroad Perhaps we should also credit the

78

Their decision to join in the UNDCP's effort to forge a drug-free culture grows out of their concern for the future of their children's world and the lives of children and young people everywhere. Certainly, music in and of itself contributes to the betterment of all lives, but at this stage in their careers, the Chung Trio has chosen to go one step further and use their music as a tool to focus attention on one of the most serious problems facing modern society today.

Chungs' mother for their decision to become Goodwill Ambassadors for the United Nation International Drug Control Program (UNDCP).

One of the burdens and joys of middle age is the fact that we finally understand our parents because we have grown to become parents ourselves. It is no accident that the three Chungs have chosen to take this step now. Their decision to join in the UNDCP's effort to forge a drugfree culture grows out of their concern for the future of their children's world and the lives of children and young people everywhere .

Certainly, music in and of itself contributes to the bettetment of all lives, but at this stage in their careers, the Chung Trio has chosen to go one step further and use their music as a tool to focus attention on one of the most serious problems facing modern society today The UNDCP was established in

1990, consolidating three existing United Nations drug-related organizations. The purpose of the UNDCP is to serve as a clearing house for information on drug enforcement and rehabilitation, a source of technical support for law enforcement efforts, as well as a forecaster of new trends in drug production and use worldwide. The UNDCP budget for 1992 totals $82 million to fund 125 different programs in 63 countries. UNDCP activities include: comprehensive programs for agricultural development and the cultivation of alternative crops; support in the enforcement of drug laws; care and rehabilitation of drug users; drug use prevention; and enhancement of governmental responses to dmg abuse issues. The UNDCP is also broadening its scope to include issues such as environmental damage caused by drug cultivation, increasing dmg cultivation in Southeast Asia and the Andes, and the complicated problem of drug money laundering.

The Republic of Korea signed the International Dmg Control Treaty in 1964 and, in the years since, has become a model for drug prevention and control. The government of Korea suggested the establishment of a UNDCP Goodwill Ambassador to promote more effective advocacy efforts around the world. The United Nations accepted this proposal, in recognition of the Korean drug enforcement effort, and in June 1992 named the Chung Trio the UNDCPs first Goodwill Ambassadors. In their capacity as Goodwill Ambassadors, the Chungs will meet with world leaders to discuss ways of promoting international cooperation in the fields of dmg enforcement and prevention, talk with community groups, media, and local leaders about UNDCP programs and inter-

national drug issues, give lectures, concerts, seminars, press conferences and interviews to enhance public awareness of drug problems, and promote fundraising activities.

The Chungs' August 29 concert at the Seoul Art Center's main concert hall kicked off their new career as Goodwill Ambassadors. Following this concert, the Chungs' official schedule includes a joint concert with tenor Placido Domingo in September and five concerts for the promotion of anti-drug programs in the United States and Italy in November, all on top of their individual concert schedules, of course.

At first glance, the connection between classical music and drug prevention seems tenuous. I have to admit that's how I felt when I took my seat at the Seoul Art Center on August 29th. The hall was packed with well-dressed government dignitaries, political and social leaders and their wives, as well as thousands of bright-faced musical hopefuls. It all seemed a long way from the dmginfested city streets in North America or the Southeast Asian jungles, home to a growing problem of drug cultivation I wondered what these three people thought they could accomplish But as soon as the first strains of Beethoven's Trio in B Major, Op. 11 embraced the crowd, I could see there was indeed a connection The Chungs' music is a testimony to the potential of the human spirit, something so often lost in modern society's pursuit of ''progress." We are all born with a talent, but only those who are given an opportunity to build on that talent can flourish.

The Chungs know that Their mother taught them that, and now it's their turn to teach the young people of the world as well as the political and social leaders who so pro-

foundly influence the lives of those young people The Chungs' music is a metaphor for what needs to be done in response to the growing drug problem They are three people working together in harmony, building on each other's strengths, and sharing a burden. They are three people who have reached the top of their profession and are now taking time to offer something to others, to help others grasp the hope they need to survive and flourish Obviously there won't be many drug addicts or coca-cultivating peasants in the Chung Trio's audiences, but through their activities as Goodwill Ambassadors, the three siblings will draw attention to a serious issue too often thought of as somebody else's problem Such are the advantages of celebrity, in the Chungs' case well deserved. Such are the advantages of maturity, in the Chungs' case gracefully revealed â&#x20AC;˘

CORRECTION: On page 72 of our summer 1992 edition, KOREANA mistakenly identified a portrait of a Korean monk as part of the Korea Foundation Gallery collection at the British Museum The painting has been acquired by the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Our thanks to Ms.Jane Portal for pointing out the oversight and our apologies to KOREANA's readers.

79

~n¡-air Concerts: A Breath of Fresh Air in the Year of Dance Kim Chae-hyun Dance Critic and Professor Seowon University ~=~

he conventional proscenium stage was introduced from the West some 70 years ago and has long been the arena for nearly all Korea's modern dance performances. With the construction in the 1970s of the National Theater, the Sejong Cultural Center and the Mun-ye Center, and of stages suitable for modern dance in Pusan, Taegu, Kwangju and other provincial cities in more recent years, the vast majority of the 600-plus dance performances held each year take place on proscenium stages, and most Korean dancers and choreographers have come to take the proscenium stage for granted, accepting it as the basic framework for everything from practice sessions to choreography.

Outdoor stages, on the other hand, have been ignored for the most part, not only for dance but in the staging of theatrical and musical performances as well. However, in recent years there has been a noticeable increase in the number of open-air dance performances. I believe that this new trend, starting with a few limited attempts in the late 1980s leading up to the boom in open-air dance concerts we've seen this summer, clearly reflects a new wave in the Korean dance world. All evidence indicates that this trend is likely to continue.

At the fifth annual Pusan Summer Dance Festival held in mid:July, per-

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formances were staged both indoors and out for the second year in a row, and starting last year, performances in the touring summer dance festival aimed at promoting inter-provincial exchanges were also held on indoor and open-air stages.

Government funding for dance has increased dramatically thanks to the Ministry of Culture's designation of 1992 as 11 the Year of Dance,11 and many open-air performances have been sponsored throughout the country this summer in commemoration of this event. No doubt more people will attend outdoor dance performances in 1992 than in any other year in the past centwy Most open-air dance performances have taken the form of free concerts at resort areas, beaches, and parks outside urban centers. During the late 1980s, there were also many outdoor dance performances held before large audiences at mass rallies calling for social change. Taking dance to the people is probably the most effective method of stimulating popular interest in dance.

Modern dance has only begun to come to life in the last ten years, so it is no wonder that the average Korean does not feel any particular affinity for the genre and there have been many difficulties in attracting audiences. Through these free outdoor concerts, dance companies hope to beef up community support for dance and boost funding.

As the modern dance community

began to develop and stage more indoor performances in the 1980s, it was generally assumed that audiences would grow naturally as performances became more common.

However, there seems to have been a tapering off of audience growth toward the end of the 1980s.

Improving the quality of indoor dance performances was seen as the solution to this problem, but considering the fact that any indoor performance is limited both in terms of audience size and performance length, boosting quality alone is not going to make a significant contribution to attracting larger audiences. In addition, the audiences attending traditional indoor dance performances tended to be limited to a very small segment of the population. It is for this reason open-air performances are gaining popularity within the dance community, which so urgently needs to expand its popular base.

Interestingly enough, through the end of the 19th century nearly all Korea's traditional dance performances took place outdoors. With the exception of court dance, which was performed inside royal palaces, most traditional dances were performed in fields or workplaces, the courtyards of private homes or Buddhist temples, village streets, or simply under a tree. People in traditional society loved to dance, not only during festival or holiday periods, but also as an expression of happiness or sorrow. It was through

APerformance by Saeamch'umhoe

dance that the Korean people assimilated and overcame life's ups and downs. Dance was often accompanied by song and even dialogue to create new dramatic genres.

Dance was a patt of everyday life in traditional society, but in the process of urbanization and industrialization in the 20th century, indigenous dance declined and many people came to see dancing as something embarrassing. The recent surge in open-air dance concerts seems to indicate, however, that there may be a revival in the Korean people's traditional love of dance. If that is the case, perhaps Korean dance will finally be able to establish a secure foundation for itself in modem society.

Since the size of an audience for an outdoor dance performance can vary according to where and when it is staged, it is hard to say exactly

This summer's open-air performances reveal an urgent need to supplement our basic creative principles since the way a subject is expressed is as important as the subject matter itself.

how many people are attending these concerts. Recent performances have attracted audiences ranging in size from 500 to 3,000. While we have no concrete figures comparing audiences for indoor and outdoor concerts, it seems clear that outdoor performances are providing a much larger segment of the population with the opp01tunity to experience dance and, as a result, are playing an important role in bringing people

closer to the world of dance.

The average Korean sees dance as an extension of traditional dance, so they tend to feel somewhat uncomfortable with the dance performed in conventional indoor concerts. As a result, dance is not a part of everyday life, and when people do encounter it, for example during a open-air performance at a resort or park, it is a source of both shock and delight, much like a hailstorm on a summer day It is in this atmosphere that the average Korean will become more cornfottable with the world of dance.

It would be wrong, however, for us to see open-air dance performances simply as a stepping-stone in the promotion of conventional stage dance. In fact, this is only a secondary function of the outdoor performances. Open-air dance must develop its own identity It must be

81

recognized as a distinct genre. The outdoor stage is a unique venue with characteristics that the indoor stage does not have. WhÂĽe open-air dance performances are meant to be entertaining, they must also have artistic value. Considering the Korean people's passionate spiritual nature, the structure of the open-air dance genre will no doubt have great appeal One reason open-air dance has not been accepted as an independent genre is that it is a fairly new development. The relatively thin repertoire for dance on outdoor stages is an urgent problem since no art can appeal to the masses without variety Audiences aren't interested in fragmented experimental works; we need a broad repertoire that will appeal to a mass audience.

For this reason, emphasis must be put on the development of new works. During the Pusan Summer Dance Festival this year, a number of works on a variety of subjects human struggle in a boxing ring, environmental pollution, the dreams of a seagull, scenes from the ballet ''Don Quixote'' and the musical''Cats," children wandering -- were introduced Given the unique spatial and temporal characteristics of the outdoor stage, subject matter must be carefully selected. After watching this summers open-air performances I have come to the conclusion that we must supplement our basic creative principles since the way a subject is expressed is as important as the subject matter itself. Our task now is to begin to build up our know-how in the area of composition Generally speaking, open-air dance audiences are composed of people who have gathered together at parks or on beaches for the simple pleasure of being outdoors. For this

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reason, it would be wise to bypass overly serious works in favor of works that provide an emotional release to the audience. The dance community must develop works with entertainment value. Of course, this idea of release or entertainment does not refer so much to the subject material as to the staging and imagery inherent in the work In addition, choreographers must remember that the audience is much more easily distracted in an outdoor performance than in a performance in a closed theater, so plot

Through the end of the 19th century, nearly all Korea's traditional dance performances took place outdoors. People in traditional society loved to dance anywhere, not only during festival or holiday periods, but simply to assimilate and overcome life's ups and downs.

and structure must be kept simple.

We must develop ways to portray the essence of dance in a succinct and explosive manner.

There are a number of areas for improvement in Korea's open-air dance genre; dramatic skills and plot are just two problem areas.

However, I believe priority must be given to costuming and movement.

Costumes must be in keeping with the season while at the same time allow freedom of movement.

Audiences new to dance must be given a chance to fully savor the pleasures and charms of the physical movement unique to dance. This is impossible if costumes are too

heavy or colors are dark or distracting. Indeed, one could say costumes and movement are two sides of the same coin; movement cannot be fully appreciated without careful selection of costumes.

In recent years, a number of dance troops have had some success approaching a mass audience through outdoor performances.

Through these performances, Korean dance has been introduced to a broader audience, albeit on a fragmentary basis. However, the problems with costumes and movement mentioned above are, I believe, a result of a failure to recognize the fundamental differences between indoor and outdoor dance performances as well as the general unwillingness to see open-air dance as a distinct genre. Just one example of this is the staging of scenes from "Don Quixote" and "Cats," both theater works, on outdoor stages this summer. There should have been some consideration to the summer heat and the Korean people's traditional conceptions of dance.

This years leap onto the open-air stage has established outdoor dance as a distinct dance genre, which requires its own unique methodology. If dance in the open is going to focus on lightweight entertainment alone, then it will never be more than another summer leisure activity However, if the ruumw bounds of enteltainment are transcended and artistic creativity is achieved, dance too can join in the growing outdoor art movement evidenced by the recent boom in outdoor music concerts and sculpture parks. A systematic program for the development of open-air dance as a distinct genre of leisure art must be formulated from the viewpoint of "cultural animation" which seeks to bring art closer to the everyday lives of the Korean people. +

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