Koreana Spring 2005 (English) by The Korea Foundation

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good friend Someone is always quietly there to lend ahelping hand When you have a good friend on the long, uneven path of life, everything is easier. You want to be with them, even though you don't always see eye-to-eye. And whenever they see a need, they're always quietly there to reach out and help. That's the kind of fiiend we want to be to you.

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in style

BEAUTY OF KOREA

Flower Shoes

uhye is a term used to refer to silk shoes decorated

to shoe forms, which were then covered with blue and red

with elaborate embroidery, which are more common-

silk fabric. After the silk fabric covering was sewn in place,

ly known as kkotsin, or flower shoes. Widely popular dur-

brilliantly colored silk thread was used to embroider ele-

ing the Silla Kingdom [57 B.C-A.D. 935). suhye were

gant designs, such as chrysanthemum, pine tree, bamboo,

beloved by Korean women throughout the Joseon Dynasty

and arabesque motifs. Suhye with exquisitely embroidered

[1392-19101.

decorations were thus an essential accessory of every styl-

Although women from the sadaebu class wore suhye,

ish woman of Korean society. Some women would cus-

their use was not solely the prerogative of the upper class,

tom-order suhye so that the embroidery decorations

as women of the common class also wore them, especially

included their favorite designs. Women would wear the silk

on theif wedding day. As such, suhye were cherished by

shoes, which would be fleetingly visible under their full-

commoners because of their association with special

length skirts whenever they took a step, as an expression

occasions and the wearing of formal attire.

of their demure charm and stylishness. t.;t

To make suhye, several layers of hemp were applied

Korean a

Korean Art & Culture VOL. 19, No . 1 SPRING 2 005

Fortresses of l{orea 8

Suwon Hwaseong Fortress: Monument to Korea's Architectural Expertise I

Kim Dong-uk

Notable Characteristics of Korean Fortresses I Cha Yong-geol

Mountain Fortresses: The Front Line of National Defense

of the Korea Foundation. The opinions expressed by the authors do not

I Yu Jae- chun

Town Walls Create a Safe Haven for the Populace I

Hur Kyoung-jin

necessarily represent those of the editors of Koreana or the Korea Foundation. Koreana, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Min1stry of Culture and Tourism !Registration No. Ba-1 033, dated Aug. 8, 19871. is also published in Ch inese. French, Spanish, and Arabic.

FOCUS

Germany Presents Korea Year 2005 38

Kwonvoung-min

INTERVIEW Kim Seok-chul

Urban A_rchitect with Designs on the Future 46

Leesang-hae Cover: Thousands of for tresses have been built

ARTISAN

on the Korean peninsula and beyond that

Jang Ju-won's Lifelong Passion and Dedication to Jadecraft I

Ryu Min

provided safe haven for Ko rea's rule rs and common people. Depicted is Namhansanseong

Fortress. wh ich was bu ilt in 1624 to defend the

southern approac hes to Seou l. Photo: Choi Jin-yo un

MASTERPIECES

Three-story Stone Pagodas of Gameunsa Site I Kim Seung-hee

ART REVIEW

Paintings of Park Soo-Keun, the Common People's Artist, Come Home Published quarterly by Th e Korea Founda tion 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong , Seocho-gu , Seou l 137-863 , Ko rea

I Kwon Sung-ah

DISCOVERING KOREA

Korea's Movable Metal Type Opens the Era of Modern Civilization

)

I Kim Hong-yeong

PUBLI SHER Kwo n In Hyuk EDITORI AL DIRECTOR K1m Hyeh-won EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Park Jeong-yeop ART DI RECTOR Choi Seong-su DESIGNER Hwang Dong-seck

ASSOCIATE EDITOR Chung So-young,

ON THE ROAD Jinhae

Park Ok-soon

The City of Cherry Blossoms 74

EDITO RIAL BOAR D Choi Joon- sik.

I Chung ll-keun

Han Kyung-koo. Han Myung - hee,

Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan, Kim Young-na. Rhee J in -bae

LIVING Flash Mobs

The Younger Generation Declares Its Cultural Independence I Joung Yoon-soo '\

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE Professor Hwa ng Woo-suk

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Sung~ok

Birth of Sensibility and Self-illusion of Modernity A J0 urn ey T0 Muj in

Translated by Moon Hi-kyung

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Suwon H waseong Fortress Monument to l{orea~s

Architectural Expertise

Hwaseong Fortress represents the epitome of architectural design and fortress construction in Korea. As the most scientifically designed and meticulously constructed fortress in Korea, it stands as a monumental architectural work that combines the essence of form and function. Kim Dong-uk Professor of Architecture, Kyonggi University Suh Jai-sik Photographer

hen Suwon Hwaseong Fortress was designated a

can be seen in any country of the world in that it focuses on_

World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997, it was

promoting tangible benefits to improve the quality of life of

noted that it represented an "outstanding example of early

ordinary people, rather than dispensing empty theories.

military architecture, incorporating the most highly devel-

However, for 18th century Korea, this was all the more

oped principles of that discipline from both the East and

meaningful. For a long time, Korean intellectuals had been

West." Built in the 18th century, Hwaseong was among the

absorbed in philosophical debate over the tenets of

last projects of Korea's long history of fortress construc-

Confucianism, but finally in the 18th century they began to

tion and is recognized for the remarkable advances of its

turn their attention to putting theory into practice in ways

architectural design and construction technology. But

that would benefit the life of commoners. As a result, signs

besides its function as a defensive facility a deeper signifi-

of change appeared in all areas of society, of which

cance lies behind its construction. Above all, the fortress

Hwaseong Fortress has been lauded as the greatest

embodies the principle of filial piety, the foremost ethical

achievement of this movement. The construction of the

.value that has long influenced Korean life. In addition, it is

fortress featured the application of a variety of new scien-

a product of the 18th century Silhak school of practical

tific techniques and technological innovations, based on

learning, whose concepts were applied in the design and

the principles of practical learning . The virtue of filial piety

construction .

and the Silhak ways of thinking were thus reflected in the fortress construction.

Impetus behind the Construction

Respect and appreciation for one's parents is a com-

Creating a New Town

mon trait among peoples all around the world . But Korea

The construction of Suwon Hwaseong Fortress was

is one of the few countries where filial piety has become

initiated by the 22nd king of the Joseon Dynasty, Jeongjo [r.

firmly rooted as the paramount virtue of society and peo-

1776-1800]. who sought to relocate the tomb of his father

ple's everyday life. Even today, each year when the crops

to the most auspicious site in the country . At the time,

ripen in autumn, everyone puts their work aside to return

three sites were considered ideal for royal tombs, but two

to their hometowns to visit their parents and pay respect to

already contained the tombs of other kings, leaving only

their ancestors, as part of the most significant activities of

one possible site. In the summer of 1789, King Jeongjo offi-

the Chuseok [thanksgiving] holiday. When foreign visitors

cially decreed that his father's tomb would be relocated to

to Korea see the many gravesites that are located on hill-

the last auspicious site.

sides that overlook an attractive landscape, they come to

Jeongjo's father, the Crown Prince Jangheon [1735-

realize the importance of respect for ancestors among the

1762]. incurred the hatred of his father who had him locked

Korean people . This filial piety, which is so integral to

in a wooden rice chest where he ended up dying of starva-

Korean values, was a decisive factor behind the construc-

tion. This tragic incident was said to have resulted from a

tion of Hwaseong Fortress.

conspiracy of court officials who did not want to see the

The concepts of the Silhak school of practical learning 8 Korea na I Sprin g 2005

crown prince become king. Upon succeeding his grandfa-

1 Hwaseongseongyeokuigwe, a journal and reference book, outlined details of the defensive features that were installed in the northeast and northwest gongsimdon [observation tower] of Hwaseong Fortress. 2 Th e northeast gongsimdon, a three-story oval structure, is one of the most notable features of Hwaseong Fortress. Narrow openings were built into the second-story walls to allow defenders to use weapons against invaders, while a pavilion on the third story was used to monitor enemy movements.

ther as king, Jeongjo ordered that the tomb of his father, posthumously named Crown Prince Sado, be located at the most propitious site in the country as a means of appeasing his soul. However, the most ideal tomb site was not 1n a secluded mountain area but on a mountain slope where the town of Suwon was situated . In order to build the tomb on the designated site, it would thus be necessary to Telocate the existing town . Accordingly, the residents of Suwon were ordered to gather up their household possessions and move to a new town area being built to the north to make way for the development of the tomb of Crown Prince Sado. In accordance with the royal decree, the tomb was built on a mountain slope behind the former town area, while a new Suwon town was established at the foot of Mt. Paldalsan . A government office was established there to oversee the development of the new Suwon town, where former residents and those from other areas took up residence. On the surface, this project may seem to have been realized under the sovereign authority of the king. But underlying the entire undertaking was a political motivation that was not readily apparent. When Jeongjo ascended the throne, the court was caught up in factional rivalr-Y. which prevented the king from pursuing his political agenda. Indeed, it was this kind of internal conflict that had led to the tragic death of Jeongjo's father. When Jeongjo became king , he was determined to rectify the political establishment and firmly establish the authority of his reign. And to do this, he needed an economic support base. Suwon was located along the road between Seoul and the southern regions, which was used to transport goods to the capital. But the surrounding mountainous terrain made transportation difficult. Therefore, the king came up with a Spring 2005 I Koreana 9

Hwaseong Fortress was a revolutionary breakthrough that far surpassed the existing practices of fortress architecture. This was possible thanks to the diligent efforts of a group of intellectuals who pursued practical learning that could be applied to everyday life and the ambitions of a king who sought to consolidate his authority and demonstrate filial piety for his father.

plan to move the town to a more level area, where mer-

on Korean fortresses as well as books on Chinese and

chants and vendors could more easily gather to conduct

Western technology before drafting construction plans for

trade, and thereby create an economic support base for the

a fortress tailored to the Suwon site.

court. However, such a plan would likely face objections

Based on the plans prepared by Jeong Yak-yang, con-

from court officials. Therefore, Jeongjo highlighted the filial

struction of the fortress began in the spring of 1794 and

piety aspects of .the project to win over the court officials.

was completed two and a half years later in the fall of 1796.

The relocation of his father's tomb to the most auspicious

The new fortress was indeed distinctive from any other

site in the country, and the related development of the new

that had been previously built, but not so different that

Suwon town , were based on a desire to demonstrate his fil-

Korean fortress building tradition had been ignored. The

ial piety, to which court officials found it difficult to object.

fortress walls integrated Mt. Paldalsan along the western

When the new town area was developed, the former

side and enclosed flatlands in the other three directions.

residents of Suwon and others from around the country

The walls formed an irregular oval shape that extended for

eagerly settled there since the king had promised not only

5.4 kilometers, with a gate at each strategic point and 48

to help the town to flourish economically but also to pro-

defensive facilities along the perimeter.

vide various assistance to residents. Construction of the

The defensive facilities included sentry posts, turrets

new town proceeded smoothly, and in a matter of three to

where cannons were installed, and observation towers

four years the resident population increased amid the

(gongsimdon) for monitoring any approaching enemies.

building of new houses. Then in the fifth year, the king

Several were new innovations never before used in Korean

ordered that the most superlative fortress of Joseon be

fortresses, such as the sentry posts, observation towers,

built around the town, whose name was then changed to

and oseongji, five-point star-shaped reservoirs in front of

Hwaseong . In this way, the most far-reaching construction

the ramparts to serve as fire-prevention facilities. The

project of the Joseon Dynasty got underway.

ramparts were built four to seven meters in height, which

Âˇ ~

although not particularly hi_gh were reinforced to withstand

Innovation of Silhak Scholars King Jeongjo entrusted the design and planning of

an artillery attack by packing earth against the interior wall for additional strength.

Suwon Hwaseong Fortress to Jeong Yak-yang (1762-1836),

This method of construction , which became known

who was an official of the royal library at the time. Jeong

around the 17th century, made Hwaseong's defensive

did not have a military background, nor did he have any

capability against artillery attack one of its distinguishing

experience in building a fortress. But he was known as a

features. Compared to earlier fortresses that consisted of

promising scholar who had done well on the difficult

little more than ramparts with gates and four or five tur-

national civil service examination for government officials,

rets, Hwaseong Fortress transformed the history of

gwageo. Jeongjo assigned the fortress construction to this

fortress construction in Korea. In fact, Hwaseong included

scholar because he wanted it to be clearly superior to

defensive facilities along the ramparts at intervals of about

other projects. He provided Jeong with new books that he

100 meters where weapons such as cannons and guns

had brought in from China, including a book on the science

were installed.

and technology of the West written by a German mission-

To understand why Hwaseong Fortress was fortified

ary. After having been commissioned by the king to build

with so many defensive facilities, it is necessary to

an exceptional fortress, Jeong extensively read materials

examine Korea's situation in the 18th century. In gener-

10 Koreana I Spring 2005

Âˇ-

1 Suwonneunghaengdo is a series of eight paintings that depict the 60th birthday celebration that King Jeongjo held for his mother at Suwon. [Leeum Samsung Museum of Artl 2 Another Suwonneunghaengdo painting, this portrays the sce ne of nighttime military training at the west command post of Hwaseong Fortress. 3 Hwaseongseongyeokuigwe, documents th e Hwaseong Fortress construction in great detail, including a Listing of key dates of project milestones, the names of officials assigned to oversee the day-to-day activities, and detailed illustrations of building features and construction equipment. 4 Innovative co nstruction equipment, Like the geojunggi pulley system used for Lifting ston es and building materials, contributed significantly to the efficient construction of Hwaseong Fortress.

al, the majority of Korean fortresses relied on walls con-

affluent, more people were reluctant to leave the cities.

structed in rugged mountain areas . In ordinary times,

As such, Hwaseong was designed to accommodate an

the people lived in flatland areas enclosed by walls. But

economic center from the start. Merchants increasingly

with the approach of invaders, the residents evacuated

settled there and the local economy flourished . To build a

the town and defended themselves from a mountain

fortress around this city, the method of construction had to

fortress. This was the typical Korean defense strategy, a

reflect the changing times. This is the aspect that Jeong

tactic developed through fending off frequent invasions

focused on while designing the project. That is, in times of

of Chinese and nomadic tribes from the north. But in the

war the residents would not have to flee to a mountain

17th century, as society became more stabilized and the

fortress but be able to repel the invaders from within the

nation 's economy prospered, people began to question

city walls.

the wisdom of abandoning the towns for mountain

Therefore, the fortress walls were built at an optimal

fortresses in time of war. As urban life became more

height for defensive purposes, along with all types of Spring 2005 I Koreana 11

Re-creation of a military tra ining session at Hwaseong Fortress 2 Fires would be lit in signal beacons to transmit messages to nearby regions. 3 Hwaseomun, the west gate of Hwaseong Fortress, features a semicircular brick ongseong in front that served as an additional defensive facility for protecting the fortress gate. 4 Northeast tower included a pavilion that was used to observe the surrounding areas and also served as a quiet spot for enjoying the scenic landscape. 5 The names of officials assigned to oversee the construction of Hwaseong Fortress were engraved on stone plaques.

defensive facilities, including new innovations, being

an effective way to

installed along the ramparts . In this regard, Hwaseong

reduce

costs.

After

was a product of the 18th century. Though not experienced

closely studying techni-

in military affairs, Jeong was a scholar of the school of

cal books written by

practical learning who understood how times had changed

Westerners,

and thus created an entirely new type of fortress to satisfy

devised a number of

Jeong

these needs. Hwaseong stands as a testament to a branch

mechanical devices suit-

of study devoted to realizing practical benefits for people's

able for use in Korea .

everyday life.

These included geojung-

New Technology and Methods

gi, a kind of pulley system for lifting stones; yuhyeongeo, a kind of cart for trans-

Bricks were used to build the observation towers and

porting materials that was built low for easier loading and

turrets. Traditionally, Korean fortress walls were built

unloading; and nongno, a pulley device for simple move-

from earth or stones, and it was rare for bricks to be used

ment of materials.

to build walls, as in the case of Hwaseong. Though bricks were a common building material in China, they were not

Pinnacle of Korean Fortresses

used much in Korea because of a lack of suitable clay for

In autumn 1795, while construction was in full swing,

making bricks. In contrast, hard stone, such as granite,

King Jeongjo journeyed to Hwaseong with his mother and

could easily be found all over the country, which explains

hosted a grand banquet there to celebrate her 60th birth-

why granite would commonly be used in fortress wall con-

day. In the past, when the average lifespan was consider-

struction.

ably shorter, Koreans regarded a 60th birthday as particu-

But by the 18th century there were increasing difficul-

larly auspicious and a cause for celebration. In fact, few

ties related to the use of granite. Because granite had to be

such birthday celebrations were held during the 500-year

quarried from mountain areas and transported to the con-

history of the Joseon Dynasty, while this occasion, in honor

struction site, this called for the mobilization of extensive

of the queen dowager and at the tomb of her late husband,

manpower. In the 18th century, it was state policy that

carried even greater significance. This birthday tribute is

skilled workers as well as laborers who worked on public

also remembered as an expression of Jeongjo's filial piety.

projects would be paid a daily wage, so coming up with the

Hwaseong introduced a number of new features not

needed funding could pose a problem. Unlike in the past,

seen in previous fortresses . The new innovations of the

corvee labor was no longer acceptable, so the best solu-

fortress represented the fruit of the Silhak scholars who

tion called for a reduction in the required labor.

devised practical solutions to meet the demands of chang-

Using bricks involved less labor than the quarrying

ing times. Hwaseong is therefore much more than a

and transporting of granite from the mountains. So a kiln

fortress made of stone and brick; it is imbued with the filial

was established at the construction site and bricks of reg-

piety of a king who sought to fulfill his obligations to his

ular size were produced to build the walls, which proved to

parents and the insightful wisdom of the Silhak scholars.

be an effective means of reducing labor costs. However, it

Hwaseong is an especially meaningful structure in Korean

was critical to consistently produce high-quality bricks. In

history. It remains in its original form as part of a modern

this regard, Silhak scholars contributed the relevant tech-

city and clearly justifies its designation as a World Heritage

nology. Based on reference books from China, they

Site by UNESCO. t>t

devised a new kiln and brought to the construction site technicians to supervise the brick production. In this way, although not previously having been used in fortress construction, bricks were used to build the walls of Hwaseong Fortress. Using machinery to enhance labor efficiency was also Spring 2005 I Ko rea na 13

Notable Characteristics of l{orean Fortresses Korean fortresses are nature-friendly architectural str uctures that fully capitalize on the natural topography of mountains and rivers. Built with the combined r esources of the rulers and the c omners ~ they were stronghold enclosures for the protection of life and p eople. Cha Yong-geol Professor of History Edu catio n, Chun gbu k National University Choi Jin-youn Ph otographer

orean fortresses date back some 3,000 years . An

Bron ze Age, but over time they became specialized in

estimated 2,600 fortresses were built across an area

function. Tâ&#x20AC;˘he flatland fortress served to protect the areas

that extends from Manchuria to the Korean peninsula and

where people carried out their everyday activities, while

Japan. In size they range from large-scale bulwarks with a

the mountc;Jin fortress was used to store weapons and pro-

circumference of 20 kilometers to smaller outposts mea-

visions in ordinary times and as a place of refuge in time of

suring less than 100 meters around.

war or invasion. The mountain fortress best embodies

Fortress construction in Korea was most active and widespread during the periods of the Three Kingdoms [1st

Korean tradition through effective exploitation of the geographic advantages of mountainous areas.

century B.C.-A.D. 7th century]. Unified Silla [676-935]. and

In ancient times, fortress construction was most active

the Balhae Kingdom [698-926]. which included parts of

when the Three Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla

Manchuria and the Russian Far East. During the 1,000-

were battling each other for supremacy. The flatland

year period from the Goryeo Dynasty [918-1392] through

fortress was combined with the mountain fortress to create

the Joseon Dynasty [ 1392-191 0]. fortresses were con-

a new kind of defensive system comprised of a fortress and

structed mainly in the Korean peninsula to serve as

city walls. Other facilities were added as necessary, includ-

strongholds for rulers, defensive structures for the protec-

ing high, fortified walls, and various entry gates, waterways,

tion of regional cities and people, and barriers to defend

sluice gates, ramparts, turrets, and watchtowers.

border areas.

Along border areas, an extended wall with troop barracks was constructed at times. Whenever battles intensi -

Landmark in Korean History

fied, regional towns use'd the mountain fortress as a

Construction of Korea 's first fortress dates back to

stronghold, which was advantageous for their defense.

the Bronze Age. During the Bronze Age, hilly areas with

From the late 2nd century B.C., in order to deter invasions

clusters of pit houses or flat areas protected by ditches

of unified Chinese forces , Goguryeo [37 B.C .-A.D. 668].

dug at regular intervals emerged by the 1Oth century B.C.

which occupied the northern region of the Korean- peninsu-

The remains of a fence erected along a ditch dating to

la and part of Manchuria, built large mountain fortresses,

about the 5th century B.C. have been discovered . Defensive

while the kingdoms of Silla [57 B.C.-A.D. 935] and Baekje

barriers such as ditches and fences were developed into

[18 B.C. -A.D. 660] adopted a simila r defense strategy. In

earthen walls, which later evolved into stronger and larger

the western area of Japan, there are remains of fortresses

walls built of stone.

built by Korean exiles who resettled there after the col-

Korean fortresses, which developed in a unique way, basically include two major types. One is a fortress built on

lapse of Baekje, showing the extensive area over which the construction of Korean fortresses had spread.

flatland, through which a river or stream flowed, and the

From the Middle Ages, Korean fortresses became

other is a mountain fortress built at a higher elevation

larger in scale and continued to chang e according to spe-

overlooking the plains. Both types were constructed in the

cific needs. In the late 1Oth century, in response to inva-

14 Koreana I Spring 2005

Geumseongsanseong Fortress was originally built during the Three Kingdoms period and reconstru cted in 1409. The fortress walls, which conform to the mountainous terrain, are integrated into the natural environment.

sions of the Khitans of Liao, large-scale fortresses were built at strategic locations around the country, while in the capital city of Gaeseong, the existing fortress and city walls were further developed and fortified, including a perimeter system of larger walls around the city. An extensive wall, known Âˇas Cheollijangseong [Great Wall of Thousand Ril. was built along the northern border area to defend against invading Khitan and Jurchi clans. When the Mongols invaded in the 13th century during the Goryeo Dynasty, people

were dispatched to develop and maintain bastions around the country. As a result, large fortresses were established in rugged mountain areas. Taking a lesson from history, the founders of the Joseon Dynasty developed their new capital, Hanyang [today's Seoul], as a traditional city citadel. Citadels were also built to protect all major inland and coastal towns. Bulwarks were constructed along the border areas of the Amnokgang and Dumangang river basins, along with Spring 2005 I Korea na

Shaped by historical influences, fortresses have been developed in unique ways depending on the times and circumstances. Although countless irreplaceable historical artifacts have been destroyed and forever lost, fortresses and fortress sites remain as silent witnesses to a practically forgotten past.

1 The ea rly Baekje Mongchontoseong [Earthe n Rampart] Fortress includ es a wooden palisade and a moat. 2 Namdoseokseong Fortress was built duri ng the Three Kingdoms period. A mountain str ea m was cha nn eled to provide wa ter to the fortress, wh ich includes two impressive arched bridges. 3 Ga ksa nsa nseong Fortress was built during the Goryeo per iod. From a di stance, its low- lying walls look like a lin e drawn on a mountain slope, ma king it difficult to tell that this was a fortress site. 4 Gyeon hwonsanseong Fortres s, built during the Three Kingdoms period, takes full advantage of the natural topography. Th e wa lls built atop natural roc k cliffs rea ch 4 to 5 meters in height.

citadels and ramparts being built in southern coastal areas

and location being determined by the natural topography,

as well. Barric(ldes with narrow passageways were built at

and built with various construction techniques.

strategic locations in valleys and ravines to defend against invaders.

Many fortresses are steeped in legend, most often about their creator or builder. In many instances, the story revolves around an old mother with a son and daughter

Diversity of Brilliance There are several versions of fortresses in Korea. The

who compete against each other. The daughter and son make a wager, in which the daughter carries stones to a

mountain fortress, which is the most unique in terms of

construction site to build a fortress while the son walks to

function and materials, was built by successive kingdoms.

Seoul and back wearing iron shoes. The loser is sentenced

Unlike the square fortresses built on the plains in China or

to death. The mother, who judges the competition , cooks

those with straight lines and right angles of the modern

savory meals to distract her daughter and help her son to

times of Japan, Korean fortresses are curved and irregu-

win. In such stories about fortresses, in which the life of one

larly shaped . They have no standard form, with their shape

competitor is at stake, the loser is always the daughter.

Mountain fortresses are generally considered maternal, but in some cases an "old man fortress" will

be especially imposing, making one wonder how these walls could actually protect people.

face an " old woman fortress." Each village honors a

But fortresses reflected the defensive techniques

guardian deity, and the villagers gain spiritual comfort by

available to fend off the offensives of invaders. The funda-

Âˇ holding rites to the tutelary deity. As Korean fortresses

mental strengths of Korean fortresses are rooted in the

are often built on high mountain slopes, they can look

land. Using natural topography to the best possible advan-

like a halo around a person 's head. They are also called

tage, Korean mountain fortresses forced the enemy to

sirume, which is a combination of siru, meaning steamer, and me; meaning mountain. Traditional rice cakes

expend much time and energy to scale mountain slopes. And when the enemy did arrive, it was possible for the peo-

are prepared in a steamer placed over a cau_ldron. To

ple to defend themselves by simply hurling stones at the

prevent the steam from escaping , the gap betwe:en the

invaders. As such, Koreans built fortress walls that caused

steamer and the cauldron would be covered with rice

minimal damage to the natural environment.

dough, which is said to bring an image of a mountain

Fortress excavations show the use of highly advanced

fortress to mind. Fortresses deep in the valleys of high

engineering techniques to complement the natural sur-

mountain areas were called iron-guard fortresses.

roundings. For example, Samnyeonsanseong, built in 470, features walls 20 meters high and 12 meters wide. The

Storehouses of History

stones are dressed like shingles and stacked in 1DO-piece

Korean fortresses have irregular walls that follow the

layers. Such formidable walls were enough to make an

mountain ridgelines. From a distance, little more than a

enemy give up any plans of an attempted assault.

thin line can be readily seen, making it difficult to discern

Fortresses were also situated on steep cliffs, much like an

the existence of a wall. By capitalizing on the natural

eagle's nest atop a rocky peak. But most Joseon Dynasty

topography, winding walls were built along the ridgelines

fortresses were destroyed during the frequent Japanese

and cliffs to create a fortress with superior defensive capa-

invasions, with only their gates still remaining .

bility, without the need for additional measures. Because a

Korean fortresses, built of layer upon layer of stone

stream would flow within the fortress, a large number of

that have withstood the test of time, perhaps look their

people could be safeguarded inside the walls for a long

grandest when covered with a blanket of snow. Within the

period of time. And because fortresses were built on such

walls, the spirit and history of the Korean people live on.

rugged terrain with sluice gates built over streams, there

The brilliance of Korean fortresses is the brilliance of

was no need to build a separate gatehouse to secure the

Korean culture. It is a subtle magnificence, quiet and

water inflow. The walls were made by piling up stones and

resilient, which embodies the work ethic and wisdom of

then filLing in the gaps of the interior surface with rubble

the Korean people. Because fortresses were the last line

and earth. The remains of fortresses can be seen today as

of protection, they have been sustained by countless

mounds of stones scattered about a mountain slope. From

unseen sweat and tears. 1>t

their physical appearance, the fortresses did not seem to Spring 2005 I Ko reana 17

Âˇ ~

techniques in building the fortress walls. As such, thanks

military systems far larger and more organized than exist-

to their strategic locations and construction innovations,

ing nations or groups, which fundamentally altered the

Goguryeo mountain fortresses occupy a special place in

face of warfare on the Korean peninsula. Not only did war

the history of Korean construction.

become routine, but as large-scale battles increased,

The Baekje Kingdom (18 B.C.-A.D. 660] also built

which required the mobili?ation of ever-greater numbers

many mountain fortresses, including Masuseong Fortress

of troops, the defensive facilities needed to be reinforced

and Byeongsanchaek Palisades in 11 B.C. during King

and expanded in various ways. More fortresses were built

Onjo' s reign. Initially, Baekje focused on the construction of

at this time than in any other period of Korean history.

fortresses along the Hangang River, then after relocation

Many mountain fortresses were constructed, particularly

of its capital to Ungjin and later Sabi, it built additional

at strategic locations of each area and along frontier

fortresses in these areas.

regions on the borders of the individual kingdoms .

Various references document the Silla Kingdom's (57 B.C .-A .D. 935] construction of fortresses, such as Geumseong Fortress built in 37 B.C. nearby the capital.

Foundation of National Defense System

With the start of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392], the

Wolseong Fortress in Gyeongju and the wooden palisades

nation's defense system was restructured to protect the

of Dalseong Park in Daegu are the remains of early Silla

capital of Gaeseong. Over a period of about 12 years,

fortresses. Wolseong Fortress consisted of a semicircular

Goryeo built the Great Wall of a Thousand Ri, which

fortress that housed a Silla palace and auxiliary buildings.

extended from the mouth of the Amnokgang River,

As conflict between the three kingdoms of Goguryeo,

through the mountainous regions along the upper reaches

Baekje and Silla further intensified, they began to develop

of Cheongcheongang River and Daedonggang River to the

20 Koreana I Spring 2005

1 Bukhansanseong Fortress, built along the rugged ridgelines of Mt. Bukhansan during the Baekje period, was continuously maintained throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods. 2 Although it is not known exactly when Ondalsanseong Fortress was completed, Goguryeo General Ondal supposedly had it built to defend against incursions by Silla. 3 The strategic fortress of Gapgot Heights, which overlooks Ganghwa Strait, was equipped with extensive artillery. It is also the site of a fierce battle fought in 1866, when the troops from a French fleet came ashore here.

- ~

The representative mountain fortresses of Goguryeo are scattered about today~s North Korea and portions of China. It is estimated that dozens of mountain fortresses remain in North Korea~ along with another 100 in the areas of Jilin Province and Liaoning Province of China.

east, and on to Yeongheung. Goryeo also built numerous fortresses throughout the nation. It allocated all available resources to ensure the proper maintenance and operation of mountain fortresses to defend against aggression by any outsiders. This incluped the dispatch of mountain fortress officials to oversee the fortresses. With the founding of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-191 0], it established Hanyang (modern-day Seoul] as its capital. With Ming China having consolidated its position in the north, Joseon revamped its defensive system to Âˇc ounter this threat. City walls were built to protect Hanyang, while fortress facilities around the nation were renovated. King Taejong, the third ruler of Joseon, faced threats not only from Japanese marauders but also escalating tension in Northeast Asia as Ming China campaigned against the Tartars and pressured the Jurchen. Thus, he not only built mountain fortresses at strategic locations in the north, but also developed large-scale mountain fortresses in the Gyeongsang-do provinces in the southeast and Jeolla-do provinces in the southwest. Sprin g 2005 I Koreana 21

· ~

From the time of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450]. however,

just how many Goguryeo mountain fortresses remain in

extensive town walls were established such that the defen-

China . There are dozens in North Korea, including Pyeong-

sive system centered on mountain fortresses began to

yang "s Daeseongsanseong Fortress and Baengmasan-

decline, which led to their neglect and deterioration .

seong Fortress.

In fact, by the mid-16th century, only about 41 moun-

Daeseongsanseong Fortress on Mt. Daeseongsan

tain fortresses remained operational nationwide. Although

(height: 270 meters) nearby the city of Pyeongyang, North

the city walls were built on flatlands, they differed from

Korea extends about 7 kilometers in length. Upon its con-

conventional flatland fortresses, like those seen in China

struction during the middle of the third century, it b·ecame

or Japan. In particular, they reflected efforts to adapt the

highly significant, both politically and militarily, when the

advantages of mountain fortresses, in terms of observing

capital was relocated to Pyeongyang in 427. The fortress

enemy movement, defending against invaders, an·d requir-

collapsed after the reign of Goguryeo, but remnants of the

ing limited resources, to the design of flatland fortress.

fortress gate, reservoir, food storage facilities, barracks,

In the late Joseon period, the nation suffered through

and armories still remain . Anhakgung Palace, located to

such devastating onslaughts as the Japanese Invasions of

the south of Daeseongsanseong Fortress, was housed

1592-1598 and the Manchu Invasions of 1636-1637, that it

within a royal palace fortress that encompassed a length

became necessary to critically reassess the existing defen-

of about 2.5 kilometers built on flat terrain. This arrange-

sive system. There was also active discussion of the city-

ment of fortress facilities of Pyeongyang was modeled

wall defense system, as well as the maintenance of

after Gungnaeseong Fortress of the former capital area .

fortresses in the border regions . In this regard,

Baengmasanseong_Fortress is located on Mt.

Namhansanseong, Bukhansanseong, and Tangchundae-

Baengmasan (height: 410 meters) in Pyeonganbuk-do

seong mountain fortresses, as well as Suwon"s Hwaseong,

province, North Korea . It was first built during the

were either reconstructed or reinforced . Bukhansanseong

Goguryeo period but was continuously maintained and

was built as an emergency safe haven when the govern-

operated through the Joseon period. It consists of a 2.6-

ment, including the king , might not have enough time to

kilometer-long inner wall and 2.4-kilometer-long outer

retreat to Ganghwado Island or areas south of the

wall, both about 6 meters in height. The inner and outer

Hangang River in the event of a crisis. As turmoil height-

walls both included four arched gates. The fortress was

ened in the 19th century amid the aggression of Western

situated at an especially strategic location on the border

powers, mountain fortresses in coastal areas, including

with China where the Korean peninsula connects with the

Ganghwado Island, were renovated.

Asian continent. In particular, it provided a clear view in all directions and thus was ideal for observing enemy move-

Goguryeo Fortresses in North Korea and China

Of the numerous mountain fortresses built by

ments and cutting off routes of retreat. Qing armies attacked the fortress but were unable to capture it.

Goguryeo, various remains can be found scattered about

As for Goguryeo mountain fortresses in present-day

North Korea and northeast China. However, it is not known

China, some 100 fortresses can be found in the areas of

22 Ko reana I Spring 2005

Joryeong Gwanmunseong Fortress, which wa s built during the Joseon period, consists of three gates running across the mountain valley from south to north, and each gate has defensive walls on either side. 2 A reservoir, with a terraced embankment, remains in place from the Gongsanseong Fortress built during the Baekje period. 3 Onyeosanseong Fortress is said to be the first fortress built by Goguryeo founder King Dongmyeong upon the founding of his nation.

Prominent Mountain Fortresses in Korea Ondalsanseong Fortress This stone mountain fortress on Mt. Seongsan in Yeongchunmyeon, Danyang-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do province included a perimeter of 682 meters. It is not known exactly when it was constructed, but it is believed to have been built by Goguryeo General

Jilin Province and Liaoning Province. However, it is

Ondal [?-590] to defend against Silla troops. In light of the various

believed that a much greater number was actually built in

legends and place names of neighboring areas, as well as the

China by Goguryeo. Representative Guguryeo mountain fortresses include Onyeosanseong Fortress in Huanren, Âˇ Sanseongjasanseong Fortress, Bonghwansanseong

Goguryeo and then captured and reconstructed by Silla.

Gongju Gongsanseong Fortress

Fortress, and Yeonjuseong Fortress, all of which are famil-

Located in the area of Sanseong-dong, Gongju, Chungcheongnam-

iar to South Koreans.

do province, this was the fortress that Baekje built to protect its

Onyeosanseong Fortress is said to be the first fortress

capital of Ungjin . It was built by ancient Baekje and maintain'ed

built by Goguryeo founder King Dongmyeong after the

through the Joseon period. The fortress perimeter is 2,200 meters

founding of his nation . A monument to King Gwanggaeto

in length, approximately 1,810 meters made with stone and the

cites that he "built a fortress and founded a city on the /

existing remains, it appears that the fortress was originally built by

mountain west of Holbon in Biryugok Valley," while Sa.m guksagi {History of the Three Kingdoms} also includes

remaining 390 meters with earth. It is known that the earthen section was built during the Baekje period. The reservoir, with its rectangular terraced embankment, is the most prominent of the remains of Gongsanseong Fortress.

references to the fortress. Onyeosanseong Fortress was built on a vast plateau, measuring 1,000 meters north to

Joryeong Gwanmunseong Fortress

south and 300 meters east to west, high up the cliffs of Mt.

Located in Mungyeong-eup, Mungyeong, Gyeongsangbuk-do

Onyeosan [height: 820 meters!. Even at this high elevation, water was relatively plentiful, while precipitous cliffs on three sides provided a natural deterrence against invaders. Yeonjuseong Fortress was known as Baegamseong Fortress during the Goguryeo period. It was built on a

province, this fortress built during the Joseon period consisted of three gates, positioned from south to north, each with defensive walls on either side. The gates are situated along the valley leading from Mt. Juheulsan [height: 1,106 meters] in Mungyeong westward to Chungju and Goesan. With no other possible passageways, this route could be defended with relative ease.

mountain slope along the Taizihe River, with a sheer cliff on its east side facing the river. It is the most representa-

Bukhansanseong Fortress

tive example of Goguryeo's advanced fortress construction

This fortress is located on Mt. Bukhansan, on the border between

techniques, as highlighted by its massive fortress walls

Seoul and Goyang, Gyeonggi-do province. It was built during the

and the magnificence of its elaborately constructed bas-

Baekje period and continuously maintained throughout the Goguryeo and Joseon periods. It is approximately 8.4 kilometers in

tions. A fierce battle was fought here when Tang China

length, and fully exploits the natural topography, such that fortress

invaded Goguryeo in 645. After emerging victorious, the

walls were built up higher in low-lying areas and lower in areas of

Tang king pressed on to Ansiseong Fortress, but Goguryeo

rugged terrain, where a breach was less likely. The fortress fea-

troops r:-esisted the siege for three months and eventually

tured a central area, three main gates, 10 secondary gates, a tem-

fended off the Tang forces.

1.1.'1

porary palace, command platform, storehouses, 99 wells, and 26 reservoirs.

Spring 2005 I Korea na 23

ÂˇT

he mention of "fortress" can bring to mind images

comprised of the magistrate"s office [dongheonl, his pri-

associated with walls and gates, soldiers, weapons,

vate residence [naeal, a guesthouse for visiting officials

and fierce combat. This is certainly the case for mountain

[gaeksal, buildings where the government officials worked,

fortresses, where no regular residents lived. However, the

and other facilities, such as warehouses and a jailhouse.

most common defensive ramparts in Korea were t own

The guesthouse consisted of a large hall with a wooden

walls. Still, rather than wa rfare-related installations, they

floor flanked by two rooms equipped with ondol under-

were more intended to create protected areas where peo-

floor heating and a main gpte with three doors. The guest-

ple could conduct their daily life.

house was also used to maintain the royal insignia Veon-

Where Commoners and Officials Mingle

the direction of the palace, paid their respects on the first

pael, to which the magistrate and officials, while facing in

The Korean term for town walls is eupseong, which

and fifteenth day of each lunar month. Because it housed

literally means a wall [seong] built to protect a town [eup].

the royal insignia, which symbolized the king , the guest-

In fact, the Chinese character eup [@.] was derived from a

house was effectively more significant than the magis-

pictograph of a town wall. Since town walls were often

trate"s office . Provincial governors on inspection tours

built along mountain ridges, they included countless twists

used the guesthouse as temporary accommodations as

and turns in order to conform to the natural topography.

well as a venue to host special events and preside over

Gates were built at strategic points, while a road running

local examinations. On occasion, the inspector officials

through the town area usually connected the western and

would get together with local scholars for poetry sessions,

eastern gates. The northern section of the town would typi-

with the most outstanding works composed during such

cally house the government buildings, with the southern

events being displayed on the outside walls of the guest-

section being occupied by a market area and residences.

house.

The compound of government buildings would be 26 Ko reana I Spring 2005

Market days were an opportunity for town residents to

do business and socialize with others. Markets, which were located at the center of the town, were operated every fifth day, when people from with in and outside the town walls gathered to buy or sÂˇe ll various products. Naturally, people also came by to simply spend time with friends and acquaintances. Walled towns could not exist without wells to provide the inhabitants with adequate drinking water. Wells were needed not only to provide water for people's everyday life, but also to sustain the occupants in times of siege, providing a lifeline until relief forces arrived . Because wells were so essential, the descriptions of town walls found in local gazetteers included not only details about the height and length of the walls but also the number of wells found therein . In the case of the walled town of Nagan, Jeollanam-do, for example, it was recorded that wells were located at the center of Dongnae-ri and Namnae-ri villages, where p.eople could draw water with a gourd, and although the water level was only one meter in depth, refreshing water was always available, even in periods of drought. It was also recorded that the well at Namnae-ri was known as the main well because it was used by the magistrate.

Naga ne upseong Fortress in Jeollanam -do is an example of an early Joseon walled city built on flatlands with low hills in a rectangular configuration, running east and west. The walls a re fairly well preserved, within w hic h there a re a bout 200 curre nt residents.

The residents of Namnae-ri held a festival in honor of their well on the third day of. the first month of the lunar calendar, while the villagers in Dongnae-ri celebrated their well on the 15th day of the first month, during the first full moon of the year. These festivals were centered around sacrificial offerings to appeal for the continued supply of fresh water and good health. The wells were more than a source of needed water, serving as an ideal gathering place for neighbors to socialize. Housewives shared good news and bad, along with gossip and grousing . In this way, market areas and wells provided for the basic necessities and social needs of town residents. To construct the town walls, people from all the surrounding areas, including adjacent counties, would be mobilized . For example, to construct the town walls of Gochang in Jeollabuk-do province, most of the workers mobilized to undertake the work were male commoners Spring 2005 I Ko reana 27

With the onset of modernization, town walls, legacies of a long past era, were rapidly torn down everywhere. To accommodate the expansion of roadway networks, remaining walls were leveled, often leaving only gate structures. These long abandoned gates remain as witnesses to the evolution of town walls.

eligible for conscription and public-purpose labor as pre-

"wall-stamping" festival. It is believed that anyone who

scribed by law. Every county was assigned a particular

walks the full length of the walls will be assured of good

section of the walls, with areas that enjoyed a bountiful

health and a long life. The effects are said to be especially

harvest that year being required to build greater lengths.

beneficial if carried out during a leap year, when the gates

At the starting point of each section, an inscribed stone

to the afterworld would be open.

marker would be erected to recognize the responsible

According to tradition, walking around the walls once

builder. For example, an inscription would read:

would prevent disease; walking around twice would assure

"Sunchang si" or "Namwon si, " to indicate that "the people

a long life without illness; and walking around three times

of Sunchang began here" or "the people of Namwon began

would open the entryway to eternal paradise. Tradition

here." These markers served to commemorate the build-

also calls for the walkers to carry stones the size of a hand

ing process, while also holding the people of a county

on their head, which are placed in a pile after walking

responsible for faulty construction, if the walls collapsed

around the walls three times and returning to the gate

within five years. The numerous stone markers still stand-

from where they started. This custom symbolized the

ing, along the course of existing and previous town walls,

women of Gochang, who tirelessly carried stones and

are reminders of the immense. efforts that went into their

earth on their head to build the walls. The cumulative

construction.

effect of the women repeatedly stamping on the walls, with the added weight of the materials being carried, undoubt-

Town-wall Traditions

According to legend, women built Gochangeupseong Fortress. At one time, two ramparts had to be built in the

edly contributed to solidifying the structural stability. In addition, the stones

co~,Jld

be used to defend against

Japanese invaders.

region at the same time, so men built one section at

Furthermore, walking atop the 20-foot-high walls for

Seosan while women built another at Gochang. As an

hours while carrying building materials demanded

incentive, it had been decided that whichever town com-

extreme physical exertion, which would have contributed

pleted its walls first would be awarded a local magistracy.

to their good health. To this day, the custom o('stamping

Thus, the two sides competed fiercely to secure the honor.

the walls" has been preserved in Gochang and is observed

However, since the men underrated the women's capabili-

each year on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, which

ty, they would wile away the time with drink and merri-

has been designated Gochang Citizens' Day.

ment. In contrast, the women worked ceaselessly, hauling the stones and building the walls, without taking breaks. In

Only the Gates Remain

the end , their steady efforts enabled the Gochang walls to

Since gates served as passageways into and out a

be completed first, for which the town received a magistra-

walled town, they were typically situated at the four direc-

cy office.

tions and named accordingly. Another popular method

To commemorate this legendary event, every year the

called for naming gates after the four Confucian virtues of

women of Gochang walk all along the walls as part of a

benevolence [inl, righteousness [uil. propriety [ye] and wis-

28 Koreana I Spring 2005

For more tha n 500 years si nce the prefecture office was esta blished he re in 1423 , Seo nge upseong Folk Villa ge has served as the seat of J eongui- hyeon prefect ure. The walls were built with basa lt from J eju do Is land. 2 Built durin g the Joseon pe riod, Hae mieupseong Fortress is a well-p reserved exa mple of Ko rea n city-wa ll construction. It is a fla tla nd s tonework fortress with a perimete r of 1.8 kilometers.

dom [jil, as in Heunginjimun [Foster Benevolence Gate], Sungnyemun [Namdaemun or South Gate) is the representative gate of the Seoul city wall system. During the modernization of Korea, most city walls were torn down, but a number of gates still remain. 2 Much of the Seoul city walls built on flatlands has since been removed to make room for new roadways. However, various sections have been maintained or restored. 3 Remains of Tangchundaeseong Fortress, which was built to Link the Seoul city wall system to Bukhansanseong Fortress. After the Joseon period fortress collapsed, another fortress was built on the site. 4 Doseongsamgunmunbungyejido is a map that indicates the areas guarded by the troops who defended Seoul within the city walls. The city walls form a perimeter that follows the mountains that surround Seoul. 1751, woodblock print, property of Sungshin Women's University Museum.

Donuimun [Assure Righteousness Gate], Sungnyemun [Revere Propriety Gate], and Hongjimun [Broaden Wisdom Gate]. A second-level gate-pavilion was built on top of a gate structure, which for walled towns located in a military or border area would be utilized as a garrison. Since gates were intended to defend an entryway, terms such as "guarding" or "protecting" were often part of theirÂˇ names, as in Jinnamnu [Guarding the South Gate-Pavilion] or Suseongnu [Protecting the Fortress Gate-Pavilion]. When under siege, the gate-pavilions would serve as command posts for the deployment of troops. In ordinary times, the local governor would preside over public events from a gate-pavilion, but it was also a place where officials and citizens could mingle socially. When a provincial governor would visit a county on an inspection tour, he reviewed the county's financial accounts and relevant documents to assess the state of local affairs. However, fin~g

out how the county was far-

ing was simply a matter of climbing up to a gate-pavilion. Since all buildings at the time were one-story in height, it was possible to observe the entire town at a glance from a gate-pavilion. Thus, after surveying the state of residences and daily life, ferry crossings and bridges, roadways and rice paddies, water reservoirs and forest areas, he could discuss any pending matters with the county magistrate. Although many town walls were removed when road networks were expanded at the onset of Korea's modernization period, many of the town gates were maintained. These gates became reference points for the naming of wards based on an area's location of inside or outside the walls, or inside or outside a gate. For cities with heavy traffic, in which gate structures have been preserved, rather than passing through the gates, traffic would be diverted

around them along newly built roads. As can be seen in the

unavailable within the town walls, but by building their

most renowned city gates in Korea, Seoul's Sungnyemun

homes outside the walls they could avoid unnecessary

[Namdaemunl. National Treasure No. 1, and Heunginji-

conflict with the magistrate.

mun [Dongdaemunl. Treasure No. 1, these are two exam-

At the entrance to walled towns, you can often find

ples of the impressive architectural monuments that sig-

"good-government" monuments [seonjeongbil. These

nificant gates represented.

commemorative markers w.ere erected by residents to

As the capital city, Seoul was home to many large

recognize the capable leadership of a local magistrate. If a

tiled-roof residences of government officials, as is evident

mag istrate was deemed to have governed well, at the con-

from photos of the late Joseon period. On the other hand,

clusion of his tenure the town residents would inscribe his

in most walled towns in the countryside, apart from gov-

name and deeds on such a monument. These monuments

ernment buildings, there was a prevalence of thatch-

were found alongside well-traveled roads near town gates

roofed structures. Members of the yangban [noble] class

or nearby the magistracy office, where they would be high-

often possessed considerable land holdings, so they pre-

ly visible. In the majority of cases, these monuments were

ferred to live outside the walls, on their personal estates in

indeed erected by grateful townspeople; however, there

clan villages. There they built large-scale mansions with

are also instances in which departing magistrates mandat-

tiled roofs that were constructed in accordance with geo-

ed such recognition. These good-government monuments,

mantic principles, such as on a sunny site with a mountain

too often erected from the toil of the area 's poorest people,

to the rear and a stream in front. They were surrounded by

stand as symbols of the vicissitudes of life in those days. t>t

the houses of relatives, while the thatch-roofed buildings of their tenants were located outside the clan village. Not only were auspicious sites with a desirable view generally Spring 2005 I Koreana 31

FOCUS

Germany Presents Korea Year 2005 The Korea-Germany Joint Cultural Commission has designated 2005 as "Korea Year." As such, a series of events and activities will be conducted all across Germany throughout the year to introduce Korean culture to the German people. Kwon Young· mm o<or, ·•n AmiJass 1dor tu Ger nary

orea has been selected as the focus country for the

sented throughout Germany. The Asia-Pacific-Weeks

Asia-Pacific-Weeks Berlin, being held in September

Berlin and the Frankfurt Book Fair are the most prominent

2005, as well as the Guest of Honor at the Frankfurt Book

events of their kind in Germany, so being honored by both

Fair, which is scheduled to kick off in October. To build on

in the same year is indeed a unique distinction. To maxi-

this exposure, it was decided that 2005 would be ""Korea

mize th is opportunity, throughout the year a diverse range

Year:· during which a wide variety of events will be pre-

of events will be held across Germany to provide residents

34 Koreana I Spring 2005

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - ,....,.."'e""'o::-:p"'" en"'m ""g'"'c""e"' re"" m"=o"" ny.,..,fÂˇ== or"'t"' ne'"'A "'s::-:: la""' - ' -= a ~ c 1 .f1c -ee s erl1n wi!llie e a o n zertn :;- a ~ us ~ . 2 A poster for the Korean fil m festival to be held at the German Historical Museum 3 During the Asia-Pacific-Weeks Berlin , there will be an exhibition and international symposium on Gog uryeo tomb murals , jointly orga nized by the Korea Foundation and Freie Universitat Berlin. 4 During the ninth Korea-Germany Joint Cultural Commission meeting, which was held in Berlin on September 22, 2004, the representatives of the two governments officially declared 2005 as "Korea Year."

Âˇ with a comprehensive introduction to Korea's culture and

investment, it is imperative for accurate information about

people. The objectives of the "Korea Year" events are to

Korea to be widely disseminated so that our national

broaden awareness of Korea among the German people

image can be bolstered.

and to boost Korea's image so as to further promote Korea-Germany cooperation.

Korea-Germany Cultural Exchanges

During the ninth Korean-German Joint Cultural Enhancing Korea's Global Image /

Commission meet i ng , which was held in Berlin on

Following the conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship,

September 22, 2004, representatives of both governments

Commerce and Navigation between Korea and Germany in

officially declared 2005 as "Korea Year," along with pledg-

1883, mutual understanding and trust have been main-

ing their respective government support for this initiative

tained as a result of steady exchanges. Of particular note,

to assure its success. Even before the official announce-

due to their shared historical experiences of economic

ment, the German film distributor 3L had imported ten

success despite national division, the two countries have

Korean movies, including Old Boy, Taegukgi: Brotherhood

developed a particular affinity for each other.

of War, and Silmido. After thei r translation and dubbing

Despite these longstanding historical relations,

into German, one film has

shown each month at 150

Germans in general know comparatively little about

theaters in 71 German cities, since September 2004. In

Korean culture and society. The reality is that, to most

November 2004, a touring festival of classical and modern

Germans, Korea is mainly associated with negative

Korean music staged some 20 performances in four

images, such as the Korean War, North-South division,

German cities. Accordingly, these events provided a pre-

labor conflicts, or the North Korean nuclear controversy.

lude to the launch of "Korea Year" in 2005.

Although the successful hosting of the 2002 FIFA World

In January 2005, Gyeonggi-do province and the Korea

Cup served to portray Korea in a positive light, thanks to

National Tourism Organization joined hands to coordinate

the passionate exuberance and orderliness of its people,

Korea's participation as guest country in the international

the image of Korea is often not especially favorable .

caravan convention CMT 2005 [lnternationale Ausstellung

With such relatively negative images about Korea

fU r Caravan, Motor, Touristikl. In addition, Gyeonggi-do

being S!J prevalent among Germany's general public, this

province teamed up with Baden WUrttemberg to conduct

serves as a stumbling block to closer bilateral relations. It

an export promotion conference and a " Korean Economy

was thus against this backdrop that 2005 has been desig-

Day." In February, the Berlin Film Festival spotlighted on

nated " Korea Year." In order to advance tangible coopera-

Korea 's film industry with a retrospective of lm Kwon-

tion between the two countries in such areas as trade and

tae k' s films, while Seoul National University and Spring 2005

I Koreana 35

Mannheim University of Music and Performing Arts will present a joint concert in April. Moreover, the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology and the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft are organizing a Technomart Caravan that is scheduled to tour Dresden and other German cities in April and May. To celebrate the 200th anniversary of Ferdinand Schiller's death, several German institutions are working together to organize commemorative events that will be held in Weimar in May. A Korean festival is planned for the same month as part of the celebration of the 816th anniversary of the opening of Hamburg harbor. In June, three Korean naval cruisers will take part in the Kieler Woche, calling on Hamburg and other German ports and accompanied by various cultural events at each stopover. The computer and telecommunications fair Cebit, which will take place in Hannover in May, and IFA, the world's largest consumer electronics fair, slated for September in Berlin, will provide ideal opportunities for Korean enterprises to heighten their market presence and develop strategic alliances with Germany's high-technology sector, thereby boosting industrial exchanges between the two countries. Finally, in September and October, a Korean military band will embark on a month-long tour of several German cities to perform traditional folk music as well as contemporary works. Diverse Cultural Events

The crowning events of "Korea Year" will take place during the Asia-Pacific-Weeks in Berlin (September) and 36 Koreana I Sprin g 2005

the Frankfurt Book Fair (October). The Asia-Pacific-Weeks Berlin, a biennial event, provides the focus country with a unique opportunity to showcase its cultural heritage through the staging of more than 100 events in the German capital. The opening ceremon y, which will take place on September 19, 2005 at the Berlin Konzerthaus, will include the attendance of the German president and more than 1,000 prominent guests from Ge rmany's political, financial, cultural, and media sectors, as well as numerous foreign representatives. During this gala event, the focus country will be able to present the best of its classical and modern cultural resources. Moreover, to complement the festiviti es being held at the Konzerthaus, a variety of folk and popular music will be performed by a military band and a percussion troupe right outside the venue to provide a vivid taste of the richness of Korean culture to the German people and the local media . Following the grand opening, Korean Fantasy by the National Theater of Korea and related cultural events will be staged in Berlin and other German cities, including Dusseldorf. The Asia-Pacific-Weeks event will also feature an exhibition and international symposium on the Goguryeo tomb mural paintings that is being jointly organized by the Korea Foundation and Freie Universitat Berlin. Other scheduled events include the opening ceremony of a garden developed by the city of Seoul in conjunction with the Marzahn district of Berlin, a performance by the Seoul Metropolitan Traditional Music Orchestra, and photo exhib it io n s h ig h l ig h t i n g t h e h is to ry of S eo u l a n d t h e

Motoring, and Tourism] 4 As the designated guest of honor country at the Frankfurt Book Fair, Korea intends to make known its standing as the world's seventh-largest publisher and to present the translations of 100 notable Korean literary works.

Book Fair in March and end in September, to introduce the little-known excellence of Korean literature through book readings and academic seminars. It will also provide a valuable opportunity to show how Korea's traditiona[ culture has been adapted to the dynamism and advanced technology of its modern-day society. In conjunction with the 200th anniversary of Ferdinand Schiller's death, Ahn Sook-hee's piano recital and "Korea

Film Week" will be held in Berlin and Weimer in May, respectively, in cooperation with related German organizations. In November 2005, the Korea-Germany Science and Âˇ ~

Cheonggyecheon Stream restoration project, which are

Technology Commission , formed in 2003, will hold its third

intended to strengthen the cooperative relationship

conference, during which special efforts will be put forth to

between Seoul and Berlin. Meanwhile, Korea's Ministry of

reinforce Korean-German cooperation in the fields of sci-

the Environment and the Korea International Cooperation

ence and technology, based on the positive momentum

Agency, along with Germany's Society for Technology

created by the "Korea Year" activities.

Cooperation [GTZ], have organized a series of economic

Of particular significance, by taking advantage of the

and trade conferences on bilateral cooperation in the envi-

"Korea Year" that officially got underway on Jan_uary 1,

ronmental and academic fields, as well as large-scale

2005, and the advanced-nation recognition extended by

exchange activities for business people from Korea and

Germany, Korea can promote among the German people

Germany.

an image of the earnest and refined nature of Koreans as

As the world's biggest book exhibition, the Frankfurt

the "white-clad people of the East." It is expected that a

Book Fair also organizes a wide variety of supplemental

solid foundation of cultural understanding will be capable

cultural events in living up to its nickname of a Cultural

of supporting more cooperative relations in such endeav-

Olympics. As the guest of honor, Korea is slated to present

ors as business, science, and academia. t>t

the translations of 100 Korean masterpieces and demonstrate its standing as one of the world's top-seven publishing countries. Also, ten Korean masterpieces have been selected for a road tour, which will start at the Leipzig Spring 2005 I Koreana 37

38 Koreana I Spring 2005

Kim Seok-chul Urban Architect with Designs on the Future

Kim Seok-chul is a well-respected name in Korean architecture. With the knowledge accumulated from his 30 years of urban planning experience, he is now building a foundation for one of his most ambitious development projects: a Yellow Sea Urban community anchored by Qufu Aquacity of China and iCity lncheon of Korea. lee Sang-hae Professor of Architecture, Sungkyun kwa n Unive rsity

he architecture of East Asia is designed to bring peo-

can be seen in all of his major projects over the past 30

ple closer to nature, the basis of the land. Underlying

years, including the Seoul Yeouido master plan proposal in

this architecture is an ideology of unity between the uni-

1972, the design of the Seoul Arts Center in 1988, and his

verse and humanity, which serves as a philosophical foun-

most recent efforts related to Qufu Aquacity and iCity

dation of the spiritual lives of East Asians . For the people of

lncheon.

East Asia, this paramount ideology prescribes that humans and nature should exist as one, in line with an integration

Building a Yellow Sea Urban Community

and interaction between the cosmos and all living things.

"The plans for Qufu Aquacity and iCity lncheon were

As such, it is possible for humanity and nature to attain a

conceived as part of a design workshop conducted at

state of being two separate parts of one whole at the same

Tsinghua Un iversity in China with Professor Wu Liangyong.

time. Based on this way of thinking, East Asian architec-

The concept for the project is based on the fact that China,

ture is inherently organic and cannot be separated from

Korea and Japan are East Asian countries in wh ich

nature. Moreover, architecture is not thought of as a

Chinese characters are used and their cultures and civi-

mechanism for the comfort of people but rather for

lizations are rooted in Confucianism, " said Kim .

arousal of their spiritual awareness.

The area encompassing the east coast of China, the

Architect Kim Seok-chul contemplates deeply about

Bohai Gulf, and the Yellow Sea is where active trade has

the relationship between humans and nature. He plans

long been conducted between China , Korea, and Japan .

and shapes the everyday l ife of people of the future

This area has also facilitated exchanges that led to the

through the thoughtful design of buildings and cities, as

development of a common culture and civilization among Spring 2005 I Koreana 39

The architect Kim Seok-chul constantly reflects upon on how the future of people can be shaped by architectural influences. His new design paradigm for urban planning seeks to unify the city and the architecture, as well as the infrastructure and the urban co ntext.

iC ity inclu des an Aqua polis ellipse island with 300 hectares of land area that is lin ked to In ch eon Internation al Airport [hu b airport of the Yellow Sea) by a 12.3- kilom eter bri dge. iCity ln cheo n project w ill transform t he existing straight- lin e seawa ll into an oval shape alo ng the seawa rd sid e of Songdo Free Economic Zo ne and create a new area of land therein. iCity"s Space Ma tr ix will integ rate the seawa ll, urban infrastructure, and urba n su perstructure with a city in wh ich civil enginee rin g, ur ba n infrastru cture, and building architectur e are all digita lized. Qufu Aqua city plans ca ll for efforts to restore and preserve Qufu as a cultural and histori ca l city, w hile at th e sa me tim e present in g a 21st cent ury vision for the city. Qufu Aquac ity incorporates the pr incip les of the five basic elements [metal, wood, fir e, water and earth) from which all life ari ses.

the three countries. The port city of Qufu is said to be a spiritual center of East Asia due to its being the birthplace of Confucius, the founder of Confucianism . Like an Athens or Jerusalem of the East, Qufu is unquestionably the spiritual Mecca of the Yellow Sea coastal region . Also of note, Qufu is located along the routes to China's two best-known modern cities, Beijing and Shanghai. "Qufu Aquacity and iCity lncheon are part of plans to build a symbolic community that confirms the historical and cultural homogeneity of China and Korea. It started from the idea of creating a central point for a new 21st century order of East Asia . The Qufu Aquacity plans entail

Ko reana I Spring 2005

preservation of the existing city, located north of the Yihe

New Urban Design Paradigm

River, as a historical area, and development of a new city,

The iCity lncheon project will convert the eÂˇxisting

south of the Yihe River, which would serve as a symbolic

straight-line seawall into an oval shape along the seaward

anchor of the envisioned Yellow Sea community. lncheon

side of the Songdo Free Economic Zone and create a new

International Airport in Korea will serve as the central air-

land area within the oval seawall. Under a conventional

port for this community, and iCity lncheon its central sea-

urban development process, the land is first prepared,

port, thereby connecting lncheon in Korea with Liaoning

then infrastructure is installed, and the buildings are

Province and Shandong Province in China: Âˇ explained Kim.

designed and constructed. However, under Kim's innova-

As such, Kim's proposal calls for Qufu Aquacity and

tive approach, new land will be created that complements

iCity lncheon to serve as cornerstones for linking China's

existing infrastructure, thus assuring a seamless integra-

Shandong and Liaoning provinces with Korea's Yellow Sea

tion of urban space and infrastructure. In this way, the

coastal area, in order to form an economic community.

unique development concept for this project is clearly conSpring 2005 I Ko reana 41

trary to mainstream principles of modern architecture, as manifested in Kim 's new urban design parad igm that seeks to create a oneness between the city and the architecture, as well as the urban context and the infrastructure . For example, the iCity lncheon project calls for a bridge, which is currently part of the seawall, to be integrated with the city's infrastructure so as to create a new urban space. Qufu is a cultural and historical city founded more than 3,000 years ago. It is the birthplace of Confucius and his Confucianism, which forms the essence of the ideology and spi r ituality of East Asia. The Qufu Aquacity plans call for efforts to restore and preserve Qufu as a cultural and historical city, while at the same time presenting a 21st century vision for the city. Qufu will not only be featured as a vital cornerstone of the Yellow Sea community but also a center of Confucian culture and feng shui, a people-friendly city, and where China 's cultural richness can be appreciated, based on a principle of sustainable development that can address the common problems of modern cities. 'We plan to build city walls along a diameter of 2.5 ki lometers south of the Yihe River, and develop a specialized transportation system, which links the city inside the walls with the high-speed rail system. Qufu Aquacity incorporates the principles of the five basic elements (metal, wood, fire, water and earth). from which all life ar ises. Water from north of Qufu will be channeled into the city where it will circulate throughout the urban area before Âˇ ~

flowing out to the sea. In addition, solar cells installed on the surrounding walls will be a renewable energy source for the city, as a reflection of the efforts to design a peoplecentered city free from pollution, " noted Kim. The Qufu Aquacity and iCity lncheon development project was entered in the ninth Venice Architecture Biennale held in 2004 as part of "Cities on Water" exhibition. The event judges praised the project as an innovative effort based on trans-border cooperation between the cities of lncheon, Korea and Qufu, China . The project, as a representative model of progressive urban development of a city with a historical and contemporary structure and highlighting the use of water, received an honorable mention at the Bienrale. Convergence of People and Nature

Kim is also working on an urban renewal project for 42 Koreana I Spring 2005

Jeju Shinyoung Cinema Museum of Moving Images takes on an organic form shaped by free-flowing curves but with a geometrical theme. 2 The cityscape viewed from a restaurant in the multiplex CineCity. The city seems to be drawn into the 15-story structure through its round windows. 3 The office building of Changbi Publishers is an example of a building that can be blended into the city and the city into the building.

Spring 2005 I Koreana 43

1 The Seoul Arts Ce nter is a world-cla ss artistic and cultu ral space that includes the Opera House , Music Hall, Art Museum, and Outdoor Theater. 2, 3 The Hanssem Design Center offers a modern interpretation of a tPaditional Korean house.

the Bukchon area of Seoul, which was a prominent resi-

"Cities in the 20th century were not friendly to people.

dential area during the Joseon Dynasty. The project is

By focusing on function an.d efficiency, modern cities of the

intended to transform the traditional tile-roof houses,

20th century are turning out to be failures. Cities of the

hanok, into new urban spaces for the modern city. Kim is

21st century must not follow in these footsteps. The cities

thus seeking to reinterpret Bukchon alley, which runs

of rapidly developing countries in particular must not copy

between the ancient palaces of Gyeongbokgung and

the failed cities of the 20th century," says Kim . Current

Changdeokgung, while exploring ways to design it anew.

projects expressing Kim's ideas and thoughts about urban

He has already completed several individual developments

design include the new Qufu city project and redevelop-

that integrate Bukchon's historical context with the mod-

ment of the city structure of Chongqing, China, which is

ern-day Seoul, including Hanssem Design Center-Design

now underway.

beyond East and West, the office of his architectural firm

Ceaseless expansion of production in the pursuit of

Archiban, which was created from two remodeled hanok,

profit leads to unrestrained consumption that contributes

and the office of Changbi Publishers. These projects are

to environmental pollution and ecological degradation. To

examples of how a building can be blended into the city

ensure that this destructive cycle is not maintained in the

and the city into the building . This same concept can be

21st century, it is necessary for people to contemplate

seen in the Jeju Shinyoung Cinema Museum and the

about humanity and our natural environment. In the 21st

Hanssem Sihwa factory, which Kim also designed.

century, we need to restore the culture and civilization of

44 Korea na I Spring 2005

mankind, which had been relegated to the sidelines in the 20th century, to its rightful standing. The East Asian view of "

nature, which sees humans and nature, and all things in the universe, as belonging to a single oneness, must be revived, so as to transcend the creation of people-centered cities. Based on Kim"s urban design solutions, the 21st century should emphasize the oneness of material and spiritual existence and respect the web of relationships between all things, amid a world in which coexistence and symbiosis are possible, and an age when egotism is rejected . Kim seeks to usher in an age in which all regions and all places on earth are their own center, along with the uniqueness of all existence being valued. bt

Jang Ju-won's Lifelong Passion and Dedication to Jadecraft People have long admired the alluring elegance and delicate color of jade. The artisan Jang Ju-won infuses life into his masterful creations of jade, which has always been revered as a treasure of the Orient. In his masterpieces, Jang's lifelong passion and dedication to jadecraft are readily evident. Ryu Min Freelance Writer Oh Jong-eun Photographer

46 Korea na I Spri ng 2005

nlike gold, which was highly sought by people from both the East and West, jade is more closely associ-

ated with the Orient where it is treasu red by the peoples of Asia. Jade's translucency and lustrous glow are a constant source of fascination to beholders, which does not diminish over time. Moreover, the nature of jade is sa id to be consistent with the impeccable character virtues ascribed to the traditional Confucian scholar [seonb1l.

Destiny with Jade Master craftsman Jang Ju-won, who has been designated Important Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 100, has used his accumulated expertise and adroit craftsmanship to create a number of truly exquisite works of jadecraft. His jade works have received rave reviews, with some say. ing that the refinement of Jang's techniques and his artistic expressions surpass anything seen in the traditions of Korea and China , which have long been regarded as the undisputed masters of jadecraft. "The long history of Korean jadecraft is evidenced by the discovery of a Neolithic jadecraft site along the Namgang River basin in Gyeongju. From the Three /

Mt. Bongnaesan-shaped Incense Burner !white jade. 200 x 260 x 700mm) : The body of the incense burner. the dragon with a cintamani in its mouth. and the link chains have all been carved from a single piece of jade .

Kingdoms period through the Joseon Dynasty, jade accessories were known to be popular among upper-class women. Although Korea appears to have lagged behind China in terms of craftsmanship during that period, such is no longer the case . I am proud of the uniquely Korean

Âˇ ~

crafting techniques which have been developed , and to be able to say that Korea is the preeminent creator of jadecraft today." Born in Mokpo, Jeollanam-do in 1937, Jang has come to devote most of his adult life to jadecraft, with both Jang and his family conceding that his love affair with jade is indeed all-consuming . After working with jade for some 43 years, what is it about jade and jadecraft that have so enamored Jang all this while? "Jade has accepted my challenges without any reservations. Whether I carve thinly or inlay deeply, the jade follows my lead. Its serene elegance is what appeals to me." If the brilliance of a diamond makes it a gem of sunlight, then the subtle and dignified charm of jade would make it. a gem of moonlight. Jang, whose first meaningful contact w ith jade occurred when he was 20 years old, confessed that his fascination with jade was so profound that he felt as if he had been subsumed by moonlight. By this time, Jang had already earned a reputation as a skilled Spring 2005 I Koreana 47

craftsman of fine jewelry in the Jongno area of Seoul. One day, someone who had heard about Jang visited his shop and asked him to restore a broken jade incense burner. Jang clearly recalls being suddenly overcome by a heavy burden and thinking: "How and where do I start with this?" Thereafter, Jang quickly became preoccupied with jadecraft. As he soon realized that there was no one available to teach him about jadecraft, he took it upon himself to learn as much as he could on his own, which involved his traveling to about 100 countries, including Taiwan. Following Korea's establishment of diplomatic relations with China, Jang visited the Chinese mainland more frequently. In fact, whenever he was overcome with a sense of burden or felt a need to take a break from the work in his studio, he would visit Taiwan or China to view the jade arts and crafts· on display at various museums. When he was satisfied that his batteries were recharged with fresh inspiration, he would return home. Whenever Jang was possessed by a creative vision, he would remain in his workshop, without regard for the time of day or night, while not bothering to sleep, so as not to disrupt his artistic passion. Typically, he would work while wearing only a short-sleeve shirt in his unheated studio in order to help 1 Phoenix Incense Burner (white jade, 150 x 150 x 220mml: Today. there is no one known who can match Jang Ju-won 's masterful carvmg of such exquisite deSigns on incense burners and vessels. 2 Gourd-shaped Tea Pot (green jade, 200 x 150 x 170mml: Jang Ju-won personally enjoys carving cicada designs. because he says he has learned humility from cicadas. wh1ch will spend seven years as a dormant larva to live for just one summer as an adult. · ~

fend off fatigue. Still, he never felt cold, even in the dead of winter. "The power of the human spirit is quite remarkable. People ask me why I have devoted my life to jade. I have a love for jade. I have a sense of oneness when I see how the essence of jade and people can intertwine with each other in a harmonious relation.ship. Each piece of jade has its own unique personality. Often , while following the irregular grain, I come across an unexpected crack. Whenever I am successful in avoiding cracks and able to create a splendid work of jade, I feel as if I have developed a special intimacy with this particular jade piece. " International Acclaim

Jade should not be exposed to direct sunlight immediately after its extraction. Just like the human eye that needs time to adjust to the light after emerging from the darkness, jade buried underground for hundreds of millions of years also needs time to adapt to its surroundings after being brought to the surface. Furthermore, jade should be packed in a bag of moist yellow mud and heated to a temperature of 800 to 1,000°C in order to prevent 48 Koreana I Spring 2005

Ever since working on his first jade piece, Jang admits to having been consumed with thoughts about jade and jade craft. He has been known to simply admire the beauty of a piece of uncut jade for months or even years before developing an idea for the creation of a jade work.

3 Jang Ju won .oaks over one of hiS works. It can take a year or two to complete a stngle work, and sometime as long as decades.

Spring 2005 I Koreana

cracks. Jade features a variety of grain patterns, and can be blue, white, yellow, or light brown in color, depending on its place of origin. Jang is overcome with a boundless ecstasy whenever he comes across an exceptional piece of jade. Months and even years can pass before he decides on what to do with a particular jade piece. Only when he is fully satisfied with his conceptualization of a jade creation will Jang take the piece into his studio and begin his intricate work process. "In China, when jade artisans create a work of art, they will often carve separate jade pieces that are then assembled together. In contrast, I tend to work on a single piece of jade. The works I create, such as a vessel adorned with a dragon with a bead in its mouth as well as chains, are produced from one piece of jade." Jang uses a special silk-thread cutter to carve his jade creations. Sand grains of a hardness of 8-9 degrees are applied to a silk thread to produce a cutting tool. To make a hole in the jade, Jang inserts a nib and then gently works an attached drawstring to produce the desired shape. Then, he buffs the work with fine iron rust. With each step involving a painstakingly tedious process with no shortcuts, a jade craftsman needs an abundance of patience. The work begun by a father may have to be passed down to his son. Should the son fa il to complete the work, the grandson would be responsible for its completion . Jang has combined traditional jade craftsmanship with modern aids such as hand tools and motorized Âˇ ~

devices in order to not only reduce the time required , but also to better highlight the refined details of his creations. Jang's incense burners and ewers, which feature exquisite openwork, are widely acclaimed to be unrivaled in the world . Jang has the unique ability to successfully carve double chains from a piece of jade without causing any cracks. He recently created a gourd-shaped perfume bottle with an opening as tiny as a pinhole, recording anbther first in the world of jadecraft. During an exhibition held in the United States in 2001, Jang's works were appraised as true masterpieces for their consummate craftsmanship and unsurpassed elegance. Such high praise is a reflection of Jang' s artistic creativity and passionate dedication. 1 For the past 43 years. Jang Ju-won has so completely devoted his life to crafting jade that it would not be an exaggeration to say that he is obsessed with jade. 2 Jang Ju-won also strives to popularize jadecraft. This is a traditional pendant featuring a perfume case that he carved using traditional techniques.

50 Koreana I Sprin g 2005

Exemplary Work Ethic Jang strives to ensure that his diligent work ethic is evident in each of his creations. Even for a basic ewer, he

will intricately decorate the surface with entwined vines, grasshoppers, ants, and bees. Through such symbolism, Jang seeks to suggest that worldly affairs are just like entangled vines, and that there are people who live idle lives, like grasshoppers, others who spend their time working busily, like ants, and those who work as part of a team , like bees. Since 1999, Jang has been teaching at Kyonggi · University, where he of course admonishes his students to work diligently. ""If I am the root of Korean jadecraft, then it is my students' job to usher in the heyday of this art. To be the best, you have to do what others cannot. What I mean is that we should develop a uniquely Korean jadecraft. Just like the hwimori jangdan [a fast-paced quadruple metric rhythm cycle]. which is meant to represent the Korean · heartbeat, we should use our passion and inner spirit to create works that will be appreciated by people the world over." Jang can never forget the anguish that he felt when he first started to work with jade. His fascination with jade was so al l-consum ing that he would never allow his intense focus to be interrupted by a need to eat, sleep, or I

even use the bathroom. Today, despite his recognition as th

world's foremost jade artisan , his passion for creating

new works remains as intense as ever. When Jang ponders about the universe, he comes to believe that his works are little more than imitations of God's creations

··1 often use cicada motifs to decorate my works. · ~

Cicadas go through a seven-year larva cycle just so they can live one season. I heard that there are cicadas in China that remain as a larva for 27 years. When I think of that cicada, I feel sorry for it. My work is nothing when compared with the struggles of a cicada. " These days, Jang spends much of his time completing his lifetime projects, Korea Fantasy, which he has worked on for 23 years, and 501 Figurines that has been under way for 19 years. Korea Fantasy, which portrays Korean history from the time of Dangun, the legendary father of the Korean people, up through the present day, involves a three-ton piece of jade. Meanwh ile, 501 Figurines is a

Process of creating a jade incense burner A With a silicon carbide saw. a jade piece is cut from a stone . 8 A pattern is drawn on the jade piece and the lines are etched with an awl. C With a tubular bow-drill. the feet are shaped . D The body of the incense burner· is shaped with a grindstone . E The inside of the incense burner cover is carved out and shaped with a grindstone . F The final carving calls for a diamond-blade device . G Designs are car·ved onto the body of the incense burner. H A completed Jade incense burner. Photographs: Na tiona l Research Institute of CuHura l He ri tage

sculptwe of 501 figures from various fields who contributed to the flow of Korean history, which is said to include one of a master jade craftsman . ~

Spring 2005 I Koreana 51

tupa " comes from a Sanskrit word that means "to pile up ."

Over time, it came to mean a type of tomb that was built from earth or brick to preserve the remains of someone who had been cremated . But after the revered teacher Sakyamuni departed this earth, the definition of stupa was significantly changed. Many of the followers who learned from the teachings of Sakyamuni, the Historic Buddha, sought to enshrine his sarira [the calcified remains after cremation] within stupas built at their own temples. Stupas were thus no longer mere tqmbs but venerated objects of worship that symbolized the teachings of the Buddha . As such, stupas became prominent structures in the process of propagating Buddhism . ..

Buddhist adherents would encircle the stupas and contemplate the essence of the universe, while also praying earnestly for the fulfillment of their earthly desires. The typical style of stupas in India resembles a series of upsidedown bowls stacked one atop another. After Buddhism spread to China, stupa design was altered in both form and material, typically featuring Sprin g 2005 I Ko reana 53

In 1956 and 1996, two sarira reliquaries were discovered within the pagodas when they were dismantled for maintenance work. These reliquaries, which feature the highly refined metalware and sculpture craftsmanship of the time, are yet another treasure of Gameunsa Site.

and his remains were preserved in a rock format ion that juts out of the East Sea . In 682, the three-story stone pagodas of Gameunsa Temple were completed on a mountain slope that overlooked the King Munmu rock formation . Beneath the floor of the temple's Geumdang Hall, which was constructed along with the pagodas, a water channel was built under a stone retaining wall to allow King

Munmu , who had been reborn as a dragon , to travel between the temple and his resting place in the sea . 2

Korean Stone Pagodas

Âˇ ~

9- or 13-tier structures built of wood

King Munmu [r. 661-681). sought to

The three-story stone pagodas

or brick . When stupa culture first

placate his subjects, who had suf-

of Garneunsa are known for their his-

reached Korea, multi -story stupas of

fered from decades of war, by vali-

torical significance as well as their

wood or brick were built, like the stu-

dating his authority and implement-

prominence in the history of Korean

pas of China, but over time a simpler,

ing a new ruling system. Above all,

art. First, prior to their construction,

more elegant form evolved, primarily

King Munmu hoped to attain ideologi-

it was typical for only one pagoda to

made with stone and comprising

cal unity through the influence of

be built at the center of a temple

three tiers.

Buddhism in an effort to gain the

complex. Thus, the Gameunsa pago-

trust of the people. Unfortunately, he

das started a trend of building two

could not achieve his ultimate dream

pagodas. The reason for this change

Silla [57 B.C.-A.D. 935]. the last

prior to his death. Thereafter, his son,

remains unclear, but it is thought that

of the three kingdoms [Goguryeo,

King Sinmun [r. 681-692) completed

this was intended to reflect the

Baekje, and Silla) to emerge, adopted

this task , which included the con-

authority of the unified kingdom and

Buddhism as its ruling ideology after

struction of Gameunsa Temple and

the aspirations of the people. In addi-

successfully unifying the Korean

its thre

tion, the Gameunsa pagodas are

Fulfilling His Father's Dream

story stone pagodas.

peninsula in 676 by expelling Tang, its

In accordance with his instruc-

exceptional in architectural design,

former ally. The reigning Silla ruler,

tions, King Munmu was cremated

as exemplified by their refined struc-

54 Ko reana I Sp ri ng 2005

1, 2 Sarira vessels discovered in the Gameunsa pagodas include outer and inner containers, and sarira bottles. The reliquaries are especially significant in that they demonstrate the brilliance of Unified Silla craftsmanship. [National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage] 3, 4 The Four Devas, bronze ceremonial vessels, and a square bronze box for storing sarira that were discovered inside the Gameunsa pagodas when they were dismantled for maintenance. [National Museum of Korea]

tural features, as well as the balance and harmony of the paired structures.

Of particular note, the Gameunsa pagodas are of special significance to Korea's art history in that they represent the beginning of Korean stone pagodas, characterized by their simple yet impressive form. The construction of these pagodas ended the tedious past practice of adapting stone to replicate wooden pagodas. After pagoda construction was streamlined, the ease of acquiring materials and building the simplified

structures led to a rapid proliferation of three-story stone pagodas. The

The sarira were found in crystal jars

culture. As a reminder of the exuber-

pagodas include a two-level founda-

that were within gourd-shaped ves-

ance an9 confidence of Silla, which

tion, thereby assuring structural

sels of gilt-bronze. These items were

unified the Korean peninsula, the

stability.

inside palanquins, decorated with

exquisite beauty of these sarira items

In order for a pagoda to become

heavenly musicians, within large,

continues to impress people even

an object of worship-that is, to be

gilt-bronze boxes embellished with

today.

recognized for its religious signifi-

images of the Four Devas. Buddhist

The sarira remains w; re placed

cance-it must contain the actual

tradition called for placing the sarira

into new vessels and returned to

sarira remains of the Buddha.

within four or five separate vessels

their original location within the

Without sarira remains, a pagoda

and then enshrining these items

pagodas. The original sarira contain-

cannot be regarded as a stupa. As

within a stupa. Since the sarira were

ers from the west pagoda are on dis-

such, the sarira is the essence of a

recovered from the third tier of each

play at the National Museum of

stupa.

pagoda, this confirms that traditional

Korea while those from the east

In 1.956 and 1996, in the process

Buddhist practices were strictly

pagoda are exhibited at the Gyeongju

of dismantling the pagodas for main-

observed. Of note, the sarira vessels

National Museum. t>t

tenance work , sarira remains of the

reflect the highly refined metalwork

Buddha were found in each pagoda.

and sculpture craftsmanship of Silla Sprin g 2005 I Koreana

ART REVIEW

Throughout his career, Park Soo-Keun, who is regarded as the Western-style painter with the most "Korean-ness," has painted scenes from the everyday life of ordinary people. To celebrate its second anniversary, the Park Soo-Keun Museum, which is located in the artist's hometown, is holding a commemorative exhibition from October 25, 2004 to March 31, 2005. Kwon Sung -ah Curator, Park Soo-Keun Museum

anggu, where winter arrives early, resembles the works of Park Soo-Keun (1914-1965]. Conversely,

Yanggu 's winter bleakness can be found in Park 's works

clear on what the fish are placed, but the fish are masterfully depicted from a perspective that allows them to be seen in the best possible light.

as well. It is here, where the artist was born and raised,

Though the matiere technique is not evident, The

that a museum in his honor has now been open for the

Empty Cart, thought to have been painted in 1960, arguably

past two years.

expresses the serene spirit that suffuses Park's creations

The efforts to recognize Park Soo-Keun got underway

better than any of his other works. Sharply pointed shapes

in 1997, when people interested in this cause agreed to join

are scratched into the rough patches of color, evoking a

hands. Thanks to the determination and support of these

sense of the exhaustion of everyday life, which is accentu-

people, after six years of preparation, the Park Soo-Keun

ated by the empty cart, depicted with lines alone.

Museum was able to open its doors on October 25, 2002, at

As is the case with his works in other media, Park's

the artist's birthplace in Jeongnim-ri, Yanggu-gun. At that

watercolors feature commonplace subjects and themes.

time, the museum had no funds to acquire the artist's orig-

Aside from an occasional _landscape , he painted mostly still

inal works, but over the course of the next two years it was

lites of everyday items, such as a child's book bag, chil-

successful in building up a collection of 102 of Park's

dren's shoes, pencils and erasers, paints, or an ordinary

works, including oil paint ings, wate r colors, pastels,

vase, arranged in the most simple compositions. The still

engravings, and drawings.

life Paint Colors is a realistic portrayal of a round case with

From Matiere to Etchings

2 paintbrushes, without the use of a background or per-

12 colors of paint, of the former "New Cosmos" 'brand, and The oil pa intings acquired by the museum all date back to the 1960s. Two Seated Men is from 1965, the year

spective. Although Park was not formally trained in engraving,

of Park's death. The two men, seen from the back, reflect

he was so devoted to the medium that he became a found -

the matiere that Park had perfected as if his own, which he

ing member of the Korean Engravers Association in 1958,

often used to depict figures. Of the few stilllifes that Park

and produced notable engravings during his career. The

had painted, the museum is home to Dried Croakers

museum has succeeded in acquiring nearly all of Park' s 17

(1962]. There are a handful of other works that include fish,

original engravings. Moreover, the museum also maintains

but this is the only work in which simply drawn dried fish,

three of the original engraving plates. Although there is an

piled atop each other, is the subject matter. It is not even

unwritten rule that the plates should be discarded after a

56 Ko rea na I Spring 2005

Park Soo-Keun dedicated his career to the depiction of the everyday life of common people. He is known as the Western-style painter with the most 路路Korean-ness:路 Tree and Two Women, woodblock print, 26 x 19.5cm 2 Two Seated Men 120 3 x 24.2cm, oil on hardboard, 1965) is a typical example of Park Soo-Keun路s method for depicting people.

'' 'I

--' -~:;

}

. 2005 I Koreana 57 Spnng

certain number of prints have been produced, the original

would have been difficult for him to utilize a wide variety of

plates of some of Park's smaller works have been pre-

painting utensils, so it was natural for him to save the

served. They were likely used to print the New YearÂˇ s cards

stubs of used pencils.

that he sent to friends and acquaintances. These include

Furthermore, he had long suffered from cataracts

engravings of his oil paintings Oil Trader, Tree and Two

and lost the sight of one eye in 1963. As such, his failing

Women, Farmers' Music, Lying Cow and On the Road. Of

vision made it exceedingly difficult to transmit his impres-

note, the engraving Tiger depicts a dynamic subject, which

sions quickly to paper. In light of this, it would be unrea-

is rarely seen in his oeuvre.

sonable to simply dismiss his drawings as only preliminary

Diverse Collection of Drawings

sketches that just happened to survive. Although it is true

Drawings account for a majority of the works housed

that prolific artists leave behind countless sketches that

in the museum. There has long been a tendency to regard

are just drafts or childlike scribbling, Park's drawings can

drawings as mainly preliminary sketches for more com-

be seen as an authentic component of his body of work.

plete works. Although there is validity to this view, since

The museum also maintains works that Park created

the 1980s the Korean arts scene has come to recognize the

for his children, as well as his illustrations in the children's

intrinsic value of drawings as expressions of the artist's

books that his wife Kim Bok-soon wrote and illustrations

improvisational creativity and inspiration, and thus as legit-

that appeared in journals, such as World of Cosmetics,

imate works of art in their own right.

Korea Electricity, Transport, and Mining Gazette in the late

The many traces of erased and redrawn lines that are apparent in many of Park's drawings are firm and deliber-

1950s and early 1960s. Park compiled these works into a volume entitled Park Soo-Keun 's Illustrations.

ate strokes rather than tentative sketching. Many of the

The current exhibition "The Homecoming of Park

drawings are similar to his oil paintings, and they are

Soo-Keun's Works" presents to the public the works that

mostly drawn with pencil that could be easily erased. So,

the museum has acquired over the past two yea rs. This

does this suggest that Park regarded these drawings

exhibition has come about. through the development of a

Âˇ~

merely as preliminary drafts for his oil paintings? Above

space devoted to honoring the artist in his hometown,

all, when seen from the context of his production process,

donations of personal works by those who have long

the traces of frequent redrawing and erasures in his draw-

adored the artist, and acquisitions by the museum. Visitors

ings reveal a detailed and meticulous dedication to his

to the museum should look around the village that influ-

craft. The more distinct lines provide highlight and nuance

enced Park's creations and even visit his gravesite, so as to

to the objects of his drawings . In addition, considering

gain an appreciation of th is artist who lived such a simple,

Park's background of poverty and rural environment, it

honest, and passionate life here.

Park Soo-Keun and his Hometown

1.-'t

Park Soo-Keun was born in 1914 in the village of Jeongnim-ri, Yanggu-eup, Yanggu-gun, Gangwon-do.

It is said that Park, who showed talent at an early age, was so impressed and inspired after viewing Millet's The Angelus when he was 12, that he decided to become an artist. Thereafter, despite his family's economic difficulties and his impoverished life, he never gave up on his goal of being an artist who portrayed the life of the ordinary people. Yanggu is where Park's passion and dream about painting all started, a pursuit to which he has dedicated his entire life. The working people, women tending to vegetable crops, the laundry shop, the trees of Yanggu-these are among the images captured in Park's sketches and paintings. Fittingly, the works of this beloved .. artist of the common people .. can be seen at a museum opened in his hometown. 58 Ko rean a I Spri ng 2005

. •.

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', { ,. I ,:

., J >'. ' . 11 1 • .

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, ' I

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The daily lives of the common people who lived during Park's time are honestly and simply portrayed in his works. Oil Seller, 33 x 20.5cm, woodblock print 2 Park Soo-Keun applied rough strokes of paint and scraped the painted surface with a sharp object. This painting of an empty cart conveys a sense of the weariness that life can bring. Th e Empty Cart, 21 x 30cm, oil on hardboard, 1960s 3 Dried Croakersl15.5 x 29cm, oil on hardboard, 19621 is one of the few still-life works of Park Soo-Keun . 4 Park's numerous pencil drawings are now themselves ap preciated as legitimate works of art. Three Women Selling Fruit, 9.6 x 17.5cm, pencil on paper 5 Opened in Park's hometown in October 2002, the Park Soo-Keun Museum houses 102 oil paintings, watercolors, pastel drawings , and drawings .

Spring 2005 I Koreana 59

n 1984, a residential development

project was approved for con-

struction in the Uncheon-dong district of Cheongju. The following year, an excavation that was conducted to determine if any cultural remains

to melt and leaving behind a mold.

civilization, and how was this type

Melted metal is then poured into the

cast?

mold to create the type . At temples,

monks would carve the characters in

Variations of Movable Metal Type

relief into beeswax, cover the

Three different casting methods

beeswax with clay, and bake it to cre-

were used to create movable metal

ate the mold . Molten metal was

the remains of a temple which had

type in Korea. These included the

poured into the mold, and after it

existed there from the 9th to 15th

beeswax casting method used at

cooled, the metal type was removed,

existed on the project site discovered

century, when it was destroyed by

temples, the foundry sand-casting

trimmed, and finished. Because the

fire . As a result of this excavation, a

method adopted by central govern-

beeswax punch melts when the mold

bronze fragment was found in the

ment offices, and the single-surface

is baked , each character type was

J casting method used by private

individually formed and never exactly

foundries. Although the method of

the same. Thus, beeswax casting was

creating the actual type was different

useful for replicating the complex

for each variation, the process was

and stylistic forms of the characters,

the same: 1I selecting the style and

but it was not well-suited for produc-

forming the characters, 2) affixing the

ing large amounts of type.

area, upon which

""Heungdeoksa

Temple·· was engraved. This confirmed that this was the site of the temple where Buljojikjisimcheyojeo/ [Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests' Sean Teachings}, or Jikji for short, had been printed . The site was thus designated Historic Site No. 315. What was so significant about

have on the development of world

II 1

character patterns, 3) creating the

Foundry sand casting: The mov-

punch, 4) completing the mold, 5)

able metal type used during the

pouring the molten metal, 6) remov-

Joseon period [ 1392-191 0) was pro-

Jikji, which was printed with movable

ing .thEi metal type, and 7) setting the

duced by the central government

metal type, and the site of Heung-

metal type.

offices using the foundry sand-cast-

_deoksa, where it was printed, to be

Beeswax casting: In this method,

ing method. An anthology of Seong

designated an historic site? What

a beeswax punch is covered with clay

Hyeon"s writings includes the follow-

influence did movable metal type

and then baked, causing the beeswax

ing description: ""In casting metal

· ~

DISCOVERI,NG KOREA

Korea's Movable Metal Type Opens the Era of Modern Civilization Germany may be known for its 42-line Gutenberg Bible, but Korea is the home of Jikji, the oldest text extant in the world printed with movable metal type. Indeed, Korea is credited with the earliest creation of movable metal type, one of mankind's most significant inventions. Kim Hong-yeong Head Curator. Cheongju Early Printtng Museum Lee Gyeom Photographer

60 Koreana I Spring 2005

period, is explained in Donggukhusaengsinnok: "Potter's clay is

type, all of the characters are first carved in relief into wood, and then fine clay from the shoreline is spread smoothly over the mold. If the wood with the hand -carved characters is pressed into clay, it will leave an impression, or a mold form. After two halves of the mold are joined together with a small hole in the top, melted

copper is poured into the mold to create metal type." Of note, this method was easier and capable of creating more uniform metal type thaÂˇn the beeswax method used by temple monks. Single-surface casting : This method, which was favored by private concerns up through the late Joseon

Âˇ ~

The creation of movable type is regarded as an epochal event that paved the way for an information revolution and the advancement of modern civilization. Even today's Information Age, as represented by the Internet and digital technology, has been built on this foundation. 1 The movable type used to print Jikji, were recreated with the beeswax casting method . Some 12,000 movable type characters were used for a reproduction of the two original volumes of Jikji. Producing movable metal type with the beeswax casting method A Character patterns are selected and affixed to the beeswax. B Punches are made, inserted into the mold, and molten metal is poured into the mold. C When the molten metal hardens, the movable type is removed . D Movable type characters are sorted and placed in boxes.

62 Ko rean a I Sprin g 2005

spread on a wooden board, with a border on each edge. The clay-covered board is left in the sun to dry partially. The desired characters are written on thin paper in various sizes. The paper is then turned over and placed on the board to serve as a pattern, and the characters are carved into the clay. When the carved forms are dry, molten metal is poured into the character molds. The metal is allowed to cool and harden and then the metal type removed and used as movable type." This method was straightforward and regarded as being more advanced than beeswax casting in that it could produce more uniform type. UNESCO Memory of the World Register

Movable type printing is truly one of the world's most valuable cultural treasures. As such, the movable

metal type casting techniques from ~ the Goryeo period [918-1392) are

Cheongju are leading the search to

to produce the gyemi type is different

discover additional copies of Jikji.

worthy of being shown to the entire

from the method used to produce the

world. And yet controversy remained

type used for printing Jikji.

Jikji and Gutenberg

about its existence. Nevertheless, in

Consequently, scholars have

How does Korea's movable

September 2001, Jikjiwas recognized

long debated the actual method used

metal type compare with the movable

as the oldest text extant in the world

to cast the type for Jikji. Recently, this

metal type of Germany's Johannes

printed with movable metal type and

controversy has apparently been

Gutenberg? The invention of movable

included on UNESCO's Memory of

resolved thanks to type-caster 0

metal type 1n both Korea and

the World Register. With this, the

Guk-jin,

Germany was rooted in religion .

controversy over Jikji subsided. In any case, exactly what is known about the creation of Jikji? Although information about the beeswax casting method is common

designated

Important

Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 101,

Following

who has successfully re-created all

Buddhism and Confucianism, there

of the typefaces used for printing

was a great need for printed materi-

Jikji, based on the beeswa x casting

als to popularize religious scripture

I I

method.

the

introduction

and to teach the related principles. In

Unfortunately, Jikji is not main-

the West, the invention of printing

tained in Korea . In the early 1900s,

techniques came about because of a

this method . After Jikjiwas printed in

Collin de Plancy, who served as the

desire to propagate Christian doc-

knowledge, in reality there are no written records about the origin of

the problem is that the method used

1377, printing with movable metal

acting French envoy to Korea,

trine. Another common point is that

type involved so-called gyemi type,

acquired the text and took it with him

the development of printing tech-

which was named for the year when

when he returned to France. The sec-

niques enabled a widespread dis-

it was first cast, 1403. Twenty-six

ond volume of Jikji, the only one of its

semination of knowledge and infor-

years after the printing of Jikji, mov-

kind, is currently housed in the

mation, thereby exerting a pervasive

able metal type was cast by the cen-

Oriental Division of the Department of

influence on the society and culture

tral government offices using the

Manuscripts in the National Library

of the two countries.

foundry sand-casting method. But

of France. In Korea, the citizens of

The invention of movable metal

Spring 2005 I Koreana 63

The invention of movable metal type made it possible for various Buddhist scriptures to be printed during the Goryeo Dynasty. At that

Reformation campaign with the

bound with cord, while adhesive was

spread of printed materials.

used to bind German books.

There are several technical differences in the movable metal type

Contents of Jikji

time, typesetting technology was

printing

and

The original Jikji comprised two

such that fewer than ten prints could

Germany. Korean metal type was

volumes. Of these, only the second

cast from copper, with the body of the

volume still exists, of which its first

be made with each setting. Upon the

between

Korea

founding of the Joseon Dynasty ,

type being rather thin. On the other

page is missing, leaving a remainder

Confucianism was officially adopted

hand, German metal type was cast

of 38 pages. As such, the existing vol-

and Buddhism suppressed. As such,

from lead and the type was thicker.

ume of Jikji printed with movable

numerous Confucian texts were

Also , Korean paper, made from

metal type is incomplete. However, in

printed in the early Joseon period.

paper mulberry bark [Broussonetia

1378, one year after its printing with

I kazinoki] was thin yet durable, while well, such that it became possible for German parchment was made from

movable metal type, it was printed at

dozens of prints to be produced from

do province, using the woodblock

Typesetting technology developed as

each setting during the rule of King

treated sheepskin.

Chwiamsa Temple in Yeoju, Gyeonggi-

These different printing materi-

printing method. Both volumes of this

als led to differences in the size of

woodblock edition remain intact ,

type and the printing process. That is,

thereby allowing a proper under-

German printing used heavy pres-

standing of the organization arid con-

the doctrines of medieval Christianity

sure for the thicker parchment, such

tents of the entire original, which

centered

Pope.

that a thicker type was necessary to

included two volumes, along with a

Meanwhile, the Reformat ion move-

withstand this pressure. Korea used

foreword and an epilogue.

ment arose to protest the corruption

Indian ink mixed with oil, while

The monk Baegun Hwasang,

of the Church. Amid this social

Germany used Western ink mi xed

who would review various Buddhist

atmosphere, the invention of movable

with oil. The binding methods differed

texts and often add his own thoughts,

metal type helped to advance the

as well, with Korean books being

wrote Jikji. Rather than simply

Sejong [r. 1418-1450). In Germany, only monks and certain aristocrats could read the Bible, which contained around

64 Ko reana I Spring 2005

the

from already existing books of a similar genre, Baegun Hwasang carefully chose works aligned with his own thinking, while also adding his own interpretations and concepts. In this way, he hoped to provide guidance for new adherents to Buddhism. Jikji presents the words and deeds of revered monks through questions and answers related to Buddh ist teachings and meditation, together with a section that praises the virtues of the Buddha. Distinguished scholars and the

I I

international media have deemed the invention of movable metal type to be an epochal event that prepared the

ground for the Information Age, and

these thoughts to be organized and

old of the fourth information revolu -

the single development that has con-

systematized. Thereafter, the inven-

tion . All of this has been possible

tributed most to the development of

tion of movable metal typ e printing,

thanks to the invention of movable

human culture. The first information

which provided the means for wide-

metal type, the most far-reaching

revolution came about wh en the

spread di:ssemination of knowledge

development in the history of human

development of language allowed

and information, and contributed to

civilization and the mother of the

people to share their thoughts, while

the rapid development of culture, is

modern Infor mation Age, symbolized

the second revolution resulted from

regarded as the third information rev-

by todayÂˇs Internet technology.

the invention of writing, which enabled

olution. We now stand at the thresh-

~.;<

1 The second volume of Jikji. the world's oldest exta nt tex t pri nted wi th meta l movable type. It was printed in 1377,78 years before Gutenberg's 42-line Bible. E Movable type characters are arra nged on a pr inting block . F The mova ble type is set in place w ith beeswax, w hich is softened by heat and the cha racters leveled . G The surface of the movable type is cove red with in k and a paper is pressed aga inst the type.

Sp ring 2005

I Koreana 65

Travel offers an opportunity to enjoy picturesque landscapes in new settings. The cherry olossom-f1lled scenery of Jinhae IS truly spectacular, creating an unforgettable memory for mdny. What's notable about this scenery is the role that local res1dents rave played in making all this possible.

re you familiar with Jinhae? On a map of Korea, if you look along the southern coastline, you can easily enough locate the small port city of Jinhae. The city is situated at 128°50'34'' east longitude, and 35° 10'34" north latitude . It lies on the same latitude as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, and Tokyo, Japan, while being on the same longitude as Harbin, China . Korea is surrounded by three seas: the East Sea, where the sun rises; the Yellow Sea, where the sun sets; and the South Sea , where the waters are emerald green. For Koreans, the East Sea is a "sea of myths, .. with the majority of Korea ' s most illustrious legendary myths involving this sea . .The Yellow Sea is said to be a "sea of tears, .. which has been a source of inspiration for Korea's most poignant poetry and song lyrics. So what about the South Sea? Korea's South Sea is often compared to a garden that is always there to welcome your presence. The South Sea is also known as a "sea of the people, .. endowed with life energy, work, love, and refinement. Jinhae is a small town where the sea of people is always there to welcome y.ou.

Yongwon: Legend Immersed in the Sea To visit Jinhae, you can get there by train or express bus, but the most convenient form of travel from Seoul is a domestic flight to Gimhae International Airport, nearby Busan. From Gimhae airport, limousine bus is available to Jinhae, which will enter the city through its eastern gateway. After crossing the boundary between Busan and

1 Hordes of visitors stroll under spectacular cher ry blossom ca nopies. With t he Nava l Por t Festival having been establi shed as a representative cultural festiva l , the number of foreign visitors has stead ily increased each yea r . 2 The festivi ties con tinue well into the night. At the Ni ght Mar ket. street vendors sell a variety of foods. 3 Visi tors from arou nd the coun try ar rive by tra in to revel in Jinhae ·s Cher ry Blossom Festival.

Jinhae, you w ill come to the small fishing village of Yongwon, which is well-deserving of a stopover, however brief. The seas of Yongwon are immersed in intriguing legend . According to local lore, in A.D . 48, a 16-year-old maiden, with the surname Heo, landed in Yongwon after sailing to Korea from India . Th is maiden would become the queen of a group of small kingdoms known as Gaya [42-562). This maiden of 16, who had j ourneyed across thousands of miles of open sea, married King Suro of Gaya [r. 42-99). King Suro was an incredible, superhuman figure, who was said to have been born from an egg that had descended from heaven. The marriage of these two people was the first international marriage in Korean history. King Suro, born from an egg that was heaven-sent, and his queen, who had Spring 2005 I Koreana

come to Korea by ship from India, according to legend, produced ten children. The king is the forefather of the Gimhae Kim clan, which represents one of the largest surname groups in Korea. However, two of the king's children took their mother's surname . In a rigidly patriarchal society like Korea, in which the father's surname is passed on to his children, adopting the mother's surname was unprecedented. Nevertheless, the children with the mother's surname gave rise to the Gimhae Heo clan. And even today, members of the Gimhae Kims and the Gimhae Heos are not allowed to marry. Traces of this legend can be found all along the shores of Yongwon. The fact that a ship from India came ashore at Yongwon indicates the extensive reach of the Silk Road. At the time, the local people are said to have determined that the woman actually did travel from India because she brought with her a stone pagoda made from a kind of stone that could not be found in Korea but was known to exist in India, thus confirming her account. 1 Korea's Naval Academy, which trains the followers of the legendary Korean admiral, Yi Sun-sin, is yet another facet of Jinha e. This is reproduction of Admiral Yi 's famed turtle ship. 2 Cadets receiving instruction at the Naval Academy 3 Cadets of the Naval Academy march smartly with Jinhae Harbor in the background

City of Cherry Blossoms From Yongwon, the center of Jinhae is a distance of some 26 kilometers. If you visit Jinhae in late March or early April, you will be welcomed by cherry trees in glorious full bloom. Jinhae is Korea 's cherry blossom capital, with all the city's roads being lined with cherry trees. In fact, cherry trees can be found growing practically everywhere. Altogether about 300,000 trees have been planted, more than twice the numqer of residents of Jinhae. It is estimated there are about 200 types of cherry trees that can be found growing in the wild around the world. Among these, the variety in Jinhae produces the most exquisite blossoms. Although many people think that cherry trees originated in Japan, this variety is indigenous to Korea, with its original habitat being Jeju Island . The history of Jinhae as a cherry blossom city began after Japan annexed Korea [191 0] and developed the area into a naval port. After liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, people started to cut down Jinhae' s cherry trees because they were seen as vestiges of Japan's suppression. But when it became known that the trees were actually native to Jejudo, the attitude of residents was quickly transformed from that of resentment to endearment.

70 Koreana I Spring 2005

For about ten days from the end of March to the start

never forget those gentle, lovely green fingers, reach ing

of April, when the cherry blossoms are in full bloom,

out to the world for the first time. Whether the blossoms

Jinhae presents its annual naval port festival. This annual

were blooming or the new leaves were sprouting , I would

festival has been conducted ever since 1963 for the pur-

always hear a whistling sound that the trees made. It was

pose of commemorating Korea's legendary naval hero,

this whistling that motivated me to become a poet.

Admiral Yi Sun-sin [1545-1598].

But the cherry trees are not gorgeous in only April. In

His stalwart patriotism and masterful naval strategies

summer, they present you with dense green foliage, in

enabled Korea to defend itself against the onslaught of a

autumn with tinged leaves, and in winter with branches as

Japanese armada in the late 16th century, which had been

bald as monks. In time, you too would come to appreciate

dispatched by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. And for this , Admiral Yi

that the cherry trees of Jinhae are like a lyrical poem

has been immortalized as one of Korea's most revered

expressed through the tree's natural growth .

heroes. The festival also celebrates the spirit of overcoming Japan 's oppressive rule.

Home of the Korean Navy

In spring, the canopies of overflowing cherry blos-

A statue of Yi Sun-sin stands at the Bugwon Rotary in

soms are an enthralling spectacle indeed . Although the

Jinhae. This bronze statue, erected in 1952, was the first-

cherry trees in full bloom are a sight to behold, it is equally

ever statue of its kind in Korea, reflecting Jinhae's special

impressive to see the graceful descent of the blossoms.

bond with Yi Sun-sin. As the commander of the Joseon

The dazzlingly white petals fluttering in the wind like snow

navy, he battled the Japanese invaders in the seas off

flurries create a kind of "Christmas in April" scene.

Jinhae. It is thus fitting that Jinhae serves as the cradle of

I was born in Jinhae, and grew up beneath the cher ry

the Korean Navy. Both the training camp for new recruits

trees. I fell in love for the first time when the cherry trees

entering the Navy, and the Naval academy where officers

blossomed, and remember having my first kiss leaning

are trained, are located in Jinhae. Also, Jinhae is Korea 's

against a cherry tree. I loved the fresh-green young leaves.

flagship port, where the warships of the Korean Navy are

After the blossoms fall, the leaves start to emerge. I will

based . In these seas, the successors of the legendary Sp ring 2005 I Koreana 71

admiral are trained to protect their country. It is only in Jinhae that you can easily come across a sailor in regular uniform. You can even have an opportunity to mingle with those who are following in Yi Sun-sin 's footsteps. In one of my poems, I referred to Jinhae's seas as a "sea on a platter." Here, the sea almost always looks calm. Even when a typhoon strikes, the waters are not so easily roiled. This is because of the many islands in the seas just off Jinhae th~

deflect the wind like a panel screen .

There are 26 small and large islands in the seas off Jinhae . With mountains, the sea, and offshore islands, Jinhae is truly a blessed city. It also includes a rugged rias coastline , which stretches for 107 kilometers, as part of this pristine maritime area. The Jinhae seashore is a playground that can be enjoyed around the year. Even in winter, the average temperature is a refreshing 2.3 to 4. 7Â°C. Cool in summer, pleasant in w inter, and always nearby wherever you are in the city, the sea awaits, so crystalclear that you see well into its depths.

Keeping Fond Memories Alive Jinhae is my hometown. I was born in Jinhae and met /

my wife there. Also, I became a poet in Jinhae. Although I left the city in my thirties, whenever I have a chance to visit my hometown there is one place I always stop by. At the Jungwon Rotary, eight roads converge. There, your eyes are naturally drawn to the surrounding Russianstyle houses and colonial era buildings . Among these

1 Sta irway to Sirubong Peak, whe re you can take in the city of Jinhae and the ocean beyond. 2 The Black & Wh ite Teahouse has been a meeting place for the artists of Ji nhae fo r the past 50 years. 3 Jungwon Rotary is one of the severa l rotaries built during the Japanese colonial period.

buildings is the Black & White coffee shop. It is a classical music cafe that opened its doors in 1955 and has been a

us to meet there. Or you might meet some young artists,

Jinhae landmark for the past half century. Originally oper-

struggling with their creative psyche . Here, you can get

ated by a painter, it is now overseen by his daughter, a

acquainted with the spirit of people.

pianist.

In addition, there are a variety of other destinations to

The Black & White coffee shop used to be the water-

visit in Jinhae. Details on th ese sites are available at the

ing hole for Jinhae's artist community. Poets, composers,

Jinhae City Hall's website www.jinhae .go.kr, where infor-

painters, and actors all came here to nurture their dreams.

mation is provided in English, Japanese, and Chinese.

I too whiled away my time in this coffee shop during my

Travel offers an opportunity to enjoy picturesque land-

twenties. Those times were precious to me, and I am

scapes in new settings. The cherry blossom-filled scenery

grateful that this place is able to safeguard these trea-

of Jinhae is truly spectacular, creating an unforgettable

sured memories . Even its appearance has been little

memory for many. What's notable about this scenery is the

changed.

role that local residents have played in making all this pos-

I w ould suggest that you r eque st Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in C- minor "Fate" if you have the chance to stop

sible. At the Black & White coffee shop, you can rela x with some of these unassuming Jinhae people.

t.;,t

by the coffee shop . After the familia r "tta-tta-tta-ttam " opening has roused your heart, perhaps destiny will allow Spring 2005 I Koreana 73

LIVING

Flash Mobs The Younger Generation Declares Its Cultural Independence A new form of Internet-based entertainment has recently gained popularity among Korean netizens: flash mobs. To understand this development, it is necessary to delve into the factors behind this recent phenomenon of Korea's younger generation. Joung Yoon - soo Editorial Writer, OhmyNews Choi Hang- young Photographer

t 8 p.m. on a cold October day in late autumn of 2002,

Cup fever that had swept over Korea a few years back, all

scores of young people wearing "Red Devils" T-shirts

to the bewilderment of onlookers and the police who soon

suddenly emerged in front of the COEX Mall, situated along

arrived on the scene. Then, at the sound of a whistle, the

one of the busiest and trendiest shopping areas in the

young people disperse, disappearing just as quickly as they

upscale Gangnam-gu of Seoul. Though these people

had gathered . This kind of incident is an example of a so-

attired in red were busily handing out balloons, i'nstead of

called flash mob.

soccer balls, many people thought that this display was being staged to commemorate the 2002 FIFA World Cup.

Product of Youth Dynamism

Nevertheless, with their uniform clothing and cheering of

The term "flash mob" is derived from "flash crowd,"

slogans, the young people managed to replicate the World

in which a large group of Internet users suddenly visit a

74 Koreana I Spring 2005

1 The worldwide fad of flash mobs can now be seen in downtown Seoul as well. Here, young people have suddenly appea red along Daeha ngno , wea ring Santa hats and singing Christmas carols. 2 To the younger generation of Korea, the digital world of the Internet is a medium for cultural communication. In this rega rd, the flash mob phenomenon is an example of online technology creating offline activities. 3 For the younger generation, mini hom epages and blogs are oases of refuge from the impersonal nature of today"s urban environme nt.

designated website, and "smart mob, " that refers to a large crowd who shares similar views on a certain subject. Flash mob , a global trend in which a large number of unspecified persons congregate at a designated time and place to perform acts that have already been agreed upon via the Internet or e-mail messages, has spread rapidly among the younger generation of Seoul as a new and fresh form of recreation . Although flash mobs emerge for fleeting reasons and purposes, the narratives that are utilized to spark interest among participants result in diverse gatherings, which can be regarded as a performing art event or a cultural activity. Although the younger generation thinks of this as nothing more than spontaneous fun,, this new form of recreation has nothing in common with such traditional pastimes as playing with a top or rock-paper-scissors. To explain the factors behind this new innovation, it is necessary to understand Korea's modern history and the youth culture that has taken root during this period . In light of the fact that the origins of this flash mob mindset cannot be found in Korea 's traditional culture, and represents a type of culture that has never been created by Korean youth during any historical period, an analysis of the flash mob phenomenon should not be limited to a debate over whether it represents an art form or simply a new kind of recreation. The basic characteristics of an "angry young man" culture include widespread frustration and anger toward the older generation, along with disillusionment and rejection of accepted customs and social Spring 2005 I Koreana 75

behavior, and attempts to challenge or escape from the

simply entertainment purposes. Thus, even public squares

prevailing social order. As such, the cu ltural dynamics cre-

in Korea were not simply open areas, but entities with their

ated by such disillusioned youths are marked by provoca-

own cultural and historical dynamics.

tion, experimentation, ambition, and destruction at times, which the older generation, who take comfort in long-

Era of Individual Media

standing customs and social norms, cannot comprehend.

This remains true in Korea today, as evidenced by its

It should also be pointed out that the cultural dynamics

unique type of flash mob activities. Flash mobs, a new type

created by Korean youth during previous periods were in

of Internet-based entertainment and recreation enjoyed by

large part in response to a coercive and suppressive order

young netizens, are regarded in the West, where the fad

imposed upon them by the older generation.

originated, as simply a form of shock entertainment

The challenges of modern history have resulted in the

designed to reveal "the meaning of meanigl~s."

Korean peninsula serving as an intersection for a variety of

However, this trend has become an innovative outlet for

cultural dynamics. Korea has undergone several dramatic

social interaction within Korea 's cultural realm.

upheavals in its modern history, including division and ide-

Korea's digital industry, which has advanced rapidly in

ological confrontation, the Korean War, and subsequent

recent years, has provided a boundless venue where the

dictatorship and democracy, as well as rapid economic

younger generation can express their creativity. As such,

development. Throughout each of these periods, Korea's

this environment is a key factor behind the widespread

youth have so ught to make the most of the cultural

popularity of flash mobs among young Koreans. For the

dynamics in which they were immersed. The modern his-

younger generation of Korea, digital cyberspace is more

tory of the Korea n peninsula, which has involved upheaval

than a form of information technology; it is a venue that

and resistance, challenge and defiance, and turmoil and

facilitates the free exchange of cultural interaction .

hope, does not allow for the development of recreat ion for

Although Korean youths continue to be subjected to a rigid

76 Koreana I Spring 2005

The Internet serves as a forum where Korea's younger generation can meet and engage in cultural interaction through such means as personal homepages and blogs. As such , flash mobs are another example of the efforts of these youth to validate the right to enjoy themselves in their own ways .

The estimated 20,000 "PC rooms" in operation throughout the country are part of what makes Korea the world's most Internet- connected society.

school schedule and behavioral taboos in everyday life,

or libraries, which causes them to lead isolated lives in

there are few such barriers in the digital world of the

vast urban centers. It is difficult for people to cope with

Internet, where they can freely express themselves in myr-

an everyday existence that is devoid of personal interac-

iad ways of their own choosing.

tion and communication with others. However, it is this

For example, this kind of phenomenon is also evident

very environment that has spurred on the widespread

in regard to mobile phones. Korea ranks first in the world

popularity of mobile phones and the Internet in Korea.

in terms of mobile phone usage. Internet cafes are every-

Consequently, the Internet and mobile phones would

where. Why has this kind of culture developed so rapidly in

never have reached their current level of ubiquity in

Korea? From a commercial perspective, this development

Korea if daily life here were less rigidly structured, such

has in large part been achieved through the government's

that children were free to play with friends after school

continuous support of the IT industry, extensive develop-

and to enjoy camping outings or playing sports on the

ment efforts of the private sector, and steady market

weekends.

expansion. On the other hand, from a cultural standpoint,

In short, Korea's younger generation lives in a time inte~aco

this advancement has been made possible by the eager-

that restricts personal

ness of Korean society, and Korean youth in particular, to

which compels them to resort to monologue-type diatribes

constantly remain in touch with each other.

to overcome the isolation of their everyday existence . In

and communication,

The popularity of individual media outlets, including

this regard, individual media outlets represent the only

personal homepages and blogs [Web logs]. are rooted in

oases of self-expression available to the younger genera-

this phenomenon as well. Individual media outlets, which

tion in such impersonal urban surroundings.

enable people to make known to the world their personal

As such, flash mobs can be said to utilize online tech-

experiences and thoughts, are said to be positive and

nology to create offline interaction . Flash mobs are basi-

future-oriented means of individual expression. However,

cally a type of recreation. Unlike art, which is based on

in essence, they are nothing more than a one-sided con-

complex principles, recreation does not have to be stress-

versation.

ful or structured. In this manner, flash mobs have

Chjldren should grow up in an environment that

emerged as a declaration of the younger generation's

enables them to communicate with others on a personal

"right to enjoy themselves" amid a reality in which they

basis, while having ample free time to play with friends

can do little more than endure and overcome various

and enjoy activities with their families . However, young

hardships while having so little time for personal enjoy-

Koreans spend much of their time studying at institutes

ment.

t.;.t

Spring 2005 I Ko reana

suk of the Department of Veterinary Science at Seoul National University. New Treatment for Diseases

In a special issue of December 17, 2004, Science, the international journal on scientific matters, listed the top ten scientific breakthroughs of the year , of w hich Professor Hwang's development of human embryo stem cells was ranked th ird , following the discovery of evidence of water on Mars and the finding of the A somatic ce ll nucleus is injected into a human ovum . Four to five days after th e somatic cells are transplanted, the ova are cultivated in a test tub e to pr odu ce hum an emb ryo stem ce lls.

world's smallest human foss il. This marked the first time for a Korean scientist's achievement to gain such

recognition. Professor Hwang, who

n Daejeon , there was a boy who

Some 28 years later, this boy created

developed a personal affection for

You ng-long, the first cow to be cloned

has also cloned a cow that is resis-

cows. During his final year at Daejeon

in Korea, and then distingu ished him-

tant to mad cow disease and a pig

High School, this boy's teacher

self as a pioneer of cloning research

designed to supply organ transplants,

encouraged him to become a medical

when he became the first in the world

has indeed distinguished himself as a

doctor. But the boy instead enrolled

to su ccessfully extract stem cells

wo r ld-leading specialist in cloning

in the Department of Veterinary

from a cloned human embryo . This

research.

Science at Seoul National University.

boy is now Professor Hwang Woo-

78 Koreana I Spring 2005

When an ovum, or an egg, is fer-

tilized with sperm, this initiates a process of cell division that is continually repeated, leading to the development of internal organs, like the heart and liver, as well as bones. The foundation of the development of these human organs and body parts is the stem cell. In recent decades, scientists have extensively researched stem cells, which develop into the 210 different types of cells that make up the human body. In particular, stem cells. hold the key to the treatment of serious diseases, which typically involve the destruction of healthy cells, by inducing the growth of new cells to counter the debilitating effects of various illnesses. For example, stem cells can be developed into new nerve cells to treat sufferers of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, new heart tissue cells for those with coronary disorders, and new blood cells Âˇfor people afflicted with leukemia. On February 13, 2004, Professor Hwang and his research team held a press conference in Seattle, Washington, to announce their successful extraction of stem cells from a cloned embryo, which was created by transplanting somatic cells in a human ovum. The entire scientific world was astonished by this dramatic breakthrough in cloning research due to the fact that most had believed the extraction of stem cells from a

cloned human embryo was not possible. Media around the world scrambled to report that Professor Hwang 's research work represented a "landmark breakthrough that confirmed for the first time the potential of human embryo cloning for the purpose of promoting medical treatment ." With this, Professor Hwang created new hope for countless sufferers of heretofore incurable diseases. Professor Hwang 's research

team injected 16 women volunteers with hormones that caused them to produce more ova than normal. In this way, they were able to collect 242 ova . After removing the nuclei from these ova, the team added somatic cells from the women donors to create embryos with cloned genes . These cloned embryos were allowed to develop to a stage in which they were capable of producing stem cells, and then these stem cells were extracted. These stem cells were

The cloning research of Professor Hwang and others has created considerable controversy in regard to related ethical issues. In particular, there are concerns that implanting a cloned embryo into a human womb could Lead to the cloning of human beings. However, the actual cloning of people is technically impossible, according to Hwang.

revolutionary in that, because the

ova, unlike the ova of other animals,

proven through animal testing that

somatic cells came from the ovum

have a sticky exterior surface. Thus, if

actual human cloning is not possi-

donors, they could be transplanted

a fine glass tube is inserted into the

ble. "'

into the individual donor"s body with-

ovum, in order to extract the nucleus,

On October 20 2003, Professor

out concern for rejection by the

the ovum tends to rupture . To over-

Hwang's research team announced

come this, Professor Hwang's team

that they would resume their

immune system.

first made a minute hole in an ovum

research efforts on human embryo

and then applied sufficient pressure

stem cells, which had been tem-

have

to remove the nucleus, just like

porarily suspended due to ethical

experimented with inserting human

squeezing the seeds from a grape .

concerns. They used a number of

'Human Cloning Not Possible' Numerous

scientists

somatic cells into animal ova.

Professor Gerald Schatten, a cloning

ova to conduct a variety of tests to

However, Professor Hwang was the

specialist of the University of

determine under what conditions

first to insert human somatic cells

Pittsburgh in the United States,

embryo cloning would be feasible.

into human ova. The first scientist to

noted: ÂˇÂˇThe unique method of remov-

At this time, Professor Hwang's

successfully clone a human embryo

ing the nuclei from the ova and using

goals are to use a smaller number

was Dr. Jose Cibelli of the U.S. enter-

somatic cells from the women who

of ova and to improve the success

prise Advanced Cell Technology [ACT]

donated the ova were the keys to suc-

rate in which stem cells can be

in 2001. However, the human embryo

cess.

developed.

cloned by Dr. Cibelli died before it

However, there is considerable

Of note, this breakthrough

could reach a stage in which stem

controversy in regard to the ethical

work involved the creation of cloned

cells could be produced.

issues related

embryos using somatic cells from

The key to the success of

research

being

to the cloning conducted

the i_n dividual donors of the ova.

Professor Hwang's research team

Professor Hwang and others in this

Accordingly, these stem cells can-

was that they procured sufficient ova

field . In particular, there are con-

not be readily used for treating any-

and the fact that they independently

cerns that implanting a cloned

one other than the donors them-

developed the fluid culture for nur-

embryo into a human womb could

selves. Professor Hwang's research

turing the ova. In addition, they

eventually lead to human cloning.

team is thus working on Âˇways for

devised a new technique for remov-

However, Professor Hwang rejects

creating stem cells for other

ing the nuclei from the ova. Human

this concern, explaining: ""It has been

people.

80 Koreana I Spring 2005

Awaiting Another Breakthrough

Professor Hwang estimates that

fresh cow or pig ovaries needed for

Profe ssor Hw ang pr edi cts that

it w ill be another ten yea r s before

their everyday work. Working as vet-

scientists will eventually be able to

stem cells can be applied for actual

erinarians would be an easier life, but

tran sform somatic cells into fertili zed

medical treatm ent. Thus, r esearch

the team members have come to

eggs, from which stem cells may be

efforts at the labbratory are ongoing

commit thems e lv es to cloning

obtained, all without using cloning

the year round. His researchers visit

research . Naturally, Professor

technology. This is, of course, one of

the livestock market at Garak-dong,

Hwang has a great affection for his

his research obj ectives as well.

Seoul before dawn to coll ec t the

dedicated team . Professor Hwang is so enthusiastic about his research that he says " research is my hobby, " but he is never more ardent as when he is promoting sci ence to the general public. He firmly believes that : "It is the scientist's duty to encourage students to develop a passion for science and to assure t hat the general public can properly understand

science ."

Regarding the criticism of those who question whet her he is being overly aggressive, he stresses : " Promotion of science among the general public /

is just as important as presenting research papers." We can only anxiously await the next biotechnological breakthrough by the re search team of Professor Hwang, the boy from Daejeon w ho loved cows. bt

Professo r Hwang Woo-suk's resea rch team at work in the laboratory Professor Hwang, who has succeeded in extrac ting stem cells from cloned human embryos fo r the first time in the world , is looked upon as a savior by sufferers of debilitating diseases.

Spring 2005 I Korean a 81

Seolleongtang, a traditional dish that has been enjoyed by the people of Korea for several centuries, is prepared by boiling the bones and different parts of a cow for a long time. Flavorful and nutritious, it is little wonder that seolleongtang is such a favorite of so many Koreans. Yoon Sook-ja Director, Institute of Traditiona l Ko rean Food

or office workers, the lunch hour is a vital time when they can relax and restore their energy for the afternoon work. As such, a bowl of easy-to-eat and highly nutritious seolleongtang at lunchtime can be as rewarding as a lavish banquet. Seolleongtang is made by boiling the bones and other parts of a cow, including its hooves, head, ribs, and int.estines, in water for a lengthy period of time. This produces a rich source of protein and calcium, such that a bowl of seolleongtang provides 540 kcal of energy, with 25 grams of protein, 12 grams of fat, and 28 grams of carbohydrates, as well as vitamin A [57 REI. vitamin C [11 milligrams]. and calcium [45 milligrams]. Based on the nutritional guidelines for Korean males, which recommend 2,500 kcal of energy and 75 grams of protein, a bowl of seolleongtang can provide one-third of the suggested protein level, without an excess of calories.

Origin of Seolleongtang

Seolleongtang should be eaten at restaurants that specialize in its preparation rather than at home because long hours of boiling are required for the large quantity of ingredients . Moreover, the protein will take the form of free amino acids and hexane from the lengthy boiling, thereby. maximizing the nutritional value and adding to the full-flavorness of seolleongtang. This is why people will say that seolleongtang is better-tasting at restaurants, where large amounts can be properly boiled, than at home . Therefore, seolleongtang can best be enjoyed at restau-

rants in the company of family and friends. Then, how did seolleongtang originate? During the Joseon Dynasty [1392-1910]. on the occasion of Sangsin [the first day of $ B I in the second lunar month, the king would visit Seonnongdan [an altar in honor of the legendary Chinese figures who introduced Korea to the advancements of civilization between 2800 and 2600 B.C., including Shennong, a teacher of agriculture and mercantilism, and Houji, a specialist in writing, hunting, trapping, and fishing]. which was located in today 's Dongdaemun-gu of Seoul, to preside over a prayer ritual to supplicate for a bountiful harvest in the coming year. After having completed the ritual ceremony, which included offerings of uncooked rice, millet, cows, and pigs, the king would tend to various farming tasks at jeokjeon [a farmland area reserved for the royal family]. Thereafter, the rice and millet would be cooked in a large pot, the beef used to prepare soup, and the pork boiled to make pyeonyuk, boiled sliced meat. The king would then invite the elderly farmers over the age of 60, who had been selected to guide the ox used by the king to plow the fields, to attend a dinner. The rice and beef soup were served in a large bowl, or ttukbaegi, after being seasoned with shallots and salt. The use of shallots and salt has remained an integral element of this soup even today. Seolleongtang was originally called seonnongtang because of its association with the Seonnongdan ritual ceremony. Over time, the name evolved into the easier to pronounce "seolleongtang." Spring 2005 I Ko reana 83

The key to seolleongtang's savory appeal is its thick white broth and the accompaniment of kkakdugi, crunchy radish kimchi. Kkakdugi serves to offset the meat odor, which is unpleasant to some, in addition to aiding in the digestion of the beef.

Slow and Steady Boiling In Western cuisine, stock made by boiling the bones of

ed . Fat and dregs are removed from the stock. When thoroughly boiled, remove the meat from the bones and slice

cow, chicken, or fish with vegetables and spices, is typically

into strips. Serve the seolleongtang in a bowl with rice and

considered the most critical ingredient for assuring the

slices of beef, together with minced shallots, powdered red

desired taste of soups and sauces. Bones must be boiled

pepper, black pepper, and salt.

to produce white stock, but cow bones will result in a

The longer the seolleongtang is boiled, the more

brown stock if the bones have been grilled. The lengthy

savory and richer it will be . Therefore, the best-tasting

boiling of cow bones will create a beef stock similar to that

seolleongtang involves the lengthy boiling of a proper

of seolleongtang . However, Koreans will then consume

amount of water at a low temperature. On the other hand,

this beef broth as is, whereas Western-style cooking calls

boiling too little water at high heat, and then adding water

for the stock to be combined with other ingredients to

later, will not only result in an inferior taste, but also inten-

make various soups and sauces. For example, potato soup

sify the beef odor. Indeed, the key to preparing flavorful

and onion soup include the addition of potatoes and onions

seolleongtang calls for using an appropriate amount of

to the beef stock. Moreover, as compared to Western din-

water and regulating th

ing, in which soup is often served as one course of a meal,

reduce the beef odor, the shallots, garlic, and ginger

Korean soup [guk] or seolleongtang will be a main course,

should be added after the protein has been extracted from

when accompanied by rice.

the cow bones.

boiling at low heat. Also, to

As compared to gomtang, another type of meat-based

Another must for the enjoyment of seolleongtang is

soup, seolleongtang calls for the use of a larger amount of

the accompaniment of well-ripened kkakdugi kimchi .

bones and longer boiling, such that bone marrow becomes

Kkakdugi is a refreshing radish kimchi, which helps to off-

part of the soup stock. Salt and seasoning are added to

set any pungent aroma of seolleongtang, while providing a

seolleontang just before being served .

crunchy contrast. In addition, kkakdugi contains various

So, what steps are involved in the preparation of

enzymes that aids in the digestion of seolleongtang's large

seolleongtang? First, water is boiled in a large pot. When

amounts of beef protein and fat. Enjoying seolleongtang

the water boils, the washed head and bones of a cow are

and kkakdugi in the company of family and friends is

added . After sufficient boiling, the cow head and bones are

always a delightful experience. I>!

removed and placed in fresh water. The water is then boiled and the beef ribs and shanks are added. To minimize the beef odor, shallots, garlic, and ginger are includ84

Koreana I Sp ri ng 2005

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

Kim Sung-ok

Spring 2005 I Koreana 85

CRITIQUE

Birth of Sensibility and Self-illusion of Modernity Kim Sung-ok has earned a prominent standing in the world of Korean literature. His literary work, characterized by witty observation, a meticulously devised plot, diverse streams of consciousness, and sensory language, is credited with bringing about a "revolution in sensibility,ÂˇÂˇ along with being acclaimed as a standard in Korean fiction. Jeong Gueoi-rhi Professor of Korean Language and Literature, Yonsei University

im Sung-ok [b. 1941] is a representative author of the

writing represented a "revolution in sensibility."

so-called April 19 generation, which was instrumen-

Along with the birth of a sensory lan.guage, Kim's

tal in ousting the dictatorial regime of Rhee Syngman in

work confirmed the independence of the modern Ko rean

1960. The generation is named for the April 19 student rev-

people. In what the author calls "a world of one 's own," he

olution, which enabled Koreans to believe that they had the

traces its meaningfulness and insignificance at the same

power to shape their own destiny. With this revolution ,

time, a process best demonstrated in his short story "A

Koreans finally began to live as a people characterized by

Journey to Mujin."

"creative subjectivity."

Mujin means a fog-enshrouded bay. An atmosphere

In literature, this "recovery of self' was expressed

of fog pervades the story, which represents the despair

through a wholly innovative use of language. According to

and self-loathing of those alienated from the mainstream

the literary critic Kim Hyun, the April 19 generation

world, the ambition and conspiratorial ways of those striv-

includes those who were "educated in Korean, think in

ing to dominate society, and a mixture of feelings, heavy,

Korean, and write in Korean." The mother tongue, Korean ,

persistent, and desolate, that is born out of malice when a

was thus utilized for expression of culture, as well as a

plot ends in failu re. The story's protagonist and narrator

medium for discovery of life and a lever for enhanced per-

used to live amid such fQg. But he manages to escape

ception. In this case, language is not simply a tool for com-

Mujin and make his way to Seoul, where he marries the

munication. The language itself serves as a framework for

daughter of a pharmaceutical firm owner and becomes a

expressing the inner sentiments and longings of the

business executive . However, whenever he needs to

Korean people.

"escape from failure in Seoul or is about to face a new

It is said that the work of Marivaux marked the advent

experience," he always seeks refuge in Mujin. Again, while

of an "egoistic society" in French literature. Similarly, Kim

awaiting a promotion to senior executive director, the nar-

Sung-ok's writing introduced the independent human

rator returns to Mujin at the advice of his wife and father-

being to Korean literature. As the critic Georges Poulet

in-law "to relieve the tension." There he meets up with his

credited Marivaux's work for bringing about a "birth of

hometown friend Cho who is the head of Mujin District Tax

sensibility," Kim Sung-ok's work has been said to have

Office, Hah ln-sook, a teacher assigned from Seoul, and

hera.lded its own " birth of sensibility" in Korea. Such

Park, another hometown friend who is in love with Hah.

descriptions as "the autumn sunlight was squirming

These three-Cho, Hah and Park-are mirrors that

around the toes of my enamel shoes " [from "Life

reflect the complex nature of Mujin. Cho believes Mujin is

Rehearsal"] appeared in Korean literature for the first

no different to Seoul. He studied in Mujin and achieved

time. If April 19 marked a democratic revolution , Kim's

success in Mujin, and is a big fish in the Mujin pond. In con-

86 Koreana I Spring 2005

trast, Hah thinks of Mujin as a place for the alienated. As

Then why does he return to Mujin? Is it in Mujin that

for Hah, who has ended up in Mujin after being expelled

he again feels a burning desire to escape? But something

from Seoul, she seeks to capitalize on her situation by

that is vaguely alluded to by his wife becomes evident in

planning to marry Cho. But after meeting the protagonist,

Mujin. Seoul is characterized by ruthless competition Âˇand

she attempts to seduce him in an effort to return to Seoul.

constant intrigue and struggle . And while Mujin is far

Park reflects the lethargy of Mujin. Born in Mujin,_he man-

removed from Seoul, it is nevertheless a condensed ver-

ages to pass the teachers' examination and is eventually

sion of the big city. Therefore, by experiencing in Mujin a

hired as a teacher. But at the school where he teaches,

condensed and simplified version of the ambition felt in

those who graduated from education colleges constantly

Seoul, the protagonist can train for battle in the big city,

overshadow him, while outside of school he is dominated

like getting a vaccination to prevent a contagious disease.

by Cho, so he is unable to tell Hah of his love for her.

At the same time, through his relations with other

As such, Cho and Park define the parameters of the

people , the protagonist suggests the futility of personal

protagonist and make clear his need to escape from Mujin.

ambition and subterfuge. If it is necessary to escape from

Cho confirms that Mujin is no more than a cheap imitation

both Seoul and Mujin, where can he go to survive? Of

of Seoul, while to Park, Mujin and Seoul are like .two sepa-

course, survival in Seoul woutd mean being able to rise in

rate worlds. Meanwhile, Hah is like the alter ego of the

social status there. But where does this ascent end? As

protagonist in the past. She is willing to do anything to

CEO of the pharmaceutical business or something higher?

escape from Mujin but hates what she is doing. Through

Ultimately, the story indicates, through the experiences of

the piteous experiences of the protagonist, the author

the main characters, that those who seek to escape will

reveals both the everyday life of the average Korean in the

inevitably find themselves in constant pursuit of escape.

1960s and the universal human condition of modernity. Still, the question remains, why does the protagonist return to Mujin whenever there is difficulty? He struggled so desperately to escape and finally succeeded, and there-

Likewise, no matter hÂˇow successful a person might become, his desire to further succeed will never be fully satisfied . Kim thus provides a glimpse into the representative

fore has no real reason to return . If Mujin represents a

daily experiences of Koreans in the 1960s, who were finally

place of refuge to his wife and father-in-law, then this

able to confirm their existence as independent human

implies that Seoul is like a battleground fraught with con-

beings as well as the universal influences of modernity. In

flict. On the other hand, the situation is less straightfor-

"A Journey to Mujin" these matters are portrayed as rele-

ward for the protagonist who finds no respite in Mujin, but

vant social issues through a literary style that vividly con-

rather feels a desire to further escape.

veys the real-life experiences of Korean society.

1.>11

Spring 2005 I Koreana 87

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