Koreana Spring 2000 (English) by The Korea Foundation

Congratulations on the dedication of the Yongsong Hanmaum(One Mind) Cigarette Factory in Pyongyang

South and North Korea have taken a step forward together with one mind The first historic joint achievement of South and North Korea is coming soon. It was not an easy undertaking, but now we are working in unison. Pyongyang Yongsong Cigarette Factory as a joint venture will produce1 00 million packs of cigarettes each year.

BEAUTY OF KOREA

Mok-0 Wooden Fish Chime

It is so peaceful to hear the unassuming sound of the wooden fish chime that emerges from the calmness of the temple, as if to wash away the grime of the mundane world. Called mok-6, the wooden fish chime is a Buddhist implement symbolizing the salvation of all living things in the water and a means of arousing the ascetic who may have succumbed to sloth. The term mok-0 is the combination of mok, wood, and 6, fish. The mok-o is created by carving a piece of wood into the shape of a carp and then hollowing out its inside. The mok-o is struck with a wooden stick to emit a sound It is used for morning and evening worship, chanting to the

Amitabha Buddha and when' reciting the sutras. Thus, it is one of the representative Buddhist implements, along with the temple bell, drum and gong, all of which are used to signal designated times and occasions. It is known by several names including mok-6-go, meaning wooden fish drum; ago, meaning fish drum; 6pan, meaning fish gong. At Pusoksa, one of the most beautiful Buddhist temples in Korea, the mok-o is hung from the roof of the bell pavilion along with a drum. Decorated in brilliant five-color tanch'6ng patterns, it is a dazzling sight against the faded roof beam from which it hangs. â&#x20AC;˘

KOREAN ART & CULTURE Cover: Haeinsa is among

Haeinsa

The Temple and Its Treasures

Korea's most representative Buddhist temples and a velitable storehouse of Buddhist treasures. It boasts an exceptional

architectural design d1at ha1moniously integrates architecture, nature and Buddhist rituals. In this issue, KOREANA takes an in-depth look at this renlalkable temple, its history, design, buildings, treasures, esteemed monks

Architectural Characteristics of Haeinsa

by Lee Sang-hae

E :

The Buddhist Canon by ]ikwan Sunim

The History and People of Haeinsa

by Shim jae-ryong

and more.

The Cultural Treasures of Haeinsa

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Stupa Erected to Honor Venerable S6ngch'61

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Art for the New Century of Culture

The op inions expressed by the autl1ors do not necessarily represent tl1ose of tl1e editors of KOREANA or

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TI1e Korea Foundation.

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ON THE ROAD

Spring Flowers Along the S6mjin-gang River by Kim joo-young

Vol.l4, No 1 Spnng 2000

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uddhism, which originated in India, was introduced to . Koreda duringod t he Three King oms peri 0st century B.C.-AD. 7th century) by way of China. Although it is difficult to verify the specific layout of Buddhist temples during the early period of Buddhism's introduction to Korea, it is surmised that they would have been modeled after the Buddhist temples in China. In Chinese Buddhist temples, key structures including the central gate, main hall and lecture hall were constructed along a central axis extending in a straight northsouth direction, with corridors encircling a courtyard between the central gate al)d lecture hall. Such a layout has been confirmed at the sites of Buddhist temples built during the Three Kingdoms period. In Korea, after the Unified Shilla period (668-935), when the Hwaomjong (A vatamsaka) Sect and Son (Ch'an, Zen) Buddhism gainep an increasing following among the Korean people, Buddhist temples, previously concentrated in urban areas, began to be relocated to outlying mountains. Related to this, temple buildings were re-arranged into layouts more appropriate for mountainous terrain, while the norms of ancient temples centered on corridors were no longer observed. The basic layout of Buddhist temples underwent major changes during the Koryo

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This gate, which is called Pongh_;angmun or Ch'onwangmun, is the second of the entranceways to Haeirisa. Passing through this gate has the symbolic significance of entering a sacred site (above). Haet'almun, the last gate to the temple proper, Connotes entry into a world free of secular troubles (below). llchumun, the first gate leading to Haeinsa, symbolizes attaining a concenÂˇ trated state of mind with which to enter the sacred world of truth (opposite page).

Dynasty (918-1392) and up through the mid-Chos6n Dynasty (1392-1910), ultimately resulting in a style unique to Korea. Beginning from the mid-Choson period, the central building was built at the very rear of the temple, with a pagoda in fran~ whereas during the Three Kingdoms period, the main hall (the central building) was situated in the center of the temple with the lecture hall at the rear. Later, the lecture hall was integrated into the main hall or elin1inated altogether while a pagoda was constructed in front of the main hall, thus elongating the temple's axis. Moreover, various gates including llchumun (Single-Pillar Gate), Ch'onwangmun (Heavenly Kings Gate) and Purimun (Advaita or Non-dual Gate) were erected along the central axis, beginning from the temple entrance, and followed by a pagoda and the central building. In another change, the galleries (corridors), which had been ubiquitous in the earlier temples built on flat land, were replaced with elevated platforms of reinforced stone embankments. The central buildings of the temple were also laid out symmetrically on both sides of the courtyard. Subsequent to the Hideyoshi Invasions (1592-1598), in the late 17th century to the early 18th century, the layout of temples underwent further revision as buildings destroyed by fire were restored and rebuilt By this time, temples of different

Buddhist sects began shedding their distinct characteristics while moving toward common architectural attributes. The courtyard in front of the central building became a focal point, along with a pagoda in front Both sides of the central building were utilized for monks' living quarters and a meditation hall. This layout was repeated in several courtyards in larger temples, with the main hall being enlarged for prayer and sermons. The main hall also became increasingly ornamental With its incorporation of the aforementioned characteristics in its architectural layout, Haeinsa is deservedly one of Korea's representative Buddhist temples. Haeinsa boasts an exceptional architectural design that harmoniously integrates architecture, nature, and Buddhist rituals in diverse ways such as its building layout, the buildings themselves and their structural style which accommodates the topographical conditions of the temple site. Haeinsa is located halfway up Mt. Kayasan and is surrounded by imposing scenery. The space created by the temple's various buildings can be generally discerned into that of its entrance, living quarters, worship of Buddha, and scriptural study. Each of the buildings is arranged within a wide courtyard created atop a stone embankment, along an axis that ~ begins from Ilchumun to the Tripitaka Halls (the repository of the Tripitaka Koreana printing blocks) in the innermost "" part of the temple grounds. The entry area comprises Ilchumun, Ponghwangmun and Haet'almun. Ilchumun is the first gate to the temple and symbolizes the attainment of a unified and concentrated state of mind before entering the sacred world of truth. Beyond Ilchumun is Ponghwangmun (or Ch'6nwangmun). It is painted with in1ages of Vajrapani, guardians of Buddhist doctrine, while inside the gate are paintings of the Four Deva Kings guarding Buddhism. Passing through this gate, which represents the gate halfway up Mt Sumen.1 (the center of the universe, according to Buddhist cosmology), is intended to symbolize one's entry into a sacred place. Haet'almun epito-

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Clockwise from above: The layout of the temple; Kugwangnu, an elevated pavilion at the center of Haeinsa; carrying printed manuscripts of the Tripitaka Koreana on their heads, Buddhists walk around the temple praying; up beyond the stairs to Kugwangnu pavilion is a courtyard with a stone lantern and a threestory pagoda; a monk beating a drum inside the bell pavilion; the buildings of Haeinsa.

mizes the gate at the summit of Mt. Sumeru, designating arrival at a world free of secular concerns. The gate is called Purimun at other temples. Puri, or nonduality, signifies "no more worldliness," with others and the self being non-duaL as are life and death, the secular world and the world of Buddhism, and form and space. Beyond Haet'almun is a courtyard, which faces Kugwangnu (Nine Lights

Pavilioq) built upon a stone embankment Located in the center of the temple, Kugwangnu is a significant building reflecting the revered status of Haeinsa. According to the Hwaomjong, Buddha preached in nine places to enlighten humanity. Each time, rays of light are said to have been emitted from a long white curl of hair between his eyes so that his teachings could reach every human being. Nearby Kugwangnu are buildings used to house monks.

Up and beyond the stairs of Kugwangnu is another courtyard with a stone lantern and a three-story stone pagoda. Beyond the comtyard on top of the stone embankment is Taej6kkwangj6n, the main hall, which faces Kugwangnu. Nearby are other buildings used for the worship of Buddha. Most temples decide on the type of Buddha to be enshrined in their main hall in accordance with the Buddhist scriptures, observed by the temple at the time

of its foundation. Vairocana, the main Buddha of Avatamsaka, is enshrined in Haeinsa's main hall. Vairocana is the Buddha of Eternal Ligh~ or Truth, who is symbolized by rays of sunlight shining in all directions. Taejokkwangjon, therefore, represents Buddha or truth eternally residing in the Land of Light to preach the Avatamsaka. The Taejokkwangjon building was restored in 1818. Behind Taejokkwangjon are the Tripitaka Halls, the repository of the wooden printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana, the very essence of Haeinsa. There are several theories as to when the printing blocks were brought to Haeinsa, including one that pinpoints the date at the end of the Koryo period, and another at 1398, the seventh year of the reign of King T'aejo of Choson. Whatever the exact date may be, it is ce1tain they were transported to the temple for preservation at least by the first month of 1399 (the first year of the reign of King Chongjong). It is not known when the Tripitaka Halls were first buil~ but historical records indicate that the repository was expanded by some 40 kan (a traditional measure-

ment based on the distance between two building columns) under a royal order in 1457, after the printing blocks had been housed in Haeinsa. Records also show that the Monk Hakcho built a 30-kan library called Taejanggyong-gak with the royal court's support in 1488, and named the building Poandang. Haeinsa was expanded to its current size during this period, and it is assumed that the repository buildings were enlarged to their existing dimensions

at this tin1e as well Haeinsa managed to escape the ravages of war during Japanese Warlord Hideyoshi's first invasion of Korea in 1592. However, it suffered from seven major and minor fires from 1695 until1871, with all the temple buildings being burned down except for the repository, thus preserving the printing blocks intact The repository comprises four buildings arranged around a lengthy courtyard extending over 50 meters from east to west. The long building nearer to the temple entrance when viewed from the courtyard is called Sudarajang with the inner building being Poppojon.-The two smaller buildings between the eastern and western ends of the two buildings are called Tongsaganjon and Sosaganjon, respectively. Aside from its symbolical position at the top of the hierarchy among all the buildings at Haeinsa and its function of preserving the invaluable Tripitaka Koreana recordings of the teachings of Buddha, the repository is also noteworthy for the scientific design and construction of its buildings as well as the sophisticated techniques used 9

to preserve the printing blocks. The repository buildings face southwest at an altitude of about 655 meters, about halfway up the 1,430-meter-high Mt. Kayasan. The southwestern exposure does not create a straight line of sight to any of the peaks on Mt Natnsan in front of the temple, nor to the highest peak on Kayasan behind the temple. The orientation of the repository is mainly determined by wind direction. The repository buildings are exposed to the southwest to prevent the humid wind from the southeast from direct entry while instead diverting their flow. The terrain below the temple is open, but the northern side to the rear of the temple is blocked by steep cliffs. Such a site configuration naturally protects the repository from northern winds coming from behind the temple. The repository is located 655 meters above sea level where moisture in the air rising from the valleys tends to evaporate along the way. This enables a favorable humidity level to be maintained inside the buildings. The repository is thus located halfway up Kayasan where the level of humidity is naturally regulated by the forces of nature. The siting of the repository also affects the amount of direct sunshine it receives. It is vital that no part of the buildings be in permanent shadow, while the southwestern exposure ensures that sunlight 10

From the top: An image of the Vairocana Buddha inside Taejokkwangjon; steps leading to Taejokkwangjon; Taebangkwangjon behind Taejokkwangjon Upper right: Taejokkwangjon is Haeinsa's main worship hall. Right: A three-story stone pagoda in front of Taejokkwangjon

can reach the ground near the buildings year-round. There are windows of differing sizes on the walls of two levels of Sudarajang and P6ppoj6n. The windows on the upper \ level on the front walls of both buildings are small, whereas the windows on the lower level are large. In contras~ the lower windows on the rear walls are smaller than the upper windows. The differences in window size allow the dry air from the mountain behind the repository to enter through the large windows on the upper level. The large windows on the lower level of the front walls help to block the humid air from the valleys, while at the same time helping to facilitate steady air circulation throughout the building interior before escaping outside. The most important function of the repository involves maintaining as constant a climatic environment as possible so

as not to affect the printing blocks. To this end, regulating the interior temperature, humidity and ventilation is most critical. There has to be adequate ventilation and minimal changes in humidity and temperature from daytime to nighttime, as well as during different seasons. Furthermore, there must be a constant flow of air inside the buildings at all times. Of note, these various conditions are not controlled by artificial or mechanical processes, but by natural means. The wooC!en printing blocks are reinforced with square pieces of wood attached to both ends, which also serve as a handle. The main body of the blocks, where the characters are engraved, is thinner than the end pieces. This prevents their rubbing against each other, which could result in damage. The blocks are stacked on top of each other in two rows on each of the shelves. When thus stacked,

the handles rest against each other, creating a space between the thinner bodies of the blocks that serves as a passageway like a chimney, allowing air to circulate upward naturally. In this way, all the blocks are exposed to flowing air. Because the air entering through the windows flows from front to back within the building and upward between the printing blocks, the temperature and humidity can be maintained at a consistent level. Accordingly, there is a ceaseless circulation of air within the repository despite changes in temperature or in the wind direction outside the buildings. There is also litde variance in the temperature between the upper and lower levels of the shelves. Herein lies the secret to minimizing environmental changes. The shelves on which the blocks are stored are also arranged in a highly scientific and rational manner. Initially, five11

tiered shelves were placed in two rows, in the center and at the rear along the length of the buildings, running parallel with the walls. The empty space in front of the walls was used for engraving scriptures. The large windows on the lower level of the front walls not only helped with ventilation, but also provided bright sunlight for engraving work The earthen floors are covered with multiple layers of charcoal, powdered lime, salt and sand. This absorbs moisture when the humidity inside the building is high, and releases moisture when the air is dry-nature's way of balancing humidity. It is also highly effective in preventing wood rot as well as protecting the blocks from insects. Such scientific measures have enabled the Tripitaka Koreana blocks to remain so well-preserved The external appearance of the repository buildings and their unique 12

aesthetic beauty were based on rational concepts and highly advanced science. Based on historical research, it is reasonable to assume that Haeinsa was originally built around the courtyard in front of TaejOkkwangjOn at the time of its founding. That is, the central building (today's TaejokkwangjOn) would have been built behind the three-story stone pagoda and the lecture hall constructed behind TaejokkwangjOn on the site of the existing repository. It is !Selieved that changes in the function c;:>f the lecture hall led to its replacement with the repository of the Tripitaka Koreana. The main hall in front of the lecture hall, expanded and renamed TaejokkwangjOn, was used for sermons and the worship of Buddha. After the Tripitaka Kort;ana was brought to Haeinsa, the repository was expanded to its current scale. At the same time, the access road

Âˇfrom Ilchumun to Purimun and then Haet'almun was extended, while Kugwangnu was built in front of Taejokkwangjon. After the construction of Kugwangnu, Haeinsa developed into a temple where the inner compounds are open, bringing the surrounding landscape into its interior grounds, though the view is hidden from the outer area of the temple. This is a technique used to disrupt tranquility and create a dynamic percep-

tion of space, a method similar to the spatial composition techniques used in Buddhist architecture after the propagation of Son Buddhism. Such spatial characteristics of Haeinsa can be confirmed in its entry axis as well. The long, narrow entry axis created by the ground's gradual elevation from Ilchumun contributes to a sense of tension among those passing through the gate. The somewhat open space in front of

Up_per left: ~hangyok, the repository of the Tripitaka Koreana wood blocks Above left: Poppojon Hall From the top: Changgyonggak compt ises four buildings-Sudarajang, Poppojon, the East Archives and the West Archives; Taebanggwangjon seen from Changgyonggak's Poppojon; the ventilation and drainage system of Changgyonggak.

Ponghwangmun, the slightly angled alignment, and the steep stairway to Haet'almun help to rapidly perceive a process of being liberated from the secular world. The sloping ground levels off somewhat at the wide courtyard behind Haet'aimun, but then rises even more steeply beyond Kugwangnu, standing on the opposite side of Haet'almun, and peaks at the site of the three-story stone pagoda. Past the courtyard and up the stairs atop a high reinforced stone embankment stands Taejokkwangjon, the central building of Haeinsa. Throughout this path, the entry axis continues to veer slightly to the lef~ giving a dynamic sense to the buildings and nearby areas. This is one of the noteworthy characteristics of Haeinsa's architecture that can also be likened to a process of gaining enlightenment Haeinsa's spatial composition reflects geomantic influences as well. When Haeinsa is observed from Namsan, opposite to Kayasan, the temple appears to be at the center of a lotus flower, a shape often compared to that of a sailing ship. In other words, Kayasan, home to Haeinsa, is viewed as a ship; Haeinsa, alongside the mountain, as a cabin; the rock image of Buddha halfway up Kayasan, the ship's captain; the strangely formed rocks on Namsan facing Haeinsa, a pole; the rock behind the Tripitaka Halls (pagoda at the top of Mt. Sumeru), a mast; the stone embankment in front of Taej6kkwangj6n, the upper plate of the ship's yoke; and 13

Kayasan: Ship Rock image of Buddha Halfwa y up Tvlt. Ka yasan: Captain

The composition of Haeinsa and its surroundings is,said to resemble a ship about to set sail for Paradise from a geomantic perspective.

Kugwangnu, a flag. The geomantic symbolism inherent in Haeinsa can also be seen in a variety of aspects. Haeinsa is located on the southwestern mid-slope of Kayasan. From a geomantic system of coordinates, however, the summit of Kayasan behind the temple and that of Namsan in front of the temple do not correspond with the orientation of the temple buildings. They instead appear misaligned, as is the entry axis. From a geomantic perspective, it resembles a ship about to set sail for Paradise. This technique was employed so that the temple buildings are not exposed directly to Namsan, known to radiate the heat of fire according to geomancy. It can thus be interpreted that the temple was designed so that it merges harmoniously with the surrounding landscape. Perhaps it can also be speculated that the topography at the time of the mountain's birth caused the temple to be thus designed. From a smaller view, the site occupied by Haeinsa extends about 300 meters from south to no1th and about 150 meters from east to wes~ created by the entry axis leading to the temple grounds. It resembles a long, narrow ship, thus allowing the geo14

mantic symbolism of viewing Haeinsa as a sailing ship. The buildings on the site resembling a long ship are arranged along the entry axis that turns slightly to the left as it passes through lichumun, the gateway to Haeinsa's inner compounds. In Buddhism, "ships" symbolize enlightenment gained through wisdom, which in turn refers to Paradise. The temple buildings were arranged to reflect this symbolism. In other words, the buildings were arranged to create diverse symbolic systems of meaning that reinforce its geomantic appearance of a sailing ship. The process of reaching tl1at state can be likened to that of leaving the secular world. The buildings in Haeinsa were built on their particular sites as representations of this process. The geoman!ic symbolism, architectural space and functions thus share a cohesive relationship that comes together to create an integrated whole. As such, the structure of the repository, the entry axis, the temple layout and the external space that comprise the unique characteristics of Haeinsa have produced an enduring symbolism linked with geomancy. This also means tl1at Haeinsa's buildings were arranged in a layout most ideal for its specific site. +

Inside Changgyonggak (above) A vent in the north wall of Sudarajang (far left) This window is part of Changgyonggak's scientific ventiÂˇ lation system (left).

The History and H People of Haeinsa Shimjae-ryong Professor, Department of Philosophy, Seoul National University

22.

aeinsa, where the pride of Korea's cultural legacy-the Kory6 Buddhist canon-is enshrined, is a Dharma-treasure temple of Korean Buddhism. Included are several hermitages where distinguished monks of modern Korea n Buddhism reside, such as Paengny6nam where Master Toeong S6ngch'61, who is highly revered for his supreme virtue, lived as an ascetic, in addi tion to Hongje-am, Chijokam, W 6ndangam and Yongtap-s6nw6n. To

understand modern Korean Buddhism, it is necessary to examine the lives and thought of the distinguished monks who shaped the history of Haeinsa. Master S6ngch'61, once the head of the Chogye School, preached the message that followers should break away from the mundane world. The broken reliquary of Master Samyong, who was instrumental in thwarting the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592-1598), stands near Hongje-am where unknowing Buddhist believers and disciples bow in

front of the nearby reliquary of Master S6ngch'61, which enshrines a fragment of his bones ~ unaware that his reliquary is in a Japanese Buddhist style.

Haeinsa, Korea's Dharma-Treasure Temple: Its Significance in Buddhist Cultural History The distinction of a temple is determined by two factors: monks of exceptional virtue and a propitious site. It has been more than a thousand years since Haeinsa Temple was established on a

propitious site at Mt. Kayasan. The temple was home to renowned sages of the Hwaom School and Son (Ch'an, Zen) masters of the Chogye School. This article examines the history of Haeinsa Temple and sheds light on the life and thought of its people, while paying tribute to the distinguished individuals who shaped the history of the temple. Haeinsa is a unique window to Korean culture. In particular, it is a showcase of the Buddhist influence on Korean culture. History is shaped by the activities of 23

people that occur over time. Koreans believed in the principles of geomancy introduced by Master Tos6n (A.D. 827-898). Geomancy influenced the selection of the Haeinsa site. The temple is located about halfway up Mt. Kayasan, which is regarded as one of the 10 most propitious sites in Korea. Haeinsa satisfies the prerequisites of a revered temple-an auspicious site and distinguished monks. Historical records including The Relics of Haeinsa on Kayasan, written in 943, and S6nanjuw6npy6kki of Haeinsa on Ka yasan, written by the prominent Shilla scholar Ch'oe Ch'iw6n, describe the foundation of Haeinsa as follows:

Samyongdaesa, a monk who led an army of monks againstJapanese invaders during the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598 and spent his last years at Haeinsa (top); a memorial to Samyongdaesa (above)

Having been taught the Dharma by his teacher Shillim, Master Sunung went to China in 766 to study Buddhist doctrine and later became engrossed in Ch'an. When he returned to-Shilla, he was asked to serve in the government. He said: "Men are judged by the depth of their learning and nature by its beauty. Even birds select branches to sit on. As a human being, I would like to do my share in finding the site for a new temple." On the 16th day of the lOth lunar month in 802, there was a ground-breaking ceremony at Kayasan. Impressed by Master Sunung, the guardian spirit of the mountain offered a propitious site for the temple. The Dowager Queen of King S6ngmok became a devout believer in Buddhism and provided sumptuous food and gifts. It was the auspiciousness of the site that enabled the e11tire templecbuilding process to proceed smoothly. As disciples flocked to the temple, the master suddenly passed away. Ch'an master Ij6ng took over the management of the temple. Upon its renovation, the temple began to thrive. (Written by Ch'oe Ch'i-w6n in the lOth month of 900) Scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-w6n advocated that propitious sites should be reserved

for Buddhist temples. He was captivated by the scenery of Haeinsa and died there as the Shilla Kingdom began to decline. Propitious sites should be used for houses and temples; however, as the practice of geomancy gained popularity in Korea, gravesites began to dominate auspicious sites around the country. Even worse, construction is now under way to build a golf course in front of the historic temple. As was the case during the Unified Shilla Kingdom, Buddhism was espoused as a moral compass during the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392). King Wang K6n of Kory6 believed in a plan devised by Master Tos6n that envisioned the building of Buddhist temples at propitious sites to strengthen the power of the kingdom. This effort called for Chinese geomantic principles to support the promotion Âˇof Buddhism. In heeding the instructions of King Wang k6n, people built supplicatory temples at propitious sites countrywide. Later, the Dharma treasure, the Kory6 Buddhist canon, was enshrined at Haeinsa. The canon reflected the fervent desire of the Korean people to defend their homeland against Mongol invaders by relying on their faith in Buddha's blessing. Ever since the canon was enshrined at Haeinsa, the temple has attracted many Buddhist believers, distinguishing itself as the head monastery of Korean Buddhism. Unlike Japan, Korea does not have central temples where each Buddhist sect enshrines its founder. --Instead, the .three temples that represent the Three Treasures-Buddha, Dharma (Buddha's teachings) and Sangha (monks who practice Buddha's teachings)-are regarded as the mecca of Korean Buddhism. Haeinsa is known as a Dharma-treasure temple because it houses a pavilion where the Tripitaka Koreana, the complete canon of Buddhist scriptures inscribed on 80,000 wooden printing blocks, is enshrined. Tongdosa, where a fragment of

Buddha's bones is enshrined, is a Buddha-treasure temple, while Songgwangsa, which symbolizes harinony among monks, is a Sangha-treasure temple. Buddha once said: "One can find Buddha in Dharma and vice versa." In light of this, it can be understood why Korean Buddhists who lead an ascetic life go around a pagoda with a wooden block of the canon on their head rather than a fragment of Buddha's bone. Haeinsa was remodeled in the late Shilla Kingdom (circa 930) in recognition of Master Huirang Taedok's contribution to Wang Kon's victory. The sanctum where the canon was enshrined was renovated while 160 buildings including Taejokkwangjon were constructed through 1488 under the supervision of Master Hakcho during the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910). When the remodeling work was completed in 1490, the temple complex reached its full grandeur. However, from then

until 1817, a number of the temple's buildings were lost due to a series of fires. Another renovation was undertaken in 1898, but the temple was not restored to its former grandeur. Venerable monks who practiced Dharma in their daily lives underscored Haeinsa's historical significance. How did the temple enrich the lives of Koreans and their culture? The significance of Haeinsa in Buddhist cultural history can be revealed through the lives and thought of distinguished monks who preached and practiced Dharma in the secular world.

Haeinsa owes its high ranking in the A vatamsaka sect to the generation after generation of disciples of Uisangdaesa (below). Stupas in honor of revered monks at Hongje-am Hermitage (bottom)

Distinguished Monks of Haeinsa: Their Lives and Thought Korean Buddhism has been heavily influenÂˇced by Hwaom thought in terms of doctrine and Chogye thought in terms of Ch'an that worships the Sixth ÂˇPatriarch Hui-neng, the founder of the Ch'an School. Chogye thought envisions :a special transmission outside the scriptures; no dependence on

A Buddhist gathering inside Taejokkwangjon (above). It is said that this narrow bridge was installed to prevent people from riding into the temple on horseback (right).

words and characters; direct connection to human consciousness; and seeing into one's nature and the attainment of Buddhahood. Haeinsa has produ ced such prominent scholars of Hwa0m thought as masters H('iirang, Kyunyo and Oich'on. Based on a belief that "One is identical with many; many are identical with one," Hwaom thought is compared to waves. The head monastery of Hwaom Buddhism was probably named Haein, or the ocean-seal that symbolizes Bodhisattva practice that connects the world, and wisdom that brightens the darkness. Hwaom thought might have been the source of wisdom to many Koreans, transcending such obstacles as discrimination and self-interest to help kings and their subjects live in harmony. During the reign of peace, the theory of harmonization seems to have prevailed not only among Buddhists but

among all Koreans as well. Haeinsa is a showcase of all-embracing Buddhism. All Buddhist monks ehter a general monastery for ~ period of training before they become monks. The Korean Chogye School includes 25 head temples and 1,550 branch temples. Five of the 25 head temples (the Three Treasure temples of Haeinsa, Tongdosa and Songgwangsa, Sudoksa and Paekyangsa), have buildings devoted to Ch'an practice, doctrinal study, perceptive discipline and repeating the name of Buddha, enabling monks to comprehensively study Korean Buddhist tradition. Of the five general monasteries, Haeinsa is the oldest and attracts the most monks. It is ironic that Master S6ngch'61, who did not study Hwaom thought and instead insisted on Ch'an, in particular, meditation on Hwadu, stayed at the temple. Haeinsa was built in 809 during the reign of King Aejang of the Shilla Kingdom, more than a century after the two renowned Shilla scholars of Hwaom thought Wonhyo and Uisang had died. It was thanks to the efforts of Uisangdaesa's disciples that Haeinsa

became one of the ten major centers of Hwaom thought. Two schools, Pukhak and Namhak, are believed to have been prominent in advancing Hwaom thought. The two schools are said to have carried on the religious tradition of Master Uisang that was based at Haeinsa. Kyunyo, who was a master of high virtue from the early Koryo Dynasty, was of the Namhak school of thought. The religious tradition based at Haeinsa was passed on by Master Samyongdang Yujong, who emerged at the forefront of history with the outbreak of the Japanese invasions during the Choson Dynasty, to Master S6ngch'61 of the modern period. The four masters Uisang, Kyunyo, Yujong and S6ngch'61 are the revered monks who shaped the history of Haeinsa. Master Uisang never lived at Haeinsa, but was made the head of Korea's Hwaom School by his disciples. He went tq China in 661 and learned from Chih-yen, the second patriarch of the Hwaom School, for seven or eight years. Hwa6milsi1ngp6pkyedo, which was dedicated to his teacher before

Songgwangsa Temple (top); Pudo at T'ongdosa (above); monks headed toward Taejokkwangjon to take part in a Buddhist ceremony (below).

Paengnyonam Hermitage (top); Monk Songch'ol preaching to a Buddhist gathering (above).

entering into Nirvana, is one of the ~ most outstanding books on Buddhist Âˇ history. It is now recited day and night 9 at temples under the name of "Popsongke." His teaching was heavily influenced by Chinese Hwaom thought, but is distinguished by its emphasis on practical aspects of the thought. His understanding of Hwaom thought, must have been profound indeed, given the fact that Fa-tsang, a great sage of the Chinese Hwaom School, often sought Uisang's advice after he returned to Korea. Master Kyunyo was a Buddhist monk who lived during the reign of King Kwangjong in the early Koryo Dyn-asty. He was behind all reform efforts undertaken for the purpose of strengthening the reign of the king.

King Kwangjong is believed to have promoted Hwaom thought as a means of checking powerful clans based in rural areas. Master Kyunyo's teachings were known to be especially tolerant, which helped to embrace the clans based in rural areas while reinforcing the rule of King Kwangjong. Master Yujong, who is known as Sam yongdang, mobilized forces to fend off the Japanese invaders. Thereafter, he was dispatched to Japan as an official delegate, while upon his return he spent the rest of his life at Haeinsa, which is why his reliquary is at the temple. A disciple of Master Sosan Hyujong, he was affiliated with Ch'an. His presence at Haeinsa likely contributed to transforming the temple into a local mecca of Ch'an Buddhism.

Korean Buddhism is unique in that its monks, including Master Yujong, initiated the efforts to guide the nation through its difficult times. Master S6ngch'61 might seem to have been detached from the mundane world. His apparent aloofness can be interpreted as silent criticism of the secular world. His teaching is compared to the moonlight of wisdom that shines down on a mountaintop. When the light shines upon non-Buddhist believers, they are awakened to the fact that their behavior is motivated by trivial fantasy. Master S6ngch'61 is also critical of the recent trend in Korean Buddhism that emphasizes bringing religion to the masses. As for Master S6ngch'61, the essence of Buddhism lies in seeing one's own nature. It is a state of samatha because it does not require constant practice or fulfillment of moral obligation. An ideal ego can be realized in a state of detachment and sudden enlightenment that discards all trace of fantasy. The ego that has reached the stage of sudden enlightenment is a pure ego which has attained supreme bliss. The ego does not require any moral acts in order to become complete and pure. Sudden enlightenment is absolutely -~ pure. Master S6ngch'61 believed that Buddhism should preach redemption through the practice of individual .., asceticism. His emphasis on sudden enlightenment and detachment from the mundane world has no doubt been a paragon to the many Buddhist monks who followed his teaching. Master S6ngch'61 might well have also contributed to creating an environment conducive for an increasing number of Buddhist monks to practice Son meditation. +

From the top: Hongje-am Hermitage; Hiiirangdae; Yongt'apsonwon, a Son center at Haeinsa

The.Cultural Treasures of Haeinsa Heung Sun Sunim Head, Museum of Song Bo, Chikchisa Temple

aeinsa, with a history of over 1,200 years, is among Korea's most representative Buddhist temples and a veritable storehouse of Buddhist treasures. It abounds in cultural treasures, reflecting the devout faith of the many ascetics who passed through the temple. Some of the better known include the wooden printing blocks of the Buddhist canon Tripitaka Koreana (National Treasure No. 32), which has been designated a World Heritage by UNESCO; Changgyonggak (National Treasure No. 52), the halls where the Tripitaka Koreana printing blocks have been stored for over 500 years; and the Kory6 Haepan (National Treasure No. 206), a Buddhist canon that well predates the Tripitaka Koreana and reveals the high level of wood-block printing achieved during the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392). In addition to these, however, there are seven designated Treasui:es .and Important Folk Materials, eight items designated Important Cultural Treasures at the provincial level, and various other items with no official designation of any kind but which are nonetheless noteworthy and valuable. It is impossible to introduce all Haeinsa's treasures in the limited space of this magazine article, but I would like to focus on a few items that are quite unique to Korea.

Myogilsang Pagoda Korea is commonly called the land of stone pagodas. Of the three Asian countries to embrace Buddhist culture, China developed brick pagodas, Japan those of wood and Korea, thanks to the granite so readily available all over the country, stone pagodas. The proliferation of stone pagodas in Korea was due not only to the abundance of granite, but the durability of Korean stone as well. This is evidenced by the fact that there are over 1,500 stone pagodas still standing at temples and mountainous areas around the country. Myogilsang Pagoda at Haeinsa is one such granite pagoda. Though small in scale, it is an example of a typical Shilla period three-story stone pagoda with a double-tiered base. However, the placement of the pagoda, purpose of its construction and its significance are notably distinct from other pagodas. A pagoda 30

usually functions as a shrine for the remains of the Buddha (sarira), or for other Buddhist relics or the Buddhist canon. As such, it is an object of great reverence and worship among Buddhist believers. Consequently, a pagoda is invariably situated at the center of a temple. However, Myogilsang Pagoda stands at the entrance to the temple. Why is this so? In 1966, four memorial stones made of brick were found within the pagoda. One of the stones is inscribed with a record 'a bout the pagoda written by Ch'oe Ch'i-won (857-?), a renowned Buddhist scholar, writer and calligrapher of the late Shilla period. This inscription notes that the pagoda was erected to pray for the souls of those who died in a battle in the seventh month of 895, the ninth year of the reign of Queen Chinsong. One of the memorial stones is inscribed with the names of 56

Buddhist monks and others who died in the conflict. Thus Myogilsang Pagoda is not an ordinary pagoda for worship, but rather a memorial for the war dead. Buddhism and war are antipathetic. Buddhism reveres all forms of life, even an insignificant blade of grass, while the taking of any life is the greatest of sins. Therefore, war, which involves killing on a large scale, is considered unforgivable. Yet these records allude to another fact: Korean Buddhism has a unique his. tory in that Buddhist monks rose up and stood at the forefront of major conflicts when the fate of the country was threatened. Monks who took up arms were referred to as sungby6ng, fighting monks, or sunggun, soldier monks. It is Haeinsa's Myogilsang Pagoda, Kyongsangnam-do Tangible Cultural Property No. 253 (opposite page)

a widely known fact that there were soldier monks during the Koryo and Chason (1392-1910) dynasties. But it was riot known for certain whetqer there were solider monks in earlier Korean history until the record found in Myogilsang Pagoda confirmed th at there were indeed soldier monks during the Shilla period (57 B.C.-A.D. 935). However, the reason for this battle and what necessitated the involvement of a large number of monks rem ains unknown. Chungbong-Rock Carving of a Buddha An image of a Buddha carved in relief on the face of a rock is known as maebul in Korean. It seems that the Korean people were enamored with such images, judging from the ubiquitous maebul that can be found all around the country, including some from the sixth century, not long after Buddhism was first introduced to Korea. Korean scholars say that this is a natural outcome of the blend ing of Buddhism with native folk religions in which the worship of large rocks was common. Some argue that maebul is a kind of primitive form of cave temple, which was not well de veloped in Korea, unlike India and China, due to the impenetrability of Korea's abundant granite. These maebul developed along with Buddhism until around the mideighth century then began to decline from the ninth century. The Chungbong maebul at Haeinsa is a good example of the maebul images from this time. The Haeinsa maebul is an image carved into a rock that is about 3.1 meters across. The face does not arouse any warm feeling. Overall, the image is round and chubby, with fleshy cheeks and a double chin. The forehead is narrow, th e eyes slant upward, th e philtrum is short and the mouth is much too small for the face. The thick

A relief carving of a standing Buddha on Chungbong Peak, Treasure No. 222

philtrum and lips might look cute on a child, but on this Buddha they convey an uncharismatic demeanor. The shoulders are straight and angular. The robes wrapped around both shoulders and flowing down to the feet are so thick that they do not reveal the curves of the body. The U-shaped folds of the robes are well formed but rather stylized whereas the sleeves are depicted quite naturally. The charm of this maebul can be found in its hands. The right hand is raised almost to shoulder level with the thumb and middle finger touching and the palm facing outward. The left hand is placed at the abdomen with the fingers slightly bent with the back of the hand showing. Compared to the thick lines of the rest of the figure and its overall .scale, the hands are delicately rendered, to the point of being graceful in expression. The fingers, both bent and straight, are very natural and richly expressive, as if having some message. However,· this point does not come across awkwardly; on the contrary, it has the effect of softening the overt masculinity of the figure. The Chungbong maebul is not a figure that exudes a vibrant sense of life and energy. But it is a remarkable work that exemplifies the style of the late Unified Shilla period. The stern facial exp ression, angular shoulders, and carved folds of the clothing are among the common elements often seen in maebul of the Koryo Dynasty. Indeed, its in1posing features, well-balanced proportions and the delicacy and sophistication of its details, make it a genuine representatiye of the maebul of its time. To put it simply, it is an outstanding work of art that embodies the dignity of Haeinsa. A majestic carving standing 7.5 meters high, its body measures some 5.8 meters and its head 1.7 meters. Chungbong is a mountain peak 2.6 kilometers up a mountain path fr om Haeinsa. The Chungbong maeb ul, Treasure No. 222, stands there silently, as it has for years, enduring the elements.

Wooden Sculpture of Monk Huirang The most common ways for a temple to memorialize a distinguished monk were to enshrine his cremated remains in a monument, se t up a memorial stone or commission a realistic portrait. On rare occasions, a sculpture was created of the monk in his memory. But this kind of sculpture is somewhat unfamiliar to Koreans. In the West, it has long been customary to sculpture the head or full figure of a person in a lifelike style, but to Koreans, this is somewhat uncomfortable, like a jacket that doesn't fit quite right. Although there are a great many sculptures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, it is a characteristic of Korean Buddhist art that there are very few examples of sculptures of Buddhist monks. This is even more noticea ble in ea rlier Buddhist history. As such, there ·are a few such sculptures from the Chason Dynasty, but Koryo and Shilla examples are as rare as a blue moon. Obviously, lifelike sculptures were not something that Koreans took much of a liking to. But remarkably enough, there is one early Koryo Dynasty example at Haeinsa: a wooden sculpture of Monk Huirang. Who was Hl'1irang, the subject of this sculpture? He was an exceptional scholar of his time who resided at Haeinsa from the late Shilla period to the early Koryo Dynasty where he developed the Avatamsaka school of Buddhism on the basis of the Avatamsaka Sutra (the great and vast Buddha Garland Sutra). He was also a political figure who helped Wang Kon (877-943) found the Koi·yo Dynasty. Hl':'iirangdae, a small Buddhist hermitage named in his honor, is still maintained in good condition, reflecting his continued significance to Haeinsa. He was a "successful" man, so to speak, who in religious terms was profoundly learned and in political terms dealt cleverly w ith a tim e of change. As such, I would imagine him to be a man of dignity and action who adroit33

ly handled changing conditions. But the sculpture of Hl'iirang expresses a somewhat different character. It does not appear to be a philosQpher who attained the sublime world of Avatamsaka, and looks even less than an adventurer who battled through turbulent times. The sculpture portrays a quiet ascetic who has dedicated himself to a lifetime of constant study of his religion. It is the figure of an elderly monk with the elegant and noble appearance of a scholar looking over the hills with clear eyes. The thin lips do not look very genteel, but that does not mean he appears loquacious. It seems as if a tranquil voice is about to emerge in a low undertone. His Adam's apple protrudes from his long neck and underneath the opening in his robes, his bones stick out. It is an appearance befitting an ascetic who has abandoned all worldly possessions. The hands are also neat and tidy. Hands are an important part of Buddhist statues, which convey messages through a variety of gestures. But in this sculpture, the monk simply has his hands folded together resting lightly on his knees. In this respect, the figure of Monk Hi:'iirang is a very realistic sculpture. Although Buddhas, Boclhisattvas and other Buddhist sculptures may be called realistic, they all include some idealized features since they are objects of reverence and worship. But there is no such idealization in the figure of Monk Hl'1irang. The sculpture is in essence a faithful depiction of the man as he was. As such, it depicts an elderly monk, of the kind one might see even today. The sculpture of Monk Hi:iirang is made of wood. Research indicates that it was not produced from one solid piece of wood but several pieces joined together. After the carving was completed, the figure was covered with fine linen and coated with lacquer before being painted with color. But it is not clear who the artist was or when it was created. At Haeinsa, a story is passed clown that Monk Hi:iirang himself

carved the sculpture. But this story lacks credibility. A revered monk in his old age making a sculpture of his own image with his own hands does not fit the Buddhist way of thinking. One scholar interprets this story to mean that the sculpture was produced while the monk was still living, or if not so, it was completed not too long after his death, in all likelihood a reasonable explanation. Therefore, it can be estimated that the sculpture was created before the lOth century. The sculpture is a realistic portrayal, a snapshot that reveals the humility and learning of the monk Therefore, the 82centimeter-high figure (Treasure No. 999), is recognized as one of the finest existing wood sculptures in Korea.

Bronze Bell from the Fourth Year of Hongch'i (1491) -Buddhist temple bells are such representative examples of the nation's bells that. th~Cy are known among academics worldwide by the term "Korean Bell." The Korean bell is known for its subtle, beautiful sound that carries long and far, and an elegant and balanced shape w ith unique decoration and composition. What sets the Korean bell apart from the bells of other countries that it has earned such a distinction in academia? There are several noticeable differences when compared to the bells of China, Japan and other countries in East Asia, including the following major points. The first obvious difference is the existence of a sound pipe, a thick cylinder res~mbling a bamboo shaft rising up from the top of

the bell. Apart from the assumption that it somehow functions to improve the sound of the bell, there is no specific documentation of its actual function. Nevertheless, this is something that is not found in the bells of other Asian countries. A second difference is the linking ring from which the bell is hung, called yongnyu, another distinctive feature of Korean bells. In contrast to the design of other Asian bells, which feature the heads of two dragons back to back looking in opposite directions on the body of the bell, Korean bells feature a kind of hook formed from the figure of a writhing dragon grasping the upper part of the bell with its feet and mouth. The third difference is the apsaras, or heavenly maidens, that adorn Korean bells. The sides of a Korean bell are decorated in

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the middle with an embossed pattern of heavenly maidens holding on to a ribbon from heaven, a uniquely Korean motif that is not found on the bells of other countries. â&#x20AC;˘ This type of bell reached its peak during the Shilla period and is quite different from the bells of Choson and Kory6. The sound pipe, perhaps the most distinguishing feature of Korean bells, could still be found in the bells of Koryo before being eliminated altogether in the bells of Choson. Meanwhile, the yongnyu was significantly altered, being portrayed as the heads of two dragons facing the protruding body of the bell, a change that came about due to Chinese influence. The apsaras underwent major revision as well. During the Koryo Dynasty, the images of heavenly maidens playing a variety of musical instruments were replaced by images of Bodhisattvas sitting on lotus leaves. Soon thereafter, during the Choson Dynasty, the prevailing motif became the image of a Zen Bodhisattva. The placement was also shifted from the middle region of the bell's body to its upper section. The Bronze Bell from the Fourth Year of Hongch 'i ex emplifies the evolving characteristics of Korean bells. The sound pipe has disappeared. The yongnyu takes on the figure of two dragon's heads, and is rather small relative to the size of the bell but very dynamic and realistically rendered. The upper part of the bell features four Bodhisattvas wearing jeweled crowns, decorously clasping their hands together in worship, exuding an impression of perfect harmony. The middle section of the bell includes three lines of dots in relief. This is a common feature of the bells of Choson, which has been attributed to Chinese influence. The division and connection of the upper and lower parts of the bell with a pattern forming a kind of belt around the middle is a new wrinkle that was first seen on this bell. The area between the bell's midsection and its crown is filled

A woodd1 sculpture of Monk Huirang, Treasure No. 999 (opposite page); The Bronze Bell from the Fourth Year of Hongch'i, Treasure No.1253 (right).

with an arabesque pattern. The low er part of the bell is divided into two bands with the upper band displaying four dragons soaring around clouds while the lower is exquisitely sculptured with crashing waves that seem to come to life on the bell's surface. A dragon and cloud pattern was never seen on a oell prior to this, but subsequentl y became a rather common motif. The bronze bell at Haeinsa features a variety of patterns covering its surface, except for the very bottom of the lower part of the bell. Considering that each pattern had to be carved onto the bell's exterior, they are the result of especially fine and delicate

craftsmanship. Therefore, the Haeinsa bell is said to be the representative model of Choson Dynasty bells in terms of decoration. It is a masterpiece that could only have been created during a period of advanced. culture and arts. The bell (Treasure No. 1253) is found in the largest of the halls of Haeinsa, Taejokkwangjon. It bears an inscription stating that it was cast in the spring of 1491 at Haeinsa and belongs to Taejokkwangjon. Accordingly, this incredible bell, 85 centimeters in height, 58 centimeters round at its mouth, and 6 centimeters thick, has been part of the Taejokk w angjon Pavilion for over 500 years. + 35

Stupa Erected to Honor Venerable S6ngch'61 Yu Hong-june Art Critic/ Professor, Yongnam University

n hearing that the pudo (a stupa enshrining the cremated remains of a revered Buddhist monk) for the Venerable S6ngch'61 was finally completed, I hurriedly made my way to Haeinsa Temple to pay my respects as I have always been keenly inter e~td in Buddhist architecture. In Korea, pudo have a long history of more than a thousand years. Dating back to the ninth century during the late Shilla Kingdom, the tradition of building pudo for revered monks has

continued throughout th e Kory6 (918-1392) and Chos6n (1392-1910) dynasties and is still practiced today. The earliest pudo were octagonal in form, but in adapting to new styles, pudb underw ent constant change, including stalactite and oval shapes. Every major Buddhist temple in Korea has erected at least one stupa containing Âˇthe sarira (mineral-like droplets sometimes found among the cremated remains of a holy person) of a renowned monk The East Stupa at Y6ngoksa and the stupas to honor Ch'6lgam at Ssangpongsa, Hyech'61 at

T'ae-ansa, and Chikwang at P6pch'6nsa are among the finest examples of pudo architectural craftsmanship in the history of Korean Buddhist art. Unfortunately, the pudo built in the 20th century fail to convey the spirit and art of the times. The majority of these are little more than uninspiring replications of existing stupas, with some even scorned for their excessive ornamentation, making them unworthy of respect or admiration. To avoid such shortcomings, the Chogye Order, the nation 's largest Buddhist sect, invited the public to

36 â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

submit suggested designs for the stupa to honor the Venerable S6ngch'61, but none of the design entries were deemed acceptable. In the end. an advisory committee decided to commission artist ChoiJae-eun to design the stupa. A Japan-based installation artist, Choi is counted among the handful of successfu l overseas Korean artists, including U.S.-based Kim W on-sook, France-based Kim Soon-ki and Germany-based Noh Eun-im. She was one of five artists, along with renowned Italian architect Ettore Sottsass and Japn~se architect Tadao Ando, selected to participate in the "Grand Tea Ceremony" held at the outdoor plaza of the Paris UNESCO building in 1993. In 1995, Japanese art commissioner Ito Junji recommended that Choi participate in the Venice Biennale as Japan's representative artist, in recognition of her talent that transcends nationality. Ch9i's first installation work in Korea featured woven strips of bamboo placed on the roof of the Kyongdong Presbyterian Church in 1990. In 1994, she was commissioned to design the Reproductive Form Hall for th e Taejon Expo. Her best-known work, "Direction of Time," is a gigantic cone-shaped sculpture erected in front of the Samsung Medical Center's mortuary-a truly impressive installation in blue. Choi creates an artistic world of grand and majestic scale, which outstrips the conventional genres of architecture, sculpture and industrial arts, through the use of bold avant-garde motifs. In designing the stupa for the Venerable S6ngch'61, she started with a concept from installation art of creating a commemorative work that enables the natural surroundings, the structure and viewers to be integrated into a single entity. The structure itself was designed to be highly "minimal." Although an artist's emotions are usually expressed to a maximum in a work of art, they are purposefully restrained in minimal art in order to better high-

light the essence of the work and to induce introspection from viewers. Such minimalism was especially appropriate for the Venerable S6ngch'61, in light of his exemplary life on earth, marked by enduring meditation and extreme frugality. The fundamental concept of a pudo is based on a circle, and only squares and spheres are featured within the structure. The pudo at Haeinsa is a condensed form of a "single sphere above a low altar," in the tradition of kumgang, or three-stepped stairs, seen in the pudo of T'ongdosa and Ki:"Jmsansa temples. The circular stonework, 24 meters in diameter, is divided into 68 sections, with th e centerpiece, the pudo itself, being a sphere supported by two half spheres, which in turn are situated atop three-stepped rectangular stylobates. The entire structure resembles a-sphere of lotus petals opening upward, supported by petals facing downw-ard. Sharply defined lines and a feather-light delicacy are successfully applied as the key elements for conveying the pudo's spirit and format. In order to bring to life such intriguingly contrasting sensations, Choi sought technical input from Isamu Noguch'i, a Japanese-American sculptor known for his ability to reflect Oriental sentiments in stone sculpture. This decision, however, subjected her to harsh criticism that she had incorporated Japanese elements into the stupa. Reflecting her professional attention to minute details, the sphere and hemispheres of the circular pudo are nothing less thap perfection, leaning at an exact 1.1 degree without the slightest discrepancy. The artist named the pudo "Space for Self." The pudo for the Venerable S6ngch'6l, which stands before the Single-Pillar Gate of Haeinsa, is certain to be recognized as the most representative stupa of the 20th century, and a fitting tribute to its most beloved monk. +

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This stupa designed by installation artist Choi]ae-eun is a memorial to Monk Songch'ol (opposite page). This installation work featuring woven strips of bamboo placed on the roof of the Kyongdong Presbyterian Church was created by ChoiJae-eun in 1990 (top). The Reproductive Form Hall Choi]ae-eun designed for the 1994 Taejon Expo (above).

FOCUS

Art for the New Century of Culture Lee Dong-suk Art Critic

o commemorate the dawn of the new millennium, Korea hosted several noteworthy arts extravaganzas, most of which were staged in unique and historically significant settings. These included Paik Nam-june's multimedia performance "The Tiger is Alive," which was conducted at the Imjin-gak Pavilion at the Demilitarized Zone, the most conspicuous reminder of the division between North and South Korea, while ]eon Sucheon's massive installation work, "Millennium 2000-Bo xes of Wisdom," was staged at Chongm yo, th e royal an cestra l shrin e of the Chos6n Dynasty (1392-1910), a landmark of Korea's glorious traditional heritage. Fifty thousand children from Korea and a broad participated in Kang Ik-joong's "100,000 Dreams," held at Unification Hill, a site which symbolizes the aspirations of the Korean people for peace and reunification. What all three works had in common w as the fact that the artists shunned traditional, closed-off venues for performing arts, while selecting sites that co uld help maximize the historical and symbolic significance of their themes. Moreover, because the open nature of all three works encourages viewer participation, they sparked a great deal of interest among Koreans.

One of the many performances at the DMZ 2000 New Millennium Unification Festival

In terms of the ''process" of the exhibition and its means of communication, all three works are fully interactive experiences that depend on active participation not only to develop a rapport with but also to elicit a reaction from visitors. This move away from art as a static object to an interactive process has been gaining ground throughout the world, and heralds the changing nature of art in the new century.

All three artists have gained international fame at the art world's most prestigious event, the Venice Biennale. Paik's multimedia performance "The Tiger is Alive" was the highlight of the DMZ 2000 New Millennium Unification Festival. Video monitors arranged in the shape of a cello and the Korean traditional instrument wolgum ( 4-string plucked lute) displayed images of a "Paektusan (the sacred mountain of the Korean people) tiger fighting a lion." The work symbolized the sorrow of division as well as the future of the Korean people, who have yet to overcome the bitter legacy of the Cold War. Also part of the performance was internationally-acclaimed vocalist Tracey Vitiello, who hummed the chorus to Paik's rendition of the local folk song "I Want to Live in Kumgangsan" (a picturesque mountain range in North Korea). This musical element represe nted the potential for harmony between the East and West despite their inherent conflicts and tensions.

Paik Nam-june's multimedia performance "The Tiger is Alive" featuring video monitors arranged in the shape of a cello (page 40) and the Korean traditional instrument wolgiim ( 4-string plucked lute) (right) symbolized the potential for harmony between the East and the West.

The climax of the work was the burning of barbed wire, the flames of which conveyed both a shamanist meaning and the philosophical import of assuaging han or the profound grief and oppression of the entire Korean people. Paik's overall message was to overcome the "clash of civilizations" and the "ideological divide" by moving toward reconciliation and peace. Fittingly, the performance was broadcast not only on local networks

but also transmitted to 87 nations around the world via a live satellite feed to ABC and PBS of the United States and the BBC of Britain. ]eon Sucheon's "Millennium 2000Boxes of Wisdom" premiered at the stroke of midnight on New Year's eve in Seoul at Chongm yo, the shrine which houses the ancestral tablets of the kings and queens of the Chason Dynasty. Designated by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site, Chong-

myo is the foremost architectural legacy and symbol of the Confucian tradition of the Chason Dynasty. The installation consisted of 2001 hexahedrons, the sheer number of which symbolically visualizes the meaning of the accumulation of time, and the possibilities of the future as well. That is, the empty boxes are repositories of intellectual potential. The stark contrast created by the minimalism of the boxes and Chongmyo's unassuming architecture makes for a tranquil, even sublime presence. One thousand of the boxes are streaked with rust as a symbol of the past, while another thousand are as pristine and shiny as mirrors, representing the future. In the center is a large-scale cube, from which a bright blue light emanates. This box symbolizes leaping toward the new century and a creative melding of the past and the future. In a related work, the artist also installed 1,001 silvery bo xes representing "creative production and a leap forward" on the plaza and steps of the Sejong Cultural Center. Near the city of Paju, Kyonggi-do province, is Unification Hill, where 50,000 Korean and foreign children participated in "100,000 Dreams." For his installation, artist Kang Ik-joong painstakingly produced 50,000 threeinch .square panels on which he had children paint their dreams, and then arranged them in a greenhouse structure built specifically for the work. The greenhouse represents what Kang calls the "fostering of- dreams," a planting of seeds and then reaping the harvest. Kang explained: "I conceived this work out of a desire to create a beacon of unification and peace, one that would illuminate the 21st century as an era of peace and reconciliation while sweeping away the dark shadows of war, conflict and division of the 20th century." Kang originally planned to include drawings from 50,000 North Korean children in the piece, but the political situation forced

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@ the "process" of the him to shelve this plan. 0 " exhibition and its means Instead, the empty of communication, all space has been named the "Wall of Silence." three works are fully interactive experiences When Kang presents that depend on active this exhibition in Berlin, participation not only Germany next year, he to develop a rapport intends to fulfill his with but also to elicit a original plan and have reaction from visitors. the space filled with This move away from paintings by North art as a static object to Korean children. Curan interactive process rently , the work can also be viewed over the has been gaining ground ]eon Sucheon's "Millennium 20G0-Boxes of Wisdom," an installation consisting of Internet at www.lOOOOO throughout the world, 2001 hexahedrons suggesting the accumulation of time past as well as the possibiliÂˇ dreams.net. and heralds the changties of the future, was installed at Chongmyo (top). ing nature of art in the All three works conIn a related work, the artist also installed 1001 silvery boxes representing "creative vey the message of new century. production" on the plaza and steps of the Sejong Cultural Center (above). Indeed, the new cenovercoming conflict openness creates a meeting ground tury is already being hailed as the and hostilities through reconciliation for the convergence of historical and "century of culture." That is, a new era and peaceful coexistence, and symbolcontemporary influences, while each in which creative thinking will prevail ized the nation's hopes and expectahas an individual significance which over rigid ideologies, while life will be tions for the new century. Not only lend gravitas to the event. In terms of centered around cultural values. In the are the sites historical; their expansive

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century of culture, what will art be like, and what other trends can be expected in the future? What sort of Âˇ conceptual and formal de.velopments will emerge, and how will current methodologies and paradigms be changed? Several definite trends are already quite apparent. First, the mixing or crossing of genres will accelerate. As artists integrate genres and cross-pollinate from different fields of art, traditional distinctions between high art and popular culture, the academy and external movements, pure art and industrial art, will continue to be broken down, while hierarchies and cliques among genres will eventually disappear. Second, individual art works will continue to become more accessible and interactive. In the past, a conscious distance was maintained between the work and the viewer to promote contemplation and reflection. Nowadays, however, viewers are invited to interact or participate in the work or its process, a trend that will become universal. Third, the relationship between culture producer and user, between expert and layman will continue to be transformed such that the distinction between the two will be of little relevance. Taken to the extreme, the concept of artist as we know it today may disappear altogether as everyone becomes an artist or a creative figure in their own right. All these trends are inextricably linked to the rapid changes shaping our media environment, such as the makeover of our communication systems as a result of digital technology. No matter what form contemporary art takes, artists cannot ignore the information age phenomenon that is transforming all of society. Already in photography, printmaking and even painting, there are many examples of artists incorporating techniques and tools based on digital applications. Such works have found acceptance 42

within and outside the traditional arts establishment. Moreover, beyond these, there are new art forms such as computer art, multimedia art, interactive art, network art and Web art that rely directly on digital technology and are rapidly gaining popularity. Recently in Korea, the First International Digital Art Festival (www.idaf.org), which was conducted entirely on the Internet, included the participation of 25 different teams from six nations in addition to 227 Korean teams. Nowadays, instead of a brush or a chisel, anyone with a mouse and familiarity with Web software can be an artist. In recognition of this, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism has designated 2000 as the Year of New Art and pledged to actively support art forms based on digital technologies. As part of these efforts, the ministry unveiled the outline of an ambitious cultural undertaking called "Media City-Seoul 2000."

On the technical front, advances in processing speed, memory capacity and software performance are being realized all the time. These advancements will only expand the scope of artistic application and potential for expression, while enabling greater input of imagination and creativity. Despite its apparently unlimited potential, however, the use of digital technology in art is not necessarily a totally positive phenomenon. For one thing, there is no guarantee that a quantitative ex pansion in artistic application will lead to more meaningful expression or deeper understanding. The challenge for artists is to avoid such pitfalls as becoming too dependent on digital methods, or concentrating on technical aspects to the detriment of artistic creativity: In pursuing greater accessibility or pushing the envelope for special effects, there is the risk of reducing art to matters of speed or technical brilliance, ren-

dering the concept or intent of an individual work cold and remote. Digital technology can be a powerful and positive foundation for. art only when its underlying logic and inertia can be transcended through genuinely imaginative and creative artistic expression. In particular, we are more likely to make the mistake of ignoring the negative aspects of digital technology, while downplaying the fact that even as technology expands possibilities, so does it curtail others. Because of the inherently dual nature of technology, there is always a positive and negative side, and potential for expansion as well as contraction. For example, although the vast, wide-open potential of the Internet may offer seemingly unlimited possibilities for expansion, it is also contributing to the breakdown of other forms of communication. just as the telephone enabled communication over long distances, it also reduced face-to-face interaction.

Similarly, the Internet makes it possible for us to contact practically anyone, but it has also stealthily closed off other avenues. The Internet can just as easily render the tactile and aesthetic richness of experiencing a work in the real world into an ephemeral and fleeting mirage in virtual space. Thus, not only must the negative consequences of digital technology be overcome, it will also be necessary to concentrate on ways to encourage greater response to and understanding of art. This requires that we maintain a critical distance from , if not a healthy skepticism of, today's manipulated environment, where media and life, image and reality, are routinely conflated. Certainly in today's media environment, it is not enough to merely.-observe. Still, art must maintain its own values and sense of meaning. · The ideal melding of art and science will depend on artists' imaginative capability and will to create. +

No matter what form contemporary art takes, artists cannot ignore the information age phenomenon that is transforming society. Already in photography, printmaking and even painting, there are many examples of artists incorporating techniques and tools based on digital applications. Such works have found acceptance within and outside the traditional arts establishment.

Kang Ik-joong's installation "100,000 Dreams" (above). For his work, Kang installed 50,000 panels on which children had painted their dreams in a greenhouse built expressly for the project at Unification Hill near the city of Paju, Kyonggi-do province (left).

43 ••

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Traditional Artisan

Human Cultural Asset for Woodcarving

Park Chan-soo Lee Hyung-kwon Head, Cultural Properties Research Institute

with traditional Korean windows. and Choson (1392-1910) periods. The seche Moka Buddhist Museum, ond floor displays more than 100 wood whose aged bricks give it an The display area comprises four carving and sculpturing tools, palanantiquated character, is located floors, one underground and three above. quins, small art objects, altars, sermon in the middle of a field off In the basement is a theater where a docchairs (p6psang) used in Buddhist temumentary film "The Wood That Would Route 42, about 5 kilometers Like w Become a Buddha" is shown, ples, items recovered from within from Y6ju-l'1p, Kyonggi-do province, Buddhist sculptures, and 500 images of which explains the development of toward Wonju. Passing through a granBuddha's disciples who attained ite gate and then a wooden one to enter Korean Buddhist images, the characterisNirvana. On th e third the museum comfloor are eight different pound, you feel as if images, a wood relief you have wandered that depicts the life of into a sculpture park. Buddha and the four There are kumara heavenly guardians of sculptures and clownBuddhism. ish village guardians as This is the only well as a white-clad museum in Korea dediAvalokitesvara, the cated exclusively to Bodhisattva of Mercy Buddhist sculptures. It (Kwannum), and a features a vast collection Maitreya, Buddha of of materials, which Park the Future (Miruk samChan-soo, the director, jonbul), triad whose either acquired as he faces reflect traditional traveled throughout the Buddhist images, but country for more than with bodies that look The Moka Buddhist Museum (above). From this sculpture in the third floor exhibition 20 years or. made with like modern sculptures. hall, one can sense Park's devotion and devout faith in Buddhism (opposite page). his own hands. Each face invariably Park Chan-soo has been designated features a captivating smile. tics of e~ch era, and the process of creatHuman Cultural Asset No. 108 for his On the way to the museum building, ing Buddhist sculptures. In a corner of woodcarving skill. With his long beard there is a pond with a rainbow-shaped the basement is a Buddhist pavilion where the souls of the dead await the and his long hair twisted in a topknot, he stone bridge, as well as various sculpture works, such as elephants and three-story looks like an ascetic in India. Of particular judgment of the Underworld. note, Park has not only established the pagodas. Built with recycled bricks from On the first floor are displays of first independent Buddhist museum in the dismantled Seoul National University Buddhist cultural assets of various genKorea on his own, but he has also re-created Liberal Arts College at Tongsung-dong, res, including kumara images and village the beauty of Buddhist woodcrafts, guardians. In addition, there are small the museum appears antiquated and which had long been forgotten, while Buddhist statues and paintings from the heavy with the weight of mounting distinguishing himself as the foremost Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), Kory6 (918-1392) years. It is an Indian-inspired building

authority in this field. His bright eyes reveal an intense passion, typical of those who devote themselves to a singleminded pursuit throughout their li ves. However, before attaining such promi-

nent distinction, there were years of poverty and hardship, along with a resoluteness of purpose that did not waver in the face of difficulties. Park's hometown is Sanch'6ng-ri, Saengch'omy6n, Ky6ngsangnamdo province, at the foot of Mt. Chirisan, referred to as the village nearest the sky. Following his mother's death when he was 14 years old, Park moved to Seoul with his four brothers and sisters. To help support his family, he got a job as an errand boy at a workplace that produced sculptures.

Park put his heart and soul into the works of his own choosing. He became a dedicated seeker of truth in order to express the deep spiritual essence of Buddhism through his sculpture. 46

"We moved to Seoul, and found a place to live at Miari, but we were at a loss about how to make a living. A wood craftsman lived next door. When I helped him, he gave me food. I worked at his place to survive, but this decided the direction of my life. I learned later that my teacher was the famous sculptor Kim Sung-soo." At that time, Kim produced replicas of the S6kkat'ap and Tabot'ap pagodas, Buddhist images and images of Jesus which were sold to U.S. troops stationed in Korea and tourists. Park learned from Kim how to use sculpture tools. Park worked at Kim's factory for a Âˇyear, and saved his money. Because Park wanted to study, he went to see his brother, who was serving in the military in Kangw6n-do province. There, he attended a middle school where he met Lee Un-shik, curr ently the dean of Kangw6n National University. During an arts and craft class, Park showed Lee a dragon-shaped ship that he had carved, and Lee asked him where he had bought it. Park answered that he

made it himself, and showed Lee how he did it. Amazed by Park's talent, Lee said: "I will help you continue your studies. Follow me and keep up your sculpturing." Wherever he went, Lee took Park with him. Park followed hin1 to schools in Ch'unch'6n, W6nju and other places in Kangw6n-do. After school, Park helped Lee, and learned about various sculpturing methods, such as clay modeling, carving and modeling, gypsography and woodcarving as well as bronze and iron casting. Under Lee's guidance, Park learned mostly abstract carving, but began to realize that he was more adept at detailed, realistic carving. This was how he became interested in Buddhist woodcarving. At that time, there were no teachers or books to help him. He tried to figure out things by himself as he continued with his work He underwent an endless process of trial and error before he met Shin Sang-kyun, an expert Buddhist sculptor who created many Buddhist

Clockwise from the top: the third floor exhibition hall; a statue of Sam shin, the god governing childbirth; statues of tongja, child monks; Skanda (wood sculpture, colors on wood)

ent became recognized in Japan, his works were highly sought by Japanese buyers. As the demand surged for his sculptures, he established a workshop with dozens of woodworkers. However, he wanted to create works that could capture people's hearts, rather than products that sold well. All this while, Park had learned from many teachers, honing his skills to such an extent that they were truly incomparable, but his desire was to revive the long-lost tradition of Korean Buddhist sculpture. He wanted to breathe an immortal spirit into his works like the stone craftsmen who created the S6kkuram Grotto. Consequently, Park's attitude toward his sculpturing took on a new direction. Previously, he took orders for his products/ but now when he carved, he put his heart and soul into the works of his own choosing. He became a dedicated seeker of truth in order to express the deep spiritual essence of Buddhism through his sculpture. He realized that exceptional works requit·ed a profound faith in Buddha and a sincere heart, and thus visited respected monks to learn from them and further develop his own spirituality. During this period, Monk Nogw6n gave him the pen name Moka. The monk gave him this name, literally meaning a "shoot from wood," to encourage Park to germinate the Buddhist spit·it in the hearts of everyone, , like spro)Jts that burst forth from dead wood. Park's craftsmanship was widely recognized from his mid-30s, as he earned numerous awards in major craft competitions, including the General Grand Prize of the The sermon chair for which Park received the Presidential Tanw6n Arts Festival Award at the Traditional Crafts Grand Prix. (1982), Prize of Excel-

itnages for temples all over Korea, including the Grand Maitreya at P6pchusa Temple, the thousand Buddha itnage at Chikjisa Temple, and the large Buddha at Tonghwasa Temple. In 1977, Park began to learn from Shin, concentrating on the carving of wooden Buddhist itnages. He began to visit temples all over the country to collect materials while learning from Monk Hano how to create Buddhist irilages from clay. When he was 28 years old, Park could not find any more teachers in Korea. He thus went to Japan where he studied with a master named Kato. He learned how to distinguish between Korean and Japanese traditional sculptures, and began to create his own artistic realm. As his tal-

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lence of the Buddhist Arts Grand Prix (1983), General Grand Prize of the Planned Exhibition of Buddhist Arts for the Asian Games (1986), and Presidential Prize of the Traditional Crafts Grand Prix (1989). With his award-winning works, he helped people appreciate the significance of the long-forgotten tradition of Korean Buddhist woodcarving while being recognized as the foremost artist in this field. In 1997, he joined the ranks of Korea's Human Cultural Assets, the supreme honor for a craftsman. Moka Park Chan-soo has lived with a chisel and hammer in his hands. Befitting his pen name Moka, he spent his youth carving and polishing dead wood into that which came alive with his spirit and soul. He still works with wood more than 10 hours every day. His hands never rest, for they are busy with kumara images, sermon chairs, and Buddhist images. Regardless of the type of wood, once it passes through Park's hands, it becomes a Buddha, a Bodhisattva, or one of Buddha's disciples. Park has a keen eye that can distinguish the "wood that would like to become a Buddha." With a quick glance, he knows whether a piece of wood is suited for Buddha or his disciples. However, for hitn, the object of carving is not wood, but faith. "In woodcarving, it is not very itnportant -to carve well. You need to have good materials, and maintain your faith and desire with great care." He has spent over 40 years carving wood. It is clear that his skills are at a truly masterful stage, but he says it is thanks to the wood that he creates fine ·works. He says that the woodworker's foremost vittue is to carve according to the characteristics of the wood, as wood inspires different feelings according to its grain. For example, the Bodhisattva of Mercy requit·es a smooth wood, while it takes a rougher wood to depict the giant Vajra that repels evil and rebukes untruth. There is no place Park will not go to find good-quality wood. The sermon chair, for which he received the

A sculpture of Avalokitesvara, the Boddhisattva of Mercy (Kwanniim), dressed in a white robe in the outside exhibition area (above). Five hundred statues of nahan, disciples of Buddha, in the second floor exhibition hall (below).

Park has a keen eye that can distinguish the ''wood that would like to become a Buddha." With a quick glance, he knows whether a piece of wood is suited for Buddha or his disciples. However, for him, the object of carving is not wood, but faith. presider.J.tial award at the Traditional Crafts Grand Prix, was crafted from a 500-year-old zelkova tree from an area in Tanyang, Ch'ungch'6ngbuk-do province, which was submerged due to the construction of a dam. Wood presents various patterns depending on the direction it is cut. The wood grain is capable of producing unexpectedly decorative, abstract effects. When Park carves an image of Buddha, he becomes one with the wood, taking pains to find the Buddha within the wood. At such times, he understands that the image of Buddha is not the product of his hands, but the work of providence. + 49

on Mt. Paekunsan in white, then pause for a breath at the edges of Mt. Chirisan. Koreans say that a person who drags heavy feet back home after leaning on a walking stick to wander around the entire day in search of spring will find its signs at the tips of maehwa branches growing at home. To signal spring, the flowers of the maehwa tree sprout before its leaves, as do other flowers that come into bloom early such as Carnelian cherry (Comus family), azalea and forsythia. There is a village called S6mjin, which is noted for its maehwa blossoms, located at a point where the S6mjin-gang meets Paekunsan Mountain. It takes about 30 to 40 minutes from Kurye-tip to reach the village in S6mjinri, Ta-ap-myon, Kwangyang-shi. Even in the dead of winter when it is freezing elsewhei-e, the weather remains mild in S6mjin village. The river flowing in front of the-village is frequently cloaked in fog, creating ideal growing conditions for maehwa trees. There is a custom of foretelling the year's harvest from the direction the maehwa flowers grow out. Heavy rainfall is predicted for the year when the maehwa flowers face downward toward the ground, a late frost when they face upward to the sky, and a bumper crop when the flowers blossom in dizzy splendor. Maehwa trees originated in China and were introduced to Korea during the Shilla Kingdom period, about 1,500 years ago. In early spring, white or pinkish flowers germinate on the branches before leaves appear, and the trees bear a kind of apricot fruit in June. Called maeshil in Korean, the fruits have been traditionally used as ingredients for herbal remedies. Various uses for maeshil have been developed in recent years, including kimchi, dried pickled slices seasoned with soy sauce, tea, chonggwa, or fruit preserved in honey, and wine. Maehwa trees are vulnerable to the cold and grow in only certain areas centered around Chirisan, Ch6llanam-do and the Ky6ngsang-do provinces in the nation 's southern regions. The area along the S6mjin-gang,

with its mild climate and frequent spring fog, makes for an optimal environment for maehwa trees to thrive. Although susceptible to cold temperatures, maehwa trees reawaken earlier than other trees to bear fruit that ripen in June before summer insects begin their vicious onslaught. This allows the production of fruits free of pollutants, as it is unnecessary to use pesticides before their harvest. The maeshil fruits produced in the area are meaty and of excellent quality. Korean maeshil are characterized by their strong acidic flavor, resulting from large amounts of beneficial organic acids such as citric acid that are conducive to eliminating bodily wastes, and highly efficacious in improv-

Cornelian cherry flowers blooming at Sal].gwi village(opposite page). Azaleas (above)

ing one's physical well-being. Moreover, maeshil are rich in minerals and known to help prevent osteoporosis. S6mjin village hosts the annual Maehwa Festival when the flowers are in full bloom making the village appear sprinkled with snow. Come spring, S6mjin villagehome of maehwa trees growing along the borders of Sampakjae Valley in 53

Many artists visit Sangwi village to paint pictures of Cornelian cherry flowers (top). The Cornelian cherry flower is more brilliant in color and richer in fragrance than other flowers and also blooms longer (above).

Paekunsan-comes to reflect the indigo blue water of the Somjin-gang. Atop the riverbank, the slopes of Chirisan can be seen approaching the river in the far distance. Looking over the fields and listening to the whispering songs of bamboo trees standing along the river, a scene from the area within 80-ri of the Hadong inlet comes into view at a glance. Carried by the wind, the sweetand-sour fragrance of maehwa blossoms tickles one's nose. From mid-March when the maehwa flowers begin to fade, Cornelian cherry flowers start to paint the ridges of

Chirisan in rich yellow. Sandong-myon in Kurye-gun, home to the mountain villages of Chirisan, is known as the nation's most prolific producer of Cornelian cherry flowers. The 48 villages in Sandong produce more than half of the entire Cornelian cherry production in Korea. Among the villages, Sangwi, nearby Somjin, is also known for its maehwa blossoms. To reach Sandong, take the national road from Chonju toward Namwon, but instead of going straight to Namwon, veer southward onto Route 19 linking Namwon and Sunch'on. Excited with anticipation of

the trip ahead, it is easy to speed on this road that resembles a highway. Travelers should keep in mind that speed detectors are installed at various locations along the road. Sandong-myon appears after passing through Pamjae Tunnel on Route 19. In mid-March, the scenery outside the car window is still that of dismal winter. The Chirisan Hot Spring Interchange appears soon after the Pamjae Tunnel, a junction between the road Âˇleading to Ti:Umori of Sangwi village. Before reaching Sandong, however, visitors will come upon the Chirisan Hot Spring Distrc~ designated a

special tourism district of Kurye-gun. Here, care is necessary to avoid the mistake of viewing the recreation facility at the mountain's foot with disdain. To properly appreciate the various aspects of the Carnelian Cherry Festival at Sangwi village, it would be wise to stop and catch your breath at the spa district. As for food, Tangdong, barely visible behind the hot spring facilities, is the place to go. Visitors should head toward Sangwi village, then follow a narrow road to the right, and circle around Songwon Resort to reach Tangdong. Yetnaljip Restaurant in the village offers 55

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a variety of stewed and roasted dishes of prawn and duck. The proprietor is very caring and even advises hungry Âˇ customers when they orde,r more than they can consume. The Gingko Tree Restaurant on top of TlHm6ri Hill in the spa area offers sumptuous meals of grilled hair-tail and a variety of wild greens picked from Chirisan, regardless of the season. Visitors will not be disappointed with the octopus casserole at the Hyerim Restaurant or with the Chirisan Wild Boar Tourist Farm . Because the tourist complex borders S6mjin-gang, all the restaurants offer savory soups with marsh clams gathered from the river. There are many places to spend the night in the area. The tourist complex was built quite recently so the inns are clean and cozy. After lunch in the spa area, visitors shou ld take a camera and head to Sangwi village. Walking through the valleys and along the foot of the mountain adorned with glorious Carnelian cherry flowers, it might suddenly dawn on you that you have been engulfed in a sea of yellow. Everyone is amazed to find such beautiful flowers growing at the mountain's foot. Trees tend to sink their roots deeper in barren soil, and even hundred-year-old trees come into bloom once they have taken root between the forests of bamboo trees in the valleys, or between the village stone walls and field banks. Carnelian cherry trees, said to bloom twice a year, are the earliest

harbingers of spring. The flowers begin to bloom in mid-February when the mountains are still covered in snow, then wither by early-April, remaining in bloom longer than other flowers. There is also some truth to the belief that the trees flower twice. Once the calyx opens, young flower buds start to push

Beautiful wildflowers brave the cold of early spring to bring color to the world (above). The Chirisan Hot Spring is a special tourist district of Kurye-gun county (below). Spring comes to Mt. Chirisan with the blooming ofJapanese apricot and other trees (opposite page).

their way out to open, which are followed by the appearance of yellow pistils and stamens. The Carnelian cherry flower is more brilliant in color than any other flower and has a rich fragrance. They are thus popular as ornamentals and potted plants. They are also a good source of high-quality honey. Sangwi village produces about 30 percent of Korea's entire Carnelian cherry production, all of which is used for medicinal purposes. They are known to be beneficial in the treatment of a variety of geriatric diseases and female ailments. They were once a source of additional income, as three or four trees produced enough fruit to pay for a child's college tuition. Although the trees also grow in the Ky6ngsang-do and Ch'ungch'6ng-do provinces, those along the slopes of Mt. Chirisan at an altitude of 700 meters above sea levelÂˇ are considered to be the best in Korea because their fruit is fleshy with a strong acidic and puckery flavor. Visitors to Sandongmy6n should not plan to return home right away after looking around the place. They should stop at the hot spring to scrub away the dirt they have accumulated in the city and spend a night at an inn near the spa. It is also best to get up at sunrise and return on foot to Sangwi village to more fully enjoy the Carnelian cherry flowers. They would regret it if they did not take the time to appreciate the brilliant Carnelian cherry flowers decorating the fields in the morning, now empty of the tourists and cars that overrun the place during the day. Farmers driving their oxen to the fields in the early morning fog is a picturesque scene from Sangwi village that can be witnessed only during the early morning hours. Today, Sangwi village will be as crowded as a marketplace with its Carnelian cherry flowers still in full bloom, due to the many tourists who come to drink the sap from acer mono. If you avoid this hectic period, you will be able to return home with your heart filled with the vigor of spring. +

56 .,

igh-rise shopping complexes in the Tongdaemun Market Âˇ area, such as Doosan Tower, Migliore and Freya Town, have been enjoying unprecedented popularity ever since this traditional market distinguished itself as Korea's new fashion mecca in 1999. The opening of department store-style shopping malls has helped to transform Tongdaemun into a "special fashion zone" where young Koreans check out the latest trends and buy items at reasonable prices.

Tongdaemun Market: H New Mecca ofFashion Park Yong-keun Reporter, The Chosun Ilbo

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Interestingly enough, Tongdaemun actually comes alive not during the daytime but when the rest of Seoul settles down for the night, bustling with activity at 1:00 in the morning. Throughout the night, ever more customers flock to Doosan Tower, Freya Town and Migliore. The traffic becomes snarled in the vicinity of the market as the parked cars of young shoppers as well as merchants from the provinces clog the roadways, forcing other vehicles to crawl by at a snail's pace. Under the bright lights, shoppers jostle

their way through the crowds to shop and to enjoy midnight snacks. Such vitality and dynamic energy are like a magnet for attracting young people, who transform the market into a vibrant center of life and fashion. Tongdaemun is no longer a traditional market where mostly low- and midpriced goods are sold. Indeed, some Korean economists even compare it to an aggregation of thriving venture enterprises. Many young entrepreneurs with limited capital but a keen sense of fashion

and, more importantly, intense passion have launched their own businesses within the shopping malls. Some of them are enjoying tremendous success as pioneers who are establishing the marketplace as a ''Fashion Valley." Many fashion designers resigned from secure positions at major conglomerates amid the nation's economic difficulties that began in late 1997 to go into business for themselves at Tongdaemun. Even designers returning from overseas study have opted to open shops at the Tongdaemun shopping malls instead of seeking employment at prestigious firms. The influx of such talented and impassioned individuals has helped to substantially strengthen Tongdaemun's overall competitiveness. As such, Tongdaemun no longer caters only to domestic customers. Indeed, the recent invigoration has contributed much to opening an era of "synchronous fashion," in which the "morning fashions" of Tokyo are introduced to Seoul by the afternoon. These days, growing numbers of Japanese designers and apparel buyers visit Tongdaemun to observe the fashion trends of young Seoulites. According to Tongdaemun and Namdaemun merchants, ever more Japanese tourists come to shop with discount coupons redeemable at Korea's traditional markets that were offered in Japanese fashion magazines. Discount outlets concentrated in Munj6ng-dong and Mok-dong in Seoul have already become one of the most popular tourist stops for group tours from Japan and Hong Kong. The domestic clothing industry that flourished at the nation's traditional markets has been rapidly transformed from a "no brand, no knowledge" process into a "knowledgebased" and image-conscious business in which each of the some 27,000 shops in the markets now produces and markets its own brand. Samsung Economic Research Institute recently released a market analysis of Tongdaemun Market's success of late. In particular, the market's success was attributed to the adoption of a uniquely Korean-style industry-intensive paradigm 59

as well as its many similarities to the Silicon Valley of the United States. The institute also pointed to its highly flexible and rapid mark et ad a pt ~ bilt y that dynamically responds to and reflects ever-changing fashion trends. Until a short time ago, it took about a month for the fashion trends seen in Tokyo's renowned Harajuku and Shibuya fashion streets to show up in Apkuj6ng-dong in Seoul. But now this time lag between Japan and Korea is only a matter of hours. On the planes shuttling between Seoul and Tokyo each day, there are invariably a number of Korean and Japanese designers, merchants and apparel specialists lugging large bags stuffed with the latest fashions from each country, new product catalogues and fashion magazines. The result of such active exchanges can be seen in the appearance of new products in Tongdaemun on a daily basis. In response to Tongdaemun's emergence as such ~ thriving center of fashion, several plans are being devised to capitalize on traditional markets as product export complexes. The Korea International Trade Association (KIT A) has sought to further develop traditional markets-the key trading points for the so-called bag vendors from China, Japan and Russiainto advanced centers for export activities.

Until a short time ago, it took about a month for the fashion trends seen in Tokyo 's renowned Harajuku and Shibuya fashion streets to show up in Apkujongdong in Seoul. But now this time lag between Japan and Korea is only a matter of hours.

The KITA will initially establish a comprehensive support center in Tongdaemun, the most popular shopping site among foreign merchants or "peddlers," to help expand and systematize export sales. The support center will operate a comprehensive service desk, boost the promotion of the Tongdaemun and Namdaemun marke ts overseas, an d facilitat e product exports to foreign merchants. The Comprehensive Service Desk will provide foreign merchants with information related to the market, products, accommodations and transportation, and also arrange business meetings with shop proprietors.

It will oversee a trade information data

center as well and eventually expand its activities to include interpretation and trade consulting services. Of particular note, it will create a home page for each shop so that the merchants can engage in e-commerce. Tongdaemun Market's recent prosperity is not based solely on such external help, however. The merchants abide by their own strict set of regulations to help maintain a competitive edge. The management of Doosan Towe r, which includes some 2,000 merchants, recently decided to "forcibly evict'' tenants with poor sales performance, on the occasion of the building's anniversary on February 26. It has already evaluated the business performance of each shop based on various categories, such as the level of customer services and shop management, and will soon draw up a tentative list of merchants to be evicted. About 300 merchants are on the waiting list for vacancies in Doosan Tower, so th e empty spaces resulting from the evictions will be filled immediately. Migliore, a shopping mall adjacent to the Doosan Tower, is also attracting interest as the first retail complex in the traditional market and the second in the nation to open an outlet overseas, following the discount chain E-Mart,

which launched a branch in Shanghai, China, in February 1997. Migliore will open an outlet in the Galaxy Department Store in Ta iwan, one of the leading department stores there, sometime in January. The Korean government is planning to develop the Tongclaemun and Namdaemun traditional markets into global fashion centers boasting international competitiveness and must-see tourist destinations. For the first time, the Seoul Metropolitan Government and the two traditional markets will establish a consultative body to coordinate efforts for this further development. Such efforts will focus on transforming these traditional markets, which have suffered much from the onslaught of modern distributors including discount outlets, into popular attractions for foreign visitors in time for the "2002 Visit Korea Year" and the 2002 World Cup, two events that are certain to boost tourist arrivals. Tongdaemun is now hailed as the birthplace of Korea's distribution revolution. The key groups of merchants who

have recently opened shopping malls in the provinces all started out in Tongdaemun, and have decided to venture out into other parts of the nation, not being satisfied with their success in Seoul. Gone are the clays when wholesale merchants in Tongdaemun depended on regional retailers; instead they are now taking their business directly to local consumers throughout the country. "A distribution revolution is taking place in Tongdaemun," says Dr. Kim Yang-hee of the Samsung Eco nomic Research Institute. "The barriers between wholesalers and retailers are breaking down. Wholesalers no longer rely only on sales to 1;etailers and are instead moving the products they manufacture directly to consumers." Another key to the transformation of Tongdaemun has been its ability to overcome the so-called "Tongclaemun dilemma." It is true that Tongdaemun has not yet managed to completely break free from its limitations as a traditional market. Major and minor disputes over product exchange, refunds and customer services

A shopping mall crowded with shoppers (above) Opposite page: Migliore (far left); Doosan Tower (center); Tongdaemun Market at night (right, above); the latest spring fashions (right, below).

occur between merchants and consumers everyday in Tongclaemun. Consumers accustomed to the high-quality services of departmen t stores rightfully demand refunds for defective products, whereas the Tongdaemun merchants instinctively reject refund requests. Doosan Tower and Migliore are now turning their attention to Âˇresolving such problems. They are adopting such department store practices as accepting credit cards, issuing gift certificates and operating a consumer-assistance phone system. As part of their strenuous attempts to keep pace with department store services, Doosan Tower is moving to introduce a "no haggling" price system while Freya Town regularly trains its merchants on the finer points of customer service. + 61

CUISINE

on Pan-Fried Dishes of Korea Koo Chun-sur Director, World Food Research Institute

ne of the things that invariably surprises foreign visitors to Korea in early spring is that the hills and mountains near villages are covered with pink flowers. In some villages, yellow forsythia blooms alongside azaleas, enhancing the spring colors. When tourists visit Korea's historic palaces, again they see Korean native azaleas. Of course, there are countless coun-

0 .

on Cheju Island. Therefore, it is r;:tre to see cherry blossoms in the wild in Japan. Also most of the bougainvillea plants decorating tropical houses were transplanted from elsewhere. By contrast, Korea's hills and mountains are covered with azaleas, although no one planted them or tends to these spring messengers, which brighten the landscape with pink and violet hues. The azaleas bloomed more vividly after the Korean War (1950-1953), the most devastating war in Korean history that killed and injured so many. They comforted the hearts of a people devastated by war, while now they

tries with blooming flowers. The beauty of Korea's azaleas rna y be likened to the splendor of daisies that blanket vast fields in the U.S. state of Colorado, or bougainvillea on the walls of farmhouses in tropical regions. The seemingly ubiquitous cherry blossoms of Japan in spring are more well-known than Korea's azaleas. However, with some exceptions, most of those flowers were artificially planted, or they bloom away from res-

idential areas. In fact, the cherry trees in Japan were cultivated from cherry trees that were introduced to Japan from their native habitat

Clockwise from above: Spring colors at Sogiimgang valley, Yongwol, Chongson, Kangwon-do province; azaleas; hwajon, a dessert pancake decorated with azalea petals; a variety of chon.

Clockwise from left: Chon made of chives; fish chon; chon made of peppers.

remind Koreans of their hometowns. Azaleas hold a special place deep in Korean hearts, and wherever Koreans go, they are never forgotten. Every spring, people would gather azalea blossoms from nearby mountains to brew liquor and prepare rice cakes. Court women during the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) lived a secluded life in palaces and were not free to come and go as they pleased. They greeted spring in the corners of the Secret Garden, where azaleas bloomed around the third day of the third lunar month. On this special day , the women gathered azaleas to decorate pan-fried rice cakes made with glutinou s rice dough and spring water. They shared the cakes with the queen, who traditionally visited the garden on this day. In autumn, the women of yangban (aristocrat) households pick ed chrysanthemum flowers, grown with

care in their backyards, to make panfried glutinous rice cakes for sharing with their families. In this way, they created beauty in their lives. Korean cuisine includes special foods that are prepared for such occasions as ancestral memorial rites and seasonal celebrations. Chon is a side dish, while azalea and chrysanthemum cakes fall into the category of special foods. ChOn, food coated.in flour and egg and then pan-fried, can be made with vegetables, fish, or meat. The method of cooking chOn is similar to grilling hamburgers. What is different is that the ingredients are coated with flour or glutinous rice powder and dipped in an egg mixture prior to cooking. Prof. Lee Hyo-ji, w ho has studied Korean food culture extensively, said: "Chon dishes are generally made with ground or thinly sliced meat, vegetables, or fish. They are coated with flour and egg batter before they are cooked in a skillet with a bit of oil, pressing down on them from time to time to make sure that they are well cooked." Th e lightly browned surface of chon whets the appetite. ChOn is called by several names. In writing, it is generally referred to as ch 6n y uhwa, ch6n y ua and ch6n y u6. Everyday references

include ch6nya, chon, puch'imgae, or chijimgae. When it is used for ancestral memorial rites, it is called kannam. The origin of chon is apparently quite recent; it is first mentioned in literature from the 17th century. Chon is a favorite among Koreans since it includes their best-liked ingredients-meat, kimchi, vegetables, fish and flow ers as well-covered with batter and cooked with a littl e oil. Therefore, it is versatile in terms of its ingredients and tastes. During the Seo ul Olympic Games of 1988, visitors especially enjoy ed eating pulgogi (grilled marinated meat), kimchi, and mung-bean pancakes. The mung-bean pancake is a kind of chon. Its main ingredient is mung beans, rather than rice or wheat flour. Kimchi and pork are added to the mung-bean batter and when fried, the flavors of all the ingredients blend together to create a unique taste that many visitors from abroad find to their liking. There is a wide variety of chon. Despite its brief history in ..Korea, consumption is widespread. There was no Âˇfried food in the Korean diet before its introduction. Because various ingredients could be used, pleasing man y people with different tastes, the cooking method became popular very quickly. Today, Koreans enjoy over 120 kinds of chon. All kinds of foodstuff including poultry, meat, fi sh, shellfish, mollusks, mushrooms, eggs, grain, and processed foods are used in making chOn.

Zucchini chon (below). Chon made of ground mung bean (far lower right).

In Korea, as in China and Vietnam, there is ch61shik, or seasonal food. In ancient times, nearly one day each month was designated as a special occasion for preparing special dishes and sharing them with family members and neighbors. People took a day off from work to enjoy drinking and eating together. This was a way to promote harmony and cooperation among family members and neighbors. Prior to Korea's industrialization, in addition to raising a family, Korean women had to work hard, in the fields typically, and thus had little time to prepare elaborate dishes for their families. In light of this, the government designated a special day about every other month, often when the number of the month and the date coincided (e.g., the first day of the first month, the third day of the third month, the fifth day of the fifth month) or on special days (the full moon of the first lunar month, Buddha's birthday in the fourth lunar month), for families to take a day off from work and enjoy some nutritious, special foods together. Chon was an important dish on such occasions. The ingredients for chOn were readily available and

the type a family prepared depended on its economic situation. Also, it was a dish that the whole family could participate in preparing while the amount could be varied easily. ChOn served to symbolize harmony as well as reflect a family's economic wellbeing and the cooking skills of the housewife. Nowadays with an ever increasing number of affluent households in Korea, people desire something more than basic nutrition from their food. Consequently, chon is emerging as a kind of art form. Visitors to Korea will depart with pleasant memories if they have a chance to eat chon, in particular azalea flower cakes, chrysanthemum flower cakes, or mung-bean pancakes. +

pring is approaching. If you listen carefully, it might be possible to hear the sound of water gurgling through once frozen valleys. Upon seeing the forest of red-tinted branches of laxiflora hornbeam, it is easy to imagine the ground thawing and trees reawakening. The branches will soon turn light green as photosynthesis resumes. Spring will burst forth in earnest when yellow flowers appear on the branches of Japanese spice trees. The forest will then be covered in golden ripples of amur adonis while delightful dogtooth violets flaunt their charm. The various

History of the National Arboretum

The National Arboretum was formally opened in 1999. However, its history and that of its resident plant life within date back more than 500 years. In 1469, King Sejo (r. 1455-1468), the seventh king of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910), designated the Kwangnung Forest, the site of today's National Arboretum, as the location for his tomb, thus making the area off-limits. King Sejo is said to have decided on this site based on the principles of geomancy. Perhaps it is truly an auspicious site, as the Kwangnung Forest managed to escape any major damage during the Korean

At the National Arboretum, one can learn all about the world of the forest-

types of bees and butterflies fluttering about in search of flowers, the chattering of mountain birds, and the movement of al~ living organisms energized with a renewed vigor will come together as a surreptitious but majestic symphony of the forest. By this time, the trees that had been patiently awaiting the arrival of spring in the various gardens of the National Arboretum will be eager to create a paradise of blossoms, while the National Arboretum and the encircling Kwangni:'mg Forest will throb with beauty, vitality and life.

War (1950-1953) as well as the extensive deforestation undertaken --by the Japanese colonial authorities. Following the Korean War, the Kwangnung Forest has been maintained as a forest reserve for the study of forestry in Korea. The Kwangnung Arboretum was opened in 1983 in response to the public's heightened interest in nature and a growing awareness of the need for a state-managed arboretum commensurate with the nation's economic development. Another motivation was to provide the public with a setting where 67

they could feel and experience the wonders of Korea's diverse flora. The arboretum, comprising 15 specialized botanical gardens, a forestry museum and a wildlife garden with an area of 500 hectares, was managed by the Forestry Research Institute. It rapidly gained popularity among the general public, who suffered from a serious lack of areas to enjoy and study nature, which contributed to the opening of arboretums and botanical gardens throughout the country. Korea has undergone considerable changes over the last 10 years or so. In particular, the public have come to realize how they had taken the nation's mountains and rivers for granted, and the extent to which they lacked a proper attitude toward the importance of preserving our natural plant resources. Experts as well as the general public reached consensus on the urgent need for the establishment of a national institution .that would systemically and comprehensively manage, study and preserve botanical resources, and also develop plants with commercial value. Meanwhile, the arboretum found itself being overrun by hordes of visitors, making the preservation of its natural environment especially difficult.

Preserving the Kwangn l'wg Forest became a priority mandate, while the need for an institution to properly manage and preserve its resources became increasingly urgent. In response to this situation, Kwangnung Arboretum was reborn as the National Arboretum, an independent institution, on May 24, 1999 amid the lofty expectations and encouragement of the public. Kwangnung Forest

The first thing to be mentioned when talking about the National Arboretum should be the rich diversity of living organisms within Kwangnung Forest, which comprises the arboretum site. The Kwangnung Forest can be divided into two sections: the natural forest and the planted forest. The natural forest features the highest level of biodiversity per unit area in Kmea, and is renowned as a unique forest reserve for academic study. Some people even say that studies of the classification of living organisms and the production of documentary nature films would not have been possible in Korea were it not for this forest. The forest is an ancient one, having been isolated from outside influences for over 500 years. It was from this forest that biologists began to

study the lineage and origin of the forests in the nation's central regions. It is also the birthplace of botanical classification in Korea, with the lÂˇelatively small area being home to more than one-fifth of the nation's indigenous plant life. The high number of plant species at the very bottom of the food chain allowed all biota to flourish in the Kwangnting Forest, helping it to become a treasure trove of biodiversity. The planted forest is highly significant as well. A nursery was created in Kwangnung in 1913, which was placed under the control of the Forestry Experiment Station in 1922. A variety of endemic and foreign afforested trees including ornamental trees and shrubs, were experimentally grown in the nursery and transplanted to other parts of Korea. The parents of trees now growing all across the nation are still preserved and managed in the planted forest, which is indeed the cradle of Korea's forestry. As mentioned, the Kwangni.'wg Forest is not only home to a great variety. of trees, but also plants endemic to Kwangnung. Consequently, there are many plants whose names include the word Kwangni.'mg, such as Kwangnung Cypr.iped.ium and Kwangnung Ash. In

addition, many rare plant species can be found here including gastrodia and Korean white azalea. A large stream, Hwangsuk Stream, flows along the front of the Kwangnung Forest In the pas~ the water was so pristine that Moroco oxycephalus and other species of fish thrived in abundance, but they are rarely seen today. It is still common, however, to see families of Mandarin ducks (Natural Monument No. 327). The stream is also the only local habitat for the globally rare Tristram woodpecker and Jangsu long-horned beetle, the only insect designated a natural monument in Korea. The Kwangnung Forest, including the National Arboretum, encompasses an area of 2,240 hectares. Entry into the forest is restricted except for special academic researcl:i purposes. National Arboretum's Botanical Gardens and Forestry Museum

Abo.u t ,100 hectares of the National Arboretum are open to the public. This area is large enough that visitors find it difficult to properly observe every corner in a single day. It includes 15 specialized botanical gardens and the famed Forestry Museum. The gardens are categorized according to plant type, charac-

teristics and usage; for example, there are separate gardens for conifers, lianas, ornamentals, edible plants and medicinal plants. There is also a garden for the sight-impaired and a greenhouse for subtropical plants. About 2,000 different types of endemic and foreign plants reside within the arboretum. The Forestry Museum was established to permanently maintain historical forestry data and to offer education on forestry subjects. It was developed entirely with Korean technology and materials. When the Forest Herbarium is completed this year, the National Arboretum will play an even more significant role as a botanical research center. Activities

A common misconception of the public is that the National Arboretum's role is limited to exhibiting and managing various plant resources, but this is only an extremely small part of its overall functions. As mentioned earlier, the National Arboretum is a research institution that was established with the goal of conserving and maintaining all the plant life of Korea. It studies, classifies, grows and exhibits plants with a nationwide scope, while conducting research activities accordingly. It is also

The For~ty Museum (opposite page) A garden of ornamental plants (left).

the center of a national network linking together the numerous botanical gardens and arboretums in Korea, and at Âˇ the same time responsible f or registering botanical information and overseeing the introduction and export of plants as well as related international activities. The National Arboretum has planned a wide range of programs for this year, including the establishment of an information network of national plant resources for the systematic recordation of related information, research projects to preserve rare and endemic plants, and a detailed study of the biota of the Kwangni:'mg Forest. It will also present a number of special exhibitions, following last year's Herb Exhibition. A Reminder for Visitors

The National Arboretum's natural appearance changes with the seasons. The landscpe ~ of spring, when the forest becomes a paradise of flowers, has already been described. The arboretum's main attractions during summer include splendid patches of lilies and the refreshing cool of shade trees. In fall when the leaves begin to turn, the entire forest is a kaleidoscope of brilliant color. The leaves display a wide spectrum of vibrant colors and hues, which is only natural given the diverse variety of trees. Of these, the tirflorum maple plays a lead role in enhancing the glorious autumn scenery. This tree is easily recognizable by its triple set of small leaves. Endemic to the Kwangnung Forest, this maple features exceptionally beautiful red leaves. Trees in Korea with especially pretty red leaves are most likely to be the tirflorum maple. In winter, the forest, albeit cold, offers an ideal setting for quiet walks, while visitors can also enjoy a different sensation-seeing the trees standing bare in the silent forest. Anyone with an interest in botany should visit the shrub garden where many trees are classified according to their characteristics, as well as the

Soribong Peak, a biological treasure trove (top) Above, from left: Curydalis; dogtooth violet (or Erythronuim); Amur Adonis.

flower garden that simply bursts forth with all sorts of flowers in spring. The hydrophyte garden offers an educational forum in summer for those interested in rare hydrophyte plants and insects. It should be noted that the National Arboretum now admits only visitors who have made advance reservations and only on weekdays. The reservation system was implemented as part of the efforts to ensure the preservation of the Kwangnung Forest and prevent it from becoming an amusement park. Reservations must be made five days in advance (Tel: 0357540-1114). Of note, the National Arboretum offers valuable services under a program that provides benefits with comprehensive information about the forest, together with a small map and a handbook A Moving Encounter with Nature

The first thing many people recall about the National Arboretum is the long line of tall needle firs on both sides of the access road that seem to touch the sky. Urbanites, so used to a numbing forest of concrete structures, are often overwhelmed at the procession of deep green trees that appears to be a picturesque scene from a movie or an environmental ad promoting a green earth. But this is only the beg inning of the National Arboretum's wealth of resources. Visitors will encounter all sorts of trees and flowers in its numerous botanical gardens, and tree upon tree standing in profound harmony on gently sloping hills and promenades scattered throughout the arboretum. It should be remembered that the National Arboretum is not intended for amusement or entertainment, but for enabling personal communication with nature while learning about and experiencing its wonders. The efforts of many people working at the Arboretum to conserve and maintain Korea's plant resources should be appreciated as well. + 71

NATIONAL TREASURE

Jars that Reflect the Sentiments ofKorean Mountains and Rivers

White MoonÂˇFaced Porcelain Jars Chung Yang-mo Director General, The National Museum of Korea

orea has been called a "country of jars." Until recently, jars could be seen everywhere. In particular, large and small white moon-faced porcelain jars could be found decorating woodfloored halls in addition to being stored on kitchen shelves and in storehouses. The painted jars on the tops of rice chests as well as the glazed earthenware and crockery jars in kitchens, on sauce jar terraces and around wells, all were round, exuding a warm, generous feeling of abundance. In literature of the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910), one comes across such terms as paekjajun (white porcelain goblet), paeksadaejun (grand porcelain goblet), and ch'6nghwasa taejun (white and blue goblet). These refer to the white porcelain vessels that today are called paekja hangari, paekja ho, and ch'6nghwa hangari. Until recently, they were commonly called white porcelain jars, or simply porcelain jars. Celadon jars have an appeal all their own, but I believe that white jars are what captures the hearts of people today. White jars are generous, with an air of luxury. They are as bright as the full moon, but have the charm of being a bit incomplete, like the moon of the 13th or 17th day. There is a sense of an all-encompassing warmth that embraces all things. In fact, they are like a person of warmth and generosity. I think our ancestors, who pos72

sessed these characteristics, sought to express such sentiments as they shaped the clay. Chason Dynasty jars show different characteristics depending on their respective era. Jars made from the 15th to the early 17th century, the early Chason period, feature unique colors and shapes, whereas jars made from the late 17th century to the early 18th century, the mid-Choson period, reveal different traits. The same is true of jars made from the late 18th century to the 19th century, the late-Choson period. The beauty of the jars from all three different periods appeal to our aesthetics with their handsome moon-faced look and colors. However, the white porcelain jars from the middle period are especially exceptional. White jars can be divided into two types based on their shape. The first is round from top to bottom, giving a clear impression of abundance. The second is tall, with a round, full upper body that is tapered toward the bottom. The Chason period jars are all attractiv:e, but my favorite are round, opulent jars called moon-faced jars. The early-Choson jars are rather on the small side, with a round body, a large base and a mouth that curves outward. The top-quality ones have a color reminiscent of snow that glistens in the bright morning sun. The large jars of the late period have a higher mouth and oval shape, while the smaller ones have a round body with a tinge of

blue in the white glaze. The moon-faced jars of the midChoson period reflect an exquisite harmony between their mouth, body and base. Although their round, generous body may be typical, they have distinctive characteristics as well, which sets them apart from those Âˇof other periods. There are two kinds. The first has a mouth that rises a bit at a slant, as if opened slightly, with gently flowing upper body lines. The second kind has a low mouth slanted 45 degrees toward the outside, but the contour and the acute angle are very soft. Both forms are very natural, with the diameter of the mouth being rather wide compared to the diameter of the base. The body was put together after separately producing the upper and lower sections. The upper section is fuller than the lower section, while the base is rather high. White porcelain wares are baked in a kiln at about 1,300'c. Countless variations take place depending on the structure of the kiln, firing method, Âˇwood used for the fire, potter's experience in feeding a fire and eye for the fire, as well as the clay, glaze, season and wind conditions. If any one of these variables differs, a completely different color and shape might result. If mid-Choson moon jars are closely examined one by one, they are all somewhat different, but as a group they share a well-shaped body and bright white color. The potters who

created them seem to have had supernatural skills; the jars seem as if they were produced by Nature itself. Âˇ Ancient Koreans lived as ~ me with nature. Their lives exemplified nature itself, with its beauty being captured in their arts. It is a beauty that reflects the wind, the trees that change with the seasons, flowing water and the vast sea. This unique beauty was attained through an exquisite harmony with the natural order of nature. In particular, they never went against nature, tried to alter nature with human influence or sought to dominate it. Such sentiments underlie the creation of the mid-Choson period moon jars. Without any artificiality or ostentatiousness, the potters molded jars by entrusting themselves to the movement of the spinning wheel, shaped them naturally and baked them in a kiln. They did not pursue perfection or exactitude. Tl}e jars' powerful aura came from the potters' surrender to the movement of the spinning wheel. Such natural beauty is not achieved overnight, however. The white porcelain, which began to be produced in the early Chason period, changed gradually over time, and after hundreds of years, jars that befit Korean landscapes, life and sentiments came to be created. Some say that these jars characterize the eldest daughter-in-law of a grand household, who makes sure that everything functions in harmony, while others say the jars look refreshing like a summer breeze. Still others think they look like a full moon. When I see the jars, I envision a snowwhite cumulous cloud in a corner of the sky after a shower on a sweltering summer day. I can also imagine the ocean, a lake, a river, a snow-covered mountain and the wind. The mid-Choson moon-faced jars have a sÂˇnow-white skin. They have a mouth of adequate height, opening toward the outside, and a high base that supports its generous, full body.

The beauty of the jars from all three different periods appeal to our aesthetics with their handsome moon-faced look and colors. However, the white porcelain jars from the middle period are especially exceptional.

White porcelain jar, 18th century. Height 40.7 em

The mouth is gentle, with a manner that gives Jl nice touch to the entire flow of the jar. The voluminous upper body looks as if some powerful force is about to emerge. Although the upper section and the lower section are produced separately and then combined, there is a natural flow from top to bottom like soft music. Sometimes the jars look rather incomplete, or even comical, a unique Korean aesthetic. The proportion of

the base that supports an oversized body, the mouth and the body create an indescribably elegant harmony. Ancient Koreans sometimes created beauty with colorful compositions like autumn foliage, but they also found beauty in t'he simplest forms, such as in moon-faced jars. The white porcelain jars of the Chason period are robust and brilliant. The Chason craftsmen created smile-invoking forms, artless like the wind or water. + 73

JAr t

Review I

A Time Capsule of

orean Archetnes Kim Young-jai Art Critic

rom December 10, 1999 to February 27, 2000, "Portraits from Prehistory to Modern Time: Koreans by Koreans- A Special Exhibition for the New Millennium" was held at the Hoam Museum. The 80-day exhibition featured 201 works: 135 pieces of ancient art, and 66 works of modern and contemporary art. Linking the previous millennia with the new, Hoam's ambitious exhibition presented the artistic sensibility of Koreans who sought to portray Korea as it really is, through the Korean people. The Hoam Museum of Art is Korea's premier fine arts museum. True, the past few years have seen the opening of the Samsung Gallery in the Victoria and Albert Museum in Britain and the Arts of Korea gallery at New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art, but still, it is the Hoam Museum that comes to mind when one thinks of Korean art. Hoam's reputation lies not only in its vast collection, but also in the strength of its exhibitions and programs, which plumb not only the past in Korean art, but movements from East and West, past and present. "Portraits from Prehistory to Modern Time" was a sweeping exhibition encompassing works from various eras and genres, from pre-historical artifacts to contemporary works of art, from sculpture to children's ere74

The exhibition offered viewers a glimpse of how each period contributed to the Korean people's sense of identity and the nation's cultural archetypes.

ations. At first glance, the exhibition seemed to be a group of works loosely organized into makeshift or illdefined genres and time periods. The exhibition was particularly noteworthy in two regards. First, it was deliberately structured loosely so visitors could freely browse around as they pleased. The organizers produced a kind of time capsule, filling it with some of the more notable or representative works of different periods or genres, but without any overarching themes or obtrusive background information. Thus, the visitor could enjoy a particular work without the burden of having to label or categorize it, appreciating it entirely on its own merit and appeal. Those interested in additional information could refer to the exhibition catalogue or to Hoam's web site ( www.hoamm useum.org). Second, the exhibition did an outstanding job of explaining .the historical context and cultural background Âˇo f the different eras in Korea's history. Korean history is commonly presented as a progression of eras, from the prehistoric age to the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), followed by the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392), the Chos6n Dynasty (1392-1910), and today's Republic of Korea. The exhibition offered viewers a glimpse of how each period contributed to the Korean people's sense

jAr t Review of identity and the nation's cultural archetypes. â&#x20AC;˘ The Korean people are believed to be descendants of two branches of a Mongoloid Altai-linguistic tribe who settled on the Korean peninsula. The native tribes originating from Ozero Baikal migrated across Siberia southward to Korea and mixed with the Dong-i (Tong Yi) people who crossed what is now Shantung and reached the Korean peninsula. A painting of a m udang, or female shaman, by Pak Saeng-kwang alludes to these roots, as shamanism was an intrinsic element of the Altaic culture and civilization. Chang Ucchin's painting of the sun, the moon, a tiger and a magpie is a representation of Dong-i beliefs and practices; the sun being a reference to sun worship and the magpie being a messenger of good tidings from heaven. Although the tiger could be seen as an exorcist, in this case it is a symbol of the Korean people. Against this backdrop, one can sense the long-held, deep-rooted influence of Korea's patriarchal social order, and its by-product, an obsession with having sons. The oldest known representations of the Korean people are carvings of faces incised on vessels made from bone, dating from the 14th century " B.C. to the Bronze Age in the 11th century B.C. These are the first known portraits of the Korean face. During the Three Kingdoms and Shilla periods, Buddhism contributed to a flourishing of Korean arts. Temples such as Hongnyunsa were decorated with characters depicting faces, stone Boddhisattvas, gilt-bronze standing Buddha statues and other images. So lifelike and skilled were these images that it was often said that Shilla and neighboring Paekche were pure Buddha lands, and that these Buddhas and Boddhisattvas bore the smiles of Shilla and Paekche. Also emerging from this period

Confucian scholar Yun Tu-so's self-portrait (above). Carvings of faces incised on vessels and implements made from bone are the oldest known representation of the Korean people (opposite page).

Review I were clay figurines known as to-u. The female figure foun1 at a burial chamber in Hwangsong-dong is meant to symbolize Shilla women. During the Shilla Kingdom, there was a transitional shift from a matrilineal society to a patrilineal orientation. judging from the figure's shy, laughing form , it appears that it was a substitute for a live person who would have been buried with the dead. The practice of burying live people with the dead, known as sunjang, was abolished under Shilla's 22nd king, but prior to that, it had been the custom for five women and five men to be buried alive in the tomb of a king. Sunjang was rooted in a Chinese practice, which can be traced back to the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. Why did Shilla adopt this Chinese custom? The answer relates to the fact that Koreans were descendants of the Dong-i people. At their peak during the Shang Dynasty, the Dong-i occupied most of .the Chinese mainland. In fact, among the 10,000 different tribes that inhabited China during the Shang Dynasty, some 9,000 were said to be Dong-i. As their influence waned through the Chin Dynasty, the Dong-i retreated to the Shantung and Korean peninsulas. Consequently, it was because of the Dong-i influence that such practices as sunjang became part of Shilla. One of the representative works of the Koryo Dynasty is a celadon piece decorated with stars and calligraphy in the shape of lotus flowers. During the Koryo period, the golden age of Korea 's internationally renowned celadon, works were decorated with lotus flowers and other symbols of Buddhism, the state religion. Because the lotus flower emerges pristine from muck and mire, it symbolizes the purity of Buddhism. As such the seats of Buddhas or Boddhisattvas take the form of a lotus flower pedestal. In this Koryo piece, a young monk holds a 76

A painting of King Chongjo leading a grand procession home from visiting his mother's grave

vessel shaped like a lotus. The Chinese character for "lotus pip," or fruit of the lotus, sounds like the character for "young monk" The word play thus is a supplication for sons to be born one after another. Why sons? In agricultural societies such as Korea's, it was a male's physical capacity that provided the necessary labor; thus, collectively, male labor was considered a valuable asset and the source of national

strength. Sons were necessary to carry on the family line, and to pay filial homage to one's parents and ancestors. After all, only sons could properly conduct the memorial ceremonies known as chesa. Clearly, sons played a central role in Korean society, while becoming the foundation of the patriarchal nature of Korea's agrarian economy. The Buddhist-oriented society of the Koryo Dynasty was succeeded by the Confucian-oriented society of the Chason Dynasty, which was symbolized by the Confucian scholar. In those days, Na1nsan Mountain was the designated home for scholars who failed the national civil examination for government appointment. A popular image was the unsuccessfu.J scholar, teeth clattering and cursing the cold while studying the Four Books, Three Classics and other classic Chinese texts in th e dead of winter. The lofty images of such government officials as Yun Tu-so, Kim Chae-no and Song Shiyol were displayed with others as well. A portrait of the scholar Yi Uikyong in the fashion of a monk , reportedly painted by the monk Saekmin, is a reminder of the subtle influence that Buddhism continued to exen on the Chason Dynasty, despite its outwardly anti-Buddhist rhetoric. Occupying a loftier position than the scholar was the royal family. This is apparent in a painting in which King Chongjo leads a grand procession home from visiting his mother's grave. Âˇ Also displayed is a painting of a scholar's lifetime in Confucian society. At the bottom of the painting are peasants and tradesmen, the grassroots of Chason society. This was the essence of Chason's feudal agrarian culture, which was strictly a man's world. In such a society, women were relegated to being child bearers, preferably of sons. The status of women is quite appar-

lA r ent in a painting of a woman who proudly exposes her breasts .â&#x20AC;˘ At first glance, this is a portrait of a healthy new mother with sturdy bones and ample breasts. But in reality, the source of her obvious pride is the fact that she has a son to nurse, and in fact, women with sons would expose their breasts proudly. Here as well, the subtext of this painting is the patriarchal order. In Choson society, males were valued not only for their physical labor, but for the fact that only the sons of upper-class families were eligible to take the national civil service examination. Those who passed the exam secured not only success for themselves, but the reputation and honor of their family name as well, leading to wealth and political power. Also from the Choson Dynasty is a wooden sculpt ~ e of a young monk conducting a religious service in a Buddhist temple. Before him there would have been Choson women praying for sons. Since the Shill a Kingdom, women who bore male twins or triplets were awarded a special commendation: the king would grant them huge quantities of rice, for Âˇ~ after all, males were the source of the nation's strength. The Choson Dynasty ended with ""' the Japanese occupation of Korea. Artists were among those who clamored loudest for independence. Yi Insong and Pak Sang-ok, among others, asserted Korea's sovereignty by virtue of its yellow soil. This yellow soil is from the accumulation of yellow sand from China built up over hundreds of thousands of years. It is said to have medicinal, almost spiritual, qualities that can revive the dying and fortify the living. It is no exaggeration to say that yellow soil, and even the color yellow, ate symbols of Korea. Yi K'wae-dae evokes a different sort of patriotism in his painting of a Koguryo cave painting with horses

Review

occupation. After the Korean War, Korean society underwent profound upheaval in the transition from its agrarian roots to an industrialized economy, and then again to an information-based society. The Korean War also served to obliterate the rigid class distinctions which characterized Choson society. The status of women improved markedly as a result, although upward mobility was restricted by the patriarchal social system still in place today. Although this was true of urban women, virtually nothing changed for women in rural communities. A sculpture of a peasant woman by Yun Hyo-jung depicts her tranquil but unyielding character, not unlike the harsh land she plies. Similarly, Kim Kwan-uk's

Agriculture is the Foundation of the World, Lee Chong-gu, 1984

and birds. The Koguryo cave painting is suffused with the spirit of the proud Koguryo people, who at one time occupied much of northeast China, with the birds symbolizing the sun. The sun and birds in this painting serve as an allusion to greater Siberia, of which Korea is a part, since sun and bird worship were integral aspects of the culture of this region. "Dong-i" in Korean means "bird person." In the painting, a sun priest is dressed in full plumage li~e a bird as he presides over a ceremony to worship the sun. Such ceremonies were customary in Dong-i culture. The subject of a So Chin-dal painting is a woman who has unflinchingly borne eight sons and daughters. The unspoken hope is that sons like hers will bring about liberation. This was indeed the heartfelt wish of painters during the dark days of the Japanese

Clay figurine, Kyongju National Museum

lA rt

Review I

portrait of an elderly woman seems to epitomize 5,000 years o.J trials and tribulations, her face a mirror of Korea's turbulent history. Lee Chong-gu's painting on sacks of government-subsidized rice graphically depicts the suffering borne by Korean people during the 1970s, just as Park Chung-hee's industrialization policies were being launched. So Yong-son portrays the defeatism of

Book Review

those who can only watch helplessly as urbanization, industrialization and the ensuing information age transform their nation beyond recognition in the 1980s. In contrast, Paik NamJune seems to call on Koreans to take on a proactive, leadership role in the information age. His installation features a video based on the life of Choson Dynasty inventor Chang Yong-shil, displayed on monitors

which are assembled to look like a Âˇ Korean face, the face of Korea in the 21st century. Thus, did this ambitious exhibition pay tribute to the Koreans who gave life to the nation's 5,000-year history. But beyond that, the exhibition was also a revelation of what can be expected at the threshold of the 21st century, based on the foundation of this 5,000-year legacy. +

Appreciating the Cultural Heritageof KyOngju

~mesof

Translated by Charles M. Mueller

the Baby Buddha

Suzanne Crowder Han Writer and Translator

Kyongju, a small town in the southeastern province of Kyongsangnam-do, is one of the loveliest and most interesting places in Korea. Its many hills, valleys and mountains are dotted with the remains of ternples, palaces, fortresses, pagodas, and royal tombs dating from the time it was the capital of Shilla, a kingdom that enjoyed a golden age in the eighth century, shortly after it unified the Korean peninsula under its rule. Shilla was one of three kingdoms, including Paekche and Koguryo, that dominated the Korean peninsula from the first century B.C. to the seventh century. It adopted Buddhism, which had been introduced to Korea 78

from China about 372, as the state religion in 527. State patronage, chiefly by the royal family, led to a period of temple construction and the flourishing of associated arts that set the stage for a brilliant cultural efflorescence. In the middle of the sixth century, Shilla began a period of exp,ansion that, in a little over one hundred years, brought the whole Korean peninsula under its rule. As Shilla flourished, Kyongju, which was called various names including Sorabol and Kyerim, developed into one of the world's largest cities with a population estimated at about one million. In the middle of the city was the royal palace enclosed by a half moon-

shaped fortress, while along the outskirts were pavilions and gardens where the royal family and members of the court enjoyed banquets and get-togethers. It was at one of these pavilions that the kingdom virtually came to an end in 927 when Kyongae, its next to the last ruler, Âˇ was forced to fall on his sword by a rebel leader seeking to restore one of the earlier kingdoms. The attack was the result of the decadence of the ruling class who had grown to ignore the welfare of the people and the nation as a whole. From around 900, rebel leaders tore the kingdom apart and set up their own kingdoms, Latter Paekche and Latter KoguryO. Wang Kon, the leader of

Latter Koguryo, attacked and defeated Latter Paekche, and in 9.3-5 accepted the abdication of Kyongsun, Shilla's last king. Such was the beginning of Koryo and the end of Shilla. Shortly thereafter, the ex-Shilla capital began to be called Kyongju. Kyongju is my favorite place in Korea. In rriy 23 years in Korea, I have probably visited there at least 23 times. Reading Smiles of the Baby Buddha: Appreciating the Cultural Heritage of Kyongju by Yu Hongjune is like revisiting Kyongju with my Kyongju friends who told me little-known facts and stories about its different sites and their restoration. Smiles of the Baby Buddha is an entertaining guide to some of Korea's most cherished sites and monuments. The author ·goes beyond the formal explanations of relics generally found in guide books, weaving in personal stories, observations and experiences along with academic discussion to make it easier to gain an intimate sense of Korea's history and culture. His humorous, and often cynical, comments add much to the overall readability of the book. The book is conveniently divided into two sections: an extensive introduction, which provides an overview of Kyongju's geographical location, history, and cultural relics, and a three-part section comprising essays that provide deeper insight into the unique features of Kyongju and Korean culture. In the essays, Yu discusses in an entertaining, somewhat conversational, fashion, the construction and intrinsic beauty of Kyongju's representative cultural artifacts and how each relic has been preserved, or in some cases, altered or even damaged. For example, in introducing the elegant Sokkat'ap Pagoda (National Treasure

21), which stands before the main hall of Pulguksa Temple, he provides an account of how robbers using power tools tried to break into the pagoda to steal any treasures it might contain, and how a team of cultural assets experts, using bamboo poles and a wooden telephone pole, subsequently broke one of its roof-stones while trying to restore the pagoda to its original state. Although the essays can help foreigners gain an intimate sense of Korea's exotic history and culture, they were,not originally written for foreign readers. They were taken from a series written by Yu entitled My Exploration of Cultural Heritage. Yu published the first volume of this series in 1993 in an attempt to arouse Koreans' interest in their own culture and, much to Yu's surprise, it was a big hit and became a million-seller. He has since published two more volumes. Writing

Book Review

about Smiles of the Baby Buddha, Yu said he designed the book "to allow foreign visitors to have an authentic experience of Kyongju during a two- or three-day itinerary." Charles M. Mueller, the translator of this remarkable volume, has done a ·valuable service for Englishspeaking readers. Not only is his translation well-polished, but he has managed to capture Yu's writing style and convey his sharp wit. It would be nice to see him ·and Yu col_laborate to make Yu's other writings available to English readers. Although Changbi, the publisher, is to be commended for making Yu's writing available to English readers, it is advised to put more care into such finer details as paper quality, layout and proofreading. Smiles of the Baby Buddha is definitely a good read and a welcome addition to the growing body of quality books on Korean culture. + 79

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

The Fictional World of

Hwang SOg-yOng Bruce Fulton Adjunct Assistant Professor of Korean Literature University of British Columbia

. .

ore has been expected of Hwang So-gyong than almost any other Korean writer of the pas! quarter century. Ever since the early 1970s, when Hwang began to write stories about the nameless millions on whose backs the Korean "economic miracle" was realized, he has been acclaimed as a champion of the people. This reputation took shape with his 1971 novella "Far from Home" (Kaekchi), was buttressed by such stories as "The Chronicle of a Man Named Han" (Han sshi yondaegi, 1972), "A Dream of Good Fortune" (Twaeji kkum, 1973), and "The Road to Samp'o" (Samp'o kanun kil, 1974), and then solidified by the monumental roman -fleuve Chang Kil-san (1974-1984), about a bandit leader of that name who lived in Choson times (1392-1910). A useful point of departure for an appreciation of this body of fiction is the life of the author himself. Hwang was born in 1943 in Manchuria and lost his father at an early age. His family moved in 1945 to Hwanghae-do province in what is now North Korea, and then in 1949 to the Yongdungp'o district of Seoul. In 1950 the family fled to the city of Taegu after the outbreak of the - Korean War. Hwang's interest in writing developed early, and in 1954 he received an award from a nationwide children's "" literary contest. Also during that year he briefly ran away from home- the first in a series of pilgrimages that has marked his life ever since. Though an honor student at Seoul's prestigious Kyongbok High School, he was not satisfied with school life and in 1962 was expelled. The same year, his story "Near the Rock Marker" (Ipsok pugun) was entered in a new writers' contest sponsored by the journal Sasanggye (World of Thought) and published therein. In 1964 he enrolled in Sungshil University; he eventually graduated from Tongguk University with a degree in philosophy. Also in 1964 he was jailed for political reasons. In prison he met labor activists,

and upon his release he worked at a cigarette factory and at several construction sites around the country. In 1966 he enlisted in Korea's Blue Dragon marine unit and served in the Vietnam War; he was discharged in 1969. He gained renewed attention for his writing when in 1970 his story "Pagoda" (Tap), based on his experiences in Vietnam, captured a prize in a literary arts competition sponsored by the Chason Ilbo. The Vietnam War is also the setting of his novel The Shadow of Arms (Mugi ui kunul, rev. ed., 1992). A series of unauthorized visits to North Korea beginning in 1989 resulted in political exile in Japan, Germany, and the United States. Returning to South Korea in 1993, he was jailed for violating the National Security Law. He was released in 1998 as part of a group ajnnesty granted by President Kim Dae-jung. From 1989 until that time little Wf!S published by or about him. Hwang's varied life experiences and his constant fictional concern with the lives of common people have given him unquestioned legitimacy among a group of fiction writers including Yun Hi:"mggil, Yi Mun-gu, Cho Se-hui, Cho Chongnae, Yi Mun-yol, and Kim Won-il, who came to prominence in the 1970s with a body of work marked by a keen awareness of social, political, and historical issues. Such is the status accruing to Hwang over his years of literary witness to the cause of laborers and other disadvantaged members of Korean society that the 1985 report on the Kwangju massacre authored by Yi Chae-ui, Beyond Death, Beyond the Darkness of the Times (Chugum ul n6m6, shidae ui 6dum ul n6m6), was initially credited to

Hwang. ' With his very first published story, "Near the Rock Marker," written when the author was a high school student, Hwang began to establish a brand of realism that has roots in some of the earliest modern Korean stories-those of Kim Tong-in, Hyon Chin-gon, and Yom Sang-sop-but that also exhibits a strength of character and power of will

rarely seen in Korean fiction before the publication in 1957 of Sonu Hwi's novella "Flowers of Fire" (Pulkkot). In "Near the Rock Marker," a group of young friends survive a dangerous rock-climb by risking their lives for one another and rejecting the temptation to hammer out handholds to make the climbing easier. Their success suggests to us that a group-here, the team linked by the rope-is more powerful than the sum of its individual members. In his subsequent fiction, Hwang would turn to marginal or outcast figures in Korean society to illustrate this same capacity for integrity and strength of character amid difficult circumstances. "The Chronicle of a Man Named Han" is a poignant example. This long story begins with the death of the protagonist, Han, then backtracks to cover a life of astonishing vicissitudes that initially shows great promise in northern Korea but ends in dismal solitude in the South. Han's separation from his ancestral home in the North justifies the inclusion of this story in the broad category of the literature of territorial division (pundan munhak). Even among the tragedies spoken of by this literature, what is especially noteworthy about this story is the fundamental integrity of a man subjected to the ideologies, cruelty, self-interest, and, eventually, indifference of others. Unlike fictional characters who commit moral lapses that return to haunt them, Han remains true to himself and to his calling when as a young doctor in the newly established North Korea he chooses to save the life of a girl rather than tend to the less serious wounds of a party member- a decision, however, that starts Han's life unraveling. That the outrages visited upon this man are related with calm objectivity in the third-person narrative testifies to the maturity of Hwang's fictional style at that early stage. That style blends an idealistic vision with forceful, often gritty language and realistic depictions of those who, like Hwang himself, have found themselves "far from home." The novella "Far From 81 "

Home," as was mentioned, and "The Road to Samp'o" deal with the lives of itinerant construction workers. The former story deals specifically with a group of laborers involved in a land reclamation project defending themselves from exploitation by unscrupulous foremen. Here, as in "Near the Rock Marker," Hwang hints at the effectiveness of group action. The timeliness of such stories lies in their depiction of the human costs of President Park Chung Hee's economic strategy of export-led development coupled with his New Village Movement, which led in the 1970s to a building boom in the provinces. Many of the construction projects depended on day labor for manpower, and once a project was finished the workers had to journey elsewhere for work The insecu82

rity of this lifestyle and the rapidly changing face of the countryside are reflected vividly at the end of "The Road to Samp'o," when one of the protagonists, returning to his ancestral home after a 10-year sojourn among construction sites scattered about the nation, finds that there no longer exists the Samp'o he once knew. This scene is echoed in "A Dream of Good Fortune" 'when a' squatter neighborhood is razed and literally vanishes within a day. "The Road to Samp'o" is also interesting for its three-dimensional portrait of Paek-hwa, a bargirl and prostitute with a fondness for young soldiers recently released from military prison. Realistic, fully developed female characters who like Paek-hwa are social outcasts are somewhat rare in Korean fiction prior to

the 1970s. More to the point, Hwang's treatment of Paek-hwa speaks to his recognition, reinforced in "A Dream of Good Fortune," that Korean women, once confined to the domestic sphere, have become an important and necessary presence in the workforce. Significantly, at the end of "The Road to Samp'o," when Paek-hwa bids farewell Âˇto her two male traveling companions and departs for home and family and a return to a life of farming, she discards her "work name" of Paek-hwa and reveals her real name-an acknowledgment of her abiding self-respect, which in turn has gained her the respect of the men. Women are also a strong force, within and outside the home, in "A Dream of Good Fortune," which first appeared in

the journal Sedae (This Age) in 1973. The Korean title, "Twaeji kkum" (literally, "pig dream"), refers to a folk belief that a dream in which pigs appear beralds a windfall. The story has three parts, each featuring an unexpected windfall of sorts: a feast for a squatter neighborhood, a henpecked husband's sexual liaison with a young factory woman, and much-needed money to finance a shotgun wedding. The irony is that the third of these windfalls-30,000 won in compensation awarded to Kun-ho, a young factory hand-comes at the expense of Kun-ho's disfigurement in a workplace accident. More generally the story concerns one of the most visible social problems attending the industrialization of South Korea in the 1970s: the mass influx of rural immigrants to urban areas and their establishment of squatter neighborhoods. Distinguishing the residents of these areas-who in some cases emigrated more or less en masse from the same countryside location-is a sense of traditional group solidarity within the neighborhood but a breakdown of traditional values in the commercial areas and factories outside it. The "evil-looking smokestack," "denuded hillside," "great heaps of rubbish," and "grayish wastewater'' mentioned at the beginning of the story are - pointed references to the baggage of unbridled industrialization. Whereas the protagonists of these sto" ries are nonheroic, even antiheroic, Chang Kil-san, the subject of Hwang's magnum opus of the same name, is a figure larger than life. Chang is considered one of the three great bandit leaders of Choson times. Significantly, the other two, Hong Kil-dong and Im Kk6k-j6ng, had earlier received exemplary fictional treatments. "The Tale of Hong Kil-dong" (Hong Kil-dong chOn, c. 1610), attributed to H6 Kyun (1569-1618), is thought to be the first fictional narrative written in han-gUl, the vernacular script. Im, a brigand leader active in the mid-1500s in and around Hwanghae province, is the subject of splendid storytelling by Hong Myong-hlii (1888-1968) in his lengthy Im

Kk6k-jong, serialized in the Chason Ilbo from 1928 to 1939. That Hwang sought in Chang Kil-san to follow upon these hallowed literary precedents with a long work on the third great bandit leader testifies to his links with Korean tradition and suggests that he meant to encapsulate the humble protagonists of his early works in a historical figure noted for his rebellious and independent ways. In The Shadow of Arms, Hwang's last major work before his exile and jailing,

Hwang's varied life experiences and his constant fietiona/ concern with theÂˇ lives of common people ha~e

given him unques-

tioned legitimacy among a grc,up of fiction writers including Yun Hung-gil, Yi Mun-gu, Cho Se-hiii, Cho Chong-nae, Yi Mun-yol, and Kim Won-il, who came to prominence in the 1970s with a body of work marked by a keen awareness of

from the American military presence in South Vietnam in the 1960s and 1970s. In this respect, the parallel with Korea, which itself continues to experience an American military presence, is obvious. Another emphasis of this novel, one that links it to Hwang's stories about workers, is the mercenary nature of South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War. The hard cash earned by the ROK for its role in Vietnam was channeled in large part toward Park Chung Hee's industrialization program. Here as in his earlier stories, Hwang implicitly asks us to consider whether the ends (South Korea's economic progress) justify the means (exploitation of workers at home and soldiers abroad). Upon his release from jail in 1998 Hwang declared his intention to write half a dozen novels based on outlines composed during his confinement. The first is to be based in Hwanghae-do, the author's short-lived childhood home in North Korea, but will take place during the Japanese occupation. It remains to be seen if a subsequent novel will focus on the North Korea of more recent years, based on the author's personal observation. Such a work would provide a fitting capstone to Hwang's tenacious concern with the destiny of the 70 million Koreans now inhabiting the peninsula. For further reading:

social, political, and historical issues.

he turned his attention abroad. This novel, Ahn Jung-hyo's White Badge (Hayan ch6njaeng, 1989), and Yi Sangmun's Yellow Men (Hwangsaegin, 1987), are perhaps the three best-known Korean novels about the Vietnam War. In contrast with the psychological emphasis of White Badge, Hwang's focus in The Shadow of A1ms is primarily economic. Specifically, he describes the black marketeering that emanated

"The Road to Samp'o," trans. Brendan McHale, Korea journal, 17, No. 6 (June 1977), 28-38; also included in The-Road to Samp'o and Other Korean Short Stories, ed.Âˇ Korean National Commission for UNESCO (Seoul: Si-sa-yong-o-sa, 1983), pp. 1-23. The Shadow of Arms, trans. Chun Kyung:Ja (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University East Asia Program, 1994) "The Chronicle of a Man Named Han," trans. Yu Young-nan, Korean Literature Today, Summer 1998, pp. 7-76. + 83

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