Koreana Winter 1993 (English)

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BEAUTY OF KOREA

THE YANGBANMASK FROM HAHOE Every year on the First Full Moon of the lunar calendar the people of Hahoe Village in Andong County, North Ky6ngsang Province, hold a shamanistic ceremony called the Py5/singut The yangban mask is one of the beautiful wooden masks used in the ceremony. ¡The Hahoe masks are unique for their rich expressions, borne of the skilled carving of Hahoe craftsmen A simple cock of the wearer's head can change the impression of the mask This is especially true of the yangban mask with its distinct eyebrows and cheek bones. The Hahoe masks have been designated National Trea-

sures, along with two Py6ngsan masks. Unlike most traditional masks made of paper which are burnt after the ceremony is finished, the Hahoe masks are carved from black alder and covered with two or three layers of lacquer as well as painted features. The jawbones are carved seperately, giving the masks a more realistic appearance. The village of Hahoe has preserved two workshops specializing in the production of these remarkable masks, and the artisans working there still obey the strict taboos and instructions governing their craft •


' ,~ KOREAN ~

ART & CULTURE '

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Tradition and modernity harmonized in contemporary dance

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PERFORMING ARTS: CREATING AFUTURE FROM THE PAST

This may be tbe most uniquely Korean dance step-a slight pause, with a lift of tbe sroulders and onefoot extended to tre side In tre local dance community today, we can see growing movement totmrd tre lxlrmonization of such distinctly Korean traditions with concepts and movements found in tre mcdern dance of tre Western world

6 THE ESSENCE OF TRADITIONAL KOREAN PERFORMING ARTS by Kim Moon-hi1Xln

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12 TRADITIONAL DRAMA A VALUABLE SOURCE OF INSPIRATION FOR CREATIVE MODERN ARTISTS by!XJh Yon-!XJ

18 TI\KING TRADITIONAL MUSIC INTO THE FUTURE by Kim Yongmiln

24 KOREAN DANCE: FINDING MODERN STATUS by Lee Sang-if

30 ON STAGE

Ch'angmuhoe by Clxm Yongjmg

Hwang Byung-ki by !XJng Hye-jin

SamulNori by Han Myunglxe

OT'ae-s6k by Han Sangchu/

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MUSICAL INSTRU!viENTS:

Conveying the Korean Spirit Through Nature by Han Myunglxe

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Korea Foundation ~.i!-lP'


JOURNE'{S IN KOREAN UIERAIURE

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ruling class gentleman by saying "My name is made up of the sound ~'and the sound 'b6rt', forcing the gentleman to call him ab6n~ in short, ab6j~ which means father in Korean. This is clearly meant to ridicule the yangban elite. In the Hahoe mask play, two scholars 00ast of their own superiority. One asks the other whether he knCJ'Ws his six k:J,Ongtg)X)ng (OOoks read by scholars of that era) when the¡ ill-bred Ch'urang butts in and answers,

ments, although exorcisms remained the characteristic prototype of Korea's traditional performing arts and later evolved into a developed art form Mask plays can re distinguished into rural dramas, such as the pj5/shin exorcisms practiced widely in the eastern region of the country, and urban shindaedokam plays. Here, without looking closely into the differences re tween these two, I will simply call ooth genres folk plays. All ethnic activities, whether in the East or West, display unconscious traces of drama In order to investigate and hand down our dramatic traditions to future generations, we should consider every inherited ethnic custom as a subjxt for study. Among the existing forms of mask plays, there are those specific to a region, such as the Pongsan Mask Dance, Yanpju Pj5f.r:ÂŁtndaenori, the Tongrae Malttugi Play, Hahae Mask Play and Tongyong Okwangdae play. The Nam-

"Palmantaedxmg k:J,Ong (Tripitaka Koreana), parae ky6ng (a big sack carried by monks), angy6ng (glas.ses), kilgy6ng (a herb used in medicines), ch'6ny6ux3lgy6ng (menstruation) and sae k:J,Ong (annual salary of a servantY' to deride the literature highly valued by the yangban In lim~ a naked commoner carries the

coffin of the wife of the Pyongyang Governor to ridicule the )tlngban rules of etiquette. This conflict can re found not only in the characters and the subjxts, but also in the various formative elements expressing these themes. The same principle of conflict applies to all sorts of Traditional masks parodies found in poetic diction, not to mention in the actual capture the essence masks, dance, movements and of their characters, providing potent accompanying music As can re seen in the Tongrae Malttugi mask, the exagammunition for political satire. gerations and distortions-basic expressions of conflict-are apsadang Mask Dance and tokpoeki were per- plied in its manufacture with the difference in formed by wandering entertainers not confined the size of masks symoolizing the conflict; Pak to a specific region or era Ch'on-j's mask in llilmi is aoout 2Scm wide These folk dramas vary in small degrees ac- while that of the Pyongyang Governor meacording to region and entertainers, but they all sures only Scm across. share the follCJ'Wing fundamental characteristics.: In all dance and music, the two factors of Fir~ all these folk dramas are based on a movement and stillness are in contrast This fierce sense of rerellion felt by the common contrast is much more intense than that found people tCJ'Wards the reality of their lives. The in Western dance and music The pause in the basic themes of these folk dramas can re cate- West is only an insertion retween movements, gorized as: exorcism rites and ritual dances; but ours has an active value like the unfilled satires of apostate monks; ridicule of the ruling space in a painting or yangban class; and love triangles involving Korean folk dramas thus express the world husband, wife and lover. The key trend here is of conflict with consistency of content and an acute conflict with a reality filled with alien- form Exaggeration is the basis of the overall ation and contradictions. The characters repre- structure. When each exaggeration is linked to sent the contradictions of the society in any giv- the others, the drama does not depend on the en era usual four steps in composition-the introducThe dominant theme is rerellion directed at tion, the devlopmn~ the climax and concluthe ruling class. For example, in Yanpju. , a man sion-but a constant mixture of all four. Of course, we can surmise that Korean folk of low birth called Shoet'uki gives his name to a

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9


Traditional folk drama provided commoners with

an opporttmity for collective

ecstacy and catharsis.

Above, TheYangju Pyolsandaenori is a hearty satire of the ruling elite of traditional society. Right, Kossaumnori, one of the traditional games performed at the opening of the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul

10

drama adopted such a style through a long process of devlopmn~ a characteristic of traditional customs. However, we must not ignore the resemblance of the linking mode of exaggeration to the modem composite picture-making process, which is an important factor supporting this world of conflict Second, we can cite laughter or the capacity for fun as the common essence in our folk drama There are some researchers who make light of this laughter, but such a view could be the result of the devaluation of the modal principle of conflict For example, in his article on Yangju P)Olsandaenori, Professor Yim SOk-pe notes there are many scenes which reveal the sordidness, craftiness and helplessness of

monks and yangban. Yim assumes such scenes to be a clumsy and unbalanced means used by ignorant and vulgar entertainers to evoke laughter. I do not wish to claim that our folk drama is perf~ but I do wish to state that dismissing the humor (expression of conflict) found in folk dramas as "a clumsy and unbalanced technique" is simply not right The awareness of reality by the masses is too vivid, and the artistic spirit resulting from the principle of conflict is too great for such an evaluation A positive interpretation that sees an artistic volition in folk dramas comes from a thorough understanding of the dramas. Some interpret the characteristics of our folk drama conservatively as simply being a means employed by

the ruling class to effectively rule the masses and keep them in a state of deception; in other words, as another form of opium administered to facilitate exploitation of the masses by dulling their strong sense of rebellion via momentary liberation from their oppressive lives. This argument seems plausible at first, but I fmd it to be groundless. Though it might contain some truth, I believe it only represents the position of the ruling cJ.as;. Professor Lee Tu-hy6n, who views exorcisms as the prototype of folk drama, has said that since an exorcism includes dancing, singing and supplication to gods, one can assume people celebrated afterwards with the food and drink used in the rite In this ecstasy he sees the prototype of drama. This is similar to Aristotle's opinion expressed in Poetry. For Aristotle, catharsis was the ob~ of tragedy. Catharsis is originally a medical term referring to the excretion or elimination of harmful body fluids. In modem medical terms, this is .similar to the cleansing effect or dissipation response that comes from liberation from a complex or repressive ideas by re-experiencing the past Whether based on re-experience of the past or appreciation of tragedy, both ecstacy and catharsis refer to escape and relaxation They also refer to recovery from physical and mental fatigue through the release of nervousness and tension in daily life However, the defin~ tion of obliterating oneself contained in the word "ecstasy'' indicates escape from "self in a realistic state'', not simple oblivion In this vein, Plato ~ said ecstasy is the highest affirmation of self. The dominant characteristic of Korean folk drama is the passionate participation of the villagers. That world of collective ecstasy, that world of self-oblivion, shows that folk dramas do not pursue only simple pleasures. It shO\Vs it was possible to stage such dramas making no distinction between the entertainers and the audience. Folk dramas, therefore, were neither a sating of shallow desires by simply watching and enpying oneself nor intoxication as if high on drugs or opium They led to something deeper, to an expression of the disposition of our people who do not stop at just modelling the contradictions and alienation of reality but embrace them and laugh them off. Through conflict that could easily have driven us to disintegration and deri-


siveness, we expressed our nation's unique sense of aesthetics in the world of harmony that exists reyond the conflict So through our traditional folk drama, we can laugh together and embrace that world as ours. Despite the hideous writhing hand motions and fearsome masks found in the lepers' mask dance of Tongrae Malttugi mask play, I relieve the spectators unconsciously mo.re in time with the music recause they can sympathize with the artistic spirit that expresses "mirth" by transcending contradictions and alienation The Korean masses immersed themselves in such a world, and from it obtained the strength to deal with harsh realities. Thus far, we have.seen that folk dramas share three aspects-mnflict, laughter and py-as well as the unique ciispa;ition of the Korean people whlch brings such features to the surface But how did the Korean people come to have such a disposition? How do Koreans perceive the world? Unlike the conservative Greek concept of fate, ours is a pa;itive concept that relieves in history; loves life and thinks pa;itively of mankind I wish to relieve that it is not by chance that Korean folk dramas usually begin with a story taking place in the dead of the night, suggesting the negative, but end with the dawn breaking, promising a new beginning. Note Old Man Namkang in the Pongsan mask dance who shouts ''Children, wake up! A new day is breaking" The world revealed by Korean traditional arts, created over a long history; is varied It is thus very difficult to sum up the Korean sense of aesthetics in a few words but we can say it is rest identified as a positive state of pleasure or mirth which is related to the feeling of lxln, a mixture of grief and rancor. The creation of new cultural arts based on such premises will re difficult in the beginning But a clear sign of their future potential was evident in the opening and closing ceremonies of the Seoul Olympics in 1988. Those ceremonies clearly showed that, beneath the surface of seemingly unique aspects of a folk culture, universal human values can re felt by all peoples of the world However, from the viewpoint that art must re transformed to keep pace with changes in society, we must all try harder to create an environment in which the works of serious artists can flourish + 11


AVALUABLE SOURCE OF INSPIRATION FOR CREATIVE MODERN ARTISTS Soh Yon-ho Drama Critic & Professor, Korea University

'I

sMA?" THE SHAMAN RITUAL A DRAThis question has been fre-

quently discussed, leading to heated debates among those who believe that the shamanistic ritual itself is a legitimate form of drama and those who insist that it is nothing more than material for drama, and should be recreated to make it a drama But such debate is futile. Because, in principle, the question involves two independent propositions, namely, defining the dramatic characteristics of shamanistic rites and their development into a modem theatrical art In this regard, it actually is a crucial question, for the shamanistic rites constituted a basic form of Korean traditional drama and a significant sut6tructure of Korean culture itself. 12

For ancient Koreans, the shaman rites, called were both serious religious ceremonies and popular performing arts. The rites, particularly the often playful performances by skillful shamans, pre-ritual processions to purify the sites for rites and the pyful, post-ritual mingling of the shamans and the spectators singing and dancing together, offered entertainment as well as catharsis. Since the 1970s, these elements have served as primary materials and sources of inspiration for a group of Korean dramatists working to develop shaman rites and other mapr ancient theatrical legacies of the nation as stage performances for modem audiences. Of the latest dramas based on the shamanistic tradition and worthy of note, Ogu Rite-A Mode of fult!J, written and directed by Yi Yunku~

For andent Koreans, the shaman rites were both serious religious ceremonies

and popular

performing arts.


faek and staged by the K6rip'ae Entertainment Group in 1989, was very thought-provoking with regard to the JXlpular iยงue of mcx:iem theatrial! adaptation of shaman rites. The drama adopted its theme from rites performed in various regions across Korea to appease the souls of the dead and to guide them to the heavens. The rites are called by different names in different provinces: chinogwigut in Ky6nggi and Hwanghae Provinces, suUXJn{15Ut or tarigut in P'y6ngan Province, mangmokkutin Hamgy6ng Province, ogugut or pamj6gut in Ky6ngsang Province, ssitkimgut in Ch6lla Province and shiUXJngmajigut in Cheju Province. The rites were usually observed for the souls of the dead But occasionaly they were also performed for elderly people in hopes that they would be healthy and live long, and that their souls would reJX>Se in heaven after death Whether performed for the dead or the living, these rites functioned as solemn events JXlndering the meaning of life and death and performed with dramatic conflict The rites for those who were still alive had even greater dramatic significance as they dealt with the approach of death The writer of Ogu Rite-A Mcde of Death seems to have wanted to examine the meaning of life in our times through a folk shamanistic rite endowed with rich dramatic elements. The drama consists of four scenes: the first features a rite for an old woman, the second her death and funeral, the third her trial by the judges in the world beyond, and the fourth the resurrection of the old woman and celebrations by the living The stage was simple, with a minimum of decorations and props, as were the everyday sites of shaman rituals. Most of the performers wore plain clothes worn nowadays. However, the judges in the world beyond appeared in fanciful outfits and held funny clubs in their hands. The encounter between these judges and the people of this world was tactfully rendered in an expressionist manner. But the drama unfolded in the conventional 'total theater" or nuiagfl~ style noisy and exuberant with live music mixed with songs, dances, gestures and lines. A mood of tragicomedy prevailed, like the ritual performances of shamans. The shaman, or mudang plays an extremely limited role in this drama. The drama is intended to ridicule people who take advantage

of the loss of the value of traditional funeral rites to amass fortunes. Through a trial by the judges in the world beyond, it also extensively criticizes the values of mcx:iem men However, the drama lacks tension and logic, the two vital elements of mcx:iem drama. It shows little artistic originality, while relying too much on tradition In this sense, we may say that the drama has revealed some lrasic problems in mcx:iem stage adaptations of the traditional shaman ritual We may further assume that by dispensing with its often funny but logically unnece.s:sary actions and lines, the drama might have been able to achieve its obj:ctive of harmonizing the vitality of shaman rites and the role of drama in a much more persuasive fashion And, instead of presenting independent episcx:ies in each scene, the writer could have better organized the drama by structuring it around the life of one main character, perhaps a greedy person with unrealistic ambitions representing mcx:iem man His life could have been deftly satirized together with those of others surrounding him, equally greedy and selfish, through a trial before judges in the world beyond By so doing, the drama could have had a far better plo~ serious and enpyable at the same time. Stage Adaptation of Traditional Shaman Rites By the word ku~ or rites, Koreans have traditionally referred to two different performances, namely, the exorcisms officiated by shamans for genuine religious purposes, and JXlpular entertainment shows put on by professional actors and actresses, called kUXJngdae Among the popular entertainment shows was lxyanf15U~ which originated in the Haeju region in Hwanghae Province, now in North Korea. The show featured a duo playing a blind male shaman and a young female shaman, telling pkes and mimicking the acro batic performances and ~ring at the lasciviousness of the sadang wandering clowns, who apparently belonged to an even lower social class than themselves. It has not been performed for many years, however, and its script was only recently written by folklorist Sirn U-s6ng based on the memories of former actor Ch'oe S6nmuk Both performers in these folk entertainment shows were actually novice shamans who

were skilled in singing and dancing and put on simple rites at the request of villagers. The male shaman is both narrator and drummer. Playing an old bachelor, he confesses his love for the female shaman, who plays a married woman Bu~ ignoring his desire, she flirts with various men she comes across on their performing tours. A 1974 prcx:iuction by the Silh6m Drama Company, Eat Your Slxlre and Get AUXJy, written by Yun Tae-s6ng and directed by Kim Y6ng-y~ employed the style of this old folk entertainment but replaced the lusty female shaman with a mcx:iem prostitute. The heroine, Moprine, is the mistress of a rich businessman One day she visits a shaman to have her fortune told and begins recounting her past She was a poor girl from the countryside. She fell in love with a poor college student and became pregnant She had an abortion as marriage was out of the question for them at the time. Her boyfriend soon left her. Poor and desperate, she became a prostitute and did everything she could to earn money. The shaman advises that she hold a rite to appease the soul of the aborted baby that she threw away in a public toilet many years ago, saying that it is still lingering around causing her bad luck The shaman takes the woman to an excretion disposal plant He picks up one of the numerous fetuses abandoned there and repeatedly chants a spell, ''Eat your share and get away," which is borrowed from incantations given by shamans at the close of traditional rites to chase away evil spirits. It seems the writer of this drama intended to criticize the moral degradation and disorderliness of modern society through a helpless young woman who must grow increasingly tough and wily to cope with it When the drama was first presented in Seoul two decades ago, the audience was amused and shocked at the same time by the directness and poignancy of its traditional Korean-style humor and satire. It must be pointed ou~ however, that the drama failed to give balance to the two characters, placing too much emphasis on a lengthy recollection of the heroine's sad past The scope of the drama was limited when the male shaman could have assumed many different roles. In 1979, the Minye Drama Company staged a notable work based on old folk rites handed down on the remote island of Chindo. Entitled 13


Tasirag4 the drama was written and directed by Minye's founding director, Ho Kyu In the dialect of the southern island, tasiragi means "being born again" It is the name of shaman rituals unique to the island that were frequently oll;erved up until the 1~ mostly following the death of an aged person In the Korean tradition, the death of an old person who has many successful children and has led a blissful life in good health, is not so much an occasion for mourning but for celebration In the old days, the rites for the souls of such persons were festivities of a sort, participated in by the entire village The rites of Olinda comprised five "plays," or nori They included a performance of music and dance by the village band before the altar of the dead person; a short drama featuring messengers from the other world taking away the "sinner"; a comic show to please the chief mourner, or sangju, who is usually the eldest son of the dead person; a mock bier parade; and a past-ritual dance-along and merrymaking by all the performers and spectators. In the comic play for the chief mourner, the wife of a blind man secretly meets a monk and delivers a baby. It is designed to help the chief mourner forget his sorrow; even if only for a moment It was so important a part of the rite that they even believed tha~ if the shaw made the sad man laugh, the entire rite was a success. The rite was usually led by shamans from the village shrine Ho Kyu wrote his drama on the basis of his field research on the nearly forgotten folk tradition before scholars began to pay attention and tried to revive it His drama focused on the scenes featuring the messengers from the other world and the chief mourner. His pioneering effort deserved recognition, though the drama itself failed to give insight on the meaning of life and death from a mcx:iem perspective Regrettably; the poorly structured drama gave the impression of a hasty celebration of the discovery of a valuable folk asset and an immature approach to its recreation The Sanwoolim Drama Company's 1990 prcx:iuction, Psyche Your Mirror, intrcx:iuced a shaman initiation rite as a cure for schizophrenia The drama was written by a psychia~ Kim Chong-il, who specializes in psychcx:irama Kim said he wrote it to popularize the use of drama as psychotherapy outside the clinic 14

The heroine of this drama, who is in love with a married man, becomes schizophrenic and eventually falls into a coma. Her father is a researcher in shamanism He holds an initiation rite for his daughter, who, as a child, had often accompanied him on his field trips to research folk beliefs. He hopes that her childhood experiences will have an effect on her mental state She temporarily recovers consciousness and re comes the gcx:idaughter of a shaman, but soon commits suicide as she cannot withstand the confusion between consciousness and unconsciousness, reality and memories from her ~ normal and abnormal behavior, and dreams of an ideal love and the pain of parting from her lover. The drama was noteworthy in that it attested to the writer's sincere effort to seek an effective therapy in the folk tradition of shamanism, in the recognition that mcx:iem medicine has its limitations. However, the drama failed to convince the audience that shamanism .can be a cure for mental illness. It remained rather an experiment arousing their curiosity in the mysterious world of folk belief. It remains a question whether mcx:iem psychiatry and traditional shamanism can truly pin hands to cure mental illness. A possible key to the solution may rest in a dearer explanation of the proposition tha~ at the very depths of his consciousness, mcx:iem man still has the potential to be influenced by shamanistic ways of thinking and even miracles. In spite of such shortcomings, the drama enpyed remarkable success .at the box office, due mainly to the novelty of the theme and an excellent performance by the leading actress Yun SOk-hwa, who also directed. Drama based on P'ansori The move to adapt the p'ansori narrative folk song for ch'angf.I~ popular shows stylistically similar to the Western operetta, began at the tum of the century without explicit theoretical directions or research in the appropriate stagecraft Seeking an unnatural alliance of Korean native vocal tradition and Western dramatic style, the movement depended largely on the ingenious singing skill and reputation of famous singers. It is still quite active these days, though not without problems. A group of capable directors has been the guiding force of this movement since the 1~


The foundation of the National Traditional Opera Company in 1962 proved to be an epxhal event in the development of this lately created performing art genre Influential directors like Kim Y6n-su, Pak Chin, Yi Chin-sun, Yi Won-ky6ng and H6 Kyu have played important roles in this field in recent decades. Son Chin-ch'aek and Sim Hili-man are two directors of notable talent and achievement among the younger generation currently active in the movement Though working toward basically the same goal, each of these directors distinguished himself from the others with different artistic principles and visions and thereby made different contributions. Kim Y6n-su concentrated on making p'ansori itself more popular with the general public He encouraged singers to learn the music and lyrics and master the styles of great singers of previous generations. He tended to ignore theatrical considerations. SOng Ky6ng-nin, a senior musician who formerly served as the director of the National

Classical Music Institute, commented on Sim assimilate the style of Western operas or musiCh'6ng[p, directed by Kim in 1%9: 'The entire cals. At the same time, he abhorred the incorpiece vibrated with unusual power, thanks poration of traditional masked dance plays or mainly to prominent singing and acting by other folk customs. He believed the artistic both the leading performers, Kim Y6n-su in the quality of p'ansor~ the inherent beauty of its role of the blind man, and Kim Chin-jin in the language and musical style, should not be sacrirole of his good-hearted daughter. The stage ef- ficed in the name of modernization fects were commendable, displaying remarkAs for Yi Chin-sun there can be no dispute able originality, especially in the scene where that he led the folk opera scene of the 1970s. the girl throws herself into the sea The chorus Out of a total of 69 ch'anf}!flk pieces produced by the fishermen at this time achieved excellent by the National Traditional Opera Company harmony, an unprecedented exhibition of mas- from March 1%2 to May 1979, Yi directed 12. culine strength" He borrowed various dramatic elements from Pak Chin advanced the genre by emphasiz- traditional mask dances, puppet dramas and ing not only advances in vocal technique to other folk plays and games and even employed give better expression to the lyrics but also mime, thereby making his ch'anggilk much training in acting and speeding up the action of more colorful than those previously staged. He the loosely organized folk episodes to better suit also inserted new musical compositions and the tastes of modern audiences. Generally used dance extensively. speaking however, he seemed to pursue a muH6 Kyu, an unchallenged leader of the folk sical style resembling the realistic drama of the ¡ opera world in the 19005, inherited the style of West Yi Chin-sun in various respects. He directed as Yi Won-ky6ng tried to guard against the many as 30 productions of the national compageneral tendency of the Korean folk opera to ny, setting his basic direction toward enlivening

Left, A scene from 0 T'ae-sok's.The Umbilical Cord Above, A scene from Yi Yun-t'aek's Ogu Rite-A Mode of Death

15


The Minye Drama Company's 1979 performance ofTasiragi based on the old folk rites of the remote island of Chindo

Can Korea's dramatic tradition be modernized to appeal to a broader audience today? the dramatic quality of the folk opera and communicating with the audience in an amusing and exalted mocx:l akin to that of shaman rituals. He adapted folk tales and legends that he discovered through research in the countryside, and made unceasing experiments to explore the potential of the folk opera as a form of mcxlem popular entertainment In order to do so, he asked the actors to become all-round players skilled in multiple arts. A 1979 prcxluction by the National Tradi16

tional Opera Company; Karojig4 directed by Ho Kyu, drew attention for its sincere approach to the spirit of the Korean traditional open-air theater represented by shaman rites, though its latter half disclosed poor craftsmanship in plot and stage management The typical Westernstyle pra;cenium stage was expanded outwards in an effort to reduce the distance felt by tl1e audience toward the performers. The change in the actors' attitudes was also notable in that they constantly approached the audience in ob-

vious attempts to seek better artistic communion The narrator was successful in heightening the mood In 1980, Ho directed another prominent cb'angjJk piece, nX! Tale of Cb'unbyang adapted from one of the five p'ansori classics handed down from ancient times. The three-hour show presented the popular romance with deft stagecraft Among the memorable scenes of relatively large scale were those of a Tano festival, farmers singing work songs in the field, the magistrate's birthday party and his trial before the king's secret inspector in the happy finale The stage decoration, utilizing folding screens with different pictures overlaid with ban11x>o screens when necessary; was both convenient and effective Acting tended to be stylized but classy; emphasizing the classical atmosphere of the original The show enpyed remarkable audience rapport A mapr national newspaper, Dong-A Ilbo, has prcxluced creative cb'angjJk pieces based on the lives of prominent figures in Korean history over the years, in a bid to help perpetuate folk opera as a creative performing art genre It is considered a highly significant endeavor in light of the fact that almost all cb'angjJk artists in this century have devoted their entire lives to successful adaptations of the five p'ansori classics surviving tcxlay. Creating new pieces with fresh themes seems to have been beyond either their abilities or interest, or both Ho Kyu has been prominent in recent years with his prcxluctions of new creative cb'angjJk pieces, ~uch as Karojig4 nX! Tale qf Paepijmg (1988) and 7be Tale of Cb'unp'ung (1989). Despite laudable intentions, however, few of his works or those prcxluced by Dong-A Ilbo surpassed the ancient classics in artistic standards. It still remains a challenge for artists in this genre to explore new themes as well as to artistically improve on the existing works. Cooperation among those in ooth drama and folk opera circles is essential to yield meaningful results. Dramatization of Legends and Myths Every nation has legends and myths unique to its history and culture Those mysterious tales serve as important sources of inspiration and motifs for creations in various fields of art Many dramas have been created based on myths and legends in Korea. Some deserve recognition for their fresh interpretation of old


tales and pursuit of symbolic meanings for modem society. Among significant writers of this group, we may first list the novelist Ch'oe In-hun who wrote two mapr pieces, W!:Ere Slxzll We Meet Aglin based on the tale of General Ondal (1970, Chayu Drama Company, director Kim Ch6ngok), and Azmy, Azmy, Far Azmy based on a myth about a boy born with enigmatic physical strength (1976, Sanha Drama Company, director P'yo Chae-sun). Also, the Simin Drama Company staged Moon, Moon, Oh the Bright Moon, written by Sim Hy6n-u and based on the story of Sim Ch'6ng, an exemplary filial daughter, in 1979. Then in 1900, the Dongrang Repertory Company presented A Sonata of Lost Spring written by Ch'oe In-hun and based on a tragic legend about a leper, under the direction of Yu T6khy6ng In the same year, the National Drama Company presented Dung Dung Nangnang Dung adapted from a legendary tale about love between the prince and the princess of two enemy states, under the direction of H6 Kyu. Way back in 1972, the Silh6m Drama Company drew wide acclaim for 7he Tale of Nolbu, a satirical treatment of a popular folk tale about two brothers, one good-hearted but poor and the other rich and greedy, from a modem viewpoint In all of his dramas, Ch'oe In-hun pursued the historical and social symbolism of familiar mythical episcxles as well as their implications for the lives of individuals. The past and the present are mysteriously interconnected in his expressionist dramas. They earned good reviews as modern myths, a theater of solemn ritual for today's audience. Playwright-director 0 Tae-s6k has been olr sessed with the idea of drama as a spontaneous play. He was mainly interested in absurd theater in his early years, but then became deeply involved with exploring historical and folk themes about the time he directed such sensational pieces as Grass Tomb (1973) and 77Je Umbilical Cord (1974). He wrote and directed more dramas in a similar vein in the following years. They included 77Je Wife of Ch'unp'ung (1976), Spray and Fat!:Er and Son (1987), all borrowing themes and motifs from folk tales, customs and historical episcxles. In malt of O's works, dramatic conflict usually unfolds in the midst of an exuberant play.

Ideologies and themes slowly surface in the course of, or remain hidden behind, gleeful plays or games, and characters unveil their personalities through restless behavior. From time to time, 0 even appears to be obsessed with his idea of drama as a pyful play, neglecting logic and ob.¢ctivity. He seems to place far greater emphasis on the theatrical environment and spontaneous performance than he does on script We cannot complete our discussion of this subject without touching on the work of director Yi Sung-gyu, who has displayed a marvelous sense of balance in harmonizing the aestheticism of Korean folk theatrical heritage and the objectivity of Western drama EnfJlg?ment and Pi.ong saong both presented by the National Drama Company in 1986 under Yi's direction, vividly showed how the Korean perforffiing arts tradition can be reinterpreted on today's stage with sufficient aesthetical and theoretical justification Folk mask dance plays are another important theatrical asset of the Korean people Characterized by explicit dramatic quality and preserved relatively well until today, the mask dance plays are a treasure trove for modern writers and dramatists searching for native themes. Nevertheless, only a few have succeeded in creating theatrical pieces excelling the folk plays in idea or style Chang Scrhy6n is one of those few. Over the last couple of decades he has been untiring in his efforts to create mask dramas befitting modem tastes and psychology on the basis of the thematic and stylistic ingenuity of folk mask dance plays. Some of his works, such as Sroul Malttug4 77Je Wanted and A Clxznt for OfRning Door were remarkably successful Among these, Sroul Malttug4 premiered by the Minye Drama Company in 1974 under the direction of Son Chin-ch'aek, best represents Chang's social views. As its title indicates, the drama is designed to give vent to the frustration of the masses at the grass roots and unite their strength through the wit and wisdom of Malttugi, the smart servant of a nobleman appearing in Korean folk mask dance plays. Other notable works created with similar motives since the 1970s include Soettugi Play adapted from Moliere's farce Scapin, 77Je Trickster (written and directed by Oh Tae-s6k, Dongrang Repertory Company, 1972); Prince

Hamj5l adapted from Shakespeare's Hamlet (written and directed by An Min-su, Dongrang Repertory Company, 1976), River Circle Villag? (or Muldoridong based on a legend about a mask maker, written and directed by H6 Kyu, Minye Drama Company, 1977), Mr. Rabbit adapted from a p'ansori classic, Sugunw (7he Song of Undersea Palace, script by An Chonggwan and pintly directed by Pak Yong-gi and Hwang Lucy, Kohyang Drama Company, 1900), and A Portrait of So~ based on a shaman epic about an abandoned princess named Paridegi (written by Ha Yu-sang and directed by Mun S6k-pong, Kwangpng Drama Company, 1986). Conclusion

So far we have discussed some of the outstanding accomplishments of Korean theatrical artists in their recent move to preserve the nation's folk heritage in the performing arts and its development and recreation as modem stage art

The powerful drive for industrialization since the 1~ has brought about a rapid disintegration of the Korean rural community and a consequent loss of the folk culture and arts, which have been nurtured in villages for thousands of years. On the other hand, taking strength from the popular effort to uphold national self-esteem and realize liberal democracy, we have been able to take our first significant strides toward perserving our cultural and artistic legacies, handing them over to future generations and modernizing them for appreciation by a broader public In view of the overall situation in which Western drama has long been respected as an ideal form of drama and performances of translated foreign plays account for a great maprity of local drama presentations year round, there is no doubt that there is a great need for painstaking efforts on the part of artists to create a new dramatic style based on the nation's folk performing arts. In order to realize their ideals, it is believed that, above all else, greater interest and thorough research in Korean traditional culture, arts, language and behavioral patterns are urgently needed Regretfully, malt artists have tended so far to simply imitate traditional drama rather than wisely utilize it as a valuable source of inspiration for their creative efforts. + 17




Yong-jin, Yi S0ng-ch'6n, Hwang Byung-ki, Yi Sang-gyu, Kim Yong-man, and Pak ll-hun appeared on the scene. Of course, this is not to say there had been no previous efforts to create original scores. In the area of traditional classical music, performers created new pieces by playing variations of existing tunes. However, it was with Kim Kisu's Saeuky6ng that the performer-composer became separated and composition as a modem concept began Kim composed new pieces of ma¢sty and grandeur based on clas5ical expressions. They expressed the hope and spirit of nationalism Song Kwangpok sang the joys of liberation from Japan; Cli5n{'jXleklxm pays tribute to the independence moven~ Kaecb'6nbu is an expression of Korea's 5,000-year history; Cb'ungbonjle is a memorial to patriotic martyrs, and Pabungs6n is a supplication for unification and an expression of the pains of division. These pieces became known as the music of their times. Yi Kang-<l6k, unlike Kim Kisu, wrote many lyrical pieces The future of Korean music lies in the and tried to adapt traditional expressions to them Also, while creation of music grounded in tradition Kim showed a deep interest in actual problems, Yi concentratbut transcending both that tradition and ed on the world of fantasy. fr£Id Fantasy from 1%3, Fantaingredient in the new musical rulture. But the most important ingredient of all will be traditional music transformed and newly interpreted For this re<ron we must not view the National Clas5ical Music Institute, National Orchestra and other such organizations as institutes dedicated to simply recreating ancient rulture. If these organizations think they are fulfilling their duty by just performing traditional music, they will clearly not survive in the coming Pacific era They must commit themselves to creating a new role for themselves as leaders of the Pacific musical era by breaking away from the era of Western music This is not a fantasy but an obvious possibility in view of the flow of world culture. ¡ Korean music organizations must gain a deeper understanding of traditional music in order to discover what elements we cannot afford to lose. At the same time, continued experimentation is necessary. Music originally created for practical purposes should be transformed in-

the culture imported from abroad to music for appreciation if the original purposes no longer apply. Nowadays, the music heard on radio or TV is nearly all foreign This situation sterns from the influence of Japanese colonial rule and has continued without any notable reform since liberation in 1945. Social trends favoring foreign culture have played a role as weR and as a resul~ Korea's traditional classical music has declined with little hope of reviving on its own Creative classical music begins with an understanding of the times and a linking of the flow of tradition to modem times. Attempts to create original Korean classical music began with Kim Ki-su (1917-1986) in the 194&. Kim is credited with giving impetus to modem Korean music with Saeuky'5ng in 1941 He dominated the original music composition field until the 1<X:ils when Chong Hoe-kap, Yi Kang-<i6k, Kim 20

sia of Buddhism Prayer Tbemes from 1%9, and Sanjo Fantasia No 1from 1972 are ex-

amples. Yi also composed a large number of concerto pieces. Among them are Flute Con-

certo of Menirizo n:x:me, Kayagi1m Concerto No 1-7, and Haegi1 m ())ncerto No 1-8 Kim Yong-jin composed many pieces of a highly experimental nature, among which are Ensemble No 5 Flute and Fun, Ensemble No 6; and Void which has no score; performers create impromptu music in accordance with several instructions from the director. Yi Sanggyu, following in the footsteps of Kim Ki-su, mC6tly dealt with the mental world, employing the expressions of classical music. Slow, majestic tunes and grand orchestral expressions are the main characteristics of his works such as Cb'unaeng Cli5n, Stone Man AI~ and Cbajinban-ip Yi S0ng-ch'6n has been greatly influenced by Western music He adapted so many tech-

a

niques and formats that it is possible to come up with a structural analysis of the appearance, development and reappearance of Western music themes in his works. Yi is interested in the development of sound effects and new techniques for traditional musical instruments. Recently he has even developed a new kayagi1m with 21 strings. Hwang Byung-ki is a compe6er who started out as a kayagi1m player. His works, mC6tly kayagi1m solo pieces, create an exotic and fantastic atmosphere. Forest, Agilawood and Silk Road are composed with new musical scales and tunes that break away from existing classical music tunes. Kim Yong-man has been working on expanding the sound volume of orean music and enthusiastically propagating the result to the public with a measure of success. By discarding the five-note scales and using composite beats, he is contriving to globalize Korea's traditional music Yi Hae-shik usually uses traditional folk songs and exorcism music as the basis of his works. Songs sung while working in the fields, pallbearers' dirges, and music used in all kinds of exorcisms, drama and dance form the backbone of his compC6itions. Turesa.ri for chorus and orchestra, Flow for Flute, Field Exorcisn~ Flute for Exorcism and Flute Concerto for llince are some examples. His works strongly reflect ethnic qualities and combine ritual ambience with playful elements. Paek Tae-ung has composed many pieces baseq on p'ansori, sanjo, sinawi, and other southern music, such as Sinawi for Diamond Wedding Anniversary and SanjJ "Y6ngsang'' for Orcbestra The elements of traditional and Western music are well combined dialectically in his works. In ())ncerto for Cello and National Oassical Music Orcbestra, traditional Korean rhythms and Western music composition are in good harmony, and an attempt is also made to accommodate Western musical instruments in Korean ways. Park ll-hun, famed for his A-uraji series, attempts radical changes within the framework of traditional techniques. Aeng which won the National O:>mpe6er's Award in 1977, is his most famous piece and is characterized by the dignity of court music and the spirit of ethnic music The works of Hwang Ui-chong show evidence of an effort to continue in the vein of tra-


ditional songs. He has composed Sungmu (Buddhism Dance) for a vocal solo and orchestra ensemble, Ch'6ngsan, a solo piece for ka)tlgin~ and Mans6n, an orchestral prrygram Sungmu, which put Cho Ji-hun's poetry to music, is in the manner of traditional music and yet gives expression to modem sensibilities. Pak Pyom-hun has enpyed great success by focusing attention on utility music The vitality and excitement in his works have gained him wide popularity. He has composed dance music such as llince of the Earth and Madame Tcr mi, drama music such as Chik'im-i and Muny5do and episode music such as The Tale of Nolbu, The Tale of Yi Ch'unp'ung and The Tale of Paebichang Orchestral New Collection for SamulNori represents the trends found in his work Kang S6k-hui Paek Pyongdong, Kim Chong-gil, and Yi Kon-yong are noted for their attempts to compose original Korean classical music scores for Western-style presentations. Kang has tried to embody the spirit of traditional music through pieces for Western instruments, such as Tal-ha, Puru, and Manp'a He has also composed Yaebul and Ch'it'ahjxlng solely for Kore an classical musical instruments. These pieces experiment with various sound combinations of Korean percussion instruments based on modem techniques. Paek has composed traditional classical pieces such as Chamber Music for Ka)tlgilm and New Pj5/gJk for Ka)tlgin~ a piece with a very intellectual feeling and a transparent music struc~ with no trimmings. Kim Chong-gil adapts the li~rated and impromptu spirit of sinawi in his works such as Suy6san, an orchestral piece, as well as Cb'uchbmun for eight performers. Yi Kon-yong attempts to embody the spirit and techniques of traditional music and commands a wide following He also tries to compose pieces that are based on the actual lives of people. K6nkon Yi-kam for a duet, Prelude from T'aeju and Prelude from Namry6 are some of his more famous works. Aside from these, Mansusan Di1ry6ngcb'ik is a piece for a chorus and a traditional orchestra and is based on the serial poems of Hwang Chi-u It is in the format of leading and answering in chorus, re vealing a glimpse of his concept of reality Among the pieces that have gained popularity while staying faithful to traditional techniques 21


Modem audiences are

looking for new; creative interpretations of Korean tradition

A performance by a modernized classical music ensemble

22

are Yes; That is So and Paeung Aside from the aforementioned, the socalled third generation of composers, such as Kang Jun-il, Yu Pyong-un, Kim Myong-jae, Yi Pyong-ok, Kim Ho-shik, Yi Kyong-hui and Yi In-won, are also noted for their accomplishments. However, despite such interest and efforts to create original Korean classical music, few pieces appeal to the public The main reason is that these pieces were not written with the public in mind They were composed without a particular awareness of audience n<Naigia for such music and are too difficult and ah>tract for the general public to enpy. As such, original music scores must have universal appeal without losing artistic value Today's public is already looking forward to the 21st century; and accordingly; origiruil Korean classical music must not remain stranded in the 19th century. What we need now is not the faded shells of old traditions but a critical vision that interprets traditions anew and adapts them creatively: We must be able to employ all kinds of music including popular or classical Western music for the recreation of traditions. This does not mean simple imitation, however. Many of the original Korean classical music pieces composed so far have depended too heavily on Western music The techniques and formats of Western music can only be the means for rebirth of our music, not the end Korean classical and Western music are fundamentally different Therefore, if we are to employ the features of Western music in their original form in Korean classical music, it is only natural that the results will be awkward and unnatural The combination of Korean classical and Western music must be investigated carefully. Western music must be critically viewed from the perspective of Korean classical music and accommodated accordingly. If this is not carried out properly; the newly composed pieces could end up as Western music or simply be examples of Korean classical and Western musical elements coexisting, but not in harmony. Original classical music must also display an aggressive experimental spirit Without this it has no place in the newly emerging world of music As mentioned before, this is an era in which Western culture is in gradual decline and Oriental culture is blossoming


Classical musicians should not be dislppointed with the results achieved so far; they must view this time as the beginning of new opportunities and concentrate on experimentation with new forms. Aside from the creation of new music, there are various problems related to the performance and propagation of music as well Most classical music troupes simply play existing music once or twice a year as a mere fonnality. To strengthen the platform on which Korean classical music can stand, we must first deal with the lack of financial support For the development and promotion of original Korean classical music, we must expand and modify the structure of the musical community and secure large-scale support from the government as well as the private sector. This is true not only of musical organizations but of individual recitals as well In order to hold a solo recital, the individual performer has to assume a heavy financial burden, including the rental f~ for the venue and printing costs for the programs. Except for a few famous composers who command substantial composing fees, this is too great a burden to bear. Hence, many performers choose to take the easy way out by performing existing traditional music rather than going through the difficult process of creating original music. Such conditions undermine young composers' creative spirit But if musical organizations and performers actively commission and perform new pieces, and if the broodcast media makes full use of original Korean classical music, the creative spirit would be revived Korea has undergone rapid changes since the mid-1980s. With the hosting of the Olympics in 1988 and the establishment of a civil government in 1993 as turning points, it is striving to become a strong, unified power. There is no question that this is an era in which great changes are needed in all sectors. Composers must keep searching for the right direction for original Korean classical music, and the authorities in charge of formulating musical policies, as well as the state and private business, must spare no efforts to support them Most important of all, however, is the passionate enthusiasm and will to create genuine Korean music for a unified Korea We have a long way to go but the potential for Korean music is great • 23




The ambitious leading dancers of the 197(}; and 1980s, namely Moon l-~ Kim Kyi-ja, and Kim Mae-ja, took the techniques of traditional dance learned from their teachers and wove them into new works with modern sensibilities and images Inevitably, a conflict between the management and teaching methods of the institutes of traditional dance and those of the university professors arose. While countless private institutes and research centers concentrated on polishing and handing down the techniques of traditional dance, graduates of university dance programs who had attained a certain technical standard found that the only road for them was creative work Thus, they began to take the old and transform it into the new Creative dance troupes specializing in traditional dance, thus passing down traditions in a modern way, made their mark in the 197(}; and 1980s. It finally came to the point where traditional Korean dance was the only genre accepted by the dance community as the basis of creative work However, in a broad sense Korean dance encompasses not only traditional, classical and folk dance, but also modern dance. Now Korean dance can be anything new that is created from the old And the creative succession of the old is also a task steadily pursued by the modern dance and ballet communities. Proponents of modern dance constantly seek ways to accommodate and assimilate traditional elements and give them new life. Ballet dancers also concentrate on incorporating Korean themes and subjxts to Western techniques.

Ch 'oe Siing-hiii was one of the first to attempt to link Korean tradition to the modern world_ 26

Of all traditional art forms, traditional Korean dance may have been most violently shaken by the shocks occurring in the course of our cultural history, especially our first encounter with foreign cultures during the open-door and enlightenment policy period from the late 19th century to the early m century. The enlightenment period brought sudden changes. Drama, music and dance circles struggled to systematically revise their art The ::;J years of Japanese colonial rule which followed was also a period of great cultural confusion Taking dance as an example, except for perhaps il-mu used in sacrificial rites and c/i5npj;Ie during court entraim~ the functions of all kinds of folk traditions were not properly evalu-


ated The stylized traditions of the upfff class and the vibrant dance traditions of the !llaS'le5 are naturally clifern~ and since they are differen~ one would expect these two kinds of traditions to be mutually complementary. Yet during the Chcron period, mutual communication between the two was all but severed In contrast to clx5ngtle performed at the ceremonies and rites held at co~ exorcisms, mask dances and traditional musical performances were the main sources of entertainment fOr the general public. The hardships of labor were overcome in the excitement which the songs and dances evoked Some forms of dance enpy-ed by the masses probably nosed their ¡way into the court and vice versa. Such cultural flew from the upfff class to the !ewer class is called das ff!SUnkene kultwgut-high-quality culture sinking to lewquality culture in order to be accommodated by the masses. Of course, Professor H Bausinger of Germany later modified this theory by saying that cross-<:lass cultural influences were a tw(}way street I mention this theory to emphasize the fact that high-quality culture, mainly dance imported from China which was then an advanced nation, and Korean traditional dance mixed and coocisted within the dance community of the Chcron period Just as some music was greatly influenced by Chinese tangak and Korea's traditional music, hyang~ the upper class clx5ngjle coocisted with the folk dance enPied by the masses. In fa~ in Korea's traditional performing arts we can see a process of importation of highquality artistic aspects from China and a corresponding shock to Korea's unique culture, which was later followed by the absorption of Chinese elements in Korean art The performing arts that emerged from this process of conflict and re-creation became specific in the form of sandae recreation which combined music, dance and drama Thus, sandaeembodies the history of creative succession Therefore, even if we were to limit the creative succession of traditional performing arts to the dance sector, we could not limit the scope of traditional dance to court ch6ngjae, such as

cb'6yongmu, cb'unaeng;lx5n, muko, posangmu, the Clxmgsaeng Poj5ngjimu of Pongrae, h]Kln-

gryongmu, kaincb6nmokdan, suyoncbang mansumu, pbkurak k6mn~ and il-mu We

must¡ remember that several varied dance types mation of the old into the new. If her dances formed the backbone of our traditional dance. such as Posalcb'um or Hwakangcb'um and First there was kibangmu (the dance of the Ch'orip as well as the fan dance, shaman dance, kisaenf!) that embraced and transformed slingmu and drum dance were variations on clx5ngtle and il-mu, second, slingmu, salp'uri or traditional dance, then Serenade and Frenzy folk dances which were developed by the mass- were based on the expressive techniques of es for recreation and festiv~ and third, kang modem dance. ~ngru,i5lae and folk mask dance or regional New aspects were so dominant that Ch'oe's group dance. dance was often criticized as having no classical The restrained style of court crongtle and il- aesthetic sense Given the fact that Ch'oe used mu and the liberated style of folk dance enpy-ed modern dance and ballet techniques in her by the public were first succeeded by nrodance mCNements we cannot call her a true suC'Ce>.'lOr from the late 1~ on of traditional dance. Her works were based on Ch'oe Sung-hui and Cho Taek-w6n, who Korean sub;xts but it would be more appropricould be called the forerunners in this field, ate to view them as creative new dance rather learned from a foreign teacher (;o ~ ) to rise than traditional dance. above the Korean dance consciousness and While Ch'oe's dance dramas Mother of combine traditional dance with the theory and Cl:m:'5n (1951) and Under a Qear Srywere soon turned into revolutionary dramas in North K(} methods of the West Korea, which fully opened its doors to the rea, it was the work of Cho Taek-w6n that beworld only in the aJth century, could not initiate gan the movement in Seoul with Cb'unh]Klng the process of political, economical and social Cbokok and ''Reminiscence Tunes of Puy6" in modernization and was forced to undergo changes during the Proponents of modern dance constantJapanese colonial period New trends and schools of art came ly seek ways to accommodate and asindirectly through Japan Thus, during the transitional period, it similate traditional elements and give was only natural that traditional styles were underestimated them new life Performing arts in the sandae forma~ recreational games where music, dance and drama are combined, the late Japanese period L1ter works included were classified as old-school drama while West- K)Onu Cbingn)O (1951) chorecwaphed by An em music, dance and drama were separated and IX:Jng-mio, Kim Paek-bong's Story of Our Villa{J! developed as ~ng;b'ae, nrodance and neo-clra- (1955), and Kim Ch'on-su's Cb'6yongnang/ ma

Cb'unh]Klng;lx5n (1<;W).

In this era of great social change, the nro dance of Ch'oe Sung-hui was an example of a dance genre that effectively linked traditions to contemporary times. Under Japanese rule, traditional dance was barely preserved by kisaeng unions called cbuh]Klng as its original sponsor, the cour~ had crumbled There is no question that the carryingon of the Korean dance tradition by the kisaeng contributed to the social devaluation of dance as an art form Ch'oe Sung-hui was not a kisaeng but rather a world-renowned dancer who had polished her technique abroad Her performances of K(} rea's traditional dance and her development of variations provided the impetus for a transfor-

With the establishment of the National Dance Troupe in 1%2 and the separation of the National Ballet from the former in 1973, smallscale dance dramas were slewly developed into large-scale theater works that coincided with the government policy to ''Koreanize" dance. This trend was also related in some ways with the llince FestitXd of the Republic of Korea which began in the late 197& (The title has now been changed to the Sroulllince FestilXll) In this festival the scale of dance dramas was expanded even further and the group dance format strengthened in order to fill the large stage Thus, a preference for dance dramas with a st(} ry rather than short original musical pieces developed 27


Kim Paek-bong, a student of Ch'oe-Siing-hiii, carried on her teacher's innovative legacy.

The creative succession of art does not simply mean revival of the old but the reproduction and transfonnation of tradition to suit our lives here and now. 28

It is very difficult to stage a dance lasting more than an hour in a large theater without a definite story to it One of the most arduous tasks faced by the Korean dance community today is the development of a dance format that depends on a story yet preserves the predominance of dance expression over acting While the National Dance Troupe may prefer the dance drama format based on the neodance techniques of Ch'oe Sung-hui for large stages, leading dancers who teach at universities and manage dance troupes compa;ed of their students prefer to see dance as a work of art The academic school places an emphasis on the transformation and creative succession of traditions by borro;ving the theory and techniques of the West, breaking away from the necxlance generation The creative dance that began with Ch'ang muhoe, founded by Professor Kim Mae-ja of Ewha Womans University in the mid-19705, began to gain momentum when its members claimed that any dance performance using new choreography methods could be called creative dance Kim, who performed F!ou;er Slm and Cb'umlxm along with Yim Hak-s6n and Yun T6k-ky6ng members of the first Cb'angmulm generation, led the development of unique characteristics. The second generation of dancers, such as Kim Y6ng-hu~ are also expanding the genre of creative dance with distinctive works. Just as there can be no Korean dance that is not produced, choreographed and performed by Korean dancers, all dance that seeks the creative succession of traditional dance and modernization of traditions can, in a broad sense, be called "neo<lance"or "creative dance" Here we should include the formative dance or ballet with Korean themes and sub¢ct matter. Therefore, the modem works based on Korean themes which have been created by Kim Pok-hui and Yi Ch6ng-hui also count as Korean dance as they attempt the creative succession of tradition Works such as Kim Hwa-suk's Carmen in tbe Milror or Nam Ch6ng-hds Women by tbe Well expand the horizons of Korean modem dance as it strives for universalism Seen in this vein, 77x: Tale if Sbimcbfmg by the Universal Ballet or 77x: Tale if Cb'unb)Klng by the Kwangju Municipal Ballet Troupe also reflect new traditions by choreographing folk tales in the new format of ballet If this trend continues, ballet or modem dance with Korean ele-


ments could also be regarded as mcx:iem Korean dance. Korean dance must develop in such varied directions if it is to have a place in the internationalization and globalization processes. The emphasis on the mcx:iemization of purely Korean dance runs the risk of driving traditional dance into further isolation so that in the end Korean dance may be relegated to the status of a folk show for tourists. If necxlance was born of Korea's traditional dance, and creative dance from necxlance, then yet another new format could emerge in the 19SX}s. History shows there are always orthcx:iox schools that preserve original forms without attempting any changes as well as young experimental schools that boldly break away from tradition and search for new waters. There may even be attempts to pin traditional and mcx:iem dance with ballet Such changes are evident in the conservative preference for dance drama shown by the National Dance Troupe. A chronl~a review of

the Troupe's work reveals an underlying transformation from the 1SX505 to the 197G> down to the 1900s. The tendencies toward the dramatization of folklore in the 1SX505 and the incorporation of historical figures and literary works into dance in the 197G> gradually began to change in the 1900s into the expression of a perception of reality, along with literary works. This phenomenon can be seen throughout Korean dance. 1n the future, all traditional elements must be utilized in a modern way. Experimentation must occur in all dance genres. Only then can the wall between dance genres fall, together with the wall separating dance from other art forms so as to create an CNerall combination of the performing arts. When that happens, dance, music, drama and art can intermingle to create a mcx:iern exorcism and comprehensive art format for the 21st century. This can only be realized when we concentrate on creatively shaping the energy that is generated from the encounter of the old

with the new Creation comes from rebellion and resistance. That is why I wish there were more rebellious artists like Hong Shin-P. The younger generation should always question the older generation and criticize them ceaselessly. They must question the preference for large theaters. Perhaps dance would be at its purest in a small theater with a selected few watching An increase in the number of small theaters for dance would be the quickest way to facilitate the meeting of the old and the new Research to accommodate Korea's unique dance in a mcx:iem way is also necessary. There is no guarantee that the mask dances of rural or small cities of traditional society can fmd a place in the large cities of mcx:iem society. The creative suocession of art does not simply mean revival of the old but the reprcx:iuction and transformation of tradition to suit our lives here and now. I firmly believe the Korean dance community has the capacity to cany out this great task •

Contemporary dance troupes are experimenting with costumes, music and content in an effort to transform tradition to suit our modern world. 29


ON STAGE

Chttngmuhoe Chun Yong-jong Editor-inilief MUYONGYESUL(D.mce Arts) Magazine

N 1BE COURSE of Korea's modern history, changes in the cultural environment have kept pace with economic prcgress, and during this transitional period, Korean dance has also undergone repeated transformations and rapid development The Cb'angmuhoe dance troupe was at the forefront of the movement to create an original modern Korean dance fonn, focusing on ways to transform traditional elements to suit modern modes of expression and eventually achieve internationalism It was in 1976 that the name Cb'angmuhoe first appeared on the Korean dance scene The members of the troupe, namely Kim Mae-ja, a dance professor at Ehwa Womans University and her students, Yim Hak-s6n, Yun T6k-ky6ng, Yi Noyon, Kim Yong-hee, and Kang Mi-ri, were ir1 a different league from dancers who learned their craft in private lessons or at dancing schools. Cb'angmuhoe was a group of highly-educated professional dancers, and as such played a decisive role in enhancing the status of Korean dance by endowing it with the academicism of the eighties. From an aesthetic viewpoint, Cb'angmuboe transcended the extreme conceptualism that had characterized modern dance, and at the same time, concentrated on the creation of original works based on Korea's traditional dance From a technical viewpoint, the troupe brought daring changes to Korean costumes and incorporated modern elements in stage props and music. Cb'angmuhoe also looked to traditional folk dance for aesthetic elements and organized endless symposiums and seminars to discuss the adaptation of modern concepts In its first regular performances two years after its founding, Cb'angmuhoedemonstrated a unique-

I

Ch'angmuhoe has attempted to present Korean dance as something unique and yet modern, a part of today's world

Ch'angmu Arts Center

ly modernized Korean dance corresponding to its founding ideals. The following year, the troupe strengthened its position by demonstrating genuine Korean dance on a tour throughout the eastern part of the United States. Of course, there had been countless other overseas performance tours by Korean dance troupes before Cb'angmuboe. However, they had simply displayed the beauty of traditional dance, providing entertainment and a boost to national prestige, rather than concentrating on artistic development In contrast, the performances given¡by Cb'angmuhoe attempted to present Korean dance distinctively different from foreign dance, by adding traditional elements to modern dance, rather than merely demonstrating Korean elements &!ri-sawi (1979), a work in which Kim Mae-p was the prindpal dancer, revealed a Korean dance of sensations radical for that time Cb'umron, performed in the late eighties, also experimented with new dance modes. The eighties were marked by great leaps forward as Cb'angmuhoe actively performed to rave reviews overseas and won various awards. The opening of the Ch'angmu Arts Center, a large dance performing compound, the operation of the Ch'angmu Institute, and the publication of theses and academic artides called for a dual structure separating Cb'angmuhoe and the Ch'angmu Troupe The activities of Cb'angmuhoe led an era of change in Korean dance in the eighties. A critic once said Cb'angmuhoe had grown large enough to wield influence not only in the realm of creative Korean dance but also in other artistic sectors. This has certainly been true in fields as varied as music, painting, poetry and other related areas. The status of dance has been enhanced by the

Taking Korean Dance to the World 30


troupe's collaboration with other artists in such works as An Encounter between Poetry and

llince As a private dance troupe, Cb'angmuhoe stimulated competition among other dance troupes in the globalization and marketing of Korean dance as an international commodity, crossing the lines ~twen democratic and socialist nations. Many other dance troupes have now performed in 1\ussia and China thanks to the efforts of Ch'angmuhoe in expanding its own performance horizons. Such internationalization has, however, placed a burden on the group. It is compelled to continue producing works of exceptional quality, but the expansion of performing arenas and the creation of outstanding works can only have a mutually enhancing effect, and as the troupe has accumulated experience over the years, several superior works have formed the core of a regular repertoire. The history of Korean dance spans some seventy years. But in this era of globalization how many works, in whatever genre, can ~ called genuine "Korean dance'? Not many. The Korean dance commtmity has ~ too busy maintaining

the rationale that ''the most Korean dance is the most global dance." Under such circumstances, Silk Road, Arrow, How Far Have we Travelled, and Cb'umlxm by Ch'angmuhoe, all seen as outstanding classical works, are well regarded abroad as well Critics point to these outstanding works of the late eighties as "works in which the creativity of dance is successfully displayed; they have pushed forward the era of artistic dance in Korea" Needless to say, Ch'angmuhoe is known as a front runner in the Korean dance community because its works are superior. Its elevation of customary expressions from traditional dance to a higher leveL emphasis on the formative qualities of modem dance, and expansion of the aesthetic interpretation of Korean dance instill pride and a sense of rediscovery in the audience. Local audiences sense a retum to a spiritual homeland in the works of Ch'angmuhoe They feel the comfort of ~g one nation For foreigners it is an introduction to the physical language and mystery of Or~ ental thought After a performance by Ch'angmuboe in New York, an American critic wrote

''they raised our eyes from vague abstractionism to anew world" In 19~ Cb'angmuhoe performed in Germany and later at the National Theater of Cairo in fm'pt Having now established its authority, Cb'angmuhoe can afford to ~ selective as to where it performs. This is certainly a source of pride for any Korean dance troupe. Another notable accomplishment is the opening of the Ch'angmu Arts Center (Artistic Director: Kim ¡ Mae-~) , a subsidiary of Cb'angmuhoe Korea's first dance center, the Ch'angmu Arts Center pro vides personneL space, time and training and allows artists to concentrate on the creative process. Performances are given regularly, and dancers do not need to worry about finding adequate practice space. Training and teaching are offered in one place. With the Ch'angmu Art Center as its base of operations, Cb'angmuhoe now forms the ()Ucleus of Korean dance. All that remains is to leap forward into the 21st century, to build a new future for Korean dance. •

How Far Have We Travelled?, choreographed by Yi No-yon

31


ON STAGE

Hwang Byung-ki Song Hye-jin Music critic and r=rcher at the Korean Traditional Performing Arts Center

WANG BYUNG-KI is r~ as one of the leading performers and composers of music for the kayag(Jm (12-stringed zither) in Korea today This recognition comes not only for his musical skill and devotion to preserving and transmitting the sanjJ (folk instrumental improvised solo) tradition, which took firm root in the latter part of the Chai>n period, but also for his efforts to develop a modern music idiom rooted in tradition, a task he has devoted himself to since an early age In this respect, one could say Hwang is one of the few Korean composers to successfully bridge the gap between tradition and creation Hwang's efforts to preserve tradition while creating new music, without upsetting the balance between the new and the old, was by no means an easy task However, unlike other composers who chose to break sharply with tradition, Hwang was able to overcome and successfully meet this challenge by grounding himself in tradition first and branching out from there From the very start his compositions for ka_1ng(J m were a great success and soon became an integral part of the standard repertoire for ka_wg(Jm performers throughout Korea His compositions embodied the heart and soul of tradition, and at the same time, were creative works that were novel in a modem sense As such, they have become "new classics" that have won wide recognition both at home and abroad The Forf'Sf, composed in the 15(i)s, was one of

H

Hwang Byung-ki transmits the sensibilities of the Korean people to modern audiences through his 12-stringed kayagiim.

the first works to be written in a modern idiom for the ka_wg(Jm Other compositions, such as Ch'im~JXmg-u (Dance in the Fragrance of Aloes) and The Silk Road, written in the 1970s, recreate the 1,(IDyear-old beauty of the Silla period through

mystical melodies. The &Jund of Nigh~ created in the 1980s, portrays the calligraphic world of the Chas6n period These works, t<15ether with Spring Snow (1991), created especially for the newly-devised 17-string kaJtigUn4 reveal Hwang's extraordinary talent for composition Hwang's compositions have not only won high praise from music critics and professional performers; they are also well-known and loved by the general public He is acclaimed in the mass media and now his fame has spread overseas with performances at a broad spectrum of festivals and art stages around the world, revealing the ethereal beauty of his works to an international audience Statistics show that of all newly-romposed works for ka_wgiln4 Hwang's are performed most often And his recordings are the biggest sellers Hwang's life was quite ordinary before he became a professional musician Hwang was born in Seoul in 1936, but the Korean War (l<fi}-53) forced his family to take refuge in the southern port city of Pusan. There, by chance, he heard the ka_wg(Jm for the first time and was charmed It was an incident that would eventually set him apart .from everyone else and launch him on his career in Korean music In 195~ Hwang began to study cli5n!fik (court music) under the tutelage of Kim Yong-yun at the National Classical Music Institute (NCMI) (now the Korean Traditional Performing Arts Center (KTPAC)). He also took lessons in minsok-ak (folk music) under the great sanj:J masters Kim Yun-d6k

Bringing Classical Music to Modern Audiences 32


and Shim Sanggon In 1954, when Hwang was a third-year high school studen~ he won first prize in the instrumental division of the national traditional music contest He won the same honors again when he was a law student at Seoul National University (SNU). It was then that Hwang first began to attract widespread attention. In those days, traditional music was usually handed down from father to son, so for a student of SNU, the most prestigious college in the country, to capture first prize in the contest was quite a revelation It eventually led to his appointment as fecturer at the newly-established traditional music department of the SNU College of Music and also at the NCMI. The 1%0s brought a monumental change in Hwang's life. In 1961, Chong Hoe-kap wrote the first Theme and Varia-

American people through lectures and performances at universities. Despite his prominence as a musician, for all practical purpa;es Hwang had to subordinate music to his work as a businessman But in 197~ he left the business world for good and became a fullfledged artist when he was appointed professor of the traditional music department at Ewha Worn-

tions for Kayagilm and Orclxstra and Hwang was chosen as soloist for the premiere. The next year Hwang produced his first composition, By a Chrysanthemum, which was followed by The Forest, acclaimed as one of the finest masterpieces of kayagum music. Since that time he has been known as a composer of "new, real classics in the traditional idiom" In 1%5 he was invited to the "20th Century Festival of Music" sponsored by the East-West Center at the University of Hawaii. There his works were acclaimed by critics as a "mental antidote for moderns," and praised for their successful modernization of traditional music At home he was cited by the then Ministry of Culture and Information for his success at the festival and his efforts to introduce Korean music to the

an's University. From 1974 his works began to take on an even more striking coloration as evidenced by his composition Ch'im-hyang-mu. In the composer's words, " Ch ' im-~vangu may be compared to a string of historical relations spanning a broad period of time, connecting the broadly flowing musical

forms of the Three Kingdoms period to the mtJSi. cal traditions of the Chaiin period The work is inspired by Buddhist art and the sacred music of the Silla Period in which worldly beauty is sublimated into a religious ecstasy that is both sensuous and mystical'' Through this work, Hwang revealed a new form of Korean music by employing new ka)tlgilm and accompanying changgo (hourglassshaped drum) techniques, resulting in a multiplicity of sounds that evoke an atmosphere of fantasy and exoticism. With pieces such as The Silk Road, (1975) and The Haunted Tree (1979), Hwang's works took firm root as Korea's new classics. The 1980s and 1990s saw Hwang playing a mapr role in traditional music by becoming a leading recording artist and through many performances both at home and abroad His efforts to intrcr duce Korean music to foreign audiences were highlighted in 1985 when he was invited to lecture at Harvard as visiting professor of Korean music Hwang is a truly gifted artist who, through his musical activities in the 1~ opened up new horizons for traditional Korean music He continues to do so :g today. He has rediscovered ~ the beautiful sound of the ~ classical tradition that has c been handed down from generation to generation and thus has been able to transmit the sensibilities of the Korean people to modern audiences. It is for this reason that the noted music critic Park Yong-koo says: ''Hwang put Korean music on a level with modern music. Without his efforts it might have been buried in a museum" • 33


ON STAGE

SamulNori Han Myung-hee Profes.9Jr Department of Classical Music, Seoul Gty University

HAf MAKES 1HE MUSIC of SamulNori so compelling? Perhaps it is the overwhelming vitality of the music An audience knows that it has had a real musical experience after a SamulNori concert. For audiences whose impression of traditional Korean music has Ceel1 that of staid, rather uninspired forms, the variety and spirit of SamulNori rhythms is sufficient to awaken even the most sluggish of souls. For young people, with little interest in any slow music, this aspect of Samu!Nori's music is even more appealing Fans of rock and pzz will not be disappointed as SamulNori's rhythmic variations are no less than amazing. Thus, Samu!Nori audiences can expect a passionate response unlike anything they have previously experienced And yet the attraction of this music runs deeper than the passionate response it generates. The rhythms strike a chord that reaches to the very soul The four instruments that make up the ensemble (k'kwaengwari, ching clxmgp, buk) are part of the ancient tradition of nag~ or farmer's music When these instruments are played, it is not just music but a revival of an ethnic heritage Memories of the past come alive before our eyes. The sonorous sounds of the large gong (chingJ evoke the profound stillness of creation, the abrupt clanging of the small gong (k'u:aengx;~) adds spice to the rhythms of the

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wood, and leather hourglass (clxmg;p) and barrel (buk) drums create rich and exciting sound In effect, the music provides both pleasure for its listeners and, especially for Koreans, an affirmation of their identity.

The popularity that SamulNori earned during the 1900s cannot totally be attributed to the excitement the rhythms generate or the nostalgia that it creates, however. Nor do those reasons explain its international popularity. Understanding the

growth in interest in SamulNorrs music requires an understanding of the unique situation in which we find ourselves today. Samu!Nori transcended the mundane world of ponderous traditional music concerts with its own special dynamic Here, I would like to explore the background behind the formation of SamulNori; in short, how music performed outdoors as part of an ethnic heritage came to be performed indoors on a stage in front of a paying audience ¡ Korean music is generally performed in an outdoor setting This is true for nongak and mask dances as well as other forms of traditional performing arts. Even court music, performed for ceremonial occasions, was no exception. Until modern times, there were no structures built for the express purpose of presenting the performing arts Thus, while certain forms of traditional music were performed indoors they contained elements which were more suited to the outdoors. Western music, on the other hand, was almost entirely designed to be performed indoors in a certain designated space Performing on a Western-style stage is now common in Korea Indeed, it was only a matter of time before outdoor ceremonial and entertainment music was brought indoors and adapted for survival on such a stage This situation provided the catalyst for Samu!Norrs birth Korea's folk music tradition encompasses a

Providing aMusical Release 34


myriad of musical styles, instruments and occasions. Yet there is one strain of this diverse tradition which is both deeply rooted and widely performed: nong::tk Theories regarding the origins of nong::tk are complex: some say its roots can be found in harvest celbratio~ others suggest that it derives from ceremonies performed to expel evil and invite good fortune into the home; still others theorize that the music evolved from the rituals of Buddhism or in Korea's military music tradition The wide dissemination of nong::tk and the variety of functions it served is supported by the fact that it was (and still is) known by a long list of regional variations including p'ungmu4 ture, maegu and simply kut Perhaps the most reasonable theory is that nong::tk came into being and developed in accordance with the cycle of traditional agrarian life. Nong::tk in tum came to be one of the most cohesive forces in Korean culture and one of its most outstanding artistic achievements. The term samul has been used over the years in several different contexts. For ex:ample in non[t a~ professional bands of musicians performed on the samu4 or four instruments (k'kwaengwar4 ching clxmm:;, buk), that Samu!Nori uses. In Buddhist tradition, there is also a set of instruments known as samul These instruments are part of the ritual lifestyle of the temple the Jx)pko (a small drum covered with cow leather and played in front of the Buddha}, the unp'an (a type of gong, placed in the kitchen and used to summon the

monks to their meals}, the mag) (a hollow wooden block made in the shape of a carp and struck while hung when the sutras are read}, and the taepng(a large bell). Samu!Nori, which dominated the Korean music world in the 1980s, can be described as the transformation of nog:t~ which was performed outdoors, into a form suitable for the modern stage. Samu!Nori took a largely rural event and recreated it for an indoor city theater. The repertoire which the group standardized over the years-Pinari (narrative prayer/song for good fortune, long life and the expulsion of evil), Pan Kut (drumming and dancing), Sui Clxmg;p Karak (a rhythm composition for clxmg;p) and its compilation of music from the Honam region (southwestem Korea), Y6ngnam (southeastern Korea), and Ch'ungch'6ng (central Korea)-is also evidence that the group's origins are found in nongak Their formalization of the seated performance form anjm lxm, rather than the nonstop drumming and dancing of nag~ is an ex:ample of the music's adaptation to stage. The reputation that Samu!Nori earned during the 1900s and the position it holds in the Korean music world are not simply due to its musical contributions. SamulNori's importance can also be traced to the broader fact that it was a symbol of some of the special characteristics of that era. Samu!Nori gave its first performances at the end of the 1970s, a time which also signaled the end of

an age. At the Space Theater in Seoul, Kim Duk Soo along with three of the most outstanding musicians of that generation formed an ensemble which consisted of only four percussion instruments. By transporting the elements of nong::tk indoors, SamulNori created a sensation. Predictably, this form of musical concert aroused a powerful response from audiences. The music not only had its own intrinsic charm but also the force to make the artists heroes to a generation SamulNori's music and the composition of the group became part of 19005 mythology. Samu!Nori's formation in the late 1970s was one further manifestation of what amounts to a sociological phenomenon. By the end of the 1970s, many Koreans had come to an important point in the process of self-awareness, which included growing interest in Korean studies and the traditional performing arts. Politically the power structure was pressing heavily on the people's consciousness. Tear gas-filled university campuses, anger, frustration and low morale characterized the consciousness of citizens. It was during these times that Samu!Nori made its debut and spread its message through the seeming madness. The music provided a antidote to the heartbreak of the era. But interest in the music was not momentary. The music provided a release, an experience of group ecstasy and a way, through nostalgia for the past, for us to find ourselves. +

35


ON STAGE

0Tae-s6k Han Sang-chul Profe;sor of Hallim University, Drama Critic

he early 1970s marked a turning-point in Korean drama The mcxlernization of Korean drama shinfl~ which • in the 1910s, involved efforts to create a totally new form ofdrama based on the realism of the West and thus break away from traditional Korean influences. Then, in the early 1970s, people • to ruminate over the flaws in such a movement and tried to create a new form of drama different from shinfflk There was one young man who perceived the need for such changes earlier than others 0 Tae-s6k, a playwright and director who made his theatriCAl debut in 1%8. as ultimate goo! was to develop a Korean drama incorporating the unique language, lives and spirit of Koreans developed over a history of several thousand years and departing from the alien elements of Western drama Since the late 1~ the Korean drama community had actively sought to rediscover traditional forms of recreation, which subsequently led to their adaptation in mcxlern drama It became customary to transform traditional folk tales and legends, or dances and songs, into new forms of dramatic expression The mcxlerniz<J.tion of traditional heritage became the ultimate goo! of the Korean drama community. But while several elements were soon considered indispensable to the creation of a new mcxlern drama, they came to be used indiscriminately. 0 Tae-s6k steadily sought to discard such ffiis. taken practices. He took a fundamentally different approach by searching for traditional heritage in reality, in the Korean people's lifestyle, ways of think-

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How can we develop a Korean dramatic form that incorporates our unique language and spirit? ing and expressions, rather than in a certain element or form of recreation His investigation into the Korean language and its use as an instrument for expression, intentions and emotions is an accomplishment which has fed his reputation as a

leading mcxlern playwright However, this does not mean that 0 was interested in the simple preservation or restoration of traditions. According to 0, 'Our traditions are not fixed or standardized like there of our neighbors, China or Japan They are still alive within the lives of mcxlern Koreans. And though they are in severe conflict with Western culture, they still have a strong influence over Koreans today." His work, therefore, experiments with the conflict between tradition and mcxlernity and, through this experimentation, tries to rediscover the traditional values which are being forgotten or distorted His belief in traditional values is unshakable He unhesitatingly says that "In the past, we had a mental culture There was a basic framework by which a man could live like a man Mcxlern society is driving man to spiritual devastation and dehumanization But I believe we can restore human values through our traditional culture" 0 seems to believe it is his duty and responsibility as a playwright to discover how to preserve our unique culture in spite of the numerous hardship; and invasions we have faced throughout history, and then present' that culture in an artistic format as plays are thoroughly mcxlern, though. He may take his sub~ matter from the cultural and artistic heritage of the past, but mcxlern elements are strongly incorporated 0 began his drama studies with the study of Western drama and he developed a keen appreciation for the refreshing theater art of mcxlern America He also has an outstanding ability to distinguish which values and qualities will not be harmed by transferral to today's mooern society. He does not approach Korea's tradi-

Delving into the True Korean Character 36


A scene from 0 Tae-sok'sThe UmbU;.cal Cord (1974)

tiona! culture blindly. 0 Tae-s6k has staged dozens of plays. Each one has created a sensation in its own way but I will focus here on Tlx! Grass Tombs, an example of his efforts to reform Korean drama in the 1970s, Tlx! Autumn of Life, a superior work from the 1980s, and a recent work, Wiry Did Shimch'Ong

7brow Herself into Indangsu TllJid!. The Grass Tombs juxtaposes modern times against the past, East against West The piay is set in the 1970s, on an isolated island where unique traditions help maintain order. The island is so humid it is impossible to bury the dead Puddles form if one digs even an inch into the ground, so a custom of drying corpses in grass tombs developed There also is an unwritten code that only those who have committed a crime could leave for the mainland However, the island l:x:comes polluted by sewage, and the seaweed fields, the islanders' source of livelihood, b:come unfit for cultivation All the islanders must leave, and the constable of the island orders them to move the corpses in the grass tombs to the mainland and bum the tombs

behind them This play deals with the c0nf!ict between the law forcing the citizens from the island, and the existing order of the island (tradition) which dictates they preserve it The.conflict is expressed in a ritual format that can encompass ooth modern and traditional drama The surrealistic play concentrates more on extracting and identifying the fundamental spiritual character embedded in Koreans' collective unconsciousness than on unravelling the l~c of the story. Thus, importance is placed on the group rather than the individual, on sentiment rather than l~c, on the sound of language rather than the structure, as well as on highlighting the sorcery involved in the invocation of the spirits of the dead The Autumn of Life deals with the special qualities of a Korean woman by focusing on the rage and indignation displayed by one woman. The play concentrates on a middle-aged couple in their fifties Through a close examination of their relationship, the p!3y reveals what a woman has to suffer in a patriarchal society. 0 also shows how the mental and moral values of a Korean woman

have been corrupted in the modem marital relationship found in our rapidly changing world in comparison to the relationships of our ancestors. 0 recreates the past through ultra-modern stage decorations and mannequins. The integration of realistic arid abstract scenes, the rapid tempo and restrained language appeal to modern audiences W~v Did Shimch'Ong 7brow Herself into Indangsu Twice? is a kind of parody of the classic Tale of Shimch'Ong, set amidst today's ruthless and

cruel Korean reality. 0 has transferred the classic work and the cultural and spiritual values found in it to current times, enabling us to look back on human values and our society. This play sharply criticizes our society in a very creative and dramatic way. The world Shimch'6ng sees when she is reoorn after sacrificing herself to restore her blind father's sight is truly Korean 0 shows outstanding imagination and inventiveness not only in his message but also in the way he expresses it The play overwhelms the audience and leaves a deep impression that is not quickly forgotten • 37


MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:

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VERY ONE UNDERSfANI1) THEIMIDR1/\NCE of tonal quality in music Musical tone is generally classified into four different areas and inseparable qualities-pitch, duration, identity and color. Different qualities result in different outcomes; different tone colors produce different music A song sung by a male is not the same when sung by a female. There is vivid difference when the same melody is played on the piano and then on the violin. In short, tonal quality plays a vital role in music Classicism and romanticism are considered the two mapr trends in the history of Western music, which began with ancient festivals, passed under the eaves of churches, crossed the pasture of the Renaissance and the stream of Baroque music to reach the alleys of modernday streets. The origin of both classicism and romanticism can be traced back to the rituals of Greek worship-Apollonian cults and Dionysian cults-which were accompanied by music The Apollonian cult used a string instrument called the cithara and the Dionysian cult a pipe instrument called aulos. Here we can see the importance of instruments in both trends. Classicism is described in terms such as clarity; simplicity; balance, objectivity and restain~ while romanticism conjures up words like passion, ecstasy; and subjectivity. What then was the basis of these two very distinctive trends? Perhaps it was the different tone color produced by the two instruments; the stringed cithara produced a clear tone while the pipe aulos was sometimes banned from public performance because of the erotic mood it created. Musical tone plays an important role not only in music itself but also in the emotional and spiritual aspects of human life. One of the outstanding characteristics of Korean musical instruments is that they are usually made out of natural vegetable materials. Traditional instruments such as the kayagum, k6mungo, haegi1m, taegi1n~ p'iri and changgo are all made of non-metallic materials Even the strings for the k6munko and kayag!Jm were made of silk, not metal

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As wood is softer and more flexible than metals, the sound of wooden instruments is softer and warmer than that of metallic instruments. This difference in materials also results in varying degrees of warmth and coldness. The warmth of non-metallic materials represents human emotions and gives birth to emotional music The coldness of metallic materials represents the mind and l~c and gives birth to rational music One can then say that the rational Western culture and music is the fruit of its preference for metallic materials and that the emotional Korean culture is the result of its preference for natural non-metallic materials The two kinds of materials also differ in their utilization. Natural vegetable materials need little alteration in form while metallic instruments must go through a process of analysis and composition as steel is extracted from ore. One can simply cut a bamboo tree and make it into a flute, taegi1m or tanso, thereby bringing nature to life. In the case of metallic instruments nature must be changed. The former harmonizes with and follows nature while the latter challenges and conquers it Customarily string instruments are divided into bowed instruments and plucked instruments. In Korean traditional music, however, only plucked instruments, such as the k6mungo and kayagum were considered genuine string instruments. Bowed instruments such as the haegi1m and ajaengwere considered pipe instruments. Our ancestors liked plucked string instruments for the "margin" or "empty space" they conveyed, something professional musicians call the "rest'' of the sound The "cry of silence'' created by Korean plucked string instruments is overwhelming in solo performances, especially in slow movements. The silence following the last vibration of a note is nothing less than imposing The very essence of Korean music is this emphasis on the "rest" of the sound as much as the sound itself. The harpsichord, which preceded the piano in the W~ produced a similar effect However, the music of the Baroque era, when the harpsichord was used, filled in the

Traditional instruments were made of natural materials. Clockwise from near right, the nagak, a conch shell trumpet, the haegum, a two-stringed fiddle played with a bow, the kayagum, a twelve-stringed zither with moveable bridges, and the kumungo, a six-stringed zither

40


41


Korean music, like the Korean people themselves, may seem irrationaL but deep warmth and generosity run beneath the surface

A hove, The ajaeng is a seven-stringed zither played with a resined bow. Right, top, Piri, a small vertical bamboo flute Right, bottom, Pak Tongjin, one of Korea'sforemostp'ansori performers

42

voids or the space with secondary sounds rather than convey the "rest''. In Western music the "rest" is secondary while it is essential and al:rolute in Korean traditional music. Asimilar phenomenon is found in painting In Western painting the whole canvas is filled; there is no empty space. But in Korean painting, the empty space is as important as the part that is filled Both in the rest and the empty space the imagination is unlimited Failure to understand this concept can give the impression that k6mung:; music is nothing but a boring melody. However, this is only true if we approach it with the modem attitude that music is sound only. Greater joy lies in the space left after a note. It is often said that the ringing of a mountain temple bell reaches ¡to the heights of the universe. Our mind unfolds in a vast landscape of imagination during the silence of a k6mun!}J note. Most people agree that one cannot understand artistic and cultural trends without fully understanding the era which produces them. Nowhere is this more obvious than in Korea's ritual music. One of the most pronounced social phenomenon behind traditional Korean art theory is the ''five flows of yin and yang: The twelve notes within one octave were classified into six yin and six yang which were classified again into the twelve months. The five mapr sounds, gung sang ga~ chi and woo, were compared to the five elements, metal, wood, water, fire and soil, or the five colors, five tastes, five virtues and five vital organs of the human body. According to historical records from the Silla period, the kayagi1m was modelled after a Chinese instrument The resonance box is round, symbolizing heaven, its bottom fla~ symbolizing the earth, its twelve strings the months, and the hole at the bottom the six directions: north,

south , ~ wes~ up and down The composition of the instrument was clearly linked to philosophical beliefs. In ritual ceremonies, two instruments were used: the chuk and 6. Perhaps they are the best examples of the theory of yin and yang in our instruments. Chuk is a percussion instrument made of wood and shaped like a mortar. It was always painted blue and placed on the east side, the lef~ where the sun rises. 6, also a wooden percussion instrume~ is shaped like a tiger on a box. . It was always painted white and placed to the w~ the righ~ where the sun sets. In a coner~ the chuk was only played at the beginning and the 6 at the end A ritual concert began with the chuk repeating the same melody three times. The concert came to an end with the 6 repeating the same melody three times. Both instruments were played only once. The mixture of philosophy and music shows that the artistic characteristics of a people should be understood within the overall framework of their culture. P'ansori is representative of Korea's traditional folk songs. On the other hand, sijo and kasa have been considered forms of classical court music. A close look at the two will reveal vast differences in methods of vocalization. P'ansori uses the natural voice to the maximum while in court songs a high-pitched falsetto is employed Historically, p'ansori has been the song of the commoners and was handed down through clowns and entertainers. Court songs were l.oved by intellectuals and the ruling class. Naturally, p'ansori is filled with the emotions of the common people while court songs reveal those of the ruling class. One of the chief characteristics of the commoners is frankness and thus the re¢ction of hypocrisy. The ruling class on the other hand was reluctant to show naked emotion, especially during the Choson Period when Confucianism ruled Consider this old p'ansori song: Dont bother

to take out the straw ma~ I can sit on the leaves. Don't light the pine candle, last night's moon will rise again Hey, child, don't say you have nothing rough wine and veg;tables will befine The lyrics show our ancestors had learned to be content with what little they had In the life of the commoner, human emotion and feelings were emphasized Life was full of laughter, cries, obscene language and humor.


The life of the ruling class was characterized by restain~ affectation and artificiality. They seldom laughed and their dialcgue was often in an indirect form, as if a servant were relating the conversation to two noblemen. In their music the difference between the natural voice and the falsetto was the difference between nature and artificiality. It was a difference that was also extended to performance venues. Concerts for the ruling class took place inside palatial or residential walls while those of the common people were held out in the open air.

How many friends do I have? Water, rocks, pine trees and bamboo So sang the yangban poet-painter Yun SOn-do. The world of classical court music was a soft rna~ a room equipped with brush and ink and decorated with folding screens in a big house. We can argue the merits and demerits of the natural voice. One merit was that it was an honest and true expression of emotion A negative point was its roughness, like an unpolished gem But perhaps this view reveals a biased and sub~tive attitude to culture. A positive aspect of falsetto is that it is a refined form of art with artificiality added However, it lacks a sense of real life and therefore fails to convey warmth Generally speaking, Koreans seem to feel uncomfortable with exa~ fixed notes. In the playing of classical string instruments and the singing of songs, there is always a vibration note which lingers to be expanded and hidden at the same time. In painting, the exact shapes of mountains and bodies of water are often hidden by screens of mist This is also true in traditional clothing. Western clothes emphasize the shape of the body but Korean clothes hide it with several layers. The same can be said for architecture. You have to pass through several gates to reach the main house. This is even true of the Korean language in which sub;:cts are usually omitted. All this reflects the Korean tendency to conceal the core of matters. Thus, the Korean idea of flexible notes in music is connected to the unique culture of a people who wear layers of clothing, use no sub;:cts in their language, and give vague, loose . directions when asked This may at first seem inefficient and irrational but beneath this vagueness lies the emotional warmth, sharing and simplehearted ways of the Korean people. + 43


INTERVIEW

Chijung-nam Re);X)rter, La; Angeles Tunes, Seoul

OR AHN SOOK-SUN, one of Korea's best-loved p'ansori singers, 1993 was a happy year. She won the National Artist Award in the music category and gave a popUlar performance tour in the United States, something she had hoped to do for a long time. What pleased her the most, however, was the unexpected explosion of affection for p'ansori among younger Koreans. Ironically, what ignited the new love for Korean classical music was a modem art form: a movie. The film, SOp;Dncbe, portrays the life and lxln of a wandering p'ansori singer and his two adopted children The movie attracted a million viewers within the first six months and also won the Best Director and Best Actress awards at the first Shanghai International Film Festival this year. The movie generated a p'ansori craze throughout the country. The number of applicants to classical music institutes soared, and p'ansori singers suddenly found themselves enpying new-found respect SOp;Dncbe, the story of a uniquely Korean culture, even struck a chord among university students who had been known to scorn Korean movies. In this ligh~ the fact that Ahn was cha;en over a Western musician for the National Artist Award also represents revived public interest in traditional music. '1 love p'ansori and have overcome many difficulties in order to devote myself to i~ but I had always been frustrated by the lack of public attention to our traditional music," says Ahn 'We Koreans have been preoccupied with feeding ourselves until now, so ifs only natural that the arts and culture have been neglected

F

"Cultural tradition is more imp:ntant than bread Koreans should

be very proud of their

cultural assets. It is our generation's responsibility to pass them on to the next generation"

Now that we have achieved some economic success, ifs time to pay attention to our cultural tradition" While touring overseas, Ahn says she learned that a country without a superior cultural tradition is not respected ''Cultural tradition is more important than bread Koreans should be very proud of their cultural assets. It is our generation's responsibility to pass them on to the next generation'' Pansori is a one-man narrative opera which originated in 18th century Korea and thus has a slightly shorter history than Western opera A p'ansori singer performs alone and must sing many different roles. In order to portray different characters the singer must be equipped with an unusually rich voice. The hardest part of a singer's life is the process of "acquiring" that voice. It is a lifetime task and few people venture to try it now Ahn herself began taking traditional music lessons at the age of eight She learned to play the ka;agiim, a traditional stringed instrume~ from ~er aunt who was a p'ansori singer. Her uncle, Kang To-gun, was also a well-known p'ansori singer from Namwon in North Ch6lla Province, the home of Korea's traditional music Ahn learned to sing from him while she was in elementary school and was so enamored with the music that she gave up her regular education to become a singer. Unlike mast parents, her mother did not object to Ahn choosing such a tough road to follow Determined as Ahn was, there were times when the hard training and public indifference became almost too much for her and she thought of giving up. The biggest crisis came

Is p'ansori making a comeback? 44



"The young are turning back to our traditional culture because they're tired of Western

trends. I am glad to see it''

Above, Ahn during the interview Right, Ahn performing in the ch'ang version of The Tale of Paepijang

46

when she married at the age of 20. At that point she was preparing to settle¡down as an ordinary housewife. But the p'ansori master and "human cultural treasure" Kim Scrhui stepped in and persuaded Ahn to come to Seoul and continue her lessons. One of Kim's most treasured students, she learned the five extant p'ansori tales in their entirety from the master. De.spite the hardships she experienced before reaching her present status, Ahn does not believe p'ansori is any more difficult than opera "Ordinary people cannot sing what opera singers sing," she says. "In order to excel in their field, a violinist or pianist must practice a great deal It's a hard task Why should a p'ansori singer's task be any different?' In her own analysis she concludes tha~ "The hardships didn't frighten young Koreans away from p'ansor-4 it was a cultural trend" Ahn points out that there was a great deal of curiosity aoout Western ca;metics just after their intrcr duction on the local marke~ but now people are becoming disillusioned and are returning to traditional skin care methcxls. '1t's the same for our culture," she asserts. 'The young are turning back to our traditional culture because they're tired of Western trends. I am glad to see it" Alm, known to be a person of few words, spoke emphatically; showing no signs of fatigue even though she had just finished a twcrhour ch'angg(;k (Korean opera) performance. Her apprentices say the subject of p'ansori never oores her. One of the criticisms most often levelled at p'ansori tales is their lack of logic. Though Westerners may value logic, Koreans tend to emphasize emotion In p'ansor-4 this tendency is so strong that the actions of the characters may seem contradictory. "Every culture has its own distinctive characteristics. I agree that Kcr rean culture emphasizes emotion but that is a merit rather than a weakness," says Ahn. "Where Westerners would simply say 'Goodbye' in a parting scene, what do we do? We say; 'Are you leaving, really leaving? And when are you coming back? When the head of a crow turns white? When the 12,(XX) hills of the Diamond Mountains wear flat? Dont think this is illogical Our ancestors brought the laws of nature and philcrophy into p'ansorf' But if p'ansori is weak in logic, it is more than made up for by its power to evoke emcr


tions in the common people. Fanners sing it while working in the fields, women express their sorrows through it Ahn believes that while opera is for the stage, p'ansori is a part of everyday life. However, there can ee negative side effects from the propagation of tradition through such means as a movie like S6pj)nche Ahn warned against the contamination of traditional music. '1 noticed the conductor using a lxtton in recent traditional music performances. That is ridiculous. Why do we need a lxtton? A fan would do, but actually we don't even need a conductor:'

According to Ahn, the p'ansori singer can express everything and lead the drummer with gestures. And to keep something uniquely Korean, it should ee kept pure, rather than taking on foreign elements. Apart from this, Ahn has seen an unwelcome trend in attitude among young p'ansori students. She has noticed a lack of sincerity which can only ee detrimental as the p'ansori singer is said to need the health and stamina of a marathon runner to cope with the five or six hours of non-stop singing which are often required of a young student Ahn also emphasizes the need to develop a well-rounded personality. "A singer should not lose her temper too easily: When you lose your temper, you lose your voice too;¡ she says. But still Ahn has bright dreams for the future of p'ansori. Most of all she wants to see the Namwon International Pansori Competition acquire a.world reputation comparable to that of the Cannes International Film Festival or the Mcm:w Tchaikovsky Music Contest It may ee a long time eefore this dream eecomes a reality since it means foreigners must first learn to speak Korean and sing the tales. The government should start supporting the idea now, Ahn says. '1ook at Japan Their kabuki is no match for the richness and maturity of our p'ansori. Yet they have made it known to the world through decades of concerted efforts. Today; they have exclusive kabuki theaters in downtown Tokyo. We should learn a lesson from the Japanese." In recent times, P'ansori has actually attracted a few foreign apprentices. And who knows, with the expla;ion of public affection for our traditional music, Ahn's dream may ee realized sooner than she thinks. + 47



writings. On the other hand, hcwever, the poetic ambience found in Hwang's work serves to form the foundation of his writings. This poetic ambience is the ma;t noticeable element in his thoroughly restrained style. To oorrow the terminology of the art world, Hwang is more of an idealist than a realist He dresn't offer a detailed description of every aspect of his subp:t so much as burn an abbreviated image into his reader's mind He seeks to convey an image that exudes the essential nature of the subp:t he is trying to portray, implicitly rather than explicitly. This is apparent in his treatment of characters. Hwang has always resisted a realistic approach which would focus the reader's attention on a character's facial features or wardrore Rather, he concentrates on the core attributes of the character, attributes which symoolize the character's unique personality. Hence the distinctive hack of Old Tcrop and the enormous eyes of his daughter, Ojrngnyo, rich characterizations that make the novel Descendants of Cain (1954) one of Hwang's most powerful works. Hwang is neither Balzac nor Da;toevski. He avoids ooth realistic external descriptions and the descriptions of a character's inner world often found in psychological novels. His description creates ambience, not a second reality. He focuses on the shadcws of reality, reflections that give the reader fresh impressions of the world Hwang uses a variety of episodic devices and symools throughout his stories. For example, in the midst of a wartime search operation, Tongho, the main character in Trees on a Qiff, suddenly imagines himself encased in a thick piece of dear glass. This glass image appears over and over again, symoolizing the toxin of war surrounding the characters in the novel The repeated mention of the legend of "Virgin Rcx:k" in frscendants of CÂŁtin underscores the tragic longing of Ojangnyo, and the frequent use of dream sequences and scenes from plays

Hwang Sun-wan

51


in Tlx Sun and tlx Moon (1962-65) serves to enhance the overall plot, both directly and indirectly. A World of Instincts and Intuition Hwang's re_;xtion of detailed characterizations in favor of portrayals based on core attributes is most conspicuous in his short stories. Clearly this tendency is linked to Hwang's fundamental approach to humanity. Hwang is less interested in the spatial or temporal conditions of the human experience than in the fundamental qualities of humanity. That is to say, his interest lies in the intense pursuit of a simple, abstract human destiny, a destiny from which all external conditions, both temporal and historical, have been swept away. As an artist, Hwang Sun-won attempts to create a hazy world of pathos revealing the fatal attributes of the human experience. His shorter works, such as "The Old Potter" (19'J)),"Lost Souls'' (1958), and "Shwer" (1959), are especially fme examples of this tendency. But what is left when we eliminate the temporal and historical elements of human existence? A naked world A world of instincts and intuition This is why so many of Hwang's characters, particularly in his short stories, are uneducated in the ways of the modem world, outcasts or innocent children They are rooted in a primitive world untouched by any consciousness of rational or moral values. Instinct and intuition are blind They operate in a kind of chaos where good and evil, beauty and ugliness are undifferentiated. Hwang's characters exist in a primitive state where there is no value consciousness. And yet he always treats them with warmth Why is this? Because Hwang's perspective of the world is profoundly positive. He trusts human instinct and intuition This trust is the fundamental element of Hwang Sun-won's literary world, an element evident in the idealism and optimism of his earliest poems. Hwang's trust in human instinct and intuition also embodies a deep reverence for all living things. This respect for nature is reflected in his depiction of a variety of wild animals throughout his work, particularly in his short stories. ~and horses appear as central characters; cranes are much more than symbols; wolves conjure up human images. 52

Hwang's work also reflects a deep attachment to a uniquely Korean sense of reauty. Indeed, the pursuit of Korean reauty commands his attention as a short story writer. This is most obvious in his quest for a model of Korean womanhood Of course, in Hwang's works the Korean woman is neither a purely abstract figure nor a model for any particular historical period or circumstance. She is stripped free of all external historical conditions. We may not be able to fmd her among us today; but she is there, living and breathing within the hearts of the Korean people: a woman burdened with han, the heartbreaking longing and hopelessness so important to the Korean people. Komny6 in Six Lives with the Stars, Suni in Lost Souls and ~ngy6 in Descendants of Cain are examples of Hwang's model of Korean womanhood These female characters typify the young widw struggling with the loneliness of love, a central theme in Korean literature beginning with "Ch6ngi:ipsa," the woeful Paekche era (18B.C-AD.660) song of a peddlar's wife waiting for her husband Komnyo's life is plagued with contempt and betrayal, ~gny6 is never permitted to express her love, and Suni ends up committing suicide. The love these women feel is not the realistic love we knw today; it is a poetic love with a strong attachment to the past, a love of memories. All three women are poetic portraits of womanhood, idealized images of young women left with nothing In Pu~sit of Korean Beauty and Modern Moral Principles The novels Six Lives with tlx Stars and fR. scendants of Cain, like so many of Hwang's short stories, are really more lyrical than narrative. 1n fact, the narrative in Six Lives with tlx Stars is so weak as to undermine the dramatic development necessary to a novel The novel is rich in ''Koreanness" and lyricism but lacks the narrative drama needed to link its disparate elements in a tight sequence. One gets the sense the author has simply spliced t~ehr a number of poetic short stories. For example, the main character, Komny6 is, to borrw an expression from EM Forster, a flat character, lacking the versatility to respond to a rapidly changing environment Like so many of the heroines in Hwang's short stories, Komny6 is the typical Korean woman, a passive fig-


ure who shuts herself inside her fate rather than forging ahead to meet her destiny head-on Komnya never changes despite the countless horrors she experiences during the dark days of the Japanese colonial period Forever sweet and warm and foolish, Komnya typifies the women portrayed in Hwang Sun-wan's short stories. opngnya, the main female character in Descendants of C£lin, is cut from the same doth as Komnya, but the novel is much more effective than She Lives with the Stars In fact, Hwang's JXWerful portrayal of Ojangnya as the prototype of the Korean woman is what makes this work a success. This does not mean, however, that Descendants of Cain is not without its shortcomings. Ojangnya, like Komnya, tends to be another ''flat character;' better suited to lyrical poetry than the world of prose. Set in North Korea following liberation from Japanese rule in 1945, Descendants of C£lin is one of Hwang's most realistic novels. The experiences of the main character, Pak Hun, illustrate what life was like for intellectuals in that tumultuous period This aspect alone makes Descendants of C£lin much closer to what we expect from a full-length novel than She Lives with the Stars Nevertheless, the reader's interest focuses not so much on Hwang's critical portrayal of life in North Korea during that period or the concerns of Pak, the young intellectual, as on the primitive vitality of Ojangnya, who is completely cut off from these external elements. Indeed, the main character, Pak Hun, is overshadowed by Ojangnya's powerful vitality. The story is told through the eyes of Pak. Ojangnya is nothing more than the ob~ of his pallid soulsearching observations, and yet she is the one who captures the interest of the reader. Hwang has created the consummate Korean woman in opngny6. In his later novels, Hwang gradually began to expand the scope of his prose. Human Grafting tells the tale of wartime orphans forgotten by society. Trees on a Qifj, The Sun and the Moon and The Moving castle consider alienation, destiny, and the fundamental problems of human existence through a variety of experimental devices. Throughout these novels, however, Hwang always focuses on two themes: the portrayal of a uniquely Korean beauty set against a background of local folk customs and a traditional lifestyle, and the investigation of

Hwang is forever pursuing a uniquely Korean beauty and ethic in modem society human relations or loneliness within the context of modem society. That is to say, Hwang is forever pursuing a uniquely Korean beauty and ethic in modem society. These two values are not particularly complementary, however. Indeed, one has usually been developed to the exclusion of the other. This is a shortcoming not only of Hwang Sun-wan's work but of the modem Korean novel in general The Moving castle can be seen as an attempt to explore the possibility of developing both elements through their juxtaposition Hwang employs a montage approach in this nove~ moving from scene to scene like a movie camera, juxtaposing the lives

of three modem intellectuals in an effective portrayal of the Korean consciousness today: "A Backcountry Village," featured in this edition of Koret:ma, was published in 1952 and reflects Hwang Sun-wan's trust in human instinct and intuition and his reverence for nature and human life. A superhuman rapport develops between Old Beanpole and the friend who stumbles unexpectedly into the village. As the story behind Old Beanpole's death at the hands of his unfaithful young wife unfolds, the reader appreciates the author's reverence for life's mystery: • 53


ON THE ROAD

Kim}oo-young Novelist

VERY PLACE has its own spirit, its own character. Unju Temple is no differn~ and one hardly needs a geomancer to figure out why. Unlike most Korean temples nestled deep in the embrace of ma¢stic mountains, Unju Temple sits in a humble valley. But the approach to the temple is no less than amazing, for that quiet valley is home to a fascinating assembly of stone Buddhas and pagodas. It's almost as if the

58

visitor has transcended the limits of the everyday world to enter a land of mystery and wonder. Once in the valley it is difficult to rid oneself of a feeling of dizzying bewilderment This is a whole new spiritual world, a world that challenges the boundaries between the limited and limitless, the present and the eternal Most Koreans expect Buddhist sculptures and pagodas to be restrained, to emit a delicate, controlled beauty, almost inapproachable in

their dignity and compassion The sculptures and pagodas we encounter at Unju Temple, however, are quite the opposite-simple and artless in their crude carving There is none of the geometric order or painstaking calculation we have come to expect from Buddhist art Nor is the carving particularly impressive. In fa~ the exceptional beauty typical of Silla era Buddhist sculpture is nowhere to be found The beauty of Unju Temple's sculptures lies in their sinceri-


ty; their expression of a dynamic collective aes-

thetic consciousness so strong the sculptures seem to ee the work of a single person The simple unadorned faces of the Unju Temple stone Buddhas make the visitor feel at home, alma;t as if the sparse temple, the quiet valley; the Buddhas and pagodas were all part of the self. The Valley of L<m Buddhas, L<m Pagodas Unju Temple is located in a shallow valley sur-

rounded by mountains approximately 30km to the south of the town of Hwasun in South Cholla Provinoe The temple itself is quite simple; the stone pagodas and Buddhas that surround the temple are the reason for its fame. In fact, there are more stone pagodas and Buddhas at Unju Temple than at any other temple in Kcr rea. A variety of legends surround the origins of this unique temple and its name. Perhaps the

best-known legend suggests the temple, and the

L<m Buddhas and pagodas that are said to have stood there originally; were erected on the instructions of Toson-guksa (827-898), an esteemed Silla monk skilled in geomancy. According to this legend, Tcronguksa believed the Korean Peninsula was like a boat leaning severely to one side because there are fewer mountains in the southwest than in the southeast The monk ordered the erection of L<m

59


pagcxlas and L(XX) Buddhas in the valley where Unju Temple is now located in order to remedy this imbalance with the miraculous pcwer of the Buddha. The legend suggests the temple's name was originally "Steering the Boat" Temple. (The Chinese characters for steering a boot are pronounced unju) Another legend suggests a simpler explanation, that the temple was founded by a monk named Unju. In this CISe, unju means "living in the clouds," the Chinese characters currently used for the temple's name. In any CISe, it is difficult to say when the temple was giving its present name. A1530 edition of a Chos6n era geographical reference book mentions the stone Buddhas and pagcxlas of Unju-"Steering the Boat"-Temple located on "One-thousand Buddhas" Mountain (C1J'6nbulsan), but Kim Ch6ng-ho, a nineteenth century geographical scholar, labeled the mountain next to the temple "living in the Oouds" Mountain ( Unjusan) on his 1834 map of the Korean Peninsula However, considering this "mountain" is only 2fJJ meters high, Unjusan undoubtedly got its name from the temple, rather than the other way around Whatever their origins, the two names-'1iving in the Clouds" Temple and "Steering the Boat'' Temple-have been used alternatively over the years In 1984, an archeol~ team from the South Ch6lla Provincial Museum discovered an old eave tile engraved with the words '1iving in the Clouds Temple" on the temple site. This suggests 'living in the Oouds" Temple may have been the original name. The name "Steering the Boat" Temple was most likely created later, after the pagcxlas and Buddhas were erected to offset the geomantic weakness of the Korean Peninsula

The beauty of Unju Temple lies in the peculiar, and yet familiar,

shapes of the Buddhas and p:~godas

scattered throughout the swrounding valley and

hillside 60


The Valley of 1,000 Buddhas, 1,000 Pagodas, home of Unju Temple

61


The Buddhas are simplenothing more than a pair of eyes, a nose, a mouth, two

ears, a bulky body

Archeological records indicate Unju Temple was extremely pra5perous through the Chas6n pericxl. Of the legendary ~(fJ), only 17 pagodas and 70-plus Buddhas remain tcxlay, but elderly villagers residing near the temple maintain there were as many as 240 pagodas and sculptures as late as the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945). Many of these artefacts have been lost, however, because of careless temple upkeep and the local villagers' pilfering of stone offering tables and comer stones for use in residential construction. Many of the Buddhas have also been defaced because of folk beliefs in the power of scrapings from the ncre of a stone Buddha to induce pregnancy. The beauty of Unju Temple lies in the peculiar and yet familiar shapes of the Buddhas and pagodas found in and around its grounds. The pagodas are primitive-looking, almost as if made from a random pile of rocks or grinding stones. The Buddhas are simple-nothing more than a pair of eyes, a na;e, a mouth, two ears, a bulky body. There are no signs of great artistry or craftsmanship here-just infinite variety amidst a gathering of modest faces. For example, the strict iconography governing the positioning of the Buddha's hands in most Buddhist sculpture seems unimportant here. The temple grounds themselves are desolate and lonely, and yet there is a fervent sense of longing born of a collective aesthetic consciousness. No doubt this is the source of the many legends surrounding the temple as well as the Korean people's fascination with the temple in modem times. The guileless simplicity of the statues and pagodas suggests spiritual parallels to the ever-suffering common people, both in the distant past and in Korea's most recent history.

Some people have tned to establish a connection between Unju Temple, with its many 62


63


Buddhas and pagodas, and belief in the Maitreya Buddha (the Merciful Buddha). They argue Unju Temple was at one time the religious center for a community of persons of humble birth This theory is based on the temple's proximity to Kopyong Village, Nap. County, a community known to be populated by persons of humble birth after the Koryo slave revolts in the tenth century. Belief in the Maitreya Buddha is said to have been strongest in the region south of the Noryong Mountains. Many people believe Unju Temple's sculptures and pagodas represent a belief in the Maitreya Buddha. There is little concrete evidence, either in terms of the local economy or labor movements, to substantiate these theories, however. Both appear to be nothing more than products of a rich literary imagination There have been tales of tenant cultivators or self-supporting farmers collecting funds to build pagodas or religious monuments, but this too is hard to imagine, even with today's prcr ductive capacity. Community sponsorship of such enterprises does, of course, make sense considering the Korean people's traditional re lief in the power of prayer to bring about wealth, happiness and long life for themselves and their pr~eny. Perhaps this was the case with the Buddhist sculptures and pagodas at Unju Temple. In any case, Unju Temple does have a unique flavor, but in the final analysis, I would surmise its sculptures and pagodas were created under the direction of powerful local dans who commanded the labor and eccr nomic power to undertake such an enterprise. In addition, it seems reasonable to assume the pagodas and sculptures are a reflection of the artistic idiosyncrasies of that region or the clans that created them Unju Temple's Philosophical Background While there is some disagreement about the origins 64

of Unju Temple, its philosophical roots are fairly dear. The religious consciousness of the temple is generally believed to consist of a mixture of Maitreya Buddha, Esoteric Buddhism and a number of traditional folk beliefs. First of all, the populist mood evoked by the Buddhist sculptures and pagodas found in the valley near the temple and the legends surrounding the temple itself suggest Unju temple was a center for Maitreya belief, though there is, in fact, little concrete evidence backing up this hypothesis Unju Temple's reclining Buddhas are generally thought to be Maitreya Buddhas, but this is riot the case. People assume the Buddhas are Maitreya Buddhas because they lie horizontally with their heads pointing downhill, seemingly representing the Maitreya Buddhist conception that the world's ills will be put right when the reclining Buddha rises. However, the hand gestures of the Unju Temple Buddhas are characteristic of the Sakyamuni and Vairocana Buddhas, not the Maitreya Buddha. Whafs more, the expression on the reclining Buddhas' faces is typical of Sakyamuni Buddhas entering nirvana. We could take this argument a step further and suggest these Buddhas are not even reclining at all The placement of a servant Maitreya below the two "reclining" Buddhas is sufficient reason to suggest these two Buddhas were originally meant to stand in an upright position after carving was completed. There is no question from their size, location and form that these two Buddhas were meant to be the central figures of the Unju Temple complex; however, the theory that they are Maitreya Buddhas seems anachrcr nistic

Among the artefacts unearthed at Unju Temple are eave tiles with Sanskrit inscriptions and figurines indicating an intimate relation with Esoteric Buddhism There are also indi-

cations of close ties with traditional folk beliefs, including Taoism, and the belief in ch'ilstmg the spirits of the Seven Stars or Big Dipper. One of humanity's most basic instincts is the desire for long life, good health and fortune. Traditional agrarian societies also share a common aspiration for sons. Koreans are no different in this regard Indeed, their desire for good fortune and sons is fundamental to the belief in ch'ils6ng No wonder there is a shrine to the spirits of ch'ils6ngand the mountain spirit at every temple in Korea. One can find evidence of the ch'ils6ng belief dating as far back as the Koguryo Period G7BC-AD.668). Representations of the Big Dipper have been found on K~o wall murals. The belief did not become truly popular, however, until the 18th century, and it was around


The "reclining Buddhasnremain a mystery today.

this time that ch'ils6ng belief came to Unju Temple In a sparse stand of pine trees along the path leading from the reclining Buddhas to the temple entrance are seven rocks known among the local people as the Ch'ils6ng Rocks. No one is certain how or why these rocks came to Unju Temple, but legend has it a man was struck dead by lightening when he tried to split one of them apart to use for a comer stone As everyone knows, the Big Dipper rotates around the North Star once a day. Our Korean ancestors believed the god of the stars was ordered by his master, the god of the heavens, to manage human fate and happiness on earth They worshiped the North Star, the brightest star in the sky, and the Big Dipper, the center of the universe, for the stars helped them tell time and calculate seasonal changes. The Ch'ils6ng

Rocks on the slopes near Unju Temple seem to change and expand with the movements and the brightness of the stars, stimulating the human imagination The philosophical roots of Unju Temple are hard to define in a single element Belief in the Maitreya Buddha certainly played an important role, but folk beliefs were also influential Indeed, the temple's mystery seems to be the product of a number of historical and philosophical currents In addition to their philosophical implications, the Buddha sculptures and pagodas of Unju Temple have played an important role in the history of Korean art The Buddhas shatter the standard imncgraphy found in most Buddhist sculpture They are extremely flat and plain, their ill-proportioned features exuding a

rustic folk air. The pagodas are also unique They come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, ranging from three to nine stories and are mmpletely different from the stone stupas that preceded them historically. Some have been erected on top of natural stones; others are decorated with simple geometric designs, such as mmbtooth patterns and diamond shapes. The Buddhist statues and pagodas of Unju Temple are faithful representations of the regional flavor of the early Kory6 Period. While they muld be seen as examples of a degeneration of the glorious artistic tradition praising the Buddha during the Silla Period, I believe they deserve our attention as illustrations of another side of our rich culture, simpler perhaps, but no less Korean + 65


KOREAN ARTEFACTS ABROAD

Choi Sung-ja Mil>1allt editor, The Hankook Dbo

HERE are more valuable Korean cultural relics in Japan than in any muntry except Korea. Many of them are of a nature not even found in Korea and are extremely important to the study of Korean archaeology; art history and culture Most of these cultural relics were taken to Japan as spoils of war at the time of the 1592-98 Japanese invasions or smuggled out of Korea during the Japanese occupation of 1910-45. Many others were gifts made during the long history of diplomatic relations between the two countries. Agreat number of them are now in museums and private collections throughout Japan Kim Ryong-doo, also known by his pennames Droam and Sach'6n}1, is a leading mllec-

T 66

Kim Ryong-doo, Doo-am

tor of korean artefacts in Japan Kim was born in 1922 in a small fishing village in Sach'6n, South Ky6ngsang Province, Korea, and later was drafted as a laborer by the Japanese mh nial government After working in the South Pacific islands for three years, Kim settled in Japan He overcame innumerable hardships to became financially successful and then began to mllect "old things" from Korea out of a longing for his home and family. He became immersed in his pastime and found it rewarding in many ways. He also began to develop a keen eye for antiques and, with luck on his side, was able to amass an outstanding mllection It was through the Sach'6np (Shizenko) Collection Exhibition held in 1986 at the Museum of Yamato Bunkakan, Nara, that Kim Ryongdoo's collection became known in Korea. The



JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

KOREAN BEAUTY-MODERN VALUES:

Hwang Sun-wOn Ch'onYi-du Proferor Korean Language EduC!tion in Wonkwang University

WANG SUN-WON is acontradiction in many ways-consistent to the point of stubbornn~ and at the same time infinitely flexible. These two characteristia;-consistency and flexibility-fonn the warp and woof of Hwang Sun-wan's literary world His relnt!~ consistency reflects his rigorous mental self-control There are no impulsive outbursts or raw idealistic oration in his works. Hwang never allows himself to be swept away; even at a moment of great passion in a story. His exacting self-control always takes command. This capacity for intellectual restraint enables him to concentrate his creative energies on maintaining a sparen~ of description, in the sense of literary realism, and a focused portrayal of images which conveys the essence of an idea or character in a simple phrase. The classical elegance and poetic fragrance for which he has become known are also born of this restraint If self-control forms the warp of Hwang's work, his infinite capacity for change forms the woof. A quick glance over Hwang's career proves this all too clearly. He made his literary debut as a poet in 1930 at the age of sixteen Four years later his first volume of verse, Way

H

zmrd Son~ was published A second volume, Curios, was released two years later. Hwang then began to establish himself as a writer of fiction, publishing his first collection of short stories, The Marsh, in 1940. His first full-length nove~ She Lives with the Stars, came out ten years later, and Hwang has since been known as one of Korea's greatest novelists. Hwang Sun-won has thus spent the last sixty years constantly testing the limits of his literary capacity; beginning with poetry and moving on to short stories and novels. A clcre inspection of his work reveals his characteristic thoroughn~ at each stage of devlopmn~ but one can also detect careful technical experimentation in his earliest verse as well as his later stories and novels. While stubbornly maintaining his own unique mannerisms, Hwang is forever investigating new techniques. Thus he has come to be known as a stubborn traditionalist and a relnt!~ experimenter. Idealism over Realism The naive lyricism and idealism found in Hwang's earliest poems and the fresh intellectual wit he experimented with in his second collection of verse, Curios, served as the foundation for his future works. In this sense, Hwang

1broughout his 60-year career Hwang Sun-won has constantly tested the limits of his literary capadty while always insisting on excellence 50

has been remarkably consistent while also being committed to the development of new techniques. His choice of themes reveals his methodical growth, a gradual expansion of his literary world, almost as if he were slowly ascending a flight of stairs. Take the early short story 'The Stars" (1941) for example. In 'The Stars," the tale of a boy wandering in search of an image of his dead mother, we sense a new lyrical dimension in Hwang's writing The boy's mother died when he was very young and while he has no actual recollection of her, he cherishes an idealized image of a beautiful woman, a memory so vivid he is trapped by a stubborn desire to ~ this image in the real world Of course, the boy cannot be reunited with his deceased mother, nor can he be satisfied with anything this world has to offer as a su!Nitute. He is soon lost in a world of images, rejecting the real world around him He grows to hate a cherished doll and spurns the affections of a young girl and his own sister's love, because they pale in comparison to the idealized image of his dead mother. In a sense, this attachment to the world of images is tantamount to an attachment to the world of poetry; a recurring theme in Hwang's


pieces displayed in the exhibition galvanized Korean archeol~ It was the consensus of the viewers that such quality pieces should be properly catalogued and introduced not only to Korea but the world An attempt was made to exhibit Kim's collection in Korea in time for the 1988 Olympic Games but the exhibition never took place. The recent publication of fuJ-am Kim Ryong doo's OJ!lection, a catalogue of the best of Kim's collection, is a result of repeated requests from Korean scholars. Of his entire collection, comprised of over LCXXl pieces, Paduk (Go) Players (WigzdoJ attributed to King Kongmin (r.1341-74) of the Koryo period (91&1392), Golden Mandala (Kumjlg;x3ng jJ)x'5nsan[!lo) of the late Koryo Period and Eight Scenes of Xiao-xiang (Sosang p'a/g)i5n[!loJ an eight-panel folding screen by an anonymous painter of the early Chcron period (1392-1910), are especially famous. Equally important are A Friendly Visit in the Moonlit Night ( Wolha pang-udo) and Boat Riding (ChuyudoJ attributed to early Chcron artist Yi Sang-chwa, Sansudo by Kim Tuk-shin from the price!~

late Chcron Period, and pottery, including a 12th century celadon vase with engraved peony and ar~e designs and underglaze iron and an 18th century white porcelain pr with lotus blossom in underglaze copper. A silver inlaid bronze tray; a mother-of-pearl inlaid document box and a seated gilt-bronze Ksitigarbha :&:x:ihisattva, dating from the Koryo Period, deserve to be classified as National Treasures. Of special note is Eight Scenes if Xiao-xiang which is representative of the paintings of unbalanced compositions characteristic of the An Kyon schoo4 named after An Kyon, a leading 15th century artist Together with another eightscene set of the same title and same theme in the collection of Itsukusima Taign~ in Japan, it is a masterpiece that provides a glimpse of Korean landscape painting of the early 16th century:

The Dcxram Collection contains more paintings by the early 19th century artist Kim Tukshin than any other individual artist They are remarkable for their eloquent demonstration of Kim's skill in plum and bamboo painting and landscape painting, despite the fact that he was

generally known as a genre painter. Dcxram is the first Korean:Japanese to publish a pictorial record of his collection The catalogue contains 215 works: 47 paintings, 136 pieces of pottery, and 32 metal works including Buddhist images. By publicizing his collection in detaR Dcxram risked being sub1rted to exorbitant taxes by the Japanese government Hawever, having overcome his initial reluctance to publicize his "modest" collection, Doo-am is naw stirred with deep emotioM '1t is immensely rewarding to make a book about things I have cherished with love for my home country: I would like to share my 'py with my fellow countrymen" Chong Yang-mo, director of the National Museum of Korea, said, "The Dcxram Collection is truly outstanding, especially the paintings. Works like Paduk Players and Eight Scenes of Xiao-xiangdo not exist in Korea. They are extremely valuable to the study of paintings of the late Koryo and early Choson ¡periods, which have been more or I~ blanks in Korean art history:" •

Left, a Bronze Age red earthenware vessel (Height 15.2cm) Center, a 15th century punch'ong bottle with stamped decoration (Height 3/cm) Rig IJt, gilt bronze statue of a standing Bhaisagyaguru Buddha from the Unified Silla period (Height 16.4cm)

67


TINGSINTHE Ahn Hwi-joon Profewr of Art History; Seoul National University

RADITIONAL KOREAN PAINTINGS have not tared well with the passage of time, especially in comparison to other art forms. The numerous wars and invasions that have ravaged the )'X!ninsula throughout Korea's long history are the primary reason for the scarcity of traditional paintings today. Hundreds of buildings, royal and common residences alike, were burned do;vn during war time, and innumerable paintings and calligraphic works have gone up in flames. Wars and political instability have also been detrimental to the storage and preservation of art works, and the poor quality of original materials has also undermined long-term survival For these reasons, far fewer Korean paintings have survived to the present day than there of China or Japan And the few extant works are not accorded the evaluation or reccwntion they deserve. Moreover, with the exception of the National Museum of Korea, the Korea University Museum and a few private museums, including the Kansong Museum, few museums or collectors are actively interested in collecting Korean paintings. Other public and private organizations and private collectors have quite a number of paintings, but very few of remarkable quality or scale. The situation is more or less the same in japan, home for more Korean cultural relics than any other country outside Korea. The Museum of Yamato Bunkakan and private collectors, Doo-am and Kongetsuken, are probably the only SfiDalized collectors of Korean paintings. The Doo-am Collection is very important in this context, because it includes paintings from every )'X!ricxi of Korean history from Koryo and Chos6n to mcxiern times. The paintings are also noteworthy for the brmd range of themes they represent, e.g landscapes, portraits, animals, birds and tlo;vers, sagunjl ('The Four Gentlemen"-plum, orchid, chrysanthemum and bamboo), and Buddhist images. What makes the collection specia~ however, is the quality of the works. Especially significant are works dating from the Koryo Period To be more specific, Paduk Players, ascribed to Koryo's King Kongmin, pro vides valuable insight into Koryo era landscafX! and portrait painting Golden Mandaf£1 in gold on indigo pafX!r, signed by Chinhyon, provides insight into Koryo era Buddhist painting and gold scrubbing A portion of a Buddhist sutra, copied at the request of King Ch'ungnyol's consort in 1284, is also an excellent source of information for the study of sutra scrubbing during the late Koryo Period Mapr works from the early Chos6n )'X!ricxi (1392-cirlS~) include Eight Scenes of Xiao-xiang by an anonymous artist on an eight-panel screen, A Friendly Visit in too Moonlit Night and Fkxlt Riding ascribed to Yi Sangchwa, Two Puppies by Yi Am, and The Immortals by an anonymous

T

artist Paduk Players, ascribed to Korya's King Kongmin

68

The Eight Scenes·· · is typical of the An Kyon school of painting,


-AM COLLECTION

Boat Riding, ascribed to

Yi Sang-chwa

kncmn for its unbalanced composition Together with another eight-panldsG!~ with the same title in the collection of Itsukushima Taign~ it illustrates the landsG!pe trend that prevailed in Korea in the early 16th century. fuat Riding and A Friendly Visit· ·· shcm another ~ of early 16th century landsG!~ painting. Though painted by the same artist, A Friendly Visit·· · shows the influence of the conservative Ma-xia scho~ whereas ''Batt Riding" employs ~pr-like dots and hemp-fiber texture strokes. The two show that landsG!~ painting at the time was not neces.<ruil.y dominated by the An Kyon school The Immortals is a study of figures and cranes, a Taoist theme, and is at the same time a landsG!~ with an intriguing combination of ~vein the style of the Yiian Qlinese father-son artists Li Kan and Li Shi-xing and the short, crisp brushwork in the style of the An Kyonschool Yi Am's Two Puppies is an interesting por-

A Friendly Visit in the Moonlit Night,

ascribed to Yi Sang-chwa

Golden Mandala, from the late Kory6 period

69




trayal of adorable sub~ against an unusual background Its historical plexity of these masters. Paintings such as A Stroller with a Staff by Yi significance lies in the use of the tarashikomi ink-wash technique later S6ng-nin, A Leisurely GatWing at a Waterside Pavilion by Ch'oe Puk and Reading under a Pine Tree by Yi Su-min provide valuable informaemployed by the Japanese painters Shotatsu and Korin Paintings of special note in the group dating from the mid-Chcron pe- tion on art exchanges through diplomatic delegations to and from Korea riod (cir. 1550-1700) include a landscape screen by an anonymous artist, and Japan in the late Chcron period Especially noteworthy from this period is Kim Tuk-shin who is repreGod of Longwity (~ by Kim Myongguk, DragJn and Tiger ascribed to Shin Cham, Little Birds, a two-panel screen, by Kim Ole, Herons under sented in the J)oo.am Collection by a pair of birds in an autumn valley, a pair of plums and bamboos, a Willow Tree ascribed to Yi and a pair of landscapes. They Ching, and Bamboos by Yi show that Kim, who was Chong known mainly as a genre The anonymous landscape painter, also excelled in other screen, which depicts the four forms of painting and was not seasons in eight scenes, is in simply a follower of Kim the tradition of the An Kyon Hong-do but an artist with his school and features unbalown distinct style anced composition and a Oloe S6k-hwan's Gm{WinRS touch of the Zhe school style in ink on a folding screen exIt is reminiscent of the work emplifies the style of 18th cenof Yi Ching Though the artist tury grape painting that is unknown, it is a valuable evolved from the tradition of work that epitomizes the mainstream of landscape the mid-Chos6n pe~od Kim Ikchu's album of plants, insects, painting in the mid-Choson birds and animals is also very period important l:roiuse it illustrates God of Longwity (~%;\1) the prevalent artistic tradition as by Kim Myongguk, a master well as the new trends that in portraits and landscapes, is emerged at the time executed with the swif~ air Outstanding works from breviated brushwork characthe closing years of Choson teristic of Kim It is of historic (cir.l850-1910) and modern value as it is evidence of art times are a pair of orchid paintexchanges between Korea ings in ink by Yi Ha-ung, A and Japan at the time Bird Dozing on a Plum Bough Drag;n and Tiger, which by Yang Ki-hun, and Birds and bear the seal of Shin Cham, Rowers, a ten-fold pyrcwaphic are rare pieces that update the screen by Pak Olu-tam Yi Hahistory of paintings of their ling's orchids illustrate the kind Little Birds, a two-fold screen by Kim Che is a surchanges that took place in ink paintings of orchids after Kim prise l:roiuse Kim was known Chong-hui Pak's pyrcwaphy is as a specialist in landscape and also valuable because it emoxen paintings. Herons under ploys a technique quite unique tb9 Willow Tree, ascribed to Yi One of a three-panel Bhaisagyaguru Buddha series to Korea Ching, is characteristic of from around the 17th century In addition, the Buddhist monochromatic ink paintings paintings, which include a set of birds and plants that prevailed in the mid-Chcron period Yi Chong's Bamboos in gold shows the of three paintings of Arhans, a Sakyamuni triad, and a Sai~mo image are artist at his ~ in its compllition and depiction important to the study of Buddhist paintings of the Olcron period Though the paintings in the J)oo.am Collection are not remarkable in The ma>t eyeotching among the works from the late Olcron period (cir1700.1850) are T1:x! Hermit and His Crane by Chong S6n, Autumn number, they are truly amazing in their quality and variety This and their Landsc~ by Shim Sa-png, Temple &II Rings in the Moonlit Mountain balanced representation of historic periods and themes makes the collecby Kang Se-hwang, and Fishing Boa~ a painting on a fan, by Kim Hong- tion priceless in the study and appreciation of Korean art history. • do. They are helpful in comprehending the stylistic diversity and com72


KOREAN ARTISTS ABROAD

Josine Lanco Starrels Independent Curator

A portion of Chi-III, 1993. Mixed media on laminated rice paper 73


HEN KWAK HOON INVITED ME to his studio to see his recent paintings I could hardly believe that more than ten years had passed since his arrival in Los Angeles and our initial meeting His latest series of large-sGI!e paintings and smaller works on paper were spread around the walls of the studio and the house; having followed the development of his work through a number of stages during the past decade, I confronted the new works with interest and curiosity. It turned out to be simultaneously familiar and surprising

W

K wak Hoon in his studio

I thought about the earliest pieces I had seen-those somber and poetic images of rice bawls in modular arrangements, with evocative powers derived from Oriental refinement and restraint channeled into the established contemporary style of serial imagery. The paintings I was facing now were more assertive, more knowing-less naltalgic, less romantic Still, subtle modulations of greys and ochre covered and revealed metallic gold patches; the overall surface was intentionally marred by linear scrapes and gashes. Barely visible repetitive forms in symmetrical arrangements appeared and disappeared across the canvas; some loomed as ghostly presences, while other smaller ones suggested patterns weaving in and out of the mottled nuances of color. 74

~¡

....


Left, Untitled, 1972. Mixed media on canvas Above, Subterranean-!, 1980 Oil on canvas

Kwak Hoon has confronted the fact that life is both finite and infinite. He sees mystery and beauty in the traces of time and the marks left by living.

I asked the artist whether these shapes had any particular derivation or significance. He said he just felt the need for some kind of shape to work against-whether reality referential or geometric, made no difference-however, he stressed that the shapes were not as important in and of themselves as they were elements in the process of building the painting He used them, he said, as a pretext or a foil to avoid treating the canvas as one flat plane; he played with them, built and erased them in tum, sometimes obliterating them alt~ehr in theend He spoke of ob¢cts prized and safeguarded in museums; of surfaces ravaged by time and 75


wear; he ~d he loved the patina of years with its faded colors and distre>.'led skin Let us assume, he ~d, that six identical ob}xts from the same period would be gathered in one place-each would bear different marks inflicted by time and events. The scars of one would differ markedly from those of the others. Similarly, time and fate affect each and every one of us in different ways. Hoon explained that in Buddhist lore there is a term, "kalpa," which refers to a given timecyde in the process of reincarnation, lasting perhaps for 2 or 3 million years. He insaibed ''Kalpa"on several of the paintings in this series. There are also several memorable transition pieces which act as¡a prelude to this recent series-one was done about a year ago and is titled 4 Demon Qubs It is an overtly aggressive

painting of four phallic forms moving in parallel directions upward and downward at one and the same time Their shapes and the thrust of their movement convey aggressive energy rather than eroticism or sensuality of any kind Similar shapes reappear in later paintings - re.duced to outlines tracing the contour of phallic forms now less aggressive but thoroughly integrated into the overall pattern of the paintings. Works of art contain the spirit, the ideas and feelings specific to a particular culture, a given time-frame, articulated by an artist who lived within the boundaries of that time and culture They also reveal the emotional state of the artist, often divulging more than they were intended to disclose. These are the works of a mature artist-a man who no longer needs to prove anything to

Incantations XI, 1980. Mixed media on paper

76

himself or to others; he is in a pa;ition to assess the process and the price we must pay for the acquisition of knowledge and experience Kwak Hoon has confronted the fact that life is both finite and infinite He sees mystery and beauty in the traces of time and the marks left by living He loves the muted tones of color bleached by the sun and worn by the changing seasons. The marks he makes on the surface of his work impart new interest to what was once smooth and polished like young skin or newly lacquered wood Kwak's elegantly modulated paintings reveal the artist's preoccupation with the softening of jagged comers, the mellowing of strident colors, the blunting of aggressive energies transformed into wisdom and forbearance •


KWAKHOON MEETING OF EAST AND WEST Korean-American artist Kwak Hoon(52) was born in Taegu and later went to study in Seoul where he graduated from the art college of Seoul National University. In 1975, Kwak left for the United States and studied at the California State University at Long Beach where he obtained his MA and MFA degree. Kwak's debut on the American art scene came when he was invited by Ja;ine Ianco Starrels, then director of the La; Angeles Municipal Art Gallery, along with. other artists, to participate in the Neuwmers 81 exhibition Since then he has held numerous solo exhibitions in prestigious galleries around the world including The Works Gallery, Iannetti lanzone Gallery, Annex Gallery, Karl Bornstein Gallery and Mac.Quarie Galleries in Sydney; Australia. He has also participated in many international art festivals such as the Basel Art Fair in 1987, the LA Art Fair in 19SX) and the Miami Art Expo in 19SXl, receiving ~tion and acclaim Kwak is an admirer of eastern phil<rophy. His Chi series has reen well kncwn and loved for quite some time now. In the more recent KaJpa series, Kwak gives shape to the interior of man in a m~ lyriC<ll manner. In recent months, Kwak has held mapr retn~pciv exhibitions in Korea (The National Museum of Contemporary Art, Nov. 9-Dec. 3; Sun Gallery, Nov. 9-Dec. 9 and Son~ Museum of Contemporary Art in Kyongju, Dec.lO-Jan 10, 1994) summing up his work of the past 18 years.

The development of Kwak's career can be traced through over ;m mapr works, froin the aOOtraction of the Taoist philcrophy of Chi to the worlds of eastern meditation as seen in his Incantations and KaJpa series. Kwak gives shape to the distinctive mental world of the east through such motifs as pottery vessels and has reen acclaimed as the "explorer of the unconscious." At the recent retrospective of his works, Kwak's reputation as a tireless experimenter was once again confirmed Mreting of Music and (ÂŁ. ram~ an installation work based on the brown-glazed pottery jars known as on!1!), was of particular note. Kwak was accompanied to Korea by Susan larsen, Professor at the University of Southern California and former curator of the Whitney Museum larsen noted, 'This retrospective exhibition offers something truly important and extraordinary. It demonstrates how an artist of seriousness and sensitivity has reen able to retain and also express his national heritage in a contemporary idiom understood both in Asia and in the West "Transitions, at the National Museum of Contemporary Art, is impressive spectacle tracing the authentic personal )Jurney of an artist who expresses his love of his native Korea and his artistic ties to California with maturity, pcxtic sensitivity and passion" .. Editor

an

77


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, :-

.

CURRENTS

¡

SPECIALIZED MUSEUMS-

Spotlighting Unique Aspects of Korean Culture Choi Sung-ja

As%tant editor, The Hankook lloo

OREAN 1RADffiONAL OJL1URE has a long history. It has been passed.down from primitive society and continues to develop and flourish to this day. Throughout history; Korean traditional culture has been influenced by foreign cultures, which have at times been an impetus for change and at other times were al:rorbed to re come a part of Korean culture Koreans have lived on the Korean Peninsula for thousands of years, and evidence of their culture, both incfe. pendently developed and adopted, can be found everywhere in the cities and rural villages. Before Korea underwent rapid industrialization, its traditional culture was a part of peer pie's lives. Therefore, even in the face of the decline of Korean culture during the transition from the late Cruon pericx:J to mcx:Jem society, it did not occur to the people to try and preserve the culture in any specific place The situation is different now, however. The 21st century is only a few years away, and Korea, along with the rest of the world, is integrating to become part of one global village Our lives and customs are changing rapidly in step with the alrorption of foreign culture It is quite shocking just to see the changes that have occurred in such basic areas as food and clothing. The younger generation, influenced by the changes in the social envirom~ is very different from the older generation They have matured without fully understanding the old traditions. Hence, the preservation of our traditional culture must be seriously undertaken for pQ;terity. The best way for Korea to contribute to world culture is for it to ftrst develop its cwn traditional culture This idea is gaining credence

K

78

with the intlux ot ditterent toreign cultures into our society. More and more people are beginning to realize the value of traditional culture, and an active movement is growing among young people to study and understand it A clear sign that not only the young but people in general are showing interest in traditional culture can be found in the opening of many new museums that aim to preserve different aspects of traditional culture which are now disappearing. MQit of the national museums in Seoul and the provinces specialize in archaeology and art history and many of the items on display should be researched and studied in depth Unfortunately; however, many of the cultural treasures are displayed without sufficient explanation of their significance This makes it difficult for the general public to fully understand and enpy the exhibits. Moreover, mQit of the museums are located in places that are not easily accessible to the public, giving the

impression that they are not meant tor the Jayman but for professional historians only. On the other hand, specialized museums, which collect and display relics that were used by the people until quite recently; exude a warm, na>talgic atma;phere These museums, exhibiting relics that have been collected over decades by individuals and corporations, are able to satisfy the curia;ity of visitors about some specific area All of them have a unique quality of their own but here I will intrcx:Juce only a few MQit of these museums have in their collection items that were used by the Korean people in their daily lives but are now disappearing and being replaced by mcx:Jem conveniences. The older generation, born and bred in rural areas, visit these museums and reminisce about days gone by while the younger generation walk around looking at the exhibits with pure fascination, not unlike the foreign visitors. Emille Museum and Kundeulbawoo Museum draw a lot of attention with their exhibitions on traditional artefacts, including shaman paintings, costumes and a variety of tools. Emille Museum not only has exhibits but also arranges caffiJl> for the public to learn by experience rather than simply by looking. The Agricultural Museum in Seoul is the key to understanding Korean traditional society. Koreans have a close affinity with farming, so much so that it would not be an exaggeration to say that farming is the basis of all peer pie's lives. &>me of the farming tool relics on display at this museum date back to the prehistoric age while others are more mcx:Jem De velopments in agricultural prcx:Juction not only improved the lives of individual farmers but became the driving force in the development of our nation Therefore, the exhibits at this


museum tell us about the historical changes in Korean society in a unique way. Handok Medical Museum was the first specialized museum to be opened by a corporation and displays traditional Korean medical instruments as well as instruments from all over the world It also shows how people have been able to fight off illnesses with medicine found in nature, hence revealing the resourceful side of human nature A visit to the Tae Pyong Yang Museum can be fun This museum, which shows so well the most fundamental aspect of mankind, is owned by the latgest cosmetic company in Kcr rea. Displayed here are all the methods and means known to men and women to make themselves more attractive to the opposite sex. Visitors can learn about the history and development of cosmetics and accessories from the 1001 century RC to the present Another museum that arouses a great deal of interest is the Korean Embroidery Museum which glorifies the beauty of ordinary and practical items women have made to use around the house Embroidery represents an aspect of beauty in Korean traditional cultll!'e and the historical aesthetic values of women can be discerned in each delicate stitch. The Yoon Song Museum is the result of successful cultural preservation during the most chaotic period in Korea's modem history. During the Japanese colonial period, cultural assets that had been passed down from generation to generation, as well as buried cultural treasures, were pillaged Yoon &>ng or Chun Hyong-pR a multimillionaire, spent his entire fortune in stopping the plundering and now the treasures he recovered are all on display. VISiting the museum can be a humbling experience as the "spirit' that helped to protect our national history pervades every nook and cranny. The HcrArri Museum in Yongin, Kyonggi Province, houses cultural assets that have been collected by Samsung, probably the best known Korean conglomerate, and boasts some of the most extraordinary paintings of Korean traditional culture Many of these paintings have been designated national treasures. &>ng-am Archives of Classical literature and Samsung Publishing Museum, as the names in-

Top, Ho-Am Art Gallery Above, Onyang Folk Museum Bottom, an example of the relics found at the Straw and Grass Museum

dicate, are museums of books and printing. Korea had always been a nation of books and developed a printing system before the rest of the world At both these museums, rare books as well as materials explaining the development of printing can be seen The Chong Poong Cultural Foundation is an outdoor museum in North Chungch6ng Province. Old houses and buildings have been relocated and reconstructed on this new site, which otherwise would have been under water with the construction of Chungju lake In Ch'6ngdam-dong, southern Seoul, the Straw and Grass Museum recently opened its doors. Both straw and grass are ingrained with the py and sorrow of the people and therefore, have a special place in their hearts. The Ne~ Mesh and Net Bag Exhib~ held to comrnemcr rate the museum's opening received much acclaim for its portrayal of Korean traditional culture I close now with a short essay on the mangtatgi or net bag ¡ An object made of straw is not considered to be speciall:xx:ause straw itself is so common Farmers have easily shaped straw into a variety of forms to meet their daily needs. The straw net bag can be found hanging in every farmhouse Its golden hue reflects the color of the earth from which it comes, enabling it to blend in naturally with its surroundings, and no matter how rough its shape, it still exudes a softness. Thus is the mangtaegi. Made out of slender straws, it is usually used for carrying grains, potatoes and honey: Although it may look rough, it has a softness and warmth which is perhaps heightened by the fact that it is an item from the past These net bags have also been made of fire ly twisted cords of paper, hemp or thread In Kangwon Pro.rince, a string is sometimes threaded through the top of the bag so that it can be clcm:l by merely pulling the string while some have strings attached at both ends so it can be slung o.rer the shoulder. When it gets wet from the rain, the mang taegi sags, and it will begin to rot It will then be cast into the compa;t heap and soon return to theearth • 79


The Art of Kim Whanki and the Whanki Museum OhKwang-su Art Critic & Curator, Whanki Museum

N 195~

the late artist Kim Whanki wrote an titled "Not Selling Paintings." It rontained ~ !irle'l The only rmd left for me is to create many more works of art In twm ty years time I would like to create a mtre urn with my cwn hands It will ee located c:!rep in the ~ acl.rnB;ion will ee free but cata-

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SJ.dly, Kim Whanki ~ away in 1974 without fulfilling his wish The Whanki Museum, built in his memory, q:med in Novemeer 19)2, nearly twenty years after Kim's death and alrnait forty years after he first wrote of his dream Kim cfleri<hed that dream throughout his life In his diaries·from his years in New York, Kim mentions the dream of rome day q:x:ning a ffi1ail museum several times. The Whanki Museum was lrought to fruition on the ~ and spirit of the arti<fs unceasig~ Kim had envisioned the museum c:lrep in the mountains. This wish, too, has l:m1 fulfilled to rome ex:tn~ the Whanki Museum is located in ~on the s1qx5 of Pukak Mountain Of ~ aclmim1. is free and ca~ are rll. After his death, Kim's widcw Kim H~an ~ up the Whanki Foundation to prorncte her hi.IShmd's work and to encourage the work of ~and artists The Whanki Mtre urn is fuOOed by the~ fourxlation The idea of ~ a museum romewhere in Sroul was Iaurx::hed in 1~ after the d.ympia;. The~ b:gm with the~ fcr a suit'atle Jo. cation and planning the museum's design The main building was finished in 19)2, and the annex. in 191.3. The~ tcxk five years to romplcte An art museum is a ~ fcr art The OOiJd. ~gives ~pe to the works of art iffide the museum. Agcxx1 art museum mus: ee exce¢ooai in OOth content and foon, which in tum mus: ee in harmony with earn other. No matter hew outmding earn ~e !lift may~ if content and 80

The entrance to the Whanki Museum

tbrrn are nct in harmony then the museum as a whole will ee a failure Many art museums have l:m1 built all over the world since the reginning of the 1~ but I Celieve only a few have the ide-

al rombnation of form and rontent The Whanki Museum is, first and forema;t, a tribute to the art of Kim Whanki but it aro houses a S{IDal exhib.tion hall devotErl to the advancement of all areas of contemporary art through exhibitions, musical roncerts, performance art, and latures. The d1allenge in OfX:T.lting the museum is to remain true to this dual nature Kiln Whanki's career can ee divided into many different stages but there are three mapr ones which ma;t dearly mark the development and mange in his art the ~ after graduation from university in the mid-1SOO; to the mid-1940; l:clore Korea's liCeration from ]a~ rule, from

liCeration to 1<))3 during which time he wandercrl from &nul to Pu<ru1 to Paris and then hick ~ to &nul; and from 1%3 until the time of his death in New York in 1974 Kim made his artistic debut in 11/.35 when his work was accepted for exhibition in ]aj:llil In 11/.37 he l:xnune one of the founding memOO:s of the amnt !J1rde art group ''Freedom" and emhirked on an active Glfeff as a y~ artist In there days, Kim was one of the rrm amnt!flrde artists in OOth Korea and ]aj:llil As the 19!i}) enda], Kim lroke away from the academism of impressionism and b:gm to rare a voice of ~ tion in works of greater individuality and su~­ tivity under the hinner of "New Trends'' The Freedom group was one which expres.'ffi its ideals in the language of al:sraction It would nct ee an exaggeration to ~y their art was the amnt !flrde among the amnt!flrde Starting from that time Kim b:gm to focus on a greater naturalism, gradually lxroming restorative and reronstructive in nature Works remaining from that time are Rondo, Country(in the cdlroion of the National Museum of Contemporary Art) and Window The fffOl1Ci 1tlge covers a ~ex! of alrnait Jl years from 1945 to 1%3 when Kim wandered from &nul to Pu<ru1 to Paris and hick to Sroul ~ On the sutfa~ it would ee natural to expect that, since he was rons:antly on the mo.re, there would ee great changes in his work But this is nct the~ rather, his works from this time suggest Kim was travelling d~ into his cmn unique artistic world The image that ma;t JXDPle TJIJVV have of Kim's paintingr-filled with mountaill'\ moons, brds and jrttery motifs--has its origin in this ~ And as many have {X)inted out, the strong literary flavor in his works b:gm to appear at this time aro. For there Jl years Kim was consistent in his pillSI.lit of nothing less than a Korean feeling giv-


ing shap:: to Korean characteristics. The limited range of images portrayed in his work-mountains, the moon, birds, pottery jars and pine trees-reveal the mnsistmcy of image he sought The8: images are from natur~ his art is of the Korean land and the soil But evm so, they were not works of naturalism in the ordinary mntext The motifs may te takm from nature, but their real meaning lies in their analysis and mndmsation as a sub~ to te recomposed and reformed. A5 there is a definite sub~ the works cannot te called ab>tract, but from a formative point of view; they em te said to te.in the process of ab>traction Kim's mountains and moons, therefore, are not suijx:ts reused and painted whole but represmt the images fused into our mrmousness as a people Koreans have always loved the mountains, sung about the moon and fired some of the mrnt beautiful ceramics. in the world Amountain represmts utopia and the final resting place for a Korean The mrnt frequmtly nnming refermce in traditional sig1, or p:xtic songs, was the moon In the west, the moon is mrnrnonly depicted in a rather negative and indefinite way. But it is mmpletely differmt in tl1e east In Korea, in particular, the moon is depicted as the mrnt harn1onious and mmplete essence. The moon is the sub,icct of fairy tales and at the same time an intermediary sut6tance for emotions Another perfect form which mmpares to the moon is the pottery pr, e5JXdally the white porcelain prs of the Chcron period 0392-1910) The8: prs were a Casic part of people's everyday lives and are the mrnt definite reflection of the mmtality of the Korean people Other motifs dose to the emotions of Koreans and frequmtly used by Kin1 are birds (cranes), deer, flowers and women. With them Kim delved into the world of the Korean mrmousness and emotions for :fJ years. On CX:tober 'JJ,1%3, Kin1landed in New York after partici!XItihg in the &lo Paulo Bimnale His original intmt had tern to retun1 to Paris after a short visit but for various reasons Kin1 mded up staying there By chance, Kin1 was in Paris and New York during periods in which waves of new artistic trmds were sweeping the art world While Kin1 was in Paris (19)5-59), infonnalisrn was the dominant force on the Europ::an art sen~ his years in New York (1%.)64) were a time whm

the art scene was Ceing violmtly shakm by the waves of abitract expressionism and pop art In short, Kim's years in Paris and New York were caught in the whirlpool of change Modern art trends were as powerful as social trends. Those who refused to jump on the lxmdwagon were left out in the mid, outside the scope of public interest For an arti<it with a distinct individuality to survive in such mnditions was no ordinary feat In such times the mass voice and mass action is more impoffi\11t than the individual voice or action and everything is judged on the Casis of the mass standard In order to remain free from the undue influmce of such trmds, Kin1 poured more faith and confidence into his own work and was convinced he would be recognized accordingly. From this point of view; Kim's New York days were mentally an extension of his Seoul days. And yet, his years in New York marked a definite change The greatest asp::ct of that change was his move toward increasing abitraction; a definite sub;:rt was replaced by mmpositions of lines and dots. The lines and dots were not mediators for anything but the formative elements of an abstract work Adiary mtry from D:mnber 12, 1%l reads '1 now feel that my work is good The reorganized mmposition and the delicate blue mlor-this is my world and this is my work' Prior to 1%S the mapr mlor in Kim's works was blue and the mapr mmpositional elrnm~ lines and dots. From 1%9 Kim began exp::rimmting with the ellipse in simple mmpositions mmmonly called "cran mmposition5' where the mapr cran filammts are mtwined in p1irnary mlors, calling to mind a bright pinwheeL At this time of active exp::ri.mentation Kin1 went beyond the twodimensional and into the third to inmrporate !X!Pier mace ob;:rts. He kneaded !XIpel' to create the shapes of porcelain prs, leaves and flower buds and painted over them in a mixed media, indueling oil and gouache Then in the 197Q, Kin1 tegan covering the whole emvas with mlored dots. He painted the dots evenly, surrounded them with lines and repeated this pattem to rover the whole picture plane The8: came to te known as the "dot paintings." Like dots of ink, Kiln's dots had the delicate nuance of Ceing absorbed and bleeding gently

outward The8: dots were enclcml in ~es to give the app::arance of a densely !XIcked honeymmb. While blue was the cmtral mlor, variations came in red, yellow; violet and grey. Until this time, Kim's New York paintings had not tern introduced in Korea. The dot paintings drew attmtion here in 1970 when Kin1's work SJmeuixm?, SJmelx;w, We'll Mro Ag;lin won the Korean Grand Art Prize awarded by the Hankxk IlbJ, a mapr vernacular daily. The title mmes from the poem "At Night' by Kin1 Kwang-sop Among tlx multitude if sta~ one star is shining down just for me q tlx multitude if men, tlx star starts down at me As ni[jJt ffOUS da?J:er, th.? star dimpjmrs in its li[jJ~ uhile Ifade into darkneu 9J intimate you and I SJmeuixm?, :nmerow, u:t!ll mfEt a{Fin Though mrnt of Kim's works from the early 19703 were titled only with numbers, they were founded in the lyricism of Korean smtimmt as em te mnfiJ.med in this diary mtry: 'The lines I draw reach toward heaven The8: dots of mine, I wonder, do they compare to the star-studded night sky. Whm I dose my eyes, the rivers and mountains of my homeland rome to me wiili greater clarity tl1an a rainbow." And indeed the rivers and mountains of Korea meet with majesty in Kin1's dot paintings. Kin1 once said that each dot mntained ilie elements of his fate. As the poet Yun Tong-ju looks at each star as if it were part of his destiny, so too Kim paints and ruminates over the meaning. of each dot '1 painted grem dots all day while thinking of the song of the cuckoo;' Kin1 wrote in his diary. Kin1 never painted dots alml.tly; each and every one was the fruit of wa~m mncem and feeling The greatness of Kin1's paintings mmes from the fact that his aJt was never the product of simple regionalism or national sentirnmt He took the8: sentiments and made them inte~aol and mntemporary. On this note, it seems mrnt fitting to mndude with the words of the Ixet Yi Hung-u 'The works of Kin1 Whanki are important for two mapr reasons First, Kin1 was the mrn Korean of any Korean artist He best understood and loved the Korean ideals of beauty. Secondly, he took those things uniquely Korean and made them intemational" • 81


fiE kOREA FOUNDATION

KOREA FOCUS ABIMONTHLY ON KOREAN CURRENT AFFAIRS In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of increasing globalization. We believe KOREA FOCUS will serve as an important and timely reference for the world community. KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korean current affairs. In this new bimonthly; you will find timely reports on Korea's politics, economy; social environment and culture, a chronology of recent events in Korea, and opinions on world affairs. Published in English and Japanese, its articles come from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals. KOREA FOCUS is distributed to libraries, research centers and individuals throughout the world

~Mgorams FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences, and arts. The program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with an opportunity to carry out in-depth research in Korea for a period of two to ten months. Each successful applicant will be provided with round-trip air fare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period Applicants should complete two copies of the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Studies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by ~ and the results of the final selection will be announced in the middle of August of the same year. THE KOREA FOUNDATION FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to university students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wi~h to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months. 82

Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at one of three major Korean universities, and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period Applicants should complete and submit two copies of the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by ~ and the results of the final selection will be announced in the middle of August of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines, or further information, please write to: Personnel Exchange Department The Korea Foundation CPO. Box 2147 Seoul, Korea Tel, 82-2-753-6553

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration m.ust be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty 2) Fellowship for graduate students or research grant for faculty Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by May 31 The results of the final selection will be announced by October 15 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further information please write to: International Cooperation Department The Korea Foundation CPO. Box 2147 Seoul, Korea 1:JI, 82-2-753-6465


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