Koreana Summer 2003 (English) by The Korea Foundation

[bokjumoney] A Korean traditional pouch which is supposed to biing fortune and wealth.

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Silla Roof-end Tile: 'Smile of Korea' Kim Seung-hee Curator, National Museum of Korea

A roof-end tile, or

Temple site. Why

sumaksae in Korean, is

did a Silla tile maker produce such a

a decorative tile placed at the end of a roof's

unique kind of

eaves. In contrast to the wide, square shape of _an ordinary tile, it, is cylindrical,

roof tile? What was his inspiration as he molded the woma~ debate goes on.

' s

smiling face? The

With somewhat plump cheeks , gently

with a circular end . Roof-end tiles were often

closed eyes, and subtly upturned lips, the

decorated with lotus flower or dragon designs to enhance the

woman conveys a sincere, contented expr~sÂ sion without a trace of affectation or exagger-

building's exterior, or with fearsome goblin

ation. Is it just my imagination that this vivacious smile was meant to brighten the

images intended to scare away evil spirits. In this light,- one would not expect to find a tile adorned with a human face, least of all the brightly smiling face of a woman. This particular tile, known as the "Smile of Korea," was recovered from the Yeongmyosa

Diameter 14 em, Gyeongju National Museum

mood of the house, like the sun itself? After 1,300 years, the smile of the Sill a woman in this small broken roof tile can still strike a resonant chord in our hearts.

Cheongyc

Stream Flows Back to Life

Lee Deok-su

FOCUS

Universiade City Daegu I Lee Tae-soo INTERVIEW

Ballet Choreographer James Jeon I Lee Jong-ho Koreana INTERNET WEBSITE

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Cover: Map of Hanyang: An administrative map of Hanyang (Seoul), the Joseon Dynasty capital, in the 1770s. The gray lines depict Cheonggyecheon Stream and its tributaries, while the red lines indicate roadways. 128.7 x 103.5 em, paint on paper, Ho-am Art Museum

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Year-Old Landmark

yecheon Stream Son Jeong-mok Honorary Professor, University of Seoul Photographs : Office of Cheonggyecheon Restoration

Since the Joseon Dynasty, Cheonggyecheon Stream has undergone extensive renovation and dredging work. The stream began to be covered up in 1958, such that for the past 40-plus years, it has been flowing beneath concrete slabs. This storied stream is about to be reborn through a major restoration project scheduled to begin in July. Summer 2003 I Koreana

Map of Hanyang, a map of Seoul made in 1822. The thin blue line in the center extending from left to right is Cheonggyecheon Stream, while the Hangang River is depicted below.

F .,_

armed by the confluence of smaller streams

flood during the rainy season in summer. In addition,

originating from Mt. Inwangsan in northwest Seoul, Mt. Bugaksan, and Mt. Namsan,

embankments had to be constructed alongside the

Cheonggyecheon Stream flows from west to

stream to control the water flow. Plans for a large-scale construction project were completed in 1411, the 11th

east through the middle of Seoul. During the Goryeo

year of the reign of King Taejong (r. 1400-1418). The

Dynasty (918-1392), Cheonggyecheon was a small,

government established a new department, known as

shallow stream, which sometimes flooded during heavy monsoon downpours. The Korean peninsula does not

Gaecheondogam, to oversee the constructiC?n work, which commenced in January of the following year.

regularly receive significant amounts of precipitation, which was particularly true of Hanyang, as Seoul was formerly known. As such, drainage improvements were unnecessary, since the area was sparsely populated until the end of the Gory eo Dynasty. However, after the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) relocated its capital to Hanyang, the city's rapid population growth necessitated a major transformation of the existing stream. In particular, drainage facilities

Renovation of Cheonggyecheon

Manpower for the first dredging project required some 50,000 military troops mobilized from the Jeollado, Gyeongsang-do, and Chungcheong-do provinces, who completed the work in about a month. The workers cleared out the streambed, enlarged the stream channel, and built stone embankments alongside the upper

had to be built and the streambed dredged to clear away

reaches. They also constructed wooden banks from what is today Cheonggyecheon's third and fourth streets to

the accumulated silt that caused the stream to frequently

Ogansumun, or Five Watergates, and replaced the

6 Koreana I Summer 2003

Facts on Stream Clearing, a journal that documents the reasons for cleaning the stream, the costs, and the mobilization of labor (1764, Gyujanggak) (left).

The Gwanggyo Bridge that used to connect Seoul's Jongno Street with Namdaemun Gate in 1953 (above)

)

Âˇ-

wooden Gwangtonggyo and Hyejeonggyo bridges with

As such, Cheonggyecheon has undergone repeated

stone bridges. Prior to commencement of the

renovation, repair and maintenance over the centuries.

construction, the government undertook detailed

During the Joseon period, the term gaecheon was used

preparations, which included comprehensive protective

as a common noun to refer to man-made wastewater

measures, to ensure the workers' safety. Nevertheless,

systems. Not only Cheonggyecheon, but tributaries such

64 workers died on the job, indicating just how

as Junghakcheon and Cheonguncheon, as well as

demanding the work must have been.

wastewater improvements built in rural villages were all

Such extensive renovation of the stream was by no means an easy task. And even though a drainage system

referred to as gaecheon. With a gaecheon essentially serving as a

w~stear

with stone embankments was installed, Cheonggyecheon

system, it was hardly a clean or attractive waterway,

and its tributaries continued to floo<;i during heavy

being characterized more by its offensive odor. Poor

rainfall. Moreover, the narrow canal flowing beneath the

people and beggars would often settle along gaecheon,

fortress walls caused serious damage, requiring periodic

building mud huts and disposing of their garbage and

repair and maintenance work.

waste into the stream. It is said that even corpses would

The second Cheonggyecheon project was undertaken in

be dumped into these streams. According to

during the fourth year of the reign of King Sejong (r.

Hangyeongjiryak, a late Joseon period geography book of

1418-1450), and continued through February of the 16th

Seoul, it was noted that the king would regularly send rice

year of his reign. This 13-year renovation project was

and dry goods to the residents of gaecheon areas at year-

carried out primarily during the off-peak farming periods.

end to help these needy people get through the winter.

142~

Summer 2003 I Koreana 7

Dming the 16th year rule of the reign of King Sejong,

to landslides with even moderate rainfall. The mud and

1434, a court official named Yi Hyeon-ro submitted a petition to the king, pleading for a solution to

debris from the landslides flowed into Cheonggyecheon, which caused the streambed to reach almost the same

Cheonggyecheon's awful stench, in light of the fact that

level as its banks.

it was an auspicious stream, according to geomancy

A large-scale project to dredge the streambed was

principles, flowing through the center of the city. Several other appeals were presented thereafter, also

commenced in 1760, the 36th year of the reign of King Yeongjo (r. 1724-1776). This 57-day project, undertaken

calling for improvement of the stream. But the

from February 18 until April 15, 1760, involyed the

government, beleaguered with mounting political and financial difficulties, found the project's scale too

mobilization of 150,000 Seoul residents and 50,000

daunting to pursue. Indeed, some 300 years passed before another renovation project was carried out on Cheonggyecheon. During that time, Seoul had been extensively devastated as a r~sult of the Japanese invasions of Korea (15921598) and a conflict with China's Qing Dynasty (16361637). After the Japanese invasions, the mountains encircling Seoul were stripped of vegetation, which led

Korean a I Summer 2003

contract laborers. It was a massive undertaking, which required 35,000 yang, a monetary unit of that time, of project costs, along with 2,300 seok (one seok=144 kilograms) of rice to feed the workers. Local residents and people outside the capital, including those from nearby Gyeonggi-do province as well as Buddhist monks, readily pitched in to assist the largest public works project of the Joseon Dynasty. Affluent families in Seoul also dispatched many of

their household servants to help out. To commemorate the completion of this project, "Gyeongjin jipyeong"

Cheonggyecheon endured endless trials and tribulations during the 500-year-history of the Joseon Dynasty.

was inscribed in Chinese characters on a support column of the Supyogyo bridge. Gyeongjin refers to

Bridges across Cheonggyecheon

the 36th year of the reign of King Yeongjo, while jipyeong served as a benchmark for monitoring the

There were several distinctive stone bridges within the four main gates of Seoul during the Joseon period. A

stream's water level.

number of these were preserved intact through the end

Upon the completion of this renovation work, King Yeongjo established Juncheonsa, an official government

of the Japanese colonial period (191 0-1945). Called Myeonggyecheon during the Japanese colonial period,

office, to oversee the periodic maintenance of the

there were more than 10 bridges across Cheonggyecheon

stream. The office included six high-level officials who served as working-level staff and three ministers

Stream, including Mojeongyo, Daegwangtonggyo , Jangtonggyo, Gwangjegyo, Supyogyo, Saedari,

designated as honorary advisers. The government also

Hyogyeonggyo, and Ogansugyo, all of which were the

divided the stream into segments and assigned three

subject of many a historical episode or memorable

military units to be responsible for dredging and

incident.

maintenance work. According to Annals of the Joseon Dynasty ,

The most noteworthy of these bridges included the Gwangtonggyo, which was once the largest bridge in the

Cheonggyecheon Stream was dredged eight times after

capital; Supyogyo, which monitored the water level of

the birth (1752) of King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800).

the stream; and Ogansugyo, which was situated above the Ogansumun Watergate. They were all exceptionally

Although the stream was a popular setting for the people of Joseon to enjoy kite-flying and "bridge-stumping,"

attractive structures. Of these, Ogansugyo was the first to

Âˇ ~

Women doing their laundry in Junghakcheon, the upper waters of Cheonggyecheon (opposite page left) Jangtonggyo during the Daehan Empire (1897-1910) (opposite page top right) A walkway atop a bank of Cheonggyecheon during the Joseon era Âˇ(opposite page . bottom right) Ogansumun, or Five Watergates, near Dongdaemun Gate in 1900 (right)

Summer 2003 I Koreana

During the Joseon period, there were

be dismantled in 1907, based on the recommendation of

several bridges, large and small,

a Japanese civil engineer who determined that the canal

overCheonggyecheon, including Gwangtonggyo and Supyogyo.

beneath the fortress wall running toward Dongdaemun Gate had to be eliminated in order to improve the flow of

It was a popular custom at the time

Cheonggyecheon. In the 1940s, Mojeongyo was

to enjoy bridge-stumping on the

removed when the section of Cheonggyecheon flowing toward Mugyo-dong was covered up. Thereafter,

evening of Jeongwol Daeboreum,

Gwangtonggyo, Jangtonggyo, and Hyogyeonggyo were

the 15th day of the first lunar month,

also dismantled beginning in 1958 when the remainder of Cheonggyecheon was covered up.

while listening to the ringing of the bell of Bosingak Belfry.

In the process of covering up the stream, there was apparently little thought about preserving these historic stone bridges. Moreover, there is no documentation about what happened to the bridges upon their dismantlement. An exception to this was Supyogyo,

Lee Kyong-jae Scriptwriter

Vi An-nul's Romance

strange room and in bed with a strange young woman. Yi hastily

The custom of bridge-stumping was based on a belief that

put on his clothes and hat and attempted to sneak away. The

walking across 12 bridges under the first full moon would ward off

young woman, however, grabbed Vi 's pants and held onto him. Yi

illness and misfortune throughout the year. On Jeongwol

was highly disconcerted; although it was unintentional, he had

Daeboreum, Seoul residents, regardless of age, gender, or social

spent a night with the woman and had to consider her situation. It

rank, would gather at Cheonggyecheon. Countless people walked

was a time when the social practices were extremely strict;

across the bridges amid reverberation of the Bosingak's pealing,

strangers of the opposite gender could not even talk with each

a rare spectacle that took place once a year. The following is a

other. The woman wanted to take her own life for spending a

romantic tale related to this folk custom.

night with a strange man, but her courage failed when she

Yi An-nul was a poet during the reign of King Seonjo (r. 15671608). One Daeboreum when he was young, he and his friends

thought about her parents who had raised her so lovingly: So, she begged Yi to take her away.

got drunk and then walked across the bridges. After parting from

After some thought, Yi took her to his aunt who lived alone in

his friends, Yi tried to find his way home. At the front gate of a

Pil-dong, and asked that she look after the woman until he passed

large house near Cheonggyecheon, he passed out. The house

the gwageo, the state-administered examination for high-level civil

belonged to a middle-class translator named Kim. Kim's daughter

service officials . The woman's parents, meanwhile, were

was married three days earlier, and his son-in-law had gone for a

distraught over their daughter's disappearance without a trace.

brief visit to his parents after completing the wedding ceremony. A

They also received the news that their son-in-law was on his way

house servant mistook Yi An-nul for Kim's new son-in-law when

back from his parents' house. In the end, they decided to tell him

he found him asleep at the doorway and helped him to the bride's

that their daughter had suddenly died of an unknown cause in the

room. The bride believed that the drunken man was her husband

middle of the night. Three years later, Yi passed the gwageo. He

and slept with him.

then went to his parents and the woman's parents, confessed

Later, Yi An-nul woke up and was shocked to find himself in a

10 Koreana I Summer 2003

what had transpired, and married the woman.

whose significance was recognized. The 7-meter-wide,

King Sejong Memorial Hall in 1973, and designated

27-meter-long bridge that crossed over Cheonggyecheon

Treasure No. 838 on August 3, 1985. Supyogyo in

between 43 Supyo-dong and 20 Gwancheol-dong, was

Jangchungdan Park was designated Seoul City Cultural

especially elegant, appearing like a wooden bridge from

Property No. 18 in June 1973. Today, the original site of

afar. It was a favored site for such folk customs as

Supyogyo is called Supyo-dong and Gwansu-dong, and

bridge-stumping and flying kites, and there are

a children's park in the area is named Supyo Park.

numerous episodes related to the folk customs and

The Cheonggyecheon restoration project calls for the

measuring the stream's water level at the bridge. Due to

rebuilding of the Mojeongyo , Gwangtonggyo,

its cultural and historical significance, the bridge was

Jangtonggyo, and Ogansugyo bridges. They will not

handled with special care. Thus, Supyogyo, together

look exactly the same as before, however, due to

with its column for measuring the water level, have

changes in the width of the stream channel as well as the

been preserved_.

widths of the bridges. As such, it is unlikely that

Supyogyo was first rebuilt in Hongje-dong, and then relocated to Jangchungdan Park in 1965. The water-

Supyogyo will be returned from Jangchungdan Park to its original location.

measurement column was later installed as part of the

Punishment of Corrupt Officials

It was customary during the Joseon period to punish people who broke the law or stole from the government or others by boiling them in water. This punishment, known as paeng-

hyeong, was carried out at the Hyejeonggyo bridge, which spanned Junghakcheon, an upper tributary of Cheonggyecheon. The wrongdoer was stuffed into a cauldron that was set atop a pile of firewood. This horrifying punishment was said to have continued until the early 20th century. Most of the people subjected to this particular form of punishment were corrupt government officials. However, according to a firsthand account by a foreign

missionary who witnessed this

punishment, paenghyeong was not an actual

Bridge-stumping was a favorite pastime among Seoul residents.

""boiling in water."" There was no way of knowing whether the cauldron contained water, and although firewood was placed under the cauldron, it was not actually.lit.

would pronounce that the punishment was over. When the punishment ended, the criminal's family, who had

Even in the past, Jongno was a major, busy street, like it is

been mingling among the crowd of onlookers, came forward and

today, and it was here that corrupt government officials were

opened the lid to remove the hapless victim, all the while wailing

punished. A high fireplace was built in the middle of Hyejeonggyo,

grievously. They then placed the person upon a wooden board

which essentially served as the Jongno intersection, and a

normally used for burying the dead. From then on, the criminal

cauldron large enough to fit a person was hung over a stack of

had to act dead without uttering a word. Although no grave was

firewood in the fireplace. A military tent was set up where

dug for the victim, he was deemed as dead from that day on, and

lawbreakers were individually interrogated by the police chief.

even if he had children, they were considered illegitimate. The

When the questioning was over, policemen crammed the criminal,

Joseon Dynasty used this symbolic form of punishment to deter

who was tightly bound with ropes, into the cauldron, closed the

citizens from the temptation of corruption.

lid, and pretended to light the fire. After sometime, the police chief

Summer 2003 I Koreana 11

fter forcibly gaining control of Korea in

became home to the main royal palace and goyemment

19~,

institutions. The residences of high-ranking bureaucrats

"clear valley water," on the stream that used

were found clustered north of the stream as well. The southern reaches of the stream, from where it was

to be simply referred to as gaecheon, or wastewater

necessary to cross a bridge to reach the royal palace and

stream. After proclaiming this new name, however, the Japanese .authorities did not do anything to maintain the

government institutions, was crowded with homes of low-level yangban, of the bureaucracy, as well as

stream. As a result, the stream remained neglected for

commoners including merchants and rutisans. There was also a buffer zone, with the areas alongside

the Japanese authorities bestowed the pleasing name Cheonggyecheon, meaning

more than 10 years after the Daehan Empire (the former Joseon Dynasty) last dredged the streambed in 1909. It

the stream in Jongno forming the central commercial

was only in 1918 that the authorities proceeded to

district of Seoul during the J oseon Dynasty. This

dredge the Cheonggyecheon streambed as a public

included a residential neighborhood of affluent

works project.

merchants and middle- and lower-rank government bureaucrats, along with doctors and translators. Because

Barrier Segregating Seoul

the stream flowed through the center of Seoul, this

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), Cheong-

district was called Jungchon, or central community. The

gyecheon served not only as a physical demarcation but

term jungin was derived from Jungchon, to define a

also a class and cultural barrier for segregating Seoul, or Hanyang as it was called at the time. After the founding

middle class between the ruling yangban elite and regular commoners. The areas alongside the stream

of the Joseon Dynasty, the northern reaches of the stream

were less than ideal for living, however. In addition to

â&#x20AC;˘,. ~ -

ÂŠNational History Compilation Committee

Koreana I Summer 2003

Supyo and Supyogyo Bridge during the Japanese colonial period (opposite page) ~

Rickety shacks stretched ...-,""""",; as far as the eye could see along the banks of Cheonggyecheon in 1965 (right)

't.?":-~>,

~ ~:7-=

the ever-present stench of the stream's wastewater, it

the city altogether. While a growing number of large-size

also was a source of flooding and the spread of

and well-built houses were constructed around the base of

infectious disease. The environment posed an even more

Namsan, the areas alongside Cheonggyecheon quickly

'serious threat along the stream's lower reaches, which

became overcrowded with squalid, makeshift shacks.

were occupied by the city's poorest residents.

Meanwhile, the stream's pollution continued to

When the Joseon Dynasty reluctantly opened up the

worsen. Indeed, the unsanitary conditions posed a

country to the capitalist powers in the late 19th century,

serious health problem, but the Japanese rulers had no

an increasing number of foreigners began to visit SeouL

interest in promoting the health of the Korean people in

However, the government sought to keep foreigners away

this regard. To them, publ_ic welfare was something that

from the royal palace, and thus had foreign missions built

applied only to Japanese. Such modem conveniences as

in the western and southern districts of the stream. As

electricity, street lighting, and paved roads were steadily

such, foreigners began to settle in the areas around the

made available to the Japanese residential areas, while

diplomatic compounds, including a Japanese community

the districts occupied by Koreans were ignored1 even as

that was established south of Cheonggyecheon at the foot

they continued to deteriorate.

of Mt Namsan. In line with Japan's increasing influence

And when the Japanese authorities finally dredged

on Korea, the Japanese community living within the

Cheonggyecheon in 1918, this failed to improve the

fortress walls surrounding Seoul swelled rapidly.

environment around the stream since the silt and waste

Before long, practically all the areas south of

removed from the streambed were simply dumped onto

Cheonggyecheon were taken over by Japanese as they

the streets of the Korean neighborhoods. The streets

drov~

Koreans out of their homes by resorting to every

were covered with this filth, which gave off an offensive

possible means, including coercion as well as fraud. After

odor that was overwhelming. In this regard, Korean

losing their homes, these people were forced to relocate to

newspapers constantly featured scathing criticism about

areas with less attractive living conditions, or move out of

the fact that sprinkler trucks would water down the

Summer 2003 I Koreana 15

eliminated. Moreover, the surfaces atop the embankments served as pathways . Prior to Japanese colonial rule, the stream was not seriously polluted. Whenever the stream's waters flowed cleanly, albeit briefly, following a rainfall, housewives would gather at the stream to do laundry, while their children played in the water. Such carefree scenes of people enjoying the An alley near Cheonggyecheon in the 1960s (left)

.;,o~

!"-

;.,J

â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘s:;.J

Cheonggyecheon started to be covered over in 1958 (opposite page).

Japanese streets in the southern village several times a day, even when it was not necessary, while the streets in the northern district (Korean community), dusty and smelly enough to choke passers-by due to the accumulated sludge removed from Cheonggyecheon, were neglected. Moreover, the problem was that this was precisely the /

intent of the Japanese authorities. They purposefully

benefits of nature in the heart of the city were all too short-lived, however, as Korean society underwent colonial rule and then modernization. The Japanese, upon their establishment of colonial rule of Korea in the early 20th century, regarded Cheonggyecheon simply as a wastewater system that warranted minimal maintenance costs. Although they scoffed at Koreans for doing their laundry and washing vegetables in the stream, the Japanese authorities did not give any thought to improving the water quality. Around this time, the people who had to abandon rural viilages and the urban residents forced out of their homes by Japanese began to resettle nearby Cheonggyecheon. As these people continued to flow into areas adjacent the stream, rickety shanties seemed to fill every available

allowed the streets of the Korean residential areas to degenerate into an "uncivilized state" while installing

nook and cranny.

modern facilities in the Japanese residential areas to

of many problems. The pathways atop the banks, which

create a clear contrast between an "uncivilized Korea"

had always been too narrow, further shrank as structures

and a "refined Japan." In so doing, they sought to inflict

encroached upon their surfaces. On rainy days, telegram

psychological suffering upon the Korean people. Throughout the period of Japanese colonial rule,

messengers on bicyle ~ would often fall off the pathways, while drunks were known to slip and drown

Cheonggyecheon served as a cultural boundary between "Korea and Japan" and "barbarism and civilization." It

in the stream below. The pathways atop the stream embankments came to be known as "killer paths." Still,

also served as a "time" barrier that separated Korea's

no improvements of any kind were built for the safety of

past from its future , as arbitrarily determined by the Japanese authorities.

people. Indeed, Cheonggyecheon came to be called a "cancer of the city."

Cancer of the City

Plans to cover up the stream moved forward when Japan sought to step up its war of aggression. From its

However, the overcrowded conditions were just one

The stone embankments built along both sides of

invasion of Manchuria in 1931 until its final defeat in

Cheonggyecheon in the mid-18th century were a monumental legacy to Korea's exceptional management

World War II in 1945, Japan focused solely on its war efforts. During this period, Seoul served as a major

of urban streams back in the middle ages. Following construction of the stone embankments, the piles of filth

transit point for producing and distributing munitions and supplies for Japan's military. As a result, Seoul's

that used to accumulate along the stream channel were

city limits were noticeably expanded in 1936, which

Koreana I Summer 2003

Cheonggyecheon's pollution worsened steadily after the Korean War, due to the wastewater discharged by nearby households and dye factories . The government, however, was financially incapable of properly maintaining the stream and finally decided to cover it up.

thus required the development of a more extensive

ghetto area and remained so until the late 1970s' when

transportation network.

the stream was completely covered up. Due to the significant numbers of people crammed into

The idea to cover up Cheonggyecheon ..so that this surface could be used as a roadway gained momentum around this time. Although there had been related Âˇdiscussions in the past, the roadway concept was new. In 1905, using the site for commercial activities was

Âˇ-

these areas, sewage disposal became a serious problem. On top of this, countless small manufacturers, including dye factories, operating along Cheonggyecheon would discharge their untreated wastewater into the stream. Despite the fact that Cheonggyecheon ' s pollution

proposed, followed by a suggestion in 1922 calling for the development of entertainment facilities. However, in

continued to worsen, remedial measures were impossible

the end, the covering up of Cheonggyecheon never got

due to the economic devastation wrought by the war.

underway, due to a lack of funds and materials.

Consequently, the only fea.sible alternative at the time was to simply cover up the stream.

Cheonggyecheon Vanishes frorn Sight

The process of covering up the stream began in 1958.

When the Japanese departed upon Korea's liberation

Over the next four years, the central segments of the

in 1945, people intent on seizing new opportunities and those returning to their liberated homeland were

stream from Gwanggyo Bridge to Ogansumun Watergate were covered with concrete, while in 1966 the lower

naturally drawn to the Seoul area. And of course, the houses vacated by the Japanese were hardly enough to

reaches were paved over. This work was completed in 1977, resulting in Cheonggyecheon's disappearance.

accommodate this heavy influx of people. New houses had to be built, but building materials were not readily

The squalor of the shanty towns vanished as well. The once-popular bridges over Cheonggyecheon, cultural

available. The areas alongside Cheonggyecheon

monuments of Seoul's long-ago era, like the rickety

continued to be filled with ramshackle shacks during the period of social turmoil that prevailed in the aftermath

shacks along its banks that were home to the city 's urban poor, have long been removed. G.t

of national liberation and the Korean War (1950-53). Cheonggyecheon was thus home to Seoul's major

Summer 2003 I Koreana

Cheonggyecheon Microcosm of Korea's Modernization in the Heart of Seoul Kim Jang-geun Poet Choi Hang-young Photographer

After Cheonggyecheon was covered over; the surrounding areas became a center for industrial and commercial activities. Tool shops arrived on the scene first, followed by electronics and home appliance outlets, textile and clothing businesses, and folk antique and secondhand shops. age-old, labyrinthine Cheong-

nyone who has walked along Cheonggyecheon

gyecheon area. Just as the Gwanggyo

the time the stream was covered up, machine tool shops; electronics and

Street, wh1ch 1s tightly crammeq with shops of

Intersection is a symbol of modern day Seoul, the market streets

appliance outlets, including those operating at Sewoon Market; retail

all kind, or browsed around the all-

and wholesale clothing businesses,

night market at Dongdaemun,

spreading out from the Cheonggye Elevated Roadway symbolize the

teeming with people, merchandise

city's ability to support the coex-

forerunners of the shops that now form the Dongdaemun and Pyeong-

and autos, might wonder if this is

istence of its past and present.

hwa markets; and the antique and

really the heart of Seoul. It might seem more like an island, stirring up

secondhand stores of Hwanghak-

Tool Shops

dong have been the fo.undation of

In 1967, when the lower reaches of the stream beyond the Dongdae-

the Cheonggyecheon market area. The tool shops are clustered in

mun Gate were covered, CheonggyeGheon's existence as a waterway

the area between Cheonggye 3-ga and 4-ga. Upon liberation from

came to an end. The flimsy shacks that had once lined the stream's

Japanese colonial rule in 1945, a variety of street-side stalls operated

banks were removed as well, while

along the banks of the stream, which

Seol}l and Korean society. Just a

the Cheonggyecheon area underwent

short way up Cheonggyecheon Street from the Gwanggyo Intersection,

a transformation into a unique market district as part of a compre-

were part and parcel of the chaotic shantytowns . During the Korean

where smartly attired financial sector

hensive government-sponsored

War (1950-53), this area engaged in a lively trade of military items and

professionals swagger about, is the

urban redevelopment program. From

tools that were obtained from the

a diversity of unexplained imagery. The streets are much like the dirty and cluttered alleys seen in the movie Blade Runner. The Cheonggyecheon area of today is a pocket of redevelopment shaped by the modernization of

Summer 2003 I Koreana

U.S. troops. In the aftermath of the Korean War, when industrial and manufacturing firms had to make do with

industrial complexes specializing in machinery that produced machine tools for precision equipment. And

whatever rebuilt or used tools that could be found, the

yet information on the latest machine tool products was

tool shops of Cheonggyecheon were the best place to

always available at the Cheonggyecheon shops. This was because these tool shops could profitably engage in

search for machine tools. Then, when Korean troops were dispatched to fight in the Vietnam War in the late 1960s, this created a flurry of business for these tool shops. As these troops returned home, they brought back with them a variety of U.S.-made items, which were highly sought by the tool shops. In the 1970s, the Cheonggyecheon tool shops faced a turning point, when the government

Today, a national machine tool market network is being developed in Korea, which will be helpful for enhancing access to the Chinese and Southeast Asian markets. Electronics and Home Appliances Outlets

implemented its "Five-Year Economic Plan," which

Sewoon Market is known to residents as the place to

supported the development of domestic industry. As a result, these efforts led to a rapid proliferation of new

go to purchase electronics and home appliances at bargain

manufacturing and industrial plants, creating a huge boom in demand for machine tools and accessories, which in large part was satisfied by existing tool shops. Machine tool manufacturing shops sprang up behind

prices, 20 to 30 percent lower than anywhere else. Not only that, Sewoon Market also has been a driving force behind the development and distribution of cutting-edge products. In the 1960s it sold radios, in the 1970s TVs, in

massive

the 1980s Walkmans and audio systems, and since the 1990s computers, the backbone of today's information

quantities of machine tools and parts. By the early 1980s, large-scale tool shops were in

age. In this way, Sewoon Market has managed to survive for over 30 years, in spite of the fact that the distribution

operation in Yeongdeungpo and Janghanpyeong, while

system is becoming more sophisticated by the day.

and alongside tool shops, which turned /

small-scale production of a variety of items thanks to the accumulated expertise of the longtime proprietors.

o~t

from far off Gyeongsangnam-do province there were

The Sewoon Market complex consists of four

A row of tool shops, where any machine the customer desires can be made to order (left) Hwanghak-dong Antique Market, where just about anything can be bought at a bargain price (right) A Hwanghak-dong street teeming with vendors and shoppers (opposite page)

Koreana I Summer 2003

buildings with eight market areas, situated between Jongmyo, the ancestral shrine of the J oseon Dynasty, and Daehan Theater. To the north is Hyundae Market (J ongno Sewoon Market), alongside Cheonggyecheon is Sewoon Market, and to the south are Sewoon Cheonggye Market and Daelim Market. To the south of Euljiro are Sampung Market and Poongjun Hotel, while to the south of Mareunnae, Sinseong Market and Jinyang Market are found. Items offered for sale at these markets include electronics, home appliances, video games, and karaoke machines. Each building and floor is different: there are wholesalers dealing in jewelry, wedding items and handicrafts, while Jinyang Market is occupied by design and printing firms. /

Sewoon Market was built in 1967 as part of the government 's plans to Âˇredevelop the urban center. At that time, Sewoon Market was an anchor of the redevelopment efforts of central Seoul.

G--

Although plans called for the integration of commercial and residential uses, the

_..,_

apartment developments failed to gain consumer acceptance. In fact, the planned residential projects have since been converted to other uses, while the buildings are nothing more than an eyesore today. The redevelopment of the Sewoon Market area is a testament to Korea's modernization process, too often charac-

mainly Kwangjang Market. These days, h?wever, Dongdaemun Market is an extensive site including the

terized by haste and expediency.

areas of Cheonggyecheonno 5-ga and 6-ga (where Kwangjang Market and Cheonil Department Store are

Center of the Fashion Industry

located), and Jongno 4-ga and 5-ga. As a general reference, Dongdaemun Market' includes the nearby

The history of Dongdaemun Market dates back to the

Pyounghwa Market and the shops around Dongdaemun

. 18th century, from which time Dongdaemun Market and Namdaemun Market evolved into wholesale markets

Stadium. In the 1960s, Dongdaemun Market and Namdaemun

centered around individual merchants. Even through the

Market launched large-scale expansion efforts.

early 1970s, the Dongdaemun Market site encompassed

Thereafter, Dongdaemun has served as the major

Summer 2003 I Koreana

It could be said that Cheonggyecheon Stream is a microcosm of Korea's process of modernization. Indeed, the stream and its surrounding areas have encountered daunting challenges over the years, which have been overcome with resiliency and perseverance.

wholesale supplier for markets in every comer of Seoul. With the recent expansion of the market site that now includes the Dongdaemun Stadium shops, the new Dongdaemun Market, with its ultra-modem high-rises, creates a unique contrast to the old Dongdaemun Market. Along with Namdaemun Market, Kwangjang Market is the oldest clothing wholesale market in Korea. It is recognized as the largest textile market in the country, especially well known for the fine silk fabrics used for Korean traditional attire (hanbok). At the t~me of /

liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, ~wangj Market mainly comprised shops that sold vegetables, grain and seafood. Following the Korean

Pyounghwa Market, which is now included within the Dongdaemun Market site, holds an important place

War, it developed into a wholesale clothing market that

in Korea's labor movement. In ÂˇNovember 1970, Jeon

distributed the clothing items that had been shipped to Busan as relief supplies. With the opening of Pyounghwa

Tae-il, a clothing industry worker at Pyounghwa Market, whose pleading for improvement of the

Market, on the southern side of Cheonggyecheon

hazardous working conditions went unheeded,

Stream, Kwangjang Market ceased its wholesale

committed self-immolation in front of the market to

clothing operations, and instead focused on the sale of

bring attention to the plight of employees like himself. For Korean society, this incident became a historic turning point in the social reform movements here. For

fabrics/textiles. Following completion of the old Dongdaemun Market in the 1970s, the 1990s were marked by the arrival of large-scale clothing outlets in department store-style high-rise buildings such as Art Plaza, Freya Town, Doosan Tower and Migliore, which created a whole new face for the Dongdaemun Market area. The

the first time, eyes were opened to the cruel reality that lurked within Korea's often blind pursuit of modernization and industrialization. Antique Market

Hwanghak-dong Market developed as a market selling

old Dongdaemun market primarily deals with fabrics/textiles and the wholesale of clothing items, with

daily necessities when the streetcar route ran along Jongno

a target consumer of age 30 and older. In contrast, the new clothing retailers, which feature the latest fashions

and Euljiro during the Japanese colonial period. After the Korean War, a shantytown sprang up in Hwanghak-dong,

at reasonable prices, are geared to consumers in their

as the area overflowed with stalls selling U.S. military

teens and twenties.

goods. During the 1950s, when antiques gained

24 Koreana I Summer 2003

Clothing shops at Doosan Tower (opposite page top) Shops specializing in jeans (opposite page bottom) An alley lined with secondhand books (right) /

popularity, Hwanghak-dong Market began to be dominated by antique shops. At one time, this area

items, which continues to attract visitors to Hwanghakdong Market. Recently, Hwanghak-dong Market has

became known for the high-quality wigs produced there

come to be known as a flea market, due to the rapid

from human hair, which were supplied to markets abroad.

spread of these street stalls.

In 1969, Cheonggyecheon Stream was finally covered over and the Cheonggye Elevated Roadway constructed,

Under the government's ambitious plans, Cheonggyecheon Stream is to be restored to its original

ushering in a golden age for the antique shops of

state. After liberation from Japanese colonial rule, the

Hwanghak-dong. In the 1980s, however, the government

Cheonggyecheon area was home to the urban poor and

relocated all antiques shops to the Insa-dong and Janghanpyeong areas, in conjunction with Korea 's

homeless. And even after the stream was covered over, it continued to serve this role. It is clear that the

hosting of such international events as the 1988 Seoul

residents of Cheonggyecheon, despite their e ~o noric hardship, added much to Seoul's vibrancy and

Olympics. As a result, Hwanghak-dong Market was transformed into a secondhand goods market. In the late 1980s, the market began to especially focus on the

dynamism from the shadows of the city. More than anything else, these people have demonstrated the

purchase and sale of electronics items. During the 1990s, watches, motors and tools, which

strength of the human spirit that enabled them to endure the heavy burdens created by Korea's modernization.

had been the mainstays of existing secondhand shops,

Even after the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, these

wen; gradually pushed aside by used electronics products. At this time, street stalls flourished in the area

people will continue to live together, competing and

of Cheonggyecheonno 7-ga and 8-ga. Today, these stalls

supporting each other. It is thus hoped that adequate measures are undertaken to ensure the restoration work

have kept alive a tradition of dealing in secondhand

does not aggravate their difficulties. ~

Summer 2003 I Koreana

echeon

n the latter half of the 20th century, advanced countries began to adopt a dramatically altered paradigm for the administration of urban

development: emphasizing equity over efficiency, environmental protection over new development, and

people over traffic flow. To cover up a stream that had become polluted and foul-smelling due to neglect, while

Repairing the road, however, would be a waste of money, and no more than a temporary measure at best. In addition, several buildings around Cheonggyecheon now have cracks in their walls , evidence of their deterioration and need for renovation or redevelopment. Accordingly, the restoration of Cheonggyecheon can no longer be left on the back burner.

burying its cultural resources as well, and then using the covered area for a roadway, may well have been in line with the past values of urban development. However, in

Environment-friendly Space

the 21st century, the priorities of urban life have been

Seoul Metropolitan Government has established a grand

noticeably modified, such that people now stress a

vision for the city, which includes development of the

natural environment and rectification of past oversights.

area around Cheonggyecheon into a dynamic economic

As such, there is a historical imperative to promote the

center of Seoul, in keeping with the global age and a

restoration of Cheonggyecheon.

unified Korea. First and foremost, in order to establish a

A study has found that the Cheonggyecheon Elevated Roadway is no longer structurally safe, while related plans have called for the expenditure of an estimated 100 billion won for necessary maintenance work.

Along with the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, the

clear identity for the downtown area, city authorities plan to curtail excessive development while striving to keep alive Seoul's history and culture. In particular, the area sunounding Cheonggyecheon will be developed as

The Gwanggyo neighborhood today (left) The Gwanggyo neighborhood after restoration of Cheonggyecheon (right)

Koreana I Summer 2003

a world-class international business center, showcase for

Restoring its Natural Function

contemporary Korean culture , and globalized

A primary goal of the Cheonggyecheon project is to restore its function as a flood-prevention waterway and

marketplace for wholesale-retail activities. In addition, it will also serve as a tourist attraction, thereby turning the entire area into a robust social, economic, and cultural space for the people of Seoul. To complement the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, plans have been prepared to completely overhaul the downtown traffic system, such that it will be oriented toward pedestrians and public transportation. To handle

re-create its natural ecological system in order to improve the urban environment overall and revitalize the city center. As for the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, public interest has been focused on what it will look like after the related work is completed, in terms of the stream's width and depth, and overall appearance.

Seoul's extremely heavy pedestrian traffic, pedestrian

The Cheonggyecheon waterway winds its way over a length of some 10.92 kilometers, along with having a

crossings will be eventually installed for all major roads.

basin that encompasses an area of about 50.96 square

Of note, the existing thoroughfare from Gwanghwamun

kilometers. The restoration work will cover a 6-

to Seoul Station, via City Hall, will be converted into a

kilometer segment, 60 to 80 meters in width, from the

pedestrian-friendly route (tentatively named Seoul

origin of the stream at the mouth of Taepyeongno to

Sirningaro, or "Seoul Citizens' Road") that will be part of a downtown pedestrian network connected with the

Sindapgyo bridge in Majang-dong. The width and depth

restored Cheonggyecheon area.

volume of runoff that needs to be accommodated. As much as possible, the natural banks will be retained, but

of the Cheonggyecheon will vary, depending on the

Summer 2003 I Koreana

Apartment buildings in Hwanghak-dong awaiting demolition (below)

A night view of the Samil apartments area after the planned redevelopment (right)

in ce1tain areas, pruts of the existing structure covering

be tapped as a secondary water source. The water

the stream will be used for the construction of levee

quality will be maintained at a BOD (biochemical

roads on both sides of the stream, a trunk sewage system

oxygen demand) level of less than 5 milligrams per liter.

to handle wastewater discharged from branch networks

The streambed of Cheonggyecheon consists of a

for transmission to wastewater treatment plants, and

sedimentary layer of sand and pebbles above a layer of

facilities for preliminary treatment of rainwater.

silt and weathered rock, which are conducive to effective

Currently, the streambed has been dug to a depth of 2 to

drainage. To maintain an adequate water flow, a layer of

2.5 meters to create a dual channel for water flow. Since

natural clay will be laid on the streambed above a layer of

not enough water flows during the dry season,

pebbles that can provide resistance when the flow intensi-

underground water discharged from the subway system

fies. To prevent water seepage, concrete lining will be

will be used (22,000 tons per day), with any shortage

built on both sides of the stream channel. After the stream

being made up with purified water supplied from

is restored, in order to minimize the inflow of wastewater

Jungnang Water Treatment Plant. In order to maintain

and pollutants, rainfall of up to 2 millimeters per hour will

the stream's water quality, the Hangang River will also

be channeled to flow separately from the main stream.

Koreana I Summer 2003

In light of the city's existing structural elements, there are limits to restoring Cheonggyecheon as a natural stream. Therefore, it would be more accurate to understand the restoration as a project designed to develop not so much a natural stream but rather an urban stream in a natural setting. With this in mind, the restoration project's design is focused on four basic objectives: first, to create a waterway landscape that harmonizes nature with the cityscape; second, to provide an area where natural scenery and water can be appreciated; third, to develop a site Âť'here people can find respite and relaxation; and fourth, to maintain an ecologically sustainable stream. The slopes of embankments, along and under the stream, will be built with environmentally friendly and

safe natural materials. An abundance of plants, including reeds and silver banner grass, which can thrive in less than ideal soil and provide strong resistance against even heavy floodwaters, will be grown there. If all goes well as planned, this is anticipated to contribute to the restoration of a natural ecology. The embankments above the stream water will be designed to prevent flooding and provide expanses of greenery as well. Trees will be planted along the banks to camouflage the construction improvements as much as possible. In addition, potted plants will be placed at the ridge of the banks where the slope of the channel meets the levee road, along with reeds and silver banner grass being planted on the earthy areas.

Summer 2003 I Koreana

From Development to the Environment

After the structures covering the stream and Cheonggyecheon Elevated Roadway have been demolished, two roads of two to three lanes will be maintained along both sides of Cheonggyecheon. Consequently, the existing Cheonggyecheon thoroughfare will be converted to a feeder road for the surrounding commercial district and a supplemental arterial road for linking one district to another. Also of note, the restoration

Song Do-young Professor of Urban Sociology, University of Seoul

plans call for numerous bridges over the stream so that the area is not segregated into north and south districts. In fact, 16

bridge~

for both pedestrians and vehicles will be

built at all pedestrian crosswalks and intersections where

be the most important project that should be undertaken in

traffic currently runs north and south. In addition, another

downtown Seoul. Without hesitation , I responded: "Cheonggye-

5 bridges exclusively for pedestrian traffic will be

To me, Cheonggyecheon Elevated Roadway is a painful symbol

are far apart, making a total of 21 bridges across

of how, for the sake of economic development, we have

Cheonggyecheon.

obliterated the traces of history in the city, the memories of former I occasionally pass through the area, the jumble of illegally parked cars amid the goods of vendors overflowing onto and indeed

Namdaemunno and Heunginmunno, where the

taking over the sidewalk along the road covering Cheong-

pedestrian flow is heavy, an additional access way will

gyecheon Stream is so chaotic that it leaves me dizzy. This was

disabled will also be available at regular intervals. In an effort to ensure that the Cheonggyecheon bridges

enough to make me wonder if restoration of Cheonggyecheon was actually possible. By chance, four years ago I had the opportunity to conduct a detailed study of the area surrounding Cheonggyecheon. Upon

function as both cultural and aesthetic resources as well

examining the area closely and in considerable detail, I found a

as landmarks of the area, the Seoul Metropolitan

wholly different situation from the impressions of my casual

Government conducted an international competition to

observation . I discovered that the disorderly, cluttered alleys, which used to irritate me so much, are actually throbbing with life.

gather design i,d eas for the bridges. A total of 455

They served as the incubator where the economic activities of

entries were submitted, of which 57 were selected as

small businesses were allowed to be born following Korea's

finalists that will be considered for incorporation in the final bridge designs. In this light, it is evident that the Cheonggyecheon restoration project involves much more than the mere construction of various improvements and facilities. Indeed, the project is envisioned to provide the citizens of Seoul with high hopes and lofty dreams of restoring their pride in their city. Moreover, the project will ~ ide

a catalyst for Seoul to be reborn as an

environmentally friendly city and center of international busine

residents, and the sounds and smells of nature. Nowadays, when

leading down to the waterside. And, in the areas around

be constructed. Six access ramps for the elderly and

pro

cheon Elevated Roadway, which cuts through the heart of the city, should be demolished and the stream needs to be restored ."

installed in areas where pedestrian overpasses or crossings

For every two bridges, there will be one access way

It was about six years ago when I was asked about what would

s .~

32 Korean a I Summer 2003

liberation . They also provided a fertile ground for the country's budding electronics and machinery industry as well as being home to one of Seoul's leading traditional markets.

The Cheonggyecheon area is itself a legacy of Korea's modern

Restoration and development are separate

and contemporary history. And I could only gape in awe in the

processes. Before proceeding with the project to

face of such a colossal living and breathing social entity. Then in

restore Cheonggyecheon Stream,

2002, something unexpected happened. The Seoul Metropolitan

the Seoul Metropolitan Government needs to

Government adopted the demolition of the elevated road and

undertake a comprehensive study to accurately

restoration of Cheonggyecheon Stream as a priority development project.

assess the traffic congestion that will result from the construction, the impact on the merchants

It is said that restoring Cheonggyecheon is important to revive our past history, which is being forgotten with the passage of time.

in the area, and how the stream's function

But there is no denying that the history of modern Seoul since

as a waterway can be restored and maintained.

liberation is meaningful and important as well. Should we be

If the solutions to these problems are not

destroying evidence of our recent history in order to resurrect the

developed beforehand, the project is likely to

history of another period? Do we need to displace so many

end up as a half-baked failure.

people from their homes and place of work? There is also a problem with the concept of "restoring the

natural ecology." Cheonggyecheon, which flows through the

of dividing the stream into sections of a certain length each and

middle of the city, has already lost is function as an urban stream.

consider only a specific segment as part of theÂˇ downtown area.

In the past, sewage of the city was discharged into the stream

But we cannot cut up history or romanticism into sections and

from where it flowed into the Hangang River. Seoul is now home

decide which part to restore nor can we edit past history to serve

to many times more the population that existed during the Joseon

our purposes. Undertaking a complex construction project in the

Dynasty. All these people discharge so much sewage that it has

central downtown area of a giant metropolis such as Seoul is a

to be treated before flowing into the river. But just channeling

completely different matter from developing a new city onÂˇ vacant

groundwater into the stream and removing the concrete that

land.

covers the stream does not mean that the stream will be revived.

I do not oppose the restoration of Cheonggyecheon; I only hope

Only when all the tributaries that used to flow into the stream from

that we maintain a broad and insightful enough perspective for

upstream areas are brought back to life can the stream be fully

such an ambitious undertaking. If not, countless unforeseen

revived. Âˇ The stream is like a complex living being with a network of widespread roots. It would be only too easy to make the. mistake

problems will inevitably arise. As such, we should first acknowledge that it is an unprecedented venture that will have to be carried out over a long period of time.

A sign announcing the demolition of Cheonggyecheon Elevated Roadway (left) A placard demanding the right to make a living. The .s hopkeepers around Cheonggyecheon are concerned about business disruptions (right)

Summer 2003 I Koreana

FOCUS

DAEGU CITY HOSTS THE 22ND SUMMER llJJ IVERSIADE In August, the 22nd Summer Universiade will open in the city of Daegu. The following is an introduction of the unique history and culture of Daegu, a city in Northeast Asia with a rich cultural legacy and thriving fashion industry. /

Lee Tae-soo Poet, Editorial Writer of Maeil Shinmun Kwon Tae-kyun Photographer

he 22nd Universiade 2003,

known for their reformative ways.

This is particularly true of the nearby

Daegu, Korea, is a major

city of Gyeongju, the capital of the

sports competition for

Thus they are uniquely characterized as being both reformative and

university students from

conservative. They may seem quite

ancient Silla Kingdom where the brilliance of Buddhist culture

around the world. It opens August 21 for an 11-day run through August 31 in the city of Daegu. Located

brusque at first and are not the

flourished.

easiest to get to know, but once you do know them, their warm-

Also situated nearby are Goryeong, where cultural treasures from the

inland in the southeastern region of the Korean Peninsula, Daegu is

heartedness will become readily

Gaya Kingdom can be found, and

apparent.

Andong, home of the Yeongnam school of Confucianism, which

History of Daegu

Though it inherited the cultural

opened up new horizons in scholarship during the Joseon Dynasty, and

legacies of the Silla and Gaya Kingdoms, Daegu's culture is clearly

where the influences of Confucian culture remain alive today. With this

in a basin, which perhaps has influenced the character of its people, who are said to be rather

rooted in the Confucianism of the J oseon Dynasty. In and around

tradition and social environment as a foundation, Daegu developed rapidly

Daegu there are numerous cultural

into a distribution center for agri-

conservative and insular. On the

and historic monuments and relics that attract tourists all year-round.

cultural produce. Amid Korea's modernization and the inflow of

home to some 2.5 million residents who have inherited the traditions and ways of life developed over the past 5,000 years of Korea's history. Topographically, Daegu is located

other hand, Daegu people are also 34 Korean a I Summer 2003

Western cultural influences, Daegu

in 1779. In 1910 it was renamed

has distinguished itself as a center of

Daegubu and then in 1949 Daegu was reinstituted. In 1981 Daegu was

Gyeongbu High Speed Railway, are cunently under construction. As for air transportation, there are four

upgraded to a metropolitan city by

international routes from Daegu-

the central government and in 1995 it was designated a self-governing

seven flights a week to Shanghai, and two a week to Qingdao, Shenyang,

dom it was called Dalguhwahyeon or Dalbulseong, and renamed

city, as part of the efforts to promote

and Bangkok. In the future, plans call

local autonomy.

Daeguhyeon in 757 (16th year of the reign of King Gyeongdeok). In 1143

Today, Daegu is a major metropolis comprising 1 county, 8 wards,

for direct flight service to such major cities as Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singa-

(21st year of the reign of Injong of the Goryeo Dynasty), the govern-

and 138 townships and villages. It is located some 300 kilometers south

Southeast Asian region.

ment established a regional magis-

of Seoul and 120 kilometers from

Center of Fashion and Textiles

trate, or hyeollyeong , in the area, and then in 1601 (34th year of the

Busan, and can be reached by the

Âˇ The prominent cultural treasures

reign of Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty) inaugurated a govern-

Gyeongbu Expressway and the Gyeongbuseon Railway. Indeed, Daegu is a central transpor-

of Daegu include ancient Buddhist temples, such as Donghwasa, which features the world's largest standing

ment administrative office. Daegu

tation hub linked to all parts of the

stone Buddha, and Pagyesa. Indeed,

thus developed into the administrative center of Gyeongsang-do

country by the Guma, Olympic, and Jungang expressways. Moreover,

there are numerous Buddhist stone relics in Daegu, such as the

province and a strategic military stronghold.

expressways linking Daegu and Pohang, Daegu and Busan, and Gurni

Gwanbong Stone Buddha, known as

The city adopted the name Daegu

and Hyeonpung, as well as the

culture and education. Around 1,000 B.C., the Daegu area was part of a tribal state called Dalgubeol. During the Silla King-

Korean a I Summer 2003

pore and Beijing, as well as the

Gatbawi Buddha because the Buddha seems to be wearing a

ÂŠ Ahn Hong-beom

Âˇ-

The main hall of Donghwasa Temple (opposite page left) A pharmacist weighing ingredients for making traditional medicine (opposite page right) An Andre Kim fashion show held in Daegu (above left) Daegu is well known for its high-quality fabrics (above).

horsehair hat, or gat, which attest to the rich Buddhist culture that

Joseon Dynasty. The tradition of Daegu's Yangnyeongsi, whose name

Milano Project. These days the city is also investing heavily in high-

flourished here. Just as noteworthy as this abundance of Buddhist

means a "market specializing in herbal medicine items," is being

growth industries such as precision machinery and metals, as well as the

cultural resources are the city's

carried on at the Yangnyeong Herb

advanced industries of the 21st

wealth of Confucian treasures.

Medicine Market in Yakjeongolmok,

century, especially information

Among those that best reveal the Confucian culture and way of life

a street lined with herbal medicine clinics, pharmacies and wholesalers.

technology and biotechnology. Of particular note, Daegu

are Daegu Hyanggyo, a provincial

Here the tradition and culture of

authorities have significantly

Confucian academy, and Dodong Seowon, a private Confucian school

herbal medicine undergo constant

stepped up their efforts to address the ever-worsening pollution and

and shrine.

change to adapt to modern ways. From early times, Daegu was

Other notable sites include Yuksinsa, a shrine to six loyal

known as a producer of textiles . Today, Daegu and its surrounding

subjects who committed suicide after their clandestine efforts to

areas account for 27 percent of the

return the child-king Danjong to the throne were discovered, as well the villages of the Nampyeong Mun and Gyeongju Choi clans. Daegu has served as a key distribution center for the trade of herbal medicine items since the

textiles produced in Korea, which is the world's fifth-ranked textile exporter. To further develop the local textile industry and maximize its value-added and high-tech potential,

environmental degradation, under the ultimate goal of bec;ming a green, solar-powered city. In this regard , the urban environment is being managed with great care to assure the city is always clean and fresh. This includes channeling water to Sincheon, in an effort to restore this stream that runs through the city, as well as planting trees and

since 1999 the city of Daegu has been implementing a comprehensive

landscaping not only downtown but

five-year development program, the

also in outlying areas. Summer 2003 I Koreana

An outdoor performance that is part of the Milano Project (left) Universiade volunteer staff (opposite page left) Dreami, the Universiade mascot (opposite page right)

Home of Art and Festivals /

other artistic monuments. With a zoo and natural history exhibition

Outdoor Music Hall. Notable additions in the works include the Daegu

hall, Dalseong Park is popular for

Opera House, scheduled to open in

addition to several parks where

family outings. Duryu Park is a favorite with Daegu residents for the

June 2003 just prior to the kickoff of the Daegu Universiade, which is

theme

are

literary monuments erected in honor

expected to become a new center of

presented on weekends. The Guk-

of native Daegu writers such as

opera in Korea, boasting state-of-the-

chaebosang Memorial Park features

poets Lee Sang-hwa, Lee Jang-hee,

art facilities and a 1,508-seat main

the large Dalgubeol bell and fountain, wide grassy areas and

and Baek Gi-man, and novelist

theater.

Hyeon Jin-geon. The park also

Other facilities that city residents can enjoy include 5 museums, such

In the downtown Daegu area there is no shortage of wooded areas, landscaping and fountains , in cultural

festivals

includes a diverse range of sports facilities, large outdoor stage, and

as the Daegu National Museum, 8

especially for young people. Gyeongsang Gamyeong Park is

tourist information center. Other

cultural centers, 10 public libraries,

renowned attractions in Daegu

and 21 cinemas. The Daegu

an oasis in the city where artists and local residents stage outdoor

include Apsan Park, popular for its excellent walking and hiking trails,

Municipal Art Gallery is now under construction.

performances, while Dalseong Park

and Bullogobun Park, where there

Daegu 's cultural festivals keep

is built around an earthen fortress

are remains of tombs from the tribal

getting bigger and better all the time.

that dates back to the time when tribal states prevailed. The park is

states era. Daegu is also known for its first-

The Dalgubeol Festival, which was inaugurated in 1981 to commemorate

also home to Korea's first poetry-

class performance halls, such as the Daegu Culture and Arts Center,

Daegu's designation as a metropolitan city and now held every autumn, is

Daegu Citizen's Hall, and Daegu

the biggest annual event for the

walking trails, making it a popular cultural venue and meeting place,

inscribed monument, with a poem by Lee Sang-hwa, as well as several 38

Koreana I Summer 2003

Daegu is now exerting

citizens of Daegu. The Textile and

under

a main theme of "Dream for

strenuous efforts to promote

Fashion Festival is held twice a year in May and October, while the

Unity," and five goals, each starting

its textile industry and

with a letter of the name DAEGU:

foster high-tech venture

Yangnyeongsi Festival is staged at the

Dream, Advance, Equalize, Green,

enterprises. By capitalizing

Yangnyeong Herb Medicine Market

on its geographical

every May. Other major festivals

and Unite. The Universiade slogan is "Daegu in Fashion, Dream in

advantage as a center of

include the Bongsan Fine Art Festival,

Action." Events will be held in the

transportation and logistics,

Daegu Art Expo (October), and

Daegu and Gyeongsangbuk-do areas

Dongseongno Festival , a youth

from August 21-31, and include the

festival (May). This year, the Daegu Opera Festival, which will be

participation of some 11,000 athletes, officials and media from 170

developed into an international event,

countries. There are 13 events in all,

is being presented to commemorate

including 10 compulsory events-

the grand opening of the Daegu Opera House.

track and field, basketball, fencing, gymnastics, swimming, diving, water

Daegu Universiade 2003

polo, tennis, volleyball, and football -along with taekwondo, judo and

In addition to the 22nd Universiade 2003; Daegu, Korea, the city is also hosting the Daegu International

archery being optional events. The Universiade is a goodwill

it is being reborn as an international city where textile, fashion and high-tech industries are being actively promoted .

event, in line with its green theme 路 color. Moreover, the festival is intended to emphasize the ideals of harmony, in regard to the principles of nature and today ' s technol"ogyoriented age, while transcending all

Textile Fair and Daegu International

sports competition for university students from around the world. The

Optical Show (DIOPS).

Daegu Universiade will be promoted

so that the world can be united as

as an environmentally friendly

one. L;t

The Universiade will be held

socioeconomic and cultural barriers

Summer 2003 I Koreana

39 路路路

INTERVIEW

MESJEON

-Broadens his Horizons for a Wider Audience Lee Jong-ho Dance Critic Park Sang-yun, Seo Heun-kang Photographers

James Jean seeks to broaden the horizons of classical ballet through ceaseless experimentation and innovation. He is forever thinking about how to find ways to popularize ballet for contemporary society. Experimentation and iconodasm for the sake /

of the public: this is the artistic world of ballet choreographer James Jean. ames Jeon is a revered figure in the world of Korean dance,

categories: Korean dance, contem-

dedication since its founding in 1995

porary dance, and ballet. Students

is in fact the only private profes-

in which original ballet works

generally major in one of these areas

sional ballet company in Korea.

have been few and far

before going on to join a dance

There . are other private ballet

between. The Seoul Ballet Theater,

company and then performing as a

companies, but they can hardly be

led by Jeon and his wife Kim In-hui, is noteworthy as well, since the list

dancer or choreographer based on their inclination and ability.

called professional, due to an inability to assure their members of a

of professional ballet companies in Korea has previously included only

Although there is no shortage of

steady income. In line with its quest

creative choreographers in the fields of Korean and contemporary dance,

to popularize ballet, the Seoul Ballet Theater has become widely known

there are only a handful who majored in ballet, since the vast

for the unbounded enthusiasm of its performance activities.

majority of those in ballet pursue

In autumn 200 l, James J eon

dancing rather than choreography. In this context, James Jeon's work can

became the first in the world of Korean dance (conventional dance

be seen as a mainstay of Korean

rather than popular dance) to mount a production financed on a commercial

traditional and folk dance, can be

ballet choreography. The Seoul Ballet Theater that

grouped for convenience into three

Jeon and Kim have led with such

the National Ballet Company, Universal Ballet, and Gwangju Municipal Dance Company. To appreciate the significance of Jeon and his company, it is necessary to understand Korea's overall dance environment. Dance in Korea, other than

Koreana I Summer 2003

basis: his ambitious ballet The Warehouse. Unfortunately, it was not

Â·-

a hit, and closed earlier than planned.

Seoul Ballet Theater and I settled in

based on the story of Snow White.

While Jeon was still feeling discouraged about this outcome, a

Gwacheon. After that, I started

The Nutcracker, slated for the end of

thinking about ways to make ballet

this year, is not a mere reproduction

fortuitous opportunity presented itself. He secured a new base for his

more accessible to the general public. The first fruit of that effort was Ballet

of a classic but a new adaptation,

company at the Citizens' Hall of

for Fun, which we presented in July

Gwacheon, an area close to Seoul with Âˇ financially well off and

that year. By including explanations and demonstrations as part of the

culturally sophisticated residents. Jeon welcomed this opportunity as a

ballet performance, we tried to plant the idea in people's minds that ballet

chance for a fresh start.

is an accessible art form . This July,

face, but it has faded considerably. It seems that he will once again

we plan to stage a new production

overcome his difficulties by virtue of

"It was in March 2002 that the 42 Korean a I Summer 2003

which we are thinking of including in our regular repertoire." The bitter memory of the failure of The Warehouse might not have entirely disappeared from Jean's

would be easy to misinterpret his works as products based solely on his instincts and sensibilities. But James J eon is more profound than outside appearances might suggest. "Once I take on a new choreography project, I stop and think hard, not just about the dance and music, but about everything from lighting to scenery. And once I have figured everything out, I stick fast to my ideas." Widely regarded as his masterpiece, the rock ballet series Being reveals this strength of character to the full. At first glance it appears to unfold easily with an upbeat mood, but in fact it went through a very difficult process of conceptualization and production. Since it is not possible to examine all of Jeon's works here, the following is a discussion of a few examples, focused on their choreography and overall ambiance. Jeon's early work Three Moments The Being series of rock ballets is considered one of Jeon's most noteworthy works.

( 1991) is in many ways reminiscent of

~ orge

Balanchine's Serenade .

From its underlying concept of creating a presentation based on the purely musical sensibilities aroused

his own character, cautious yet

Seoul in 1987 to join Universal

by Bach ' s "Concerto for Two

optimistic and above all, passionate.

Ballet. His childhood years in America, his curiosity about things

Violins in E Major," to the basic

In a word, James Jeon is prolific. Fueled by his love for music, he has poured out a continuous stream of works, unbounded by subject matter and scope. In 1972 he emigrated to the United States, where he went to school and graduated from the Dance Department of the Juilliard School.

Korean that formed little of his

color of its lighting, the work resembles Serenade, which Balan-

experience, and his analytical view of his own experiences, combined to

chine created as an expression of his emotional reactions to Tchaikovsky's

produce an oeuvre of far-reaching diversity. His style, as well, ranges from neo-classical tendencies to a

music. "Three Moments focuses on an articulation of movement with a sense

genre he calls "rock ballet."

of speed, along with a body approach

He performed with Maurice Bezar's

Because of his prolific output and

or pose in which the dancers thrust

ballet company before returning to

vivacious, uninhibited personality, it

their faces toward each other when Summer 2003 I Koreana 43

invited to choreograph Inner Moves for the Nevada Ballet Theater in America. I used a bare stage and plain black and white costumes, expressing everything through music and movement only. The work was very well received. It might lead to more projects abroad." Jeon's Seoul Ballet Theater has found a home in Gwacheon

Above all, choreographer James

J eon does not allow himself a moment's rest. Forever experimenting, his encounter with Gwacheon appears to have been a most fortunate and mutually beneficial experience. "Performance halls are springing

Jeon seeks to entertain his

anses from darker and deeper realms. An American-style cry of a

audiences. He is able to deal

lonely rebel, it is not far removed

with a wide range of subjects

from the world of James Dean. With

But except in the big cities like Seoul, these are just the hardware

its set decorated like a disco or rock cafe, rap music and dynamic dancing

with no software for their operation. Most of them can ' t offer enough

in br ~ ak -dance mode, and frequent use of freestyle movement that combines dancing and acting, Being

content to fill the stage and please an audience."

stresses visual effect more than

residency in a provincial city raises high hopes that Korea's provincial

, without losing his sense of humor. Yet the meaningfulness of his work lies in his ability to . reveal through dance the darker /

side 9f human nature.

up in cities all over Korea nowadays.

The Seoul Ballet Theater's

the mood is subdued. It uses a

content. In this work, Jean appears to

staccato articulation in movement from low to high. To highlight

be depicting in a modern setting the barriers separating him from himself

to how Pina Bausch was able to turn

separation in the articulation, I use

as well as from others, in an

the little German industrial city of

more linear and angular positions, and above all, I paid great attention to

existential sense. He does this

Wuppc:rtal into a world-class center of dance , or the Centre Chore-

the entrances and exits of the dancers

like that of a boxer, sudden gunshots and two corpses, and the sound of

graphique National that regularly

extremely labored and tortured

cities in France.

breathing.

Why should world-class artists not take up residence in various

so that there would always be something going on onstage." Perhaps that is why the piece

through the use of slides, motions

culture will enter a new era, similar

invites talented choreographers to 20

conveys a sense of refined elegance, as one movement begins before the

Moreover, Jean does not overlook Korean elements. One product of

previous one has ended. City Light (1993) features five young couples dressed in black and red costumes

this interest, The Beggars, uses a distinctly Korean movement style,

provincial cities" into artistic centers

whether consciously or not. This

of international standing? In James

and holding crimson fans. The work

reflects the diversity of Jean's work

portrays their life and loves, clinging and sensuous, and at times vivid and

in style as well as content and subject matter. Recently, his interests

Jean, overflowing with passion and ambition as he steadily secures the

passionate.

have turned overseas.

Compared to this work, Being 44 Korean a I Summer 2003

"In the summer of 2002, I was

Korean cities, in an effort to transform them from "mere

practical means for realizing his dreams, I definitely see such a possibility.

;Color of the Deep Blue Sky

Jung Kwan-chae

Jjok, a brilliant color reminiscent of the deep blue of a clear

· ~

autumn sky; is produced from a plant pf the same name. Somewhat like indigo blue or Persian blue, its exquisite color is the result of an intricate and painstaking process of jjok dyeing. Choi Tae-won Freelance Writer Seo Heun-kang Photographer

here is nothing quite like

"Chungchureoram" (Bluer than the

blue of blue jeans, or Persian blue.

the color of jjok, a unique blue color that cannot be

original blue, or better quality than the original) and said to reflect the

But upon closer inspection, the uniqueness of jjok's true color is

created from synthetic dyes. The jjok soaks into white

deep blue of an autumn sky, comes from the jjok (ploygonum indigo)

cotton cloth, radiating its intense and

plant, a member of the water-pepper family. At first glance, the jjok color

yet subtle color. The color jjok, often described by the old saying

seems to resemble indigo blue, the

readily apparent. In the fields where jjok grows, it looks like an ordinary grass. How is it that this plain-looking plant can produce such a brilliant hue? Jjok Summer 2003 1Koreana 47

··

leaves contain an extract that

"The Japanese colonial occupation

produces the blue dye. But how is

and the Korean War are to blame for

tomb. Other than jjok dying, other sources of pride of this historic area

this intriguing color brought to life? It is through someone like Jung

the disruption of our traditional

are saetgollai and sepo, high quality

Kwan-chae, who was designated an

dyeing practices. After 50 years, we were finally able to resurrect our jjok

handmade cotton textiles produced in Saetgol. With the natural jjok color

Important Intangible Cultural

tradition thanks to folklorist Ye

gently imbued on delicate cotton

Property (No. 115) in the cultural field of dyeing in 2001. Not yet 50

Yong-hae who brought back jjok seeds from Japan. Park Bok-gyu, an

fabric, saetgollai was unquestionably one of the most prized tributes

years of age, Jung is rather youthful

art professor at Mokpo National

offered to the king.

to be a designated cultural property in Korea. Nonetheless, he has

University, who just happened to be my teacher, cultivated the seeds. The

Among the dyeing methods using natural ingredients, jjok dyeing

devoted almost 30 years to the art of

techniques were basically handed

involves the most sophisticated pro-

jjok dyeing. Naju, Jeollanam-do province is

down to me and I began dyeing with jjok while in university."

cesses, requiring extensive expertise

Jung's home. Because the Yeongsan-

Subsequent research, hoWever,

at the top of the list of most pro-

gang River, which flows through

revealed that native jjok was not completely eradicated from Korean

spective brides. The dyed fabrics were highly sought, but hard to come

soil. Indigenous jjok continued to grow here but had not been known

by. Jjok also repels insects, making fabrics dyed in jjok ideal for pre-

to exist. The jjok dyeing tradition

serving works of art. The following is

has been preserved by a handful of people throughout the years. Jung

an overview of the jjok dyeing process. Jjok seeds are sown in spring and

learned jjok dyeing from his mother

jjok is harvested in July and August at dawn, covered with morning dew.

Naju, would flood during the rainy season, this made regular farming difficult for local residents. As a

result, they turned to growing jjok and producing jjok dye, leading to Naju's natural development into a center of weaving and jjok dyeing. Related to indigo, dyeing with jjok is a traditional dyeing technique that originated in India and arrived in

and has been growing jjok at his

and mastery. Jjok-dyed fabrics were

studio in Saetgol Village, Gaheungri, Dasi-myeon, Naju since 1978.

The freshly harvested jjok is left to soak in a large jar of water for two

Korea by way of China. Despite Korea's longtime tradition of jjok

Gaheung-ri was part of the Baekje

days, which turns the water into a

Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms

dyeing, Youn Byeng-wun and Jung

period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th

light green color. The jjok is removed from the jar, and oyster shells, which

Kwan-chae are the only designated human treasures in this specialty.

century). Bogam-ri, nearby Gaheungri, is the site of an ancient Baekje

have been baked and powdered, are added to the water, that is then boiled. The color of the water changes to yellow to purple and then to blue. When the oyster shell powder absorbs the jjok dye and eventually sinks, ash made from jjok stems or bean stems is added to the colored water. It takes another 15 days of ageing before the dye is ready for use.

Rolled up fabric dyed with jjok (left) Jung Kwan-chae looks at jjok-dyed fabric with pride (opposite page)

48 Koreana I Summer 2003

The dyeing is complete once the dyed fabric is immersed in clear water and the ash is removed. All this is easier said than done.

Thejjok plant is the source of jjok dye (left).

When soaked in water, jjok plants release a light blue liquid (middle).

Mixed with lime powder, the light blue liquid is used to dye cloth blue (right).

The dyed cloth is pounded with paddles to remove wrinkles (opposite page).

At tpe peak of the summer dyeing

techniques. For example, a steam-

Jung has attained a master's degree

season, even ten people working together will have their hands full.

dye process is used in Japan. Words

in jjok dyeing and currently teaches

In addition, the process requires the

cannot adequately describe the splendor of the color that changes

at the Korean National University of Cultural Heritage in Buyeo. He also

vast expertise of a master who can

from light green to the true jjok color

determine the right time to harvest the jjok, the amount of ash to be added to the water, and the time

as the fabric dries in the sun. This

serves_as a promoter of jjok dyeing. The night that I was finally able to

process keeps us going. It's also amazing that the jar of jjok water

catch up with Jung , he was just returning from his classes at Buyeo.

required for the product to dry. "Only when jjok is combined with

needs to be fermented in a room heated with a traditional under-the-

He appeared not the least _bit tired

oyster shell powder and ash water

floor heating system."

from his long trip, beaming with pfide as he talked about the beauty

does it emit its magnificent color. It is a complicated process that

Jung still uses a jar that is at least 100 years old and was handed down

of the jjok color even as we were driving late at night.

involves fermentation by microorganisms that undergo oxidation

from his grandfather. He cherishes

Jung is notorious for his breakneck

every step of the process of carrying on this tradition. Jung's passion for

schedule. He not only pursues dyeing at his studio, which he built with his

the art motivated him to system-

wife ' s severance pay, but also teaches. He also conducts informa-

and deoxidation. Though dyeing with jjok is a common method practiced around the world, including Europe, China, and Japan, there

atically document the jjok dyeing techniques, which used to be learned

tional and promotional activities at

are differences in the specific

solely through personal experience.

the Natural Dyeing Cultural Center at

50 Koreana I Summer 2003

Dasi-myeon. His friends call him "Dokkaebi" (a goblin-like figure that

fabric dyed with jjok would have a dyer do it, such that each piece was

continued unintenupted throughout the years. Nevertheless, Jung's pride

suddenly appears out of nowhere and then vanishes) because he crams so

custom-made. Jung works with about ten

and passion in jjok dyeing makes everything worthwhile.

much into his schedule. For Jung, this

apprentices. He is considering commercializing his jjok-dyed

"Reviving and handing down the

is only natural. After all, he is

jjok tradition is where I find true

involved in an intticately demanding process that does not allow the

products but this is simply a thought at this time. Already, he has more

meaning in life. I focus on jjok all the time with a pure mind. I find

slightest misstep or cutting of any

orders than he can handle, even with

happiness just by observing the fabric

corners. Jung harvests jjok from his field that covers an area of several thousand square meters. There are

the help of his apprentices. His studio takes on the appear-

drying in the yard and the process of realizing the true jjok color.

ance of a war zone during the peak dyeing season in summer. Add to

Jung Kwan-chae has truly breathed new life into a tradition that

about l 00 jars of jjok soaking in

that an endless stream of visitors,

might have been relegated to displays

water at his studio. His annual production? "About three tons a

and the entire work area becomes chaotic. But what really frustrates

in museums. His obsessive efforts over the past 30 years radiate like the

year. But I can't sell the dye to just

Jung is the lack of public awareness

anyone. You need special experience to handle the dye." In the old

and appreciation for jjok dyeing in Korea, especially compared to Japan

brilliant fabrics he creates. The road toward home was lit by the moon

days, people who needed to have

where this dyeing technique has

shining over the Yeongsangang River, gently embracing Naju.

Summer 2003 I Koreana

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

Korea's Goodwill Ambassador to the U.S.

Taekwondo Master Jhoon Rhee Chung You-me Reporter, The Kyunghyang Shinmun

Jhoon Rhee has promoted taekwondo, Korea's traditional martial arts, for almost 50 years in the United States. Known as the If

Father of Taekwondo" in the United States, he has also dedicated

. himself to propagating and instilling the spirit of taekwondo m /

countries throughout the world.

hee Jhoon-gu (American

throughout the United States and

Physical Fitness & Sports, in addition

name: Jhoon Rhee) , 70, is

another 65 schools in Russia. A grand

to serving as a special advisor to

known as the "Father of

master, he has given taekwondo

Russian President Yeltsin's political

Taekwondo" in the United

instruction to over 300 U.S.

training center. He was also the

States. Rhee founded the "Tae-

congressmen. Moreover, Rhee was a

martial arts instructor for boxing

kwondo Kingdom" in the United

member of the National Council on

great Muhammad Ali, the martial arts

States almost 50 'years ago in 1956,

Vocational Education under President

superstar Bruce Lee, and the dis-

and he cunently oversees more than

George H.W. Bush and a special

tinguished columnist Jack Anderson,

60 taekwondo schools located

advisor to the President's Council on

among others. Thanks to his instruction of such celebrities and prominent figures , Rhee is still accorded VIP treatment from influential people around the

Jhoon Rhee shakes hands with former U.S. President Ronald Reagan (left). Taekwondo is known for its dynamic kicks (opposite page top). Jhoon Rhee in a golden taekwondo outfit (opposite page bottom)

Koreana I Summer 2003

world. He also has the distinction of being the only Korean selected as one of the "Top 200 U.S. Immigrants of All Time" by the National Immigrant Forum and the Immigration and Naturalization Service in March 2000. For this honor, Rhee

was chosen along with such

score in a test for an aircraft

dignitaries as former U.S. Secretary

maintenance training program in the

of State Henry Kissinger (Germany), Jerry Yang (Taiwan), the co-founder

United States, which landed him on American soil in 1956. His true

of Yahoo!, comedian Bob Hope (Britain), actress Julie Andrews

passion lay elsewhere, however, as \ ~

(Britain), conductor Zubin Mehta

he was burning with a desire to promote taekwondo, which he had

(India), and professional golfer Lee

learned as a child against his parents'

Trevino (Mexico).

wishes.

"My country gave me life and taekwondo. I am so proud of Korea,

Upon his discharge from the army the following year, he immediately

the country of taekwondo. Although I found it difficult and lonely at

enrolled in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of

times, I did not give up because I

Texas in Austin. The campus festival

had dreams and hope. I hope for all

for freshmen presented a golden

the people of our global village to be happy in mind and healthy in body through taekwondo."

opportunity for him to propagate taekwondo. Initially, few took note of the short (165 centimeters tall),

After the dazzling performance, fellow students eagerly sought out

Born in Asan, Chungcheongnamdo province, Rhee recorded the top

dark-skinned Oriental student.

Rhee for taekwondo instruction.

Nevertheless, he proudly took the

After receiving approval from the

stage and performed dynamic kicks and shattered layers of bricks, leaving the audience awestruck.

Summer 2003 I Koreana

Three U.S. Congressmen, who received instruction from Jhoon Rhee, undergo a taekwondo promotion test at the Cannon Building on Capitol Hill in July 2001 (left). Korea Military Academy cadets demonstrate a taekwondo routine (opposite page).

university's administration, he

into contact with many famous

character. The practice of taekwondo

organized an extracurricular tae-

Americans."

requires one to learn to cherish

kwondo club, in which Rhee

The year 1965 marked a turning

peace, respect their elders, be

provided lessons in taekwondo for

point in Rhee ' s life. When U.S.

courteous to neighbors, and practice

students as well as faculty members.

Congressman James Cleveland was

frugality and honesty in everyday

News about Rhee and taekwondo

mugged on the street, Rhee phoned

life.

spread quickly and before long the

the congressman and told him: "You

Much impressed with the spirit of

U.S. Defense Department, police

will never be mugged again if you

taekwondo, Congressman Cleveland

departments, and- even faraway

learn taekwondo." Later, a rather

began to tell his fellow congressmen

YMCAs were inviting Rhee to

skeptical Congressman Cleveland

about its virtues. With these

pelform demonstrations. Encouraged

visited Rhee's taekwondo school.

congressmen never failing to speak

by such widespread interest, he

Rhee introduced Congressman

glowingly about their experiences

decided to establish the Jhoon

Cleveland to the spirit of taekwondo:

with taekwondo, Rhee came to gain

Rhee Institute of Taekwondo in

"Knowledge of the mind, honesty in

near-legendary status. Ever since, he

Washington, D.C.

the heart, and strength in the body."

has been providing taekwondo

"At the time, few people in the

Taekwondo is a martial art that

instruction to Washington lawmakers

United States had even heard about

teaches respect for other people, to

at a gym on Capitol Hill, in addition

taekwondo. No one came to the

know when to yield, and to not

to introducing taekwondo to many

school for three months. After much

abuse or insult others. Much like

renowned Americans from various

agonizing, I took out a newspaper

family life that becomes peaceful if

fields. Diplomats who have taken

advertisement, touting the phrase,

you persevere in earnest, learning

taekwondo lessons from Rhee say

'No One Bothers Me. ' After that,

taekwondo is a process of acquiring

that when they sit at the negotiation

120 students enrolled and I came

patience and cultivating a proper

table with Koreans they can

54 Koreana I Summer 2003

"understand the Korean people ' s sentiments as a result of having learned taekwondo from such a brilliant master." Indeed, Rhee has

day for the last several decades,

and physical fitness videotapes,

regardless of whether he is on a trip abroad or at one of his taekwondo

books about martial arts, safety

schools. This dedicated regimen is

equipment, and training outfits are

served as a truly illustrious unofficial diplomat through the promotion of

evident in his formidable physical

also available for purchase. Among the prominent Americans

and mental strength. His friends

who have accompanied Rhee on

taekwondo.

claim that he is so physically fit that

trips to Korea, the "Mecca of

One of his proudest moments was

if you covered his face and asked

taekwondo ," former Secretary of

when he was appointed the chairman

100 people to guess his age, everyone would say he's twenty-something,

Agriculture Espy said of the

of the July 4 Independence Day celebration for 1983, the first Korean ever to serve in this capacity. The highlight of this ceremony involved 289 people clad in red, white and blue taekwondo uniforms who formed an American flag. He said that he would never forget the moment when the Independence Day festivities highlighted Korea's taekwondo. Even today, Rhee easily performs 1,000 push-ups as a daily routine. He has been doing push-ups every

and even after seeing his face, they

compact giant: " Jhoon Rhee is Korea's greatest gift to the United

would think he is in his 50s.

States." Former house speaker Bob

Befitting someone who has dedicated his whole life to

Livingston said: "I will never forget

taekwondo, Rhee also devotes much

the moment when I finally received my black belt after 12 years of

effort to its globalization. His website , (http://jhoonrhee.com),

taekwondo training. Jhoon Rhee is a

which is offered in six languages,

strengthened the friendship between the United States and Korea and

including English, Korean, and Japanese, introduces the spirit of taekwondo, as well as various forms

teacher without equal , who has

taught proper behavior through common sense and restraint." L;t

of martial arts and physical fitness programs. Do-it-yourself taekwondo Summer 2003 I Koreana 55

Kim Hong-do's Guryong Waterfall (Ink on paper, 29 x 42 em, Pyeongyang Historical Museum) (left)

~ ~

.il!:;

ive years have already

Mt. Taebaeksan, the center of the

Geumgangsan, to sing of its praises

passed since I visited Mt. Geumgangsan with the

vast Baekdudaegan mountain range

and attempt to capture its grace in

that extends the length of the Korean

picture. More than half of the travel poetry created during the Joseon

F /

. ~ Jij~:.;L

Guryong Waterfall: after plummeting 50 meters over the cliffs, the water forms a series of ponds as it flows downstream (opposite page).

painter Kang Yo-bae in August 1998. To visit this fabled mountain, known as one of most

Peninsula. Its western slopes reach inland,' while its eastern slopes

period centered on Geumgangsan,

thing I had dreamed about while

stretch out to the East Coast. Geumgangsan is often compared to Mt. Seoraksan, situated in the South,

while Geumgangsan paintings formed the mainstream of the jingyeong, or "true view," style of

studying the history of Korean

but its highest peak, the 1,638-meter

painting. Geumgangsan is both the

Birobong, is not quite as high as Seoraksan's 1,708-meter Daecheong-

landscape that was popular in the latter Joseon years. From this alone,

beautiful in the world, was some-

the true reverence that Geumgangsan

paramount subject of late Joseon landscape painting as well as its

bong. Seoraksan National Park also

commanded in Korean art and

birthplace. Here, I was able to view

encompasses a larger area than

literature is readily evident.

the actual setting of the Geumgang-

Geumgangsam. Why, then, is the

Geumgangsan spawned two

san landscapes painted by old

grandeur of Geumgangsan more

renowned figures in the arts of

masters such as Jeong Seon (pen name Gyeomje, 1676-1759). All the

highly regarded than that of

Korea. In literature there was Jeong Cheol (pen name Songgang, 1536-

time that I was at Geumgangsan, I

Seoraksan? This is no doubt attributed to the incomparable

could hardly contain my exhilaration at walking in the footsteps of these

magnificence and harmony of Geumgangsan's spectacular mountain

Gwandongbyeolgok ( Gwandong

legendary artists. Was this really

formations , dense forests, and

Geumgangsan, out of reach though certainly not out of mind since the

forbidding peaks, as well as the clear waters and unusually shaped rocks

Seon, creator of Geumgangjeondo (Panorama ofGeumgangsan). It was Jeong Seon who broke out of the

country was left divided in 1953?

that grace its eve1y valley.

mold of Chinese landscape painting

Origin of Korean Landscape

The mysterious beauty of this area is like a powerful magnet, attracting

while roaming about Korea and painting works that led to a new

countless poets and painters to

genre, jingyeongsansuhwa, or "true

Geumgangsan lies to the north of 58

Koreana I Summer 2003

1593),

the

poet

who

wrote

Verses); in painting there was Jeong

view (realistic) landscapes," in

masters such as Jeong Semi, Sim Sajeong, and Kim Hong-do. In a sense, I

featured such extraordinary shapes.

thus the genesis of classic Korean

felt that even the finest artistic works created by people could hardly

This was the beginning of my rapture. The 8-kilometer-long Gu-

landscape painting.

compete with the vivid impact of

ryongpok Valley, the most popular

nature itself. Looking south from

site in Geumgangsan, was my first sightseeing destination. It was ideal to

which scenery was painted just as it actually appeared. Geumgangsan is

Picturesque Rock Formations

Haegeumgang, you can make out the South Korean port of Hwajinpo in the

Geumgangsan had to be fitted into an eight-day visit to North Korea.

distance. I had reached Geumgangsan, so close to home, via a circuitous

Moreover, this is a sensitive area

route indeed. The plight of our

where confrontations with North

divided country stung me to the core.

Our

artistic

pilgrimage

enjoy a day of leisurely trekking, all the while drinking in Geumgangsan's delectable panorama of mountains, valleys, and boulders. The Phoenix Rock, Bear Rock, and Rabbit Rock

Koreans are frequent, along with

So this was the most beautiful

on the ridge of the Sejonbong Peak

many places being off limits to

mountain on earth, Geumgangsan. As

are like a scaled-down version of

visitors. Because of the stringent time and access restrictions, we had

I entered the village of Onjeong-ri, I

Manmulsang, while the Ongnyudong

was awestruck by the surrounding

Gorge and Yeonjudam Pond are

to try to do as much as possible every day. Fortunately, our North Korean guides generously assisted us during our Geumgangsan field trip, cheerfully accompanying us /

cluster of nearby mountains, which

some days from five in the morning until late at night, even when this meant skipping meals. The first site we visited was Haegeumgang, or "Sea Geumgang." There, Geumgang-

~ -

san descends into the sea and then

--"\

emerges again from the waters as intriguingly shaped rock formations. These wave-sculpted formations include Haegeumgangmun (Sea Geumgang Gate), Husband and Wife, Mother and Son, Ferryman, Seal, Cat, and Seven Sisters. The wondrous scene formed by these bizarre natural sculptures standing in the sea is likened to Manmulsang in Outer Geumgang, and thus is known as Haemanmulsang. Up.on reaching the top of Haegeumgangmun, while taking in the surrounding view, I immediately recalled paintings by 18th-century

Jeong Sean 's Panorama of Mount Geumgangsan, National Treasure No. 217 (Ink on paper, 130 x 94.1 em, Ho-am Art Museum)

The snow-capped Birobong Peak is steeped in mystery.

Âˇ~

reminiscent of the landscape of Manpokdong. Adding another

The dense formations of peculiarly shaped boulders jutting out at

courtyard, Heolseongnu Pavilion commands an unobstructed view of

dimension to this gorgeous scenery is

Manmulsang create an epitome of

this remarkable scene. So breath-

Guryong Waterfall. Moreover,

virile masculinity.

taking is the view from this pavilion,

legends are associated with several local attractions: "The Woodcutter

the people of bygone days would Geumgangsan's 12,000 Peaks

and the Fairy" with the Sangpaldam

As I embarked on my visit to

Pond, "The Legend of the White Doraji Flower" with the Ongnyudong

Geumgangsan, the -image that first

Gorge, and "The Story of the

legendary scene of its 12,000 peaks. This association derived from my

Salmon" with Singyesa Temple. This is where the celebrated oral literature of Geumgangsan comes from! Inner and Outer Geumgang can be seen as two different types of landscape, distinguished by their topography. If the Manpokdong Valley of Inner Geumgangsan is said

came into my mind was the

familiarity with the Geumgangsan paintings of old masters such as Jeong Seon, whose Panorama of

Geumgangsan depicted the entire expanse of Inner Geumgangsan surrounding Birobong, the highest

to be feminine in character, then

peak. Jeongyangsa Temple is the site from where you can view this

Manmulsang Crags of Outer

panoramic scene of Inner Geum-

Geumgangsan would be masculine.

gangsan. From the Jeongyangsa

sing t~a Geumgangsan had been created just for the benefit of Heolseongnu. It was a clear early autumn afternoon. Above the bluish woods that embraced the temple, the rocky crags glistened like crystal ware under the azure sky. But I could not identify the pm.ticular peaks that were depicted in the old masters' paintings. Only the tip of Birobong stood out in the distance, and even that revealed itself coyly, slipping in and out of view among the passing clouds. The scene that unfolded before me included the Sohyangnobong and Summer 2003 I Koreana

Choe Buk's Pyohunsa Temple (Ink on paper, 38.5 x 57.3 em) (left) Myogilsang, a Buddha figure carved onto the surface of a huge boulder (right) Geumgangsan stretches all the way to the rocks of Haegeumgang at the East Coast (opposite page).

Daehyangnobong peaks rising above Manpokdong Valley, along with the

impressed by the ingenious creativity of his Panorama of Geumgangsan.

ridgeline connecting Baegundae,

the head of the Manpokdong Valley is among the most popular attractions of Geumgangsan. Here, the

Hyeolmangbong, and Manggundae in the foreground. My companion

Lyrical Rocks and Water

Kang Yo-bae was also having difficulty putting his brush to the

from.the inn at Onjeong-ri to explore Inner Geumgangsan. Climbing to the

canvas , no doubt contemplating about how he should paint what he

summit of Onjeongnyeong, every

the cool water. Here and there, the rocks are carved with the names and

pass unveiled another nuance of

verses of visitors past, and even a

was looking out upon.

Geumgangsan in the dawn light. The

baduk game board can be found.

So, that was it! In their Geumgangsan panoramas, the old masters did not paint just what they saw after

views that opened up toward Haegeumgang were spectacular

There is also an inscription by the

indeed. Once I was through the

Yang Sa-eon, known for his cursive

all. They took an impression from the

tunriel at the top of Onjeongnyeong,

12,000 peaks of Inner Geumgangsan

I came to a dirt path that was softer underfoot, whic;:h extended all the

writing style. In the valley to the right of

and then transformed it into a new creation with an entirely different

At six in the morning, I set off

poets of long ago held their versewriting get-togethers, reveling in the scenery as they dipped their feet in

renowned early Joseon calligrapher,

Geumgangdae is a delightful series

way to Pyohunsa Temple in the

of little ponds with water as clear as

perspective and composition. Their

valley of Inner Geumgangsan.

paintings are vivid testimony to, not so much their eyes, but rather their

From Pyohunsa, I passed Geumgangmun (Geumgang Gateway) and

translucent jade. The eight ponds of Manpokdong extend over a distance

feet. After extensively researching and sketching the mountains, they reoriented their material on the canvas

entered an open space so expansive that I wondered how it could exist in

to create a perspective of looking down ' at the scene from an elevated

Streams emerged from narrow gullies on either side and converged

flowing water is said to resemble

position. That was how Jeong Seon created an artistic elegance that is

to flow over a massive slab of flat rock, large enough to accommodate

that of the Korean lute, bipa. Byeokpadam (Blue Ripple Pond) is

quite different from the landscape's

perhaps hundreds of seated people. The Wonhwadongcheon Stream at

noted for a bluish mist that hovers

natural beauty. I was even more 62

Koreana I Summer 2003

the midst of these mountains.

of 2 kilometers. The water of Heungnyongdam (Black Dragon Pond) is said to be so deep blue that it looks almost black. At Bipadam (Lute Pond), the lilting sound of the

over its blue water. The spray at

beauty of these waters in the clear

is likened to a gentle snow flurry, while Jinjudam (Pearl Pond) is so

afternoon sun.

Inner Geumgangsan is said

Myogilsang is one of Geumgangsan ' s notable examples of a

to be feminine in character, then Manmulsang Crags of

Buddha figure engraved in rock.

Outer Geumgangsan would

Carved onto the surface of a 40meter boulder, this Goryeo era (918-

be masculine. The dense

named for the drops of its waterfall, which gleam like pearls. Gudam (Turtle Pond) has a boulder in its waters that looks like a turtle, and Seondam (Boat Pond) is shaped like

If the Manpokdong Valley of

Bunseoldam (Powdery Snow Pond)

1392) seated Buddha measures 15

formations of peculiarly shaped boulders jutting out

a boat. Finally, Hwaryongdam (Fire

meters in height, with its knees

Dragon Pond) got its name from the way that water splashes on the sides

spread 9.4 meters apart. Looking out from below Birobong, it seems to

epitome of virile masculinity.

of the pond, like flames from the

preside over the entire realm of

Geumgangsan's history and legends.

mouth of a dragon. In the valley, broad flat slabs,

Geumgangsan, while its yellowish-

For anyone who has visited Geumgangsan, it is easy to under-

rounded boulders, and step-like

colored rock gives it the appearance of a golden Buddha. But on closer

rocks each displayed their particular

inspection, it does not appear to be a

stand how it has served as a source of inspiration for artistic expression.

refinement. The pellucid water drops

Buddha at all, but rather a Taoist

This is evidenced by the creation of

that tumble upon these rocks bounce up like lovely pearls. The water

immortal, or perhaps an ordinary man, in silent meditation. With a

such a wealth of poetry, lyrics, travelogues, literature, and paintings,

accumulates in deep ponds to form brilliant turquoise streams of jade.

smile on its thick lower lip and a whimsical expression on its face, it

as well as myth and legend, centered on Geumgangsan. The pride of the

But there are no words that can

seems to be taking much delight in

Korean people, Geumgangsan is

adequately express the resplendent

recounting the entertaining tales of

also the wellspring of Korean arts. ~

at Manmulsang create an

KONGGUKSU AND KKAEGUKSU Health Food for Keeping Cool Koo Chun-sur Director, World Food Research Institute Photographes : FOPA

Beans are often called

meat from the garden" because

they are so rich in vegetable protein. Sesame seeds are high in calories and thus help to boost your stamina during. the hot, sultry summer months. Kongguksu (bean noodle soup) and kkaegf.!ksu (sesame noodle soup) are summertime favorites of Koreans, which are healthy and easy to prepare. /

I --<.

t is believed that people first

Making Noodles with Flour

suta , was introduced from China.

settled on the Korean Peninsula

To eat these grains, people ground

This new method involved kneading

during the Neolithic Age,

them into flour, and kneaded the flour

the dough on a wide board, stretching

where they formed an agrarian-

into dough, which was then boiled or

out and twirling the dough, and then

based community. At that time,

steamed. Later, people began to bake this dough or shape it into slender

flipping it against the board . By

beans and millet were the only

repeating this process, the dough

grains grown by these settlers. And while there was an abundance of

threads that were boiled in water. In

gnidually took on the shape of thin

this way, Koreans learned to make

noodles.

barnyard grasses of the rice plant

noodles. As such, it is thought that

However, the suta method was

family, their grains were too small

noodles were first made by rolling

difficult for those who were not

and tasted unpleasant. Over time, as

dough with the palm of the hand into

noodle makers or with little

new grains, such as wheat, barley,

thin thread-like strips. Although this

experience with the technique. Thus,

rye, and rice, were gradually

particular method of making noodles

most Koreans preferred a simpler

introduced, these grasses came to be

was no doubt utilized for a long

process of using a wooden roller to

regarded as useless weeds. Wheat,

period of time, it is not known when

flatten the dough into a thin layer and

barley, and rice became the staple

it was first developed.

then cutting it into noodles (guksu)

grains of Koreans as interaction and exchanges

increased between

various regions.

This method of making noodles

with a knife (kal). And for this

was both labor-intensive and time-

reason, Korean noodles are called

consuming. Consequently, an im-

kalg uksu. The round, thin noodles

proved method, known in Korean as

preferred by Koreans today are Summer 2003 I Koreana

Far East, including the Korean Peninsula, Heilongjiang province in China, and the Maritime province in Russia. Foods made from processed beans such as tofu, or dubu as it is known in Korean, were first developed in these areas. The people of these areas take considerable pride in their fermented health food products such as ganjang (soy sauce), do enjang (soybean paste), and gochujang (thick soy paste with red chili pepper). As scientific research has found that these fermented foods can help prevent geriatric diseases, global interest in the preventive health value of these items has risen dramatically. Sesame noodles are served in a broth of chicken stock and garnished with meat and ;:;:;...;.--...""'-...:.oo-,.. vegetables.

Âˇ-

As the beans that are grown in these areas are rich in oil and protein, they are ideal for use in processed food products. The most popular and well-known food item made of processed beans is dubu.

People also love noodles for its

However, dubu is too difficult to make at home. An alternative to

symbolism. Without fail , noodles

dubu that is also made of beans is kongg'!k (bean soup) . The Korean

tiny holes. For special occasions , such as

would be served on special days to wish a long and happy life to the guest of honor as well as family and

weddings or 60th birthday parties, Koreans would invite their neighbors

friends. Noodles are also the favorite of

soup in English. However, Korean guk is noticeably thinner than

and relatives to enjoy noodles

many because it is much easier to

together. Thus, noodles came to be associated with special days.

prepare, compared to Korean typical dishes. Therefore, when guests visit

Noodle dishes are especially popular among people because of

your home, there is no need to spend hours preparing dishes that require

their light and refreshing taste. In the

much time and effort, just serve

days bf long ago, noodles topped with various spices and a broth made by boiling beef or dried anchovies

noodles!

kongguk and noodles served with ice in the summertime. In fact, many

Kongguksu and Kkaeguksu

restaurants offer kongguksu as a

typically produced by a mechanical process in which dough is forced through a screen-like device with

for a long time would be served to guests on special occasions. 66

Koreana I Summer 2003

word guk is usually translated as

regular soups. It is typically prepared with cooked vegetables and meat or fish. However, kongguk is made from only one ingredient, beans. Therefore, kongguk is among one of the simplest soups to make. Koreans have long enjoyed

Beans, or kong in Korean, are

seasonal dish in summer. For

believed to have originated in the

Koreans who are inclined to shun

fatty foods during the hot summer

(sesame soup) as well as kkaeguksu.

From long ago, chamkkae (sesame)

months, kongguksu serves as a

It is known that people need more

refreshing alternative. Moreover, its most attractive feature, aside from its

energy during the sultry months of

has been a valued crop that played a part in the "Alibaba and the Forty

nutritional value, could well be its

summer than in spring or fall. And because it is high in calories and

affordable price. Plus, there are not

replaces the fat that tends to be lost

many dishes as filling as kongguksu.

in summer, sesame soup is an ideal summer choice. However, since it

Kkaeguksu (sesame noodle soup)

was created as a high-class alter-

Thieves" story, when the passageway to a cave would magically open at the command: "Open, sesame!" Sesame now serves as a versatile seasoning for enhancing the taste of a wide variety of foods. These days,

native to kongguksu. In bygone

was usually made from chicken broth that had been boiled for hours,

days, Korea's elite class got through

commoners could not easily afford

nutritional supplement as well as a

the hot summers by having kkaeguk

kkaeguk.

flavor enhancer. J.l.t

chamkkae is added to kongguksu as a

Kongguksu

Ingredients (for four servings) , 300 grams noodles, 1 cup beans, 1/2 cup peanuts, 1 tablespoon salt, 2 boiled eggs, 1/2 cucumber, 6 cups water 1. Soak beans for a day and boil them for five minutes using

a sufficient amount of water. Rinse the boiled beans in cold Âˇ water and remove the hulls. 2. Roast peanuts . 3. Blend the beans and roasted peanuts together, adding 6 cups of water. 4. Strain the blended beans with a sieve, set the soup aside

to cool, and season with salt. 5. Boil noodles and rinse them in cold water. Serve the bean soup with the noodles, garnished with thin strips of cucumber and boiled eggs cut in half. Kkaeguksu

Ingredients (for four servings), 300 grams noodles, 1 cup sesame seeds, 1 tablespoon salt, 1/2 chicken (600 grams) , 2 fried eggs, 1/2 cucumber, 1 ginger root , 1 spring onion , 2 cloves garlic, 10 cups water 1. Roast sesame seeds and mash them in water.

2. Prepare chicken broth by boiling chicken, ginger, garlic and spring onion in 10 cups of water for a few hours. Remove the .fat, meat and bones, and allow the chicken broth to cool. 3. Mix the mashed sesame seeds with the chicken broth. 4. Serve the sesame soup with noodles, garnished with thin strips of vegetables and fried egg .

Summer 2003 I Koreana

Korean Bath Culture Rejuvenation of the Body and Mind Ji Geun-hwa Freelance Writer Seo Heun-kang Photographer

Koreans have a long tradition of enjoying dry sauna and hot springs. Nowadays, these baths go well beyond personal hygiene and health considerations, providing therapeutic as well as aesthetic benefits. 68 Koreana I Summer 2003

hile people around the

unique bath culture. Meanwhile, on

body, until their skin reddens. Only

world have developed

the other side of the world, Turkish

then are these Koreans satisfied that

distinctive cultures ,

people created the hammam, a

they are clean enough. Such a scene

specially designed bathtub tailored to

of scrubbing is common in public

their Middle Eastern climate.

bathhouses in Korea, but it is seldom

there are basics of daily

life with a universal nature. Upon

seen elsewhere.

closer examination, however, underlying this universality, unique practices can be found that result from

'Ttaemiri (scrub) Culture'

The most distinctive bath tradition

As an essential element of the ttaemiri culture, the Italy towel is a

environmental factors. Bath culture is

in Korea is its "ttaemiri (scrub)

unique product of Korean bath

a good example. As a result of its

culture." After soaking themselves

culture. Sometime in the rnid-1960s

humid climate and abundance of hot

in a hot tub, Koreans use an abrasive

a linen shop employee is said to have

springs, the Japanese have cultivated a

"Italy towel" to scrub their entire

used a rough cloth for scrubbing, Summer 2003 I Koreana

and liked the effect, which led to

The ttaerniri culture also plays a

ttaemiri, as these scrub assistants are

development of the Italy towel, so named for theÂˇ fact that the abrasive

positive role in Korea ' s tourism business. Japanese visitors invariably

now called , enjoy an improved standing. The term ttaerniri has since

fabric came from Italy.

stock up on a supply of Italy towels

lost its negative connotation and has

Of note, dermatologists frown

whenever they shop at Namdaemun

upon such harsh scrubbing. The "grime" that the Italy towel is used to

Market. The only other product that

come . to mean "bathing service provider." Ttaemiri not only offer scrubbing assistance but also facial

remove is mainly corneous tissue and

rivals the popularity of the Italy towel is dried laver. To the Japanese,

sebum, both of which can be easily

the Italy towel represents more than a

are even sent abroad,

removed by taking a quick shower. Scrubbing with an Italy towel,

regular souvenir ; it reflects their interest in Korea's unique bath

Wat Pho massage therapists or Taiwanese foot massage specialists.

however, not only removes corneous tissue and sebum but normal skin

culture. Moreover, there are tourists

cells as well, which can contribute to excessive drying and premature

purpose of personally experiencing Korea's ttaemiri culture.

ageing of the skin. And while people are aware of these consequences, the

In the past, the bathhouse workers who would assist customers with

psychological satisfaction of this ingrained habit outweighs what they

scrubbing their bodies were often

bathing since ancient times. The oldest

looked down upon for their lowly

know in their minds.

social status. But these days, the

documentation of Korean bathing practices is related to the Silla

Koreana I Summer 2003

who visit Korea for the express

and body massage. Some ttaemiri siml~

to Thai

Public Bathhouse History

It was only during the modem era that public bathhouses reappeared in Korea. But historic records indicate that Koreans took much pleasure in

Most dry saunas these days are found in central city areas and equipped with modern facilities and amenities, offering ready access to any user. This convenience has enabled dry sauna to become a new leisure destination for family outings, where everyone can enjoy rest, relaxation and recreation .

People enjoying and relaxing at low-temperature -...- - dry saunas (left, far left)

-""'

Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), whose

being the national religion during

flower water or boiled orchid water to

founder Park Hyeokgeose and his wife

Silla, there were a number of large-

maintain a clear, white skin tone.

Allyeong especially enjoyed bathing.

size Buddhist temples that included

The Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

During the Silla era, people

public bathhouses on their grounds.

marked the end of such bath culture

bathed for sanitary and aesthetic

For the Buddhist faithful, bathing

because of Confucianism's restrictive

considerations as well as their

was not simply for cleaning the body

practices. Buddhism was also

respect for Buddhist principles. A

but also a means to cleanse the mind

suppressed, leading to the elimination

stone bathtub excavated at Anapji in

and soul.

of temple bathhouses. Thereafter, the

Gyeongju is a valuable resource that

The people of the succeeding

first modem public bathh<:mse was

provides a glimpse into the bath

Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) enjoyed

developed in Pyeongyang in 1920.

culture of that period. The stone

~athing

Several years later, modem public

bathtub includes a drain hole,

Xu Jing, an envoy of China's Song

backrest and filtration system.

Dynasty, who wrote of his Goryeo

even more than Silla people.

bathhouses also appeared in Seoul. Dry Sauna and Hot Springs

The homes of Silla nobility were

experiences in the book Gaolitujing

all equipped with such bath facilities.

(Koryeodogyeong), noted that Goryeo

Today's bath culture is related not

They "also used a soap made from red

men and women would take baths at

only to the cleansing of the body but

beans, mung beans, rice bran and

least three or four times a day, not

also includes health, aesthetic and

apricot kernels, along with aromatics

only in bathhouses at temples but also

leisure aspects. Hot springs and dry

in their bathwater, such as lotus

in rivers or streams. Goryeo women,

sauna for therapeutic purposes began

leaves or mugwort. With Buddhism

wearing linen garments, used peach-

to gain popularity several years ago. Summer 2003 I Koreana 71

A clinic at a hot springs resort where traditional medicinal treatment is available (left top). A foot massage (left bottom) A hot springs swimming pool where mineral spring bathing and swimming can be enjoyed (left). A path designed to give strollers a foot massage as they walk (opposite page) /

The popularity of dry sauna, in

soup is rich in iodine and calcium

particular, the jjimjilbang (Korean-

that helps the body recover from the

sauna that suits their individual physical condition.

style low-temperature dry sauna),

loss of water after a dry sauna and

Also worthy of note, the medical

has literally exploded. In addition to saunas, the jjimjilbang offer a wide

promotes the production of blood

authorities have confirmed the health benefits of jjimjilbang, in

range of amenities, including rooms

cells. Sikhye, a Korean traditional beverage, is sweet and refreshing.

for video, nail care, and massage, as

The variety of jjimjilbang types

particular regard to the elimination of accumulated body waste through

well as fitness centers and swimming pools, making it an ideal facility to

are built from different materials,

perspiration and the ability of heat to

which produce a diversity of

improve blood flow and relax

rest and relax.

therapeutic benefits. Examples include elvan (for rejuvenating the

muscles. Athletes suffering from injury to their joints are advised to

skin), amethyst (for improved blood circulation), jade (for treating

use jjimjilbang as part of their

It might cost as little as several

thousand won to enjoy all the additional amenities. The basic entry fee varies, however, and can be as much

treatment. Whereas a conventional sauna circulates heated air, which

as 10,000 won for certain establish-

osteoporosis), and yellow mud (for digestive track ailments). Minerals

ments. Most jjimjilbang are open

such as green jadeite and germanium,

around the clock and can be used as a sleep area. For a simple meal,

the most recent innovations, emit infrared rays that help to )Joost blood

miyeok, seaweed soup and sikhye, a

circulation and body metabolism.

for the elderly and even people with heart conditions to enjoy jj im-

sweet rice beverage, are the most popular items on the menu. Seaweed

The wide range of choices allows

jilbang. The secret behind the

customers to enjoy the type of dry

jjimjilbang's popularity is Korea's

Korean a I Summer 2003

can cause breathing difficulties and flushed skin, jjimjilbang heat comes from infrared rays, making it safe

traditional housing architecture. The

use

Chinese tourists, in particular, are

similarity between jjimjilbang and the traditional under-floor ondol

additives that enhance health and appearance, including green tea, silver

known to enjoy this unique experience. In fact, the majority of tourists

heating system provides a definite

powder, and grape extracts, in

from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and

sense of psychological comfort for

addition to aroma therapy. Such

China will visit a hot springs at least

jjimjilbang users.

theme baths add to the delight of hot

once during their stay. Of the various

Although jjimjilbang are readily

springs visitors. Underwater exercise

hot springs resorts, the Asan Spavis

accessible, a visit to a hot springs area will require more time and

equipment is also provided to promote both physical fitness and treatment.

in Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, is among the most popular. Asia's

effort. On the other hand, the

Traditional medicine clinics are

largest hot springs resort, it boasts

majority of hot springs resorts are

sometimes found at hot springs to

first-class facilities and can accommo-

located in the vicinity of cultural sites or tourist attractions, making

provide supplemental health care. Of late, resorts with indoor and

date as many as 3,000 visitors. Traditional medicine practitioners

the visit worth its while. In the past,

outdoor hot springs swimming pools

say that a single visit to a hot springs

hot springs were frequented mostly by the elderly or honeymooners.

have become especially popular with families. They typically offer accom-

is more beneficial than a whole package of medicine. With the water

Today, they have become popular for the entire family, with upscale

modations, outdoor hot springs,

of hot springs long being called Godsent, it seems only natural that

hot springs resorts offering a wide variety of facilities and activities for everyone's enjoyment.

Hot

springs

nowadays

indoor sauna and related facilities. Hot springs swimming pools are

advocates of hot springs would swear

also becoming a favorite tourist

by the wonders that it can do for

attraction for visitors from abroad.

rejuvenation of the body and rnind.1.31 Summer 2003 I Koreana

Âˇ-

orean gardens embody a

and ideological values of its people,

both an eternal spiritual essence and a

philosophy of adapting to

which have changed with the times.

comforting maternal figure. Accor-

nature in its original state.

dingly, the indigenous religion of

The elements of a Korean

Nature in the Traditional Garden

Korea was centered on the worship of

garden include land, structures,

The Korean Peninsula's three

nature. Koreans believed that life

flowers and trees, streams and ponds,

coasts are lapped by the ocean, while

would not be possible unless the

rocks and walls, b1idges and paths. A

its mountains, rivers, fields, and seas

principles of nature were respected.

garden brings these elements

stand out in sharp contrast, amid a

The conceptual roots of Korean

together into harmony within a

constant changing of its distinctive

culture lie in the worship of nature.

defined space through an orderly and

seasons. Accordingly, the inhabitants

The imported ideology of Buddhism

functional arrangement.

of long ago spoke of their beautiful

was added to this around the fourth

In a garden, Koreans enjoy a sense

land as "embroidered rivers and

century, while Taoist thought

of inner peace from becoming one

mountains." The land of Korea is

became widely disseminated about

with nature. Gardens can also serve

free from major earthquakes and

the seventh century. It was from this

practical purposes, such as for

active volcanoes. Rain falls in

ideological background that the

growing fruit or medicinal herbs, in

quantities conducive for agriculture,

Korean garden was created. From

addition

while the climate is relatively mild.

the 15th century, the Song Confu-

being

delightful

playgrounds . Sometimes they are

As a result, the people could

cianism of Zhu Xi became the Âˇruling

used as an inspirational backdrop for

maintain a stable livelihood by

ideology of Joseon, along with

writing poetry, or a spiritual training

working hard in accordance with the

landscape architecture corning under

ground for meditation. The influences

principles of nature. It was thus

the influence of such concepts as

that shaped the identity of the Korean

natural for Koreans to think of nature

yin-yang, the five elements, and

garden include Korea's natural

as a motherly being who takes care of

geomancy.

environment as well as the lifestyle

mankind : To Koreans, nature was

In particular, Song Confucianism's

Anapji, a pond on the grounds where a Sill a palace once stood (opposite page)

The Huwon Garden area of Donggwoldo showing Buyongji Pond (right)

view of nature strongly influenced

natural disasters such as earthquakes,

of gardens from the Silla Kingdom

Joseon gardens. It was through these

volcanoes, typhoons, and tidal waves.

(57 B.C.-A.D. 935) . Situated around

influences that Joseon art was

As such, they were able to survive

Wolseong, the site of the Silla royal

created, with its naturalistic style

only by overcoming these menacing

palace from 101 to 935, are Gyerim

untouched by artifice, while a

forces of nature. As a reflection of

Grove and Anapji, the pond of

worldly, practical lifestyle flourished,

thi s, Japanese gardens feature a

Silla's East Palace. During the Silla

based on moderation and diligence.

contrived sense of aesthetics. All

period, the pond was known as Wolji

Indeed, this led to the development

Oriental gardens are rooted in

or "Moon Pond," and it was not until

of a highly humanistic and straight-

concepts about nature, but because of

the Joseon era that poets and men of

forward naturalistic culture.

differences in their respective natural

letters started to call it Anapji, "Wild

Korea's cultural heritage includes

environment, lifestyle, and values, the

Goose and Duck Pond ," for its

nothing as monumental or imposing

gardens of Korea, China, and Japan

abundant growth of reeds and

as the Great Wall of China or the

each possess their own unique

duckweed that made it a popular rest

Grand Canal that links the Yellow

characteristics.

stop for wild geese and ducks.

RiverÂˇ to the Yangtze River. This is because Koreans believe that anything

The 7,723-square-meter Gyerim Gyerim Grove and Anapji Pond

is Gyeongju's sacred woodland area

so huge will overwhelm and alienate

The Gyeongju Historic Areas,

and the birthplace of Kim Al-ji,

human beings . On the other hand,

included on the list of UNESCO

founder of the illustrious Gyeongju

Japanese have long suffered from

World Heritage sites, contains relics

Kim Clan. Thick with zelkova trees Summer 2003 I Korean a

and wangbeodeul (salix Koreensis Anderss.), it is known as Korea's oldest woodland. Moreover, from A.D. 65 to 307, Gyerim was used as the name of the Silla Kingdom itself. Home to the oldest trees of all Korea's ancient gardens, this grove is steeped in legend. The remains of Anapji, the pond of Silla's East Palace, were uncovered by an excavation team in 1975. According to Samguksagi (History of the Three Kingdoms), in

the 12th month of the 14th year of King Munmu's reign (A.D. 674), "a pond was dug within the palace grounds, where artificial mountains were constructed, and flowers, rare birds, and deer brought." The section on Gyeongju in the Donggungnyeojiseungnam (Augmented Survey of the /

Geography of Korea) states: "Anapji

lies to the north of Cheonjusa Temple, where King Munmu created a pond within the palace grounds,

·-

Ho·am Art Museum

piled up stones to make mountains symbolizing the 12 peaks of Mt. Musan (Wuehan in Chinese) , and brought in flowers and birds. To the west is the site of Imhaejeon Pavilion, whose stone foundation and

within the pond were three islands symbolizing Samsinsan, or "Three

Japanese gardening, the 11th-century

steps remain in an open field."

God Mountains." Along the banks of the pond and the slopes of the man-

see that the entrance where the water

Anapji Pond extends some 190 meters from east to west as well as north to south, encompassing an area of 15,658 square meters and with stone-trimmed banks. To the east and north of the pond, artificial mountains were built to symbolize the 12 peaks of Mt: Musan, while palace buildings stood to the west and south. The sloped eastern bank resembled an exquisitely curved coastline, and 78 Koreana I Summer 2003

made mountains were three beautiful arrangements of about a thousand uniquely shaped rocks, each a little less than a man's height.

Skuteiki. From this source, we can -·

flowed in was also similar to a Japanese garden. It seems likely that Korean garden landscaping influences were eventually transmitted to Japan.

Anapji was a garden conceived as a scaled-down version of the world

Changdeokgung Huwon Garden

of Taoist immortals. The method of arranging the intriguingly shaped

The most significant palace garden remains of the Joseon era (1392-

rocks is similar to a technique

1910) is the Huwon Garden of the

described in the oldest record of

Changdeokgung Palace, commonly

At Heewon Garden, water from Gyeryu stream ifows down a little gully to the pond (opposite page). Wooden watercourse in perfect harmony with nature (above) Chimney in the back garden seen from Jewoldang Hall (right)

known as "Rear Garden." Built in 1405 , Changdeokgung served as a

its highest point reaching 98 meters above sea level. Arranged in harmony

The area is home to several extraordinary trees, including a 700-

royal palace through 1910 for

with the landscape, and not unduly

year-old darae namu (Actinidia

successive kings of the Joseon

dominating the hill side, are 17

arguta) , 600-year-old Chinese

Dynasty and the Emperor of the Daehan Empire (1897-1910). In

pavilions, including Buyongjeong, Aeryeo njeong , Huiujeong, Jon-

juniper, an d zelkova tree several hundred years old, along with

1997 , Changdeokgung and its Huwon Garden was added to the

deokjeong, Taegeukjeong, and Cheongsimjeong. Nearby buildings

various dolbae namu (Rosaceae Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm.) Nakai),

list of UNESCO World Heritage

include Juhamnu, Yeongyeongdang,

mulberry, chestnut, yew, pagod a

properties, making this worldacclaimed garden a must-see attrac-

Yeonghwadang, and Seonhyangjae. The ponds, mostly round in shape,

tree, white oak, and overcup oak. There are also shrubs and bushes

tion for sightseers in Seoul.

include Buyongji, Aeryeonji, Jon-

under 3 meters in height: about 300

The Huwon Garden covers an area of about 300,000 square meters, with

deokji, Banwolji, Eosutaekji, and

species of plants in all. Among them, these darae namu and Chinese

Gwallamjeongji.

Summer 2003 I Koreana

juniper have been designated natural monuments.

Jigok-ri Village, Nam-myeon, Damyang-gun, Jeollanam-do prov-

he constructed N akseojae, a hall where he instructed young scholars.

Distinctively shaped rocks are

ince, was created by the scholar

The woods of Buyongjeong were the

arranged around the pavilions, walls, and flowerbeds, together with

Yang San-bo during the reign of Joseon's King Jungjong (r. 1506-

birthplace of the literary figure Yun Seon-do, author of Eobusasisa (The

landscaping along the sloping banks. Attractive stone bridges cross a little

1544). Within a 9,900-square-meter area surrounded by boulders,

Four Seasons of the Fisherman), and

stream. There are fruit trees,

Gwangpunggak Pavilion, Jewoldang

mulberry trees for silk worms ,

Hall, flowerbeds , ponds, a single-log

nature. A garden that adopts these

bridge, and a water wheel create a

elements of traditional landscape

picturesque landscape. The garden is imbued with the philosophy of

architecture is Heewon, created in

scholars who enjoyed a self-

Heewon is based on a "principle of borrowed scenery" (a technique of

All Oriental gardens are rooted in concepts of adapting to _ nature, but each type features distinctive characteristics. Korean gardens convey a sense of harmony in which humans and nature can

sufficient lifestyle while immersed in nature and scholarly pursuits. · Soswaewon clearly reflects its creator's desire to abide by the principles of nature. In particular, the

a retreat for literati to commune with

1997 at the Ho-am Art Museum.

bringing natural scenery into a garden setting) that forms the foundation of traditional garden

garden makes extensive use of

aesthetics. On a site of about 6,000 square meters, the garden restores the

natur.~l

features, whose original state is maintained as much as possible.

topographic contours of long ago and highlights the features of traditional

The garden is a representation of the ideal world that scholars sought to

garden landscaping: stone steps and

or Japanese gardens, which stress an artificial beauty

find when they retreated from public

and reduction of scale.

life to the solitude of the countryside.

• become one, in contrast to Chinese gardens that can be overwhelming due to / their physical grandeur,

pavilions, ponds, and walls. With such features as Bohwamun Gate (modeled after the Yuhyeonmun Gate of Deoksugung Palace), a

apricots, Japanese apricots, cherries,

Deep in a valley on Bogildo Island, Wando-gun, Jeollanam-do,

and peonies, while taller trees such

lies ·Buyongjeong, a garden created

as zelkova and pagoda trees form a

by the Joseon poet Yun Seon-do. At

sight !n the gardens of ordinary homes), the harmonious blending of

lush woodland. Although Huwon is a man-made

the entrance to the garden, Yun built

Sowon Garden's pond and pavilion, and the gyeryu flowing into the

garden , its natural beauty is

Seyeonjeong Pavilion, alongside a gyeryu (small stream), and a 2,000-

magnificent. Walking the 2-kilo-

square-meter pond with banks

meter path through the garden , people can feel that they have

formed of flat stones about 11 meters

become one with nature. In fact,

in length. Nearby, he built another pond of about 820 square meters in

Korean kings would often visit the garden to consult with their confidants' and contemplate weighty

area, in addition to installing Dongdae and Seodae platforms, a

matters.

Pavilion. Deeper into the valley, he built Dongcheonseoksil, a one-room

Heewon Garden

pavilion that he used as a study. On

Soswaewon Garden, located in 80 Koreana I Summer 2003

stone bridge, and Seyeonjeong

the slope of a hill across the valley,

bamboo grove (once a common

pond, visitors can

expri~nc

the

tranquil atmosphere of old-time gardens . The most noteworthy attribute of Heewon is its preservation of the traditions of the Korean garden. In fact, in parts of Heewon, you can enjoy a beauty and atmosphere like that of Changdeokgung Palace Huwon Garden. J.;t

MASTERPIECES

Geumnangyehoedo Enjo_ying Friendship and Composing Poetry Amid Nature Kim Seung-hee Curator, National Museum of Korea

Geumnangyehoedo reveals that the middle class of the 19th century enjoyed getting together, especially for leisurely conversation and composing poems amid an inspirational natural setting. The painting Glearly depicts the refinement and zest for life of the people during the Joseon Dynasty.

to collapse.) are conversing. with Buddhist monks at a scenic site overlooking Jungheungsa, an exquisite temple to the north of Seoul. In particular, this painting conveys the freshness of spring emanating from the surrounding mountains and

A ,.

belief that poetry, along

withdrew from society and immersed

trees and the stream flowing through

with calligraphy, should

themselves in the beauty of nature.

the valley. On the right side of the

be integrated was one of

As part of this pungnyu culture,

the ideals of literati painting during the Joseon Dynasty

liquor was revered for its ability to stimulate creativity and accentuate

painting, people are sitting while listeniqg to a seonbi recite a poem,

(1392-1910). The poems created during gyehoe meetings would be

the splendor of the scenic sur-

included in albums of paintings, as a reflection of the pleasurable

time together. Geumnangyehoedo, the fifth painting of the Geumnangyecheop

experiences of these gatherings. Therefore, the images conjured up

series, is a lyrical piece that well

roundings where they would spend

while the others are relaxing in comfort, smoking their pipes. Among the seonbi, there are liquor vessels, cups, and plates of_various foods. On the left side, people look at a seonbi as he writes, while another seems to be meditating before

by the poetry and those depicted in the paintings complemented each

depicts pungnyu. In Geumnangyehoedo, a group of seonbi (A man who attained a

starting his writing. In the distance, other people are enjoying the

other, producing multidimensional

respectable level of learning but did

scenery, relaxing on rocks and

works of art that were included in painting and poetry albums.

not hold an official government position. Middle-class men were

leisurely conversing with a monk. The camaraderie that the men are

In their leisure time, the J oseon

also called seonbi during the 19th

enjoying is readily evident. This is

literati pursued a pungnyu (refined and elegant) lifestyle, in which they

century, when the status of the

also reflected in the name given to this kind of meeting, geumnangyehoe,

82 Koreana I Summer 2003

yangban, or elite class, was beginning

Geumnangyehoedo, 1857, watercolors on paper, 31.1 x 42.4 em, National Museum of Korea

which is derived from geumnan, a term used in the Yijing (The Book of

when this painting was created, such literati meetings, which were

outline of Bukhansan can be seen in the distance and a temple is visible,

Changes, a Chinese classic on

accoi?panied by various forms of entertainment, became a part of middle-class culture, even while the

in all likelihood Jungheungsa. The

divination), which notes: "If two /

friends are in perfect harmony with their hearts, the strength of their friendship can melt even iron while

in various ways.

buildings to the left appear to be Jeollyunjeon and its monks'

the words that they speak from their joined hearts will have the same scent as an orchid." In the foreword

The characters in this painting, members of the middle class, not the

quarters. The atmosphere of the gathering held in such a secluded

ruling class, come across as

site amid dense foliage is cleverly

of the album, it is written that this

"individuals who desire to escape to

expres,sed by the characters' rather

geumnangyehoe was held as a

a more aesthetic world." The images

tribute to true friendship that, with the scent of an orchid, can subdue

of monks who lived in seclusion and members of the middle class seeking

vague images created with the use of muted watercolors. This painting's effect is such that viewers are able to

even the hardest iron.

to escape their everyday reality in

bask in its poetic atmosphere.

which social inequity was prevalent a~e closely intertwined with the

Reclusive meditation and getting together for drinking, reciting

Chaoyin (reclusion) school of

poetry, sightseeing trips and other forms of entertainment were

Such meetings in which literati sought to escape from reality to enjoy the beauty of nature with friends first appeared in the works of Laoqi and Confucian-related principles, which

lives of these people were constrained

building in the center of the painting is Manseru, while the stone

thought, which intersected with

fundamental to the pungnyu culture

often featured natural themes and a

pungnyu culture. In the third lunar month of 1857,

genuine appreciation of the true essence of nature. In fact, during the

An Si-yun, the leader of this gyehoe meeting, and his friends visited

painting, it is apparent that the pungnyu lifestyle was adopted by

latter period of the Joseon Dynasty,

Jungheungsa, a temple on the slopes of Mt. Bukhansan, not far from

the common people as well, thereby

this culture was widely embraced by society overall. In the 19th century

central Seoul. In this painting, an

of the Joseon Dynasty. From this

contributing to a uniquely lyrical culture of Joseon society. ll.t Summer 2003 I Koreana

Installation art is now a firmly established element of the Korean art scene. Artists are constantly breaking the mold and experimenting with a diversity of innovative styles, along with critiquing society and reflecting today's reality through their works. 84 Korean a I Summer 2003

tion Art A Window on Today's Reality Kho Chung-hwan Art Critic

technology sector, in terms of art, it refers to multifaceted, comprehensive approaches to art and methods not constrained by existing media. There was a time when renowned art museums and galleries in Korea actively competed to organize exhibitions of installation art. In addition, installatiqn art was featured as the central theme of international art festivals hosted in Korea, including the Gwangju Biennale and the Busan International Art Festival, as well as the recently held Media City Seoul. This trend continues today, though to a lesser extent. Dismantlement and Integration

Rather than being an independent art genre, installation art is a phenomenon that resulted from the

orean installation art can

modernism and the development of

trace its roots to the "Exhibition of Youth

new multimedia applications, it

Artists Alliance" in 1967.

It continued thereafter in a vmiety of

forms until the mid-1980s when, boosted by the pluralism of post-

gained new impetus. Today, installation art has become firmly established as a full-fledged art form in Korea. Although "multimedia" is often associated with the information-

dismantlement of other art genres and their subsequent integration into a new form. It can thus develop and unfold in any number of diverse directions and ways. A product of the contemporary age, installation art is an open concept that continues Summer 2003 I Koreana

Choi Jeong-hwa's Funny Game satirizes artificiality by setting up life-size dummies of traffic cops (left). Kim Young-jin's Liquid installation includes a water circu!ation system, eight projectors and a compressor (right).

to undergo constant innovation and

environmental-theme project that

symbolism of the work. In spite of

encompasses a wide range of artists. One of the most active installation

involves crossing the North American

its focus on sexuality, the subject of Monster Pink is neither male nor

artists in Korea is Jheon Soo-cheon.

female but a neutral identity that is

His works are known for their large

specially manufactured white fabric. The train will speed through the vast

scale and profound insightfulness,

expanses of nature to symbolize the

which reflect upon themes and issues that are relevant to our times. In his

creation of a grand artwork that

prejudices. It juxtaposes patriarchal desires toward women and women's

captures the beauty of nature on its

self-defense mechanisms.

Tou installation, Jheon denounces the disregard for humanity due to the

canvas. Installation art is a powerful and

excessive material-orientation of

effective tool for communicating

modern civilization. He treats the

ideology, as can be seen in the works of Lee Bul, which are based on

former, which stirs up disgust and

feminist issues. Through her Monster Pink installation, she

rejection of sexual appeal, Cyborg more aggressively reveals its sexual

reflects on the duality of society's

characteristics. But Cyborg, too, is

attitude toward women. That is, while society demands that women

no more than an image of heartless

conveniences of today's society, starting with high-tech media such as computers, as industrial waste, while comparing them to terra-cotta figurines, called tou. From the artist's perspective, the wounds of civilization should be treated with a sense of the traditional beauty and spirituality possessed by the tou. These days, Jheon is planning an 86 Koreana I Summer 2003

continent in a train wrapped in a

exude sex appeal it also abuses

meant to challenge existing gender

The concepts reflected in the grotesque body and gender-neutral identity of Monster Pink are carried over to Cyborg. In contrast to the

machinery an1 thus has the effect of castrating sexual fantasies. Oh In-hwan's installation Where

women as if they were some kind of sub-human species, a theme that is

Man Meets Man in Seoul is also

revealed in the underlying sexual

based on the theme of sexual

Oh ln-hwan's Where Man Meets Man in Seoul expresses sexuality through symbolic designs of incense ashes (left). Kim Soo-ja's Passersby features wrapping cloths and bundles (right).

identity. With a series of letter

Resentment of Superficiality

art world. In Rotten Art, Rotted Art,

shapes, Oh attempts to point out that

Also worthy of note are the works of ChoiÂˇ Jeong-hwa, which are

which depicts art as a pig's head

the subject is no more than the effect of language, while sexual identity as well is merely a product of seman-

critical of society, in particular the

with artificial flowers under intense lighting, Choi denounces the

superficiality and hypocrisy that

modern art that only features a

tics. Oh arranged a series of letter

seem to be so prevalent nowadays. As such, Choi 's installations

showy exterior. Choi's denunciation

shapes based on the names of

of superficiality extends to photos of "nature" used for calendars, images

various gay bars found in Seoul. The letters, however, are difficult to

criticize hurried modernization,

discern, suggesting that identity

In Funny Game, which portrays life-

conveyed through the forms of language, letters, and semantics is,

size mannequins of two traffic policemen, Choi denounces the

in reality, no more than artifice.

dehumanizing oppression that is

stores, synthetic rock walls in subway stations, and man-made

Interestingly, Oh used the ashes of incense to form the letters. The

typically downplayed by the modernization process, while satiri-

waterfalls. Through this installation, Choi stresses that such use of nature

ashes symbolize purification, or a

zing the tragic reality in which superficiality keeps watch over and

for meaningless display is changing

letters made from the ashes of the

controls reality. Choi 's chastisement of the

Installation art also takes the form of integration that features visual

burnt incense are intended to

superficiality that is spreading

symbolize a process of purification and rejection of social prejudices.

through every segment of society

media such as video images. Kim Young-jin 's installation Liquid is

does not make an exception of the

without the sophistication of

purging of social prejudices about sexual orientation. Therefore, the

degraded capitalism, and snobbery.

of Mt. Baekdusan found in offices and reception rooms, artificial flowers that decorate department

the fabric of everyday life.

Summer 2003 I Koreana

Installation art gives shape to social issues. As a product of our times, its subject matter encompasses women's issues, the environment and the mobile lifestyle of contemporary society.

wrapping cloths. The work reflects the movement, interaction and exchanges

human

beings

throughout the history of civilization. The artist is a needle and the world is a cloth map sewn together by the artist. With her performance, Kim creates a map of the history of human civilization that captures people's interaction with each other. Meanwhile, the fate of the bundles, made with cloths that are spread out, wrapped, unwrapped and tied, Lee Bul's Monster Pink (fabric, cotton filling, silicone, 236 X 150 X 160 em, 1998) represents a grotesque, androgynous being, meant to challenge gender discrimination.

represents the identity of women and, at the same time, the mobile lifestyle of contemporary society. As can be seen, installation art is notably diverse in media and form. It can be art of the earth when set

against a natural background, or high-tech when integrated with all man~r

of media, such as video screens and computers, and can also

precision machinery, but it does bring to mind a rather crude

perceptible. But the liquid itself is never still for a second and is never

be a form of performance art when dramatic elements are incorporated.

mechanical contraption, such as that

the same for two seconds. The ever-

Installation art is not confined to the

of an alchemist for his harebrained experiments. The work presents

changing images of fluidity arouse in viewers a sense of awe for life.

physical boundaries of an art gallery, but can transcend the traditional

various video images of liquids. Regular liquids such as water and

Of the artists who combine installation art with performance,

concepts of space and time, along with being interactive to involve

high-viscosity liquids like glycerin

one of the prominent names on the

interact with each other, slowly

scene is Kim Soo-ja, who works

audience participation. Korean installation art is the result of artists

flowing water leaves watery tracks across a screen, and rapidly flowing

with wrapping cloths and bundles. In

who are discovering new ways to

her performance Passersby, Kim takes off for no particular desti-

express their diverse and individualized perceptions of art, whose

nation in a truck loaded with bundles

efforts are forecast to intensify in the

covered with colorful patchwork

future.

water disappears beyond the bounds of the screens. The images are so motionless that movement is barely 88

Korean a I Summer 2003

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN liTERATURE

YUN HEUNG-GIL

Society's Group Mentality and the Fate of Individuals Han Won-kyun Literary Critic, Professor of Literature & Creative Writing, Chongju National College of Science and Technology

he intimate relationship

common subjects of the literary

Hankook Ilbo newspaper in 1968, the

between Korean literature and society has perhaps

works of this period. The literary works of Yun Heung-

year he turned 26. Yun's stories are centered on the

never been so starkly

gil (b. 1942) have been influenced by

lives of individuals and the impact of

exposed as in the 1970s. As such,

these trends as well. With his family

Korean literature of this period relied in large part on prevailing

being a poverty-stricken farming household, he experienced a difficult

society. Of course, virtually all literary works deal with "these

social circumstances for its themes

childhood, once running away from

and inspiration. This was a time when overcoming poverty seemed to

home in rebellion against his father, who was often out of work. The

tie the supreme mandate, while the processes of modernization and

family was even forcibly evicted

industrialization ruled over society.

from the unauthorized shack it called home . Although Yun desired to

Naturally, the foundation of literary

pursue a career in law, in deference

works was deeply rooted in the

to his parents' wishes he enrolled in a

fertile ground of these contemporary

teachers' college because a teaching

issues. These issues can be viewed from several perspectives. First, there is

degree ensured stable employment. He taught elementary school until

the cultural oppression by the authoritarian regime, and second, is

military discharge, he roamed penniless about the country, at which

the resultant pursuit of freedom and cultural efforts aspiring to establish an "open society," which has

time he was malnourished and contracted acute hepatitis, which required a lengthy rehabilitation. It

remained a fundamental point of

was around this time that he decided

contention from the 1970s through

to focus on a literary career and thus dedicated himself to writing . His

today: The depraved group mentality of society, loss of individual

serving his military term. Upon his

and

literary breakthrough came about when his short story, "Season of the

tribulations of the people struggling

Gray Imperial Crqwn," won a

to adjust to industrialization are

literary contest sponsored by the

freedom,

and the trials

90 Koreana I Summer 2003

fundamental themes, but Yun was particularly interested in the process of how individuals and society managed to overcome conflict and antagonism rathe r than simply exposing the underlying details. This aesthetics of reconciliation is closely connected with the indigenous images and children's viewpoints frequ~ntly

reflected in his stories. His works also highlight the mental anguish of the Korean War ( 195053) and the healing process. "Group Beating," which deals with the fate of a young man who becomes a victim of the conflict between an individual and society's group mentality, aptly demonstrates the distinctive qualities of Yun 's literary realm. The basic structure of this short story is based on fragments of life juxtaposed against the backdrop of a teahouse, known as Coral Coffee Shop, situated in the urban outskirts. The story begins

with detailed background descrip-

the social relationships that surround

tions, much like a camera zooming

his life. The story line centers on the

in from a panoramic view to closeup shots. This conveys to readers that the author's literary style is grounded in elaborate realism. The coffee shop, which provides the main setting, "occupies a site in an

â&#x20AC;˘"\

unexpected death of a young man. The coffee shop, which always served tasteless coffee, played the same old music, and was dimly lit and mired in lethargy, suddenly

Yun Heung-gil's literary world focuses on the Âˇ relationships between society and individuals, while highlighting their absurdities. The short story "Group Beating" symbolically deals with the fate of a young man who was victimized by society's group mentality.

indecisively awkward place, that is, neither at the center, nor on the

comes alive when a new cook

outskirts of the city." The choice of such a location provides a clue to the

in mystery. According to rumor, he killed his wife, and some say that he

social background of the characters.

killed the elderly proprietor of a

Accordingly, they are people who

pawnshop. Kim Si-cheol, however,

fall outside the mainstream of relationships, always hovering at the

decides that he is actually a college student on the run from the police.

fringes. this also symbolizes the

Kim also insists that the cook's

are there to arrest him, and he jumps to his death. As such, the cook's

seemingly trivial things that are so easily overwhelmed by insensitive social circumstances, such as the

"crirp.e" is simply having a superior moral conscience and intelligence.

tragic fate had nothing to do with his own volition. Although the woman who made the prank call can be said

insignificant coffee shop over-

The coffee shop regulars, however, find Kim's views bewildering and

shadowed by a forest of skyscrapers.

incomprehensible.

arrives on the scene. He is shrouded

This is when the author's intended

to be the direct cause of the events that led to his death, the essence of

Kim Si-cheol, the protagonist, seems ideally suited for this situation,

subject is expressed most vividly. If

the story is that all those who had an interest in the cook's identity are

thanks to his ability to maintain an

the democratization movement can

likewise accountable. In this respect,

objective outlook of the ongoing developments. An elementary school

be perceived as an effort to rectify the distorted political rule and social

the ti9e "Group Beating" symbolically reflects how society's group

teacher, he always carries a letter of resignation on his person. Not many

structure, Kim Si-cheol thus believes

mentality had managed to victimize

that a college student involved in the

an individual.

struggle for democracy should be regarded as someone with a resolve

Korean fiction contributed to the creation of a notable literary voice

to improve society. To Kim, this is

during the authoritarian period of the

reason enough to consider him morally superior to others.

1970s and the struggle for democratization throughout the 1980s.

The story takes an unexpected

Suppression of individual freedom

twist when a female employee of the coffee shop makes a prank call to a

as a result of abusive authoritarian regimes, in particular, was a Âˇ central

radio station, threatening to commit suicide. When the police arrive at

theme of Korean fiction of that period, of which Yun Heung-gil's

the coffee shop to investigate, the

"Group Beating" is a representative

cook panics, thinking that the police

and noteworthy work.

readers would believe that he will actually hand in his resignation. On the contrary, their curiosity in seeing if and when he will resign is perhaps what keeps them interested. That Kim .Si-cheol always carries around a letter of resignation alludes to his nature of mediating conflict. He tears up the resignation letter toward the end of the story, which symbolizes his recognition of the futility of attempting to escape from

Summer 2003 I Koreana

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