the bombilla underground lighting fanzine issue#2

the bombilla underground lighting fanzine, is a collaborative work developed by the autonomous lighting collective; non profit as it is, the publication of the bombilla may delayed from time to time.

the bombilla underground lighting fanzine issue# no 2 fall 2009

if you like what we say and what we do, consider joining us; if you want to know more about us just email us; if you don't like us, we would also like to hear your opinion... the text found within the pages of the bombilla is all original material, therefore permission to reprint any of the articles is welcomed as long as the source is mentioned. pictures: not all the pictures in the bombilla are 'royalty free' for those that are unique we will cite the 'donator' but this is as far as will go. enough said... we hope you enjoy the fruits of our labor and use it in a productive way...

the bombilla team:

Contact info:

zinon ivy malatesta

thebombilla@gmail.com www.thebombilla.blogspot.com realighting@gmail.com www.realighting.blogspot.com

Instead of Editorial

* Chambers's Etymological dictionary of the English language.(1904) **The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1912)

Fall 2009 Granted that the industrial revolution implemented the gap in the process of which everyday necessities were produced; the bombilla issue #1 followed the reaction of the Luddites; the British Artisans who in the early stage of the industrial revolution smashed textile machines and burned down factories the reaction of the state was murderous.. but as a contemporary poet said : You cant take out a revolution... you cant kill an idea... are you stupid....? you kill that man he becomes immortal ... you killed those men... they became immortal...

Contents:

instead of editorial....................................................

The Gothic Revival.................................................... 1-9

The Reformation of Design............................................10-22

John Ruskin Nature of Gothic........................................ 23-31

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.......................................... 24-41

Origins of the Art and Craft Movement: Pre-Raphaelitism, Aestheticism, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &Co.1861..................................42-47

Miscellaneous Authoritarian Cratos and Via..........................................................48

LuminaireCraftmanship...................................................49

Art,Music,Picture,Books..............................................50-51

Cover:Benjamin Robert Haydon: Anatomical drawing of the hand.

The Gothic Revival

The Gothic Revival "From the first, the new taste for Gothic architecture was no more than a symptom of a great change of ideas which we call the Romantic Movement. No one can define this change; but any definition must suggest that the Middle Ages took the place of classical times as an ideal in art and letters."i 'The taste for Gothic' is an essential expression of Romanticism as Kenneth Clark wrote in his 1928 essay 'The Gothic Revival.' The appearance of Romanticism during the later 18th and 19th century brought along a revival of Medievalism.

The Romantics turned with nostalgia their attention to the past, hoping to recapture its mystery and spirituality. Between 1500 and 1800 the idea of the Middle Ages had been mostly antipathetic and was attacked by both the Reformation during the 16th and 17th century and and the Enlightenment during the 17th and 18th century. Dubbed as the 'Dark Ages' the Reformation criticized the corruption of the Vatican Church and the Pope, where as the Enlightenment saw 'the age of reason' as opposed to 'the age of religion'.

The French revolution, the Enlightenment and the emerging industrialized new world would evoke the formation of the Romantic movement; a front corresponding to a reaction against contemporary culture, scientific obsession, the domination of reason over emotion and the effects that the industrial revolution had on society and nature. Questioning the 'achievements' of progress and calling for an utter reevaluation the Romantics examined the role and responsibility of the artist in society ;and sought

to recreate in poetry and literature and art the 'aesthesis' and the 'idea' of the Middle Ages. Trough the medium of 'belles lettres': literature and poetry, the Romantics heightened the imagination of the people, and chaneled the energy needed to inspire an overall 'return' to to innocence.

The German Nazarenes (1809) and the English Pre-Raphaelites (1848) defended through their canvas a turnback in technique and subject; expressing a time when art was pure and heartfelt. On the other hand Architecture would ultimately made its mark through the Gothic revival which as said before was an essential expression of Romanticism closely related to all other expressions of its force. The Gothic revival therefore was the translation of the poetic 'visions' of the Romantics into architectural forms opposed to the prevalent classic style. As early as the 1770's Neoclassic architects such as Robert Adam (1728-1792) and James Wyatt (1746-1813) were already incorporating Gothic elements in their buildings.ii Furthermore complementing support would be found amongst the antiquarians and connoisseurs who created a vanguard appreciative of medieval art which had initialy started by the observation of parish church architecture, tomb monuments, stained glass and Gothic illuminated manuscripts.

The 'Society of Antiquaries' established in the early 18th centur, was granted a Royal Charter in 1751 for “the encouragement, advancement and furtherance of the study and knowledge of antiquities and history in this and other iii countries.”

Thus a new appreciation for ruins in the countryside dubbed 'picturesque' would emerge as a new aesthetic value.

In this spirit the English architect Thomas Rickman (1776 – 1841)wrote in 1817 a study attempting to describe the styles of English architecture in chronological succession : 'Norman,' 'Early English,' 'Decorated English' and 'Perpendicular English' were the terms worked out in his book: “The Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation.” Through careful studies sketches, measured drawings and tracery, Rickman build up the foundations for understanding English Gothic Architecture at this time the personality of the great A.W.N. Pugin would step up designated to restore and capture the architectural and design world with his allure.

consciousness of history, the fashion in classic landscape ideals turned into preRomantic awe, wonder and respect for medieval ruins and buildings. In 1750, Horace Walpole(1917-1797) initiated a series of alterations in Gothic style in his country house, Strawberry Hill,near Twickenham contribution to the growth of the taste of Gothic in the full rococo period. This also inspired him to write 'The Castle of Otranto' (1765) and set a new fashion for Gothic horror novels. As a result of the new trend ,Robert Adam,George Dance Junior Robert Smirke, John Nash and James Wyatt were commissioned by their patrons to design mansions and villas, and to remodel residences in the revived Gothic style, although in reality,such stylistic elements were more for the purpose of a scenic effect" iii The Society of Antiquaries of Londonhttp://www.sal.org.uk/history/theso cietysearlyyears/

Refrences: i Christian Johann Heinrich Heins' definition of the Romantic school ,'Die romantische Schule,' (1836) derived from the 'The Gothic Revival: an Essay on the History of Taste' (1928) Kenneth Clark pg 66 ii 'A history of architectural conservation' (2002) Jukka Jokilehto pg 102 : “Gradually, through literature , the rococo caprices and a new

pic 1.1 Scale From Pugin's 'Contrasts' (1836) measuring 'architectural weight'.

Ecclessiology The Cambridge Society

Camden

The 'Cambridge Camden Society' founded in 1839 by undergraduates of Cambridge University: Alexander Hope(1820-1887), Benjamin Webb(1819-1885), and John Mason Neale(1816-1866).

Their aim was to develop the science of 'ecclesiology' in regards to its worship and architectural features.

The society would maintain a major influence on contemporary Church architecture and would ultimately effect the architectural scene of the mid-nineteenth century. The founding of the 'Cambridge Camden Society' would bring the dogmatic theology of the 'Oxford movement' and the dogmatic architectural theory of Augustus Welby Pugin (1812-1852) together to the design of Anglican Churches.i The society had emerged in 1839, nurtured by the revival of Gothic architecture and the PreReformation movement within the Anglican Church. The body of the Camden society - championed that only if the piety and beauty of the Middle Ages was to return would the vice and inquity that had entered the church be redeemed, ultimately bringing religion once again to its decerved height.

Some years earlier during a time when the Church of England was in a state of near collapse there had emerged alike another movement in Oxford; lead by John Keble(17921866) and members of 'University of Oxford' that oppossed to the increased secularization of the church of England from the Roman Catholic Church and advocated a revival of the Anglo-Catholic ideology as well as a turn back to the rituals and worship of the patristic and medieval eras

before the Reformation.

On the other hand influential publications such as Pugin's 'Contrasts' (1836) and Carlyle's 'Past ans Present' (1843) would compare the 'ideal' medieval world to the 'cruelty' of the contemporary modern world and alltogether reject the 'dehumanization' of society.

Moreover unlike the past during the 1830's and 1840's the Gothic Revival in architecture had became serious, scholarly and ideological providing yet one more stimulus. In practical terms the restoration of Anglo-Catholic church sprang a demand to build a large number of new churches it was therefore essentially in this spirit that the Cambridge Camden Society would germinate.

The 'Ecclesiological Society' as it was renamed after it moved to London in 1845 through the publication of their influential journal 'The Ecclesiologist,'ii would assume pressure and generate heated debates and take command over ecclesiastic architecture in the mid nineteenth century; promoting the churches construction in the English Gothic fashion favoring especially the 'decorated style.'

The society had initially began as a small club of Cambridge undergraduates with a common interest in Gothic Church design.

Their activities would include regular visits to parish Churches in the English countryside, during which they would record carefully made measurements, collect construction details and make observations with scientific preciseness. As a result a new

bank of knowledge was created created; which formed the base for their first publication :'A Few Hints on the Practical Study of Ecclesiological Antiquitie' (1843) in which amongst others one could find the 'Church Scheme' a check list of the various elements and characteristic arrangements which were found in parish churches.

As a result the society came to be regarded as an authority on church architecture; during its 20 year span 'The Ecclesiologist' would - define the standards of taste and style for church architecture, furnishing and stained glass. The history of the Cambrigfe Camden Society from 1839 to 1868 can be read in James Whites' : 'The Cambridge Movement: the Ecclesiologists and the Gothic Revival, Cambridge,' (1962).

Augustus Welby Pugin was among the first to lay the foundations of the novel 'serious' phase of Victorian Gothic architecture.

Through his books the revival of Gothic art ceased to be unscholarly and became a serious pursuit.

His work would altogether influence the achievements of George Gilbert Scott(1811–1878), the thought of John Ruskin (1819-1900) and the writings of the 'Ecclesiological Society' by introdusing 'that' 'peculiar' yet fully justified moral dimension of architecture and design.

Nevertheless even though was been Pugin's moral approach to Gothic Architecture that had been a source of inspiration for the Camden Society’s quest to 'medievalise' the English Church; he was

altogether condemned for his conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1935 and since then had not been favored by the Society's exponents. However the Society's seal which was design by Pugin was adopted by the Camden Society in 1844.

Refrences: iThe Victorian church: architecture and society (1995) Chris Brooks, Andrew Saint pg 7 iiThe publication was active between 1841 and was closed down in 1868, when the society was dissolved.

pic 1.2 The Ecclesiological Society seal was designed by Augustus Welby Pugin and was adopted by the Cambridge Camden Society in 1844 the scroll at the bottom was added later

pic1.3 Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin

Augustus Welby Pugin Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin “... arguably the greatest British architect, designer and writer of the nineteenth century.” i Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (1812-1852)architect, draughtsman designer and author was the son Augustus Charles Pugin(1769–1832) originally(de Pugin ) a French émigré who had settled in his youth in London, during the French revolution and in 1802 was married to Catherine Welby (1768–1833). Pugin's father was an artist and publisher, and initially worked as an architectural draughtsman in the office of John Nash(1752-1835).

Pugin the elder along with John Britton(1771-1857) and John Carter (1748-1817), were destined to convert the taste of Gothic Architecture from 'picturesque' fashion to archaeological passionii. Charles Pugin in his time had made a reputation for accurate minute illustrations views, elevations, and plans of various English structures amongst others his most prominent works were: 'Specimens of Gothic Architecture' (1821-23) and “Specimens of the Architectural Antiquities of Normandy” (1827).

The young Pugin would help his father in these publications and was thereby embodied with the passion of 'medievalism'.During his lifespan which was short and most dramatic( he died insane at the age of forty) Pugin completed a massive number of buildings along with countless beautiful designs for tiles, metalwork, furniture, wallpaper, stained iii glass and ceramic changing the visual and mental attitude of British architecture.

His best known works include the interiors

of the English 'Houses of Parliament,'The clock tower at Westminster, 'The church of St Giles', Cheadle, in Staffordshire, and his own house, 'The Grange', in Ramsgate, Kent, along with the church of 'St Augustine'.

By looking at the past Pugin gained a perspective for the iv future.

His admiration of the 'honesty' and gracefulness of the Gothic style would appointed him advocate of the triumph of the middle ages.

In his personal manifesto 'Contrasts' (1936), Pugin would communicates his thoughts on 'medieval' and 'modern' architecture.

Looking for the 'moral' aspects of architecture he would admire the medieval structures, for their 'ethos.' His belief that only a 'healthy' society could produce 'honest' buildings lead him to avow the 'organic' connection between society and architecture.

Realizing that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society Pugin championed that Gothic was the only 'true' form of Christian architecture and would go on to sugget that if modern craftsmen were to recreate Gothic structures they should also reproduce the methods of medieval workmanship anticipating therefore the revival of craftsmanship as well.

In 'Contrasts' Pugin would humorously depict a series of modern buildings compared to a series of buildings of similar function in the Middle ages,

Augustus Welby Pugin plates would ultimately contain the germs of Christian Socialism and Ruskin's St. George's Guild. v In 1827 15-year-old Pugin was employed to design furniture in a medieval style for the Windsor castle during which he was acquainted with an employee of the stage management of the vi Covent Garden Theater .

Pugin enchanted by his first visit to the theater worked in various positions backstage untill he got his first big commission.

"Historical operas were then most popular, and they afforded a wide scope for the introduction of beautiful scenery and costume.

The manager of the Italian Opera, hearing of Welby Pugin's known skill in medieval art, sought his assistance, and commissioned him to design all the scenery for the new opera of Kenilworth brought out in the season of 1831.”vii The production was granted with great success and it presented designs of medieval representations of great accuracy and taste.

Pugin was so enthusiastic of his new venture that he convinced his parents to turn the upper floor of their house into a model theatre “removing the attic ceiling, cutting away the roof, and constructing cisterns” viii here he would work on his scenic designs enabling him to exhibit experiments and study compositions before they were adopted on the actual stage “ the most exquisite scenery, with fountains, tricks, traps, dropscenes, wings, soffites, hilly scenes, flats, open flats, and every magic change of which stage mechanism was capable.” ix His connection to the theatrical world however would not last

long and the young Pugin would move on from constructing mere representations to real buildings.

At this time Pugin would also become intensely fond of the sea, first owner of a small boat, he successively commanded a smack, and afterwards a schooner, and this way he engaged himself in buying carvings and other antiquities in the old stores of Holland and Flanders.x In 1831 Pugin got married to his first wife Ann Garnett (18111832), at this time owing to economic difficulties he would also be imprisoned for dept.xi After his imprisonment he started a shop in Hart Street Covent Garden supplying architectural drawings and accessories xii but buisness did not go well and again he was forced to abandon his plans. In 1833 after loosing his first wife xiii Pugin got married to Louisa Burton (18131844)who bore him six children.

In 1835 he would convert to Roman Catholicismxiv and therby begin to receive the steady architectural practice which was to secure him the reputation of the most prominent figure of the 'English Gothic Revival'. During 1837-43 the architect Charles Barry (17951860) would employ Augustus Welby Pugin to design the Gothic details required for the competition of 'The new House of Parliament' and consequently won the competition.xv As professor of ecclesiastical antiquities in the Roman Catholic college of St. Marie's Oscott,xvi , Pugin, took it upon himself to explain the 'True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture," and set two

“there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety” “all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building.” "the neglect of any of these two rules" he said "was the cause of all the bad architecture;" principles which so profoundly influenced the decorative arts and architecture and design.

Pugin’s contribution would become apparent about a decade later whith the criticism that rose from the 'Great Exhibition' of 1851 as well as the writings of John Ruskin. The two lectures would be published in the book : 'True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture,' (1942) expanding his campaign in favor of Gothic architecture; but now on rather 'functional grounds.'

Pugin would also interestingly emphasize on the importance of local materials and local tradition “Only be natural, he said, (...) and picturesqueness would appear like a capricious, unbidden guest. (...)

Gothic would no longer be one architectural style, but the best and simplest way of building.

There is no reason why noble cities, containing all possible convenience of drainage, watercourses and conveyance of gas, may not be erected in the most consistent, yet Christian character. Every building that is treated naturally, without disguise or concealment, cannot fail to look well.”

In 1843 Pugin begun to build his house on the West Cliff at Ramsgate aiming to create an ideal setting for him and his

family; known as 'The Grange,' a church and monastery were also part of his plans. Longing to recreate the medieval lifestyle he so admired Pugin bought land in 1841 and between 1843 and 1844 together with his builder George Myers(1830-1875) he would be able to build freely and according to his own principles.

The houses furnishings were all Pugin’s own designs complemented with the paintings and objets that he had collected in his journeys. Sadly his second wife Louisa died in 1844 just before the family had the chance to move into the new house. In 1848 Pugin would marry his third wife, Jane Knill (18251909), with whom he had two more children.

In the Great Exhibition of 1851 a seperate 'Medieval court' was set up to exhibit Pugin's designs featuring amongst others metalwork and stained glass by Hardman & Co, ceramics and encaustic tiles by Mintons Ltd, textiles, wallpaper, furniture by John Gregory Crace and a medieval a tomb by George Myers.xvii Quoting the respectable Waagen Gustav Friedrich(1794-1868), in his notice on the various sectional divisions of the Great Exhibition we may read: "Professor A. Welby Pugin, one of the most distinguished amongst English architects, as a designer of Gothic buildings and ornaments.

In this court he has endeavored with great success to present to the spectator a general idea of ecclesiastical art, by exhibiting an assemblage of altars, shrinks, tapestries, painted windows, chalices, and pattens, vestments and other ecclesiastical furniture and objects.”xviii

Augustus Welby Pugin Refrences: After years of strain and overwork, early in 1852 Pugin was attacked by insanity,and was placed in the Bedlam asylum in St. George's Fields, Lambeth.xix 'that from day on came his downfall he died on the 14th of September of that year, the same day as the Duke of Wellington.

Pugin was essentially a dreamer and a designer; and for these reasons it is appropriate to study his architecture not in his finished buildings, but in his exquisite etchings since many of his buildings were not fully carried out xx Pugin himself was not satisfied by the realization of his designs and belived that the single church he had designed which met his standards was St. Augustine's Church, in Ramsgate where he was both paymaster and architect.xxi Gilbert Scott, perhaps the most representative figure in Gothic Revival wrote... “I was awakened from my slumbers by the thunder of Pugin's writings(...) I was from that moment a new man.xxii

ihttp://www.pugin-society.1to1.org/homeintro.html ii 'An Oxford companion to the romantic age: British culture, 1776-1832' (2001)Iain McCalman, Jon Mee pg 665-666 iii“His buildings looked back to the picturesque past, his writings looked forward to the ethical future " : Kenneth Clark (1928) iv http://www.puginsociety.1to1.org/home-intro.html v 'The Gothic Revival: An Essay In The History Of Taste' (1928)Kenneth Clark pg 145 vi 'Recollections of A. N. Welby Pugin, and his father, Augustus Pugin; with notices of their works' (1861) Ferrey, Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan pg57 vii ibid pg 59-60 viii ibid ix ibid 61 x ibid 62 xi Dictionary of National Biography XLVII (2005)Eliborn Classics pg 6 Pugin xii Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan op.cit pg 65 xiii Pugins first wife had died in 1832 during parturition to a daughter that named after her. xivhttp://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.o rg/pugina.htm xv Encyclopedia britannica 1911 Under: Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin xvi Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan op.cit pg 333 xviihttp://www.dictionaryofarthistorians. org/pugina.htm xviii Professor Waagen Gustav Friedrich(1794-1868), in his notice on the various sectional divisions of the Great Exhibition Benjamin, op.cit Purcell, Edmund Sheridan pg 258 xix Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan op.cit pg 269 xx Kenneth Clark (1962) pg 135 xxi ibid pg 128 xxii 'Personal and professional recollections' (1879) George Gilbert Scott pg 373

"On comparing the Architectural Works of the present Century with those of the Middle Ages, the wonderful superiority of the latter must strike every attentive observer."

A.W.N. Pugin

1.4 Pugin contrasting contemporary and medieval water fountain.

1.5

Pugin contrasting a contemporary and medieval church.

The Reformation of Design Benjamin

Robert

Haydon

Benjamin Robert Haydon (1786-1846) an English historical painter, writer and lecturer was pioneer of the idea of 'art as a social force,' and proponent of the theory of 'unity between art and craft' for the progress of society. As early as 1823 while imprisoned in 'King's Bench Prison' for dept, Hayton drew up a petition to parliament asking for "a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of i historical painting."

Haydon essentially called for governmental patronage for artists, proposing the adornment of governmental buildings with historical paintings.

Ultimately it would have been his outcry that was to pave the way for the establishment of the new national 'art and design' education system in England. Haydon battled for the right of diffusion of art in all levels of society for the benefit of all; rather than just the elite clubs of the higher classes.

His urge could only become apparent if one examined the contemporary state of art in England; the single institution that provided public art education was the Royal Academy of Arts in London which had been established in 1768

by King George the III. “for the Purpose of Cultivating and Improving the Arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture.”ii In their appeal to the King it the artists had stated that “the Painters, Sculptures and Architects of this metropolis are desirous of establishing a Society for promoting the Arts of Design (..) and most humbly beg to your Majesty's assistance, patronage, and protection in carrying this useful plan into execution.”iii

The Academy's mission was therefore was to promote the 'Arts of Design' through education and exhibition; iv but already by 1800, the Academy had transformed from educational institution to an 'elite club' for oil painters, sculptures and few architects.

The Royal Academicians enjoying the merits of the single art authority in the country were essentially in control of the 'cultural state' of English society. In 1809 the denial of he Royal Academy's Committee to exhibit Haydon's picture of 'Dentatus' in the main hall would resulted in a lifetime quarrel motivating Haydon to start a tumult campaign urging for serious public art education; against monopoly of the Royal Academy. In his crusade Haydon would be supported by a front of businessmen, economists, radical politicians, and the rising middle class, but foremost and constant supporter of Hayton's campaign would be William Ewart(1978-1869) M.P. for Liverpool a respectable social reformer who in the same attitude advocated for public museums, art galleries and libraries.

Well into the nineteenth century England was enjoying the title of leading industrial nation of the world.

The developments in industrial production and the competitive market would open a public debate around the role of art in industry and society. The focus was centered around the problem that although production rates were increasing the quality of the products was falling behind realizing what the Luddites had stood up for about fourty years earlier.

The Reformation of Design When William Ewart put down a motion in Parliament. The radicals took it one step further demanding an enquiry,v thus the 'House of Commons' appointed a 'Select Committee on Art and Manufactures' in order “to enquire into the best means of extending a knowledge of the arts, and of the principle of design, among the people (especially the manufacturing population) of the country; also to enquire into the constitution, the management, and effects of institutions connected with the arts”vi In July 1935 the committee began a series of hearings under the chairmanship of William Ewart in order to investigate the contemporary state of public art education in Britain. Among the witnesses would be Benjamin Hayton, Waagen Gustav Friedrich(1794-1868) German museum director and pioneer art historian, James Skene (17751864) watercolorist and secretary of the 'Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of Manufacturers in Scotland,' as well a number of architects, artists, sculptors, decorators and merchants of various trades textile, metalwork, glasswork, jewelery, porcelain etc.vii Hayden as one of the main witnesses would find the opportunity to elaborate on his views of state patronage for painters and the decoration of governmental buildings with historical paintings as well as the outline of a plan for the establishment of a system of design schools, centered in London, with branches in the large manufacturing towns.viii The hearings of the first session ended in September 1935 and one of its practical results was the

acknowledgement that French manufacturers were superior to British.ix The second session started in February 1836 and ended in August the same year; with hearings on European art education, the Royal Academy, galleries and museums; terminating its proceedings with the following conclusion: "from the highest branches of poetical design down to the lowest connection between design and manufactures, the arts had received little encouragement in this country."x Thus a series of measures was decided: to set up a 'Normal school of Design' at 'Somerset House,' to provide grands for provincial schools, to form museums and art galleries and that sculptures and paint should be used to embellish public buildings. The aim was double, raising the standard of British manufactures by improving design and elevating the level of public 'taste'. The 'Normal School of Design' was opened on the 1st of June, in 1837,xi “for the purpose of giving instruction to those engaged in the purpose of ornamental art, and in the preparation of designs for the various manufacturers.”xii and urged that in any such school. " not theoretical instruction alone, but also the direct practical application of the arts to manufactures, ought to be deemed an essential element."xiii Distinguished individuals in art ,manufacture and parliament formed a committee of artists, manufacturers, and amateursxiv in a structure that would govern the Normal School of Design up to 1848.

The appointed members

consisted of the President and Vice-President of the 'Board of Trade', 'Royal Academicians', members of Parliament and Manufacturers.

At their first committee meeting, held at the offices of the Board of Trade on 14th April, 1837, J. B. Papworth was appointed Director of the Normal Schools of Design and he appointed in turn as Headmaster Mr. Lambalette, AssistantHeadmaster, Mr. Spratt.

As Modeller Mr. James Leigh, and as Secretary and Librarian, Mr. .xv Papworth,Jr

taste and manufacturing. When the deficiency of the schools was realized, Haydon alltogether condemned the school and its methods and initiated a new movement starting the 'Society for Promoting Practical Design' a straight forward answer with the intention to keep the initial principles alive. In this society amongst others Benjamin Haydon, Martin Acher Shee(17691850)and William Ewart, would endeavor "to correct the narrow policy of the government and carry out the views of the parliamentary committee to extend Two months later in July 7th, artistic instruction among the xviii 1837, on a meeting of the Council population.” it was decided that 'drawing from the human figure should not be In 'Saville House' School drawing taught to the students' also from the antique, as well as approving a report that “the lectures on anatomy, design, object of the school ought to be color, and fresco were to afford manufacturers an delivered, Haydon went as far as opportunity of acquiring a to introduced a female model, for competent knowledge of the fine the students to draw life . The arts, in so far as these were school became immensely popular connected with manufactures, and and competed with the 'Normal that steps ought to be taken to School of Design' in 'Somerset limit the students to these House' Their object was to assume interests."xvi The Normal school of pressure on the Government School Design under the control of the at 'Somerset House' in order that 'Board of Trade' and the it would change its policy which presidency of Charles Poulett had supposed that the exclusion Thomson (1799-1841) sought of of drawing from life was the best creating a practical design school means to limit the students .xix based on the German interest to ornament The 'gewerbeschulen' with a clear biggest achievement of 'Saville distinction between 'art and House' was that it forced the craft'. The students apparently Government School at 'Somerset even had to sign a statement that House' to compete for existence they were never to practice as as a counter reaction to Haydon's historical, portrait or landscape female model, the 'Somerset painting after they entered the House' School introduced a male School of Design.xvii This policy as well as a female model, was of course opposite to Hayden “yielding the point of the study and Ewart's initial intentions of the human form”xxi Finally on which expected a new class of the l0th August, 1838, at the 'artist-designer' to rise and first council meeting under bring 'redemption' to public William Dyce as new Director of

The Reformation of Design William Dyce the Normal Schools of Design it was decided that "the human figure for the purposes of ornament be taught in the school."xx Feeling that the group had accomplished its goal in 1839, Haydon and his circle, withdrew from 'Saville House,' and the school shortly after was closed nevertheless he continued to thoroughly fight for the right to proper education till his last breath; between the years 1937-39 Haydon had traveled across Great Britain, to Edinburgh and Glasgow, Manchester and Liverpool, Leeds, Hull, Sheffield, Newcastle, and Leicester, lecturing on the importance of educating the next generation of designers on the correct principles and to the practical effect that this would have on manufacture and society.

His famous “Lecture on painting and design” was first delivered in 1935 and published 1944.

A man clearly ahead of his time Haydon no doubt lived a passionate life of uncompromising posture to the very end; on the other hand the economic problems that had been tormenting him for so long (he had been imprisoned for three times) and his belief that he was not as accomplished as he ought to have been would lead him at the age of sixty-one to put an end to his life by firing a bullet into his head with the phrase “Stretch me no longer on this rough world." written in his diary; ironically the bullet failed to kill him and he had to slash his throat twice with a razor before he was dead.

Although his achievements have today been rather forgotten; above all Hayton will remain as a mastermind in the understanding of how art can and should used as a medium for social change.

William Dyce(1806-1864)British painter and Royal Academician was the second Director of Studies of the School of Design after J.D. Papworth's resignition in 1838. His directorship lasted five years up to 1843; in 1837 Dyce was already master in the School of Design of the 'Board of Manufactures' in Edinburgh in the same year he published, along with Charles Heath Wilson a pamphlet: “Letter to Lord Meadowbank, and the committee of the Honourable Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufacturers: The Best Means of ameliorating the Arts and Manufactures of Scotland in point of Taste” with proposals on improvingthe management of the Schools of Designxxii this would ultimately lead to his transfer from Edinburgh,to be appointed superintendent and secretary of the Normal school of Design in London. At that time Dyce was also sent on a official visit to Europe by the 'Board of Trade' in order to examine the systems of organization of foreign design training schools in design, which would lead to a throughout full scale remodeling of the London Central School of design. On 13th January, 1840, the Council passed a motion deciding that : "the order of study pursued in the German schools, by which the drawing of the figure is made subsequent to a course of ornamental design, should be xxiii adopted."

Dyce's ultimate aim was to train workers for industry; the students would focus on making designs based on the variety of industrial processes used in the British manufactories of the time.xxiv

"The Normal School of Design under Dyce developed a curriculum that de-emphasized figure drawing and focused almost exclusively on xxv training in product design."

It was rather clear that Dyce was a practical man he disagreed with the emphasis on “fine arts” in regards to design education and had alternatively promoted a closer relationship between designers and manufacturers.

William Dyce was a pioneer in design training practice in 1838 he set up workshops for weaving and pottery, installing a loom and a pottery kilnxxvi his mission was to transform the 'Somerset House' into a 'gewebeschule' with a 'werkstatt' according to what he had seen in Bavaria. Nevertheless his innovative approach was not altogether successful and the students were little interested in the pattern making of weaving classes. Dyce's view of design training was essentially pragmatic, emphasizing on methods not art “the object is to teach the art of preparing designs for manufacturers.”xxvii he said.

He was author of the most widely used drawing manual of the century.

“The drawing book of the government School of Design” (1848) which was published in four different versions.

Dyce's personal opinion was that historical ornament should be the basis for study because it demonstrated more rigid geometrical structures than nature. He would go on to play an important role in the development of the British Schools of Design and under his directorship classes for female students were organized and the provincial schools grew in numbers. Earlier in his life while in Rome Dyce had came in contact

with the German Nazarenes from which he would be strongly influenced both in art and life philosophy. Notabely in a letter to the writer and art critic Ernest Chesneau,xxviii John Ruskin had admitted that his real introduction to the PreRaphaelite school of art was initiated by William Dyce, literally dragging him, up to Millais picture of 'The Carpenter's Shop,' which Ruskin had passed disdainfully, and forced him to look for its merits xxviii He resigned from his directorship in 1843 but remained close to the schools as inspector of provincial schools at least until 1848.

Charles Heath Wilson, who had meanwhile been director of the Edinburgh school, was appointed his successor.

Charles

Heath

Wilson

Charles Heath Wilson (1809-1882) author, art educator and landscape-painter succeeded William Dyce as director of the Normal School of Design in 1943.

He had co-written the 'Letter to Lord Meadowbank" in 1837 and was headmaster of the 'Glasgow School of Design.' His directorship was quite incidental having to cope with the staff educational structure and philosophy of his precursor in order to be able to implement his own ideas. After dealing with the innovative educational methods of the charismatic George Wallis (18111891)in Manchester; Wilson would even to tackle with a 'student revolt,' protesting against the current teaching methods a 'revolt' which amongst others would arouse public suspicion and

The Reformation of Design eventually lead to a parlimentary 'committee of enquiry' one of the reasons for Wilson's step down from directorship in the first place. Characteristic of Wilson's administration was his love for discipline bringing “order silence and regularity” to the school along with a devotion to the antique xxix his policy was in line with the prevalent concept of contemporary art education to imitate classic and renaissance art, advocated by the Dilettanti, the upper class and the Royal Academicians.xxxHis essential difference with Dyce, was that unlike Dyce, Wilson was not interested with trade necessities which as a subject he found repulsive. The new curriculum took the students away from practical studies, and proposed instead systematic copying from the antique i.e. vases, pots and Chinese baubles as an effect had the result to treat everyday objects such as carpets, mugs and tea trays like “cartoons for historical pictures or designs for xxxi regal palaces" carpentry students were not shown how to design in wood, but instead were made to draw Renaissance figures in outline from engravings, while upholsters were expected to paint arabesques”xxxii Wilson, also had an intolerant notion on the school's mission; separating 'art' from 'craft' or the 'artist' from the 'ornamentalist' he had straight-forwardly urged that “persons studying to become artists rather than ornamentists should be excluded from the school."

The problem of how to draw a dividing line between instruction to be given to students in 'fine' and in 'applied' art” had started to become apparent.xxxiii Preventing a

student going beyond the craftsman's limit when drawing from life was impossible; once Wilson's authority came to such an end to order the gas lighting and heat be turned off and the casts removed from the figure classxxxivit would span what became to be known as 'revolt of 45' in which Richard Burchett (18151875) would be one of its leading figures. Within this context John Roger Herbert(1810-1890),an important English painter precursor of Pre-Raphaelitites and friend of the Pugin family was obliged to resign from his position as 'Master of Figure' and was replaced by John Callcott Horsley (1817-1903).

In a Letter to J.R Herbert in the Builder, on the 2 August 1845 Pugin in support if the students wrote: “My dear mister Herbert, I have almost given up my hope of seeing any real good effect by the School of Design(...) in creating a school of national artists ;not mere imitators of any style,but men imbued with a throughout knowledge of the history wants,climate and customs of our country.(...)

The real source of art is nature, and the best artists of every nation and period have taken it as their standard and represented it under the peculiar aspect of their locality and period.(...)The school should be a place for the formation of the operative as well as designing artists: we want artist smiths in silver and iron, artist chasers in metals, artist glass painters for the manufacture of stuffs and the production of embroidery and these should be well grounded in the fundamental principle of adapting the style and working of

its ornament, not only to the purpose, but the material in which it is to be produced. Wood, stone, glass, silk and metal require total different treatment in their enrichment suited to their separateprod." Towards the end of 1846 a special committee was appointed in order to investigate the issues that had been raised. " The main attack upon the school was to the effect that, while it gave excellent instruction in imitative drawing and coloring, it had entirely failed to attain its object as a School of Design. It was urged that the principles of ornament and the practice of original design, as applicable to manufactures, were not efficiently taught,' and that no attempt was made to give the students a knowledge of manufacturing processes so as to enable them to unite fitness and practicability in ornament."xxxv The former council of 'artists, manufacturs and amateyrs' was dissolved in April 1848, in octomber 1847 the 'Board of Trade' took control by appointing governing body the 'Committee of Management' all the members of which were amongst its officers except for two artists Richard Westmacott(17991872) and George Richmond(18091896). J.Shaw Lefevre(1797-1879) was made secretary of the new commitee and in November, Wilson was dismissed from the directorship was apointed honorarily appointed director of Provincial Branch Schools.xxxv Again in 1849 a new select committee reported on the failure of the general system of 'Schools of Art' to produce any material effect upon manufactures; as well as on the

importance of selecting appropriate masters acquainted with the subject of design stating that: " The school should have three functions: To give elementary instruction in Art, to improve Art workmen actually engaged in manufactures, and to create a more educated class of original designers."xxxviiThe later 'general attack' was instrumented by Henry Cole, a respectable member among the new emerging design scene who had advocated for the reforma of design education in England. Through the periodical "The Journal of Design" he would published evidence on the report of the Select commitee thereby assuming pressure on the shcool's administration something that would eventually lead to the full rearrangement in the management of the schools of design which nevertheless would not prove sucessfull until Henry Cole would assume full control.

Wilson directorshp on the other hand was beneficial in the growth of art education in the form of museums since he has made it a priority for the central as well as the provincial schools to form a core of exhibits in order for the students to be able to copy from. The employement of Alfred Stevens (1818-1875) should also be mentioned.

pic 2.1 Benjamin Robert Haydon (1820)

The Reformation of Design Henry Cole Henry Cole(1808-1882) started his career at the age of fifteen, as a civil servant, but would evolve into one of the major figures of the English industrial arts.

Author of children's books under the pseudonym “Felix Summerly” i.e. Felix Summerly's Handbooks — Sammerly's Home Treasury, Cole had notably commissioned a number of respected artists (among them Richard Redgrave) to provide illustrations for his books.A designer himself he had an interest in industrial design and was member of the 'Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce' founded in 1754; and Commisioner of the 'Great Exhibition' of 1851.

Cole essentially supported an alliance between 'fine art' and manufacture ultimately 'beauty and utility' he said would promote public taste and restore Britain's premiership in the expanding world market. He believed that design standards were low because talented designers were not working closely with manufacturers.

The result was that, although cheep and competitive the commercially produced goods were tasteless and ugly condemning the vulgar incongruity of much of industrial design.xxxviii His attempt to connect leading 'fine' artists with applied art was realized with “Summerly's Art Manufacturers” founded in 1847.

The art association's aim was to provide designs for commercial production. “The Art-Manufacturers will aim to produce in each article superior utility, which is not to be sacrificed to ornament; to select pure forms;

to decorate each article with appropriate details relating to its use, and to obtain these details as directly as possible from nature.”xxxix During the 1840s, the 'Society of Arts' was granted a Royal Charter and under the presidency of Prince Albert staged a series of small-scale competitions promoting British industrial products that embraced artistic design.

This initiative would develop in a series of annual exhibitions in 1847, 1848 and 1849 and would evolve to the 'Great Exposition' of 1851 in 'Crystal Palace'. Summerly's Art Manufacturers had presented nearly 100 items at the 1848 exhibition of British Manufacturers held by the now 'Royal Society of Arts'xl and had announced that the execution of their designs should be entrusted only to the most eminent British Manufacturers and that the principal objective was to obtain as much beauty and ornament as is consistent with cheapness.xli Summerly's Art Manufacturers lasted 3 years and clearly expressed the desire to raise the level of English applied art.

Amongst its members were prominent artists such as : John Absolon, John Bell, Sculptor, T. Creswick, A.R.A. W. Dyce, R.A., Master of the School of Design.

J. R. Herbert, R.A. J. C. Horsley, Master of the School of Design. S. Joseph, Sculptor, D. Maclise, R.A., W. Mulready, R.A., Richard Redgrave, A.R.A. H. J. Townsent, Master of the School of Design, Sir R. Westmacott, xlii R.A.

In June 1849 together with Richard Redgrave, and Matthew Digby Wyatt Henry Cole started a periodical titled the “Journal of Design and Manufacturers.”

A magazine primaraly for designers and manufacturers as its title implied the Journal's double aim was to improve public 'taste' and lift the standards of British industry.

Ornamental design in mass manufactured machine products and the relationship between 'decoration and function' was its main subjects, the introduction of actual pieces of fabric and wallpapers from leading manufacturers whithin the journals pages heightened its appeal and success. Their idea was to succeed in becoming a communication marketing tool between manufacturers and the xliii public.

Richard Redgrave (1804-1888) was part of 'Summerly's Art Manufacturers' and had also raised his voice in demand for design reform whilst he served as educator in the Normal School of design since 1846. Matthew Digby Wyatt(1820-1877) decedent of the 'architectural dynasty' Wyatt family was himself engaged in advocating the proper use of ornament in design exhibiting trought publications examples based on design reform principles. Later together with architect, critic and author of the classic “Grammar of ornament” (1853) Owen Jones (18091874)they would design the fine arts decoration for the second erection of the 'Crystal xliv Palace'.

exhibitions between 1846 and 1849 as well as the 1849 report (that Cole and Wyatt had brought forth) supporting that the French were already considering the idea of an international exhibition the 1851 International Exhibition emerged; with the support of prince Albert, president of the R.S.A.,Cole, Wyatt, Redgrave and Jones would all be involved in the planning, execution and organization of the 'Great exhibition' The 'Great exposition of Art and Industry' was held in London at Hyde park in 1851 and was the largest trade show the world had ever seen: intended to demonstrate Britain's industrial supremacy and prosperity; the event was organized by Royal Commission its two most influential leaders being Prince Albert and Henry Cole.

The exhibition was housed in a temporary structure designed by Joseph Paxton (1803-1865) dubbed 'The Crystal Palace' by the the satirical 'Punch' and was built in six months, attracting about 6 million people between May and October 1851, who visited the over 100, 000 exhibits. Never before had the decorative arts been made subject of such supreme attention making it the first attempt to bring artists, manufacturers, and the public together on the same roof.

Nontheless after the 1851 Exhibition a second 'new wave' of criticism on the role of art in industry was unleashed. It became rather apparent that British design was 'lacking in purpose' Due to the increasing success of and that 'crude decorations' were the national industrial Art rather a way to cover the

The Reformation of Design 'cheapness' or ' simplicity' that machinery of the industrial process offered.

The 'aeshetic crisis' was to be related to society since it was the populace which its main recipient. “Domestic possessions were tarted up to look finer goods: pine grained to resemble to mahogany, cotton died to fool the viewer into believing that it was silk, carpets ornamented to imitate clematis vines or jungle scenes or railroad stations" xlv The honesty and morality in decoration that Pugin had advocated and the 'Cole Circle' had pragmatically supported had been overpassed and instead ostentation was now its dominant feature.

However the harch reaction and criticism that followed the Great Exposition would it prove fruitful.

Richard Redgrave's 'Supplementary Report on Design' which appeared in the 'Reports by the juries'(1852) commenting on design and ornamental decoration said: 'Design' has reference to the construction of any work both for use and beauty therefore also includes ornament also.

'Ornament' is merely the decoration of a thing constructed; therefore it can not be other than secondary, and must not usurp a principle place, if it does the object is no longer a work ornamented but is degraded into a mere ornament.

It is impossible to examine the works of the Great Exhibition without seeing how often utility and construction are made secondary to decoration designers are too apt to think of ornament before construction leading to sicken us of decoration, and leads us to admire those objects of absolute

utility (the machines and utensils of various kinds), where use is so paramount that ornament is repudiated and, fitness of purpose being the end sought,a noble simplicity is the result.�

Ralph Wornum is his prize winning essay "The Exhibition of 1851, as a Lesson in Taste commented on the harmony between beauty and design remarking that: dramatic, allegoric, or whatever other principle be associated with ornament, it must be kept secondary to the effect of utility, if it is desired to make a good design."

Henry Cole on the other hand would point out the errors that had led to the acknowledged failure of the Schools of Design breaking it down to three basic points: The 'hasty assumption' that there existed already students competent enough to enter the schools in the first place; that the manufacturers were not 'sufficiently convinced of the value and importance of the schools' and they preferred not to cooperate with them; and finally that the public eye untrained as it was would not be able to receive healthy innovative designsxlvi In a lecture delivered in front of Prince Albert twoard the end of 1852 Cole had said that: “the experience of many years had shown that it is not enough to produce good designs unless the taste of the consumer is sufficiently educated to appreciate them (...) Until Art education is more generally extended, and the principles of form, and of the harmony and contrast of colours, are better understood and acted upon by the people, in vain is it for the

manufacturers to produce good xlvii designs.”

Thus the vision of creating a new educational center emerged, in support of the new attempt the profits from the international exhibition would be invested in buying land in South Kensington, and prince Albert would donate in 1852 the 'Marlborough House' where the school of design was to be moved to from its former grounds. Cole on the other hand had demanded that the 'Board of Trade' create a new department the 'Department of Practical Art' which was to absorb the 'Normal School of Design' and one year later in 1853 change its name to the 'Department of Science and Art'. Cole and Redgrave would be appointed administrative and artistic director respectively and

by September of the same year would open in 'Marlborough House' the 'Museum of Manufactures', which whould change its name in the following year to 'Museum of Ornamental Art'xlvii forming the foundation of the South Kensington Museum (later Victoria- Albert).

In the new ciriculum 'technical instruction in art' was given a novel emphasis and once again in the steps of William Dyce practical workshops were set up in the schools premises.

The new faculty members were chosen by Cole and Redgrave including amongst others: Gottfried Semper (1803-1897) who taught practical construction, architecture, and plastic decoration,(including metal work and furniture design).

Octavius Hudson (?) teaching surface decoration plus manufacture and decoration of textiles,(including weaving and printing), John Thompson(18751866) who taught Wood Engraving, as well as teachers for

Lithography, and Porcelain xlix Painting An institution for training teachers under the directorship of Richard Burchett was to remained in 'Somerset House' while the 'Female School' was transferred to Gower Street.li In 1857, under the auspices of Henry Cole, the offices of the 'Department of Science and Art' and the 'National Art Training School' (former Normal School of Design) were removed from 'Marlborough House' to South Kensington. lii to join the Victoria-Albert museum (which from 1860 onwards would install gas-lighting allowing working classes to visit at night hours).

Owen Jones in his 1852 lecture “The Decorative arts arise and Should be Attendant Upon Architecture” would set the new standards of the School: - decoration is secondary to form.

- form is dictated by function and the materials used. dictums along with the recognition of the for value of practical education would form the nucleus the 'South Kensington system.' which was to produce sucessfull artistdesigners such as the case of Christopher Dresser (1834-1904) the true pioneer of industrial design who had entered the school in 1857.

pic 2.2 Henry Cole

The Reformation of Design Refrences : i Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 edition under: Benjamin Robert Haydon. ii 'The history of the Royal Academy of Arts from its foundation in 1768 to the present time.

With biographical notices of all the members' (1862) Sandby William pg 49 iii Ibid pg 48-47 iv loc.cit v 'The history and philosophy of art education' (1970) Stuart MacDonald pg 69 vi 'The encouragement of the fine arts in Lancashire, 1760-1860' (1976) Cornelius P. Darcy vii Mac Donald loc.cit viii 'Benjamin Robert Haydon Historical Painter' (1952) Clarke Olney pg 223 ix Mac Donald loc.cit x 'South Kensington & its art training' (1912) Frank P. Brown pg 1 xi ibid pg2 xii 'The Origin,progress and present condition of the Fine Arts in Great Britain and Ireland' (1841)William Benjamin Sarsfield Taylor pg 357 xiii Frank P. Brown loc. cit xiv MacDonald op.cit pg 67 xv Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 3 xvi ibid pg4 xvii Mac Donald op.cit pg 70 (note in the diary of Benjamin Dayton) xviii The Civil engineer and architect's journal, (1866-67) Volume 15 William Laxton pg 324 (Artistic Education-Working Classes.) xix 'Benjamin Robert Haydon : correspondence and table-talk ;with a memoir by his son Frederic Wordsworth Haydon' (1876) Haydon Benjamin Robert pg 198 xx Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 3 xxi Hayton op.cit pg xxii Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 edition under : Willian Dyce xxiii Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 5 xxiv 'Critical art pedagogy: foundations for postmodern art education' (1998)Richard Cary pg 83 xxv loc.cit

xxvi 'Social radicalism and the arts: Western Europe : a cultural history from the Frech Revolution to 1968' (1970)Donald Drew Egbert pg 454 xxvii Richard Cary loc.cit xxviii 'Letters from John Ruskin to Ernest Chesneau' (1894) p22 (Letter date 28 December 1882) xxix 'Grand designs: labor, empire, and the museum in Victorian culture' (2007) Lara Kriegel pg 40 xxx MacDonald op.cit pg126-127 xxxi Lara Kriegel op.cit pg41 xxxii MacDonald op.cit pg 89 xxxiii Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 4 xxxiv Mac Donald op.cit pg 96 xxxv Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 6 xxxvi Mac Donald pg op.cit 100,101 xxxvii Frank P.Brown op.cit pg 8,9 xxxviii 'William Morris: design and enterprise in Victorian Britain' (1991)Charles Harvey, Jon Press pg 40 xxxix 'Fifty Years of Public Work of Sir Henry Cole, K. C. B., Accounted for in His Deeds, Speeches and W ritings' (1884) Henry Cole, Alan Summerly Cole pg 108 Charles Harvey, Jon Press xl loc.cit xli Ibid pg40-41 xlii Henry Cole, Alan Summerly Cole op.cit pg 108 xliiihttp://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhi bns/month/aug2001.html xliv 'A History of Modern Design' (2003) David Raizman, Laurence Pu King pg 51 xlv 'Household gods: the British and their possessions' (2006)Deborah Cohen pg 17 xlvi Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 12 xlvii loc. cit xlviiihttp://www.britishhistory.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47519 xlix.Henry Cole ,Alan Summerly Cole op.cit pg 299 l Henry Cole, Alan Summerly Cole op.cit pg 298 li Frank P. Brown op cit pg 9 lii Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 under : Art Training

pic 2.3 Selection of plates from Owen Jones' “Grammar of ornament� (1853) featuring Indian, Byzantine,Chineese,Egyptian ,Greek,Celtic,Medieval,Turkish and Hindu ornaments respectively

John Ruskin

John Ruskin "Do not think of your faults, still less of other's faults; look for what is good and strong, and try to imitate it. Your faults will drop off, like dead leaves, when their time comes."

John Ruskin(1819-1900)English author and art critic was one of the major figures of the Victorian age, for over fifty years of his life he wrote consistently and persistently on art, architecture and society.

Ruskin's feverishly writings would include books and essays on geology, botany, church politics, painting, sculpture, literature, art education, myth, aesthetics and poetry.

Ruskin has been credited for bringing the 'hoi polloi' closer to art. He would embrace and develop the idea, that 'the buildings and art of a people are the expression of their religion, their morality and social habits' and supported that art should be perceived within its social and political context and not separate form it.

Ruskin essentially preached that the built environment of a society is a direct result of that societie's zeitgeist. This awareness of the sociopolitical dimensions of art, architecture and literature would later lead to his writings on political economy and socialism which was to dominate the greatest part of his life. Ruskin advocated that in order to reform society the workman should find 'space of creativity and joy' within his labour and that this could only be done if we were stimulate the status of the workman within the community removing the boundaries between fine and applied art.

Ruskin attacked modern society which was producing 'inhuman relationships' with the division

of labour treating men as 'machines and animated tools' - “ so that all the little piece of intelligence of men is not enough to make a pin . Or a nail, but exhausts in making the point of a pin or the head of a nail.” all in the name of profit.

With his work Ruskin gave inspiration both to the 'Aesthetic' and 'Arts and Crafts Movement' his influence in architecture can be seen in both the 19th century Gothic revivalists as well as the 20th century modernists.

“The purposefulness and solidity of modern architecture and industrial art are very largely the result of Ruskin's endeavors and doctrines”i Son of Scottish John James Ruskin (1875-1864) and Margaret Cox (1781-1871); Ruskin's ideas would be a combination of the literate and the word of God; which so profoundly influenced his personality and the way he communicated his ideas with the people. His father was a man of 'belles letters' and 'fine art' while his mother was of the old Puritan school of Calvinists.

This mixture would ultimately create a charismatic 'art preacher' which was destined to seize the Victorian world.

Ruskin's father a prosperous wine merchant, partner of 'Ruskin, Telford & Domecq,' would frequently travel across England in which travels the young Ruskin would accompany him together with his mother and in this way

The Nature of Gothic cathedrals, castles, colleges, parks, mountains and lakes would captivate the boys imagery. His continental travels would include European cities such as Paris, Brussels, Switzerland as well as the Alps, travels that resulted in an unexpected aesthetic education and perceptio. On the other hand his practice both in prose and verse were also part of his childhood 'sole shaping' and while his mother trained him reading the bible, his father introduced him to Shakespeare, Scott, Don Quixote, Pope and Byron.

The young Ruskin began to compose as soon as he had learned to read and write acquiring an excellent command of language and sense of style; beginning at the age of five Ruskin began to write poetry, dramas and romances imitating the great writers. At the age of eleven his education was further elaborated with lessons in Latin, Greek and geometry as well as drawing and oil painting.

In 1837 Ruskin entered Christ Church Oxford, his parents expecting him to take Holy Orders and enter the Church; he was enrolled in Oxford as a 'gentlemen commoner' which meant he needn't complete a full course of studies. Ruskin's education in Oxford would not be a successful one, but in the 'Oxford years' he made life-long friendships which would help him later in his career; his single noteworthy success was winning the 'Newdigate Prize' with his poem 'Salsette and Elephanta,' in 1839 he graduated in 1842. If there was one thing that Ruskin was capable of doing was describing what he could see. Ultimately this would be his weapon to change 'Victorian perception'

introducing new ideas in art, philosophy and life. At the age of 17 Ruskin wrote for 'Blackwood's Magazine' a defense for J.M.W.Turner (1775-1851) which was nevertheless not published; Turner's defense against his critics would be just the beginning of Ruskin's critic incursion in world of Arts between 1936-1937 Ruskin authored a series of papers i.e 'The poetry of architecture' for 'London's Architectural Magazine' signing as 'Kata Phusin'ii. These essays were divided in two parts: in the first part Ruskin would describe the cottages of England, France, Switzerland, and Italy, and the second part the villas of Italy and England - with special reference to Como and Windermere; the essays were followed with a discussion on the laws of artistic composition and practical suggestions, hints and directions for picturesque cottage-building. Ruskin had been influenced by William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and the Lake School's iii romantic descriptions of Lake country and the humble rural cottages where Ruskin himself had spent time as a child .

In 1843 Ruskin finished the first volume of one of his major works 'Modern Painters' carrying out a more careful defense on Turner and signing the book as 'A graduate of Oxford.'

Here he would launch an attack on the old masters before 1800, focusing on their lack of attention to natural truth; Ruskin commented on the fact that they invented or composed their landscapes in their studios. Contrary to the modern painters which were closer to reality'observing water, air clouds stones and vegetation.'

John Ruskin Ruskin would then travel to Italy in order to study and work on the second volume of 'Modern Painters' which appeared three years later in 1846. In 1849 he published 'The Seven lamps of Architecture' which enlarged his reputation as an art critic 'The stones of Venice' was announced in 1849 and the fist of three volumes appeared early in 1851 elaborating on the ideas he first communicated on 'The Seven lamps of Architecture' he was then 31 years old. The year that 'The Stones of Venice' appeared was coupled with two other major events in Ruskin's life the death of J. M. W. Turner and the essay he wrote in defense of PreRaphaelitism. In 1853 'The Stones of Venice' were completed and Ruskin begun a series of letters and notes on 'Pictures and Architecture'.

During the same year Ruskin also begun a series of Public Lectures i.e 'The Edinburgh Lectures'(November 1853)dealing with Architecture, Turner and Pre-Raphaelitism and 'The Manchester Lectures'(July 1857)treating the moral and social issues of Art. From then on till 1860 Ruskin would write apart from others : 'The elements of Drawing' (1857) and 'The elements of Perspective' (1859). After prolonged labor in 1860 the final Volume of 'Modern Painters' came out which would marking the end of an era in his life and career ending his works on art strictly. Having already reflected on the the 'evils' of modern and industrial society Ruskin would spend the last forty years of his life devoted to expounding his views and propositions on socialism, labour, education, morals and religion.

The essence of Ruskin teachings triumphed in the effect that he profoundly modified the view of artists, critics and public of his time.

The moral of his teachings that all art requires truth, nature, purity and earnestness has become axon of all aesthetic work and judgment.

It is safe to say in other words that John Ruskin was one of the architects of the reformation of art.

Refrences: i George P. Landow Professor of English and the History of Art, Brown University ii Greek for 'According to Nature' iii Lake School :Romantic Group of Poets

pic 3.1 John Ruskin

The Nature of Gothic

The Nature of Gothic "...to some of us when we first read it, now many years ago, it seemed to point out a new road on which the world should travel.”

William Morris 'The Nature of Gothic' the second part in the first volume of 'The stones of Venice' is regarded as a landmark in the landscape of the Art and Design world.William Morris characterized it as one of Ruskin's most important wittings “one of the few necessary and inevitable utterances of the century.”

Ruskin's words are strong and heartfelt, he teaches the world that art is essentially the expression of man's pleasure in labor; that it is possible that man finds rejoice in his work; and that there was a time when he actually did so.

Constructing arguments that no one can challenge or deny with the soul of a poet, the eyes of an artist and the power of a preacher Ruskin delivers his gospel reading behind the lines revealing uncomfortable truths.

Pragmatically the Book Examines the different faces of Venetian architecture establishing the position that only in Gothic architecture did mankind ever find pleasure in working.

Navigate through this summarized extract of 'The Nature of Gothic' and listen to what it has to say... speaking directly to your heart;

Venetian architecture is an intermediate step between Byzantine and the Gothic forms.

'Gothic Architecture' has “external forms and internal elements” its internal elements can be found in certain mental tendencies of the builders such as legibly expressed in it; faithfulness, love of variety, love of richness etc.

Its external forms on the other hand are the pointed arches, the vaulted roofs etc. Unless both the elements and the forms are there, there is no right to call it Gothic. It is not enough that it has form, it must have also power and life.

It is not enough that it has power if it not have form.

Therefore these two separate characters may be determined as the 'Mental Expression' and the 'Material form'.Regarding the 'Mental Power or Expression' which are the characters that the Gothic builders love, or instinctively express in their work as distinguished from other buildings, the characteristic or 'Moral elements' of Gothic placed in their order of importance are : I.'Savageness' II.'Changeableness' III.'Naturalism' IV.'Grotesqueness' V.'Rigidity' VI.'Redundance'

John Ruskin Henceforth Ruskin examines one by one the internal elements of Gothic architecture and within the 'frame' of this examination he gives his 'lights' to the world.

Savageness: Gothic as architecture of the North was intended to imply reproach, and express the barbaric character among the nations whom this architecture arose.

Their buildings exhibited a degree of sternness and rudeness which in contradiction to the character of southern and eastern nations, appeared like a perpetual reflection of the contrast between the 'Goth' and the 'Roman' in their first encounter.

It is true, greatly and deeply true that the architecture of the North is rude and wild; and for that it deserves our profoundest reverence.

Comparing the ongoing for centuries natural difference of the South and North Ruskin describes the Mediterranean “lying like an irregular lake and its ancient promontories sleeping in the sun,” and compares this image to “the wall of ice, like iron sets, deathlike.” - There is no degradation, no reproach in this he says,but all dignity and honorableness; “The wildness of thought is reflected ultimately on the roughness of work”.

The Systems of Architectural ornament according to Ruskin might be divided in three categories :

Servile ornament: in which the execution or power of the inferior workman is entirely subjected to the intellect of the higher.

Constitutional ornament: in which the executive inferior power is, to a certain point, emancipated and independent, having a will of its own, yet confessing its inferiority and rendering obedience to higher powers ; Revolutionary ornament: in which no executive inferiority is admitted at all.

The Greek master-workman being advanced in knowledge and powder above the Assyrian or Egyptian.

Neither he(master-workman) nor those for whom he worked for (patron)could endure the appearance of imperfection in anything ; and, therefore, what ornament he appointed to be done by those beneath him was composed of mere geometrical forms, balls, ridges, and perfectly symmetrical foliage, which could be executed with absolute precision by line and rule.

The Assyrian and Egyptian, on the other hand , less cognizant of accurate form in anything, were content to allow their figure sculpture to be executed by inferior workmen, lowering the method of its treatment to a standard which every workman could reach, and then trained him by discipline so rigid, that there was no chance of his falling beneath the standard appointed.

The workman was, in both systems, was a slave...

The Nature of Gothic In the medieval, or especially Christian architecture, the workman was freed(...) “Do what you can, and confess frankly what you are unable to do ; neither let your effort be shortened for fear of failure, nor your confession silenced for fear of shame.” This is, the principal admirableness of the 'Gothic schools of architecture', that they received the results of the labor of inferior minds.

Resulting through these miner imperfections to a perfect whole.

Ruskin here takes a jump to examin architecture from the viewpoint of laborer - the people that built the Pyramids, the Assyrian palaces,and the Greek temples suggesting that this 'labor slavery' should be done with, forever if it is for society to prosper: “we should look for the thoughtful part of the workers, and get it out of them, whatever the lose and whatever the consequence.”(...) “either make a tool of the creature, or a man of him(...)Men were not intended to work with the accuracy of tools, to be precise and perfect in all their actions(...)you must un-humanize them”. “the into else mass into

degradation of the operative a machine more that anything evil is what is leading the of the nations everywhere a struggle for freedom

“it is not that men are ill fed, but that they have no pleasure in the work by which they make their bread and therefore look to wealth as the only means of pleasure.” (...)

“it is not that men are pained by the scorn of the upper classes, but they cannot endure their own ; for they feel that the kind of labor to which they are condemned is verily a degrading one, and makes them less than men.” (...) “never had the upper classes been so generous towards the lower classes, and yet never were they so much hated by them.” "we have much studied and much perfected, of late, the great civilized invention of the division of labor ; only we give it a false name. It is not, truly speaking, the labor that is divided ; but the men :—Divided into mere segments of men—broken into small fragments and crumbs of life ; so that all the little piece of intelligence that is left in a man is not enough to make a pin, or a nail, but exhausts itself in making the point of a pin, or the head of a nail.” “we manufacture everything except men we blanch cotton, and strengthen steel, refine sugar, and shape pottery ; but to brighten, to strengthen, to refine, or to form a single living spirit, never enters into our estimate of advantages.” “the solution to this decay is not by teaching nor preaching, for to teach them is but to show them their misery, and to preach to them, if we do nothing more than preach, is to mock at it(...) it can only be met by right understanding from all classes, of what kinds of labor are good for men, raising them, and making them happy”

John Ruskin How can this be done? Easily by following three simple rules :

so on, but nothing to bring out the whole mind."

- Never encourage the manufacture of any article not absolutely necessary, in the production of which invention has no share.

- Never demand an exact finish, when it does not lead to a noble end.

-Never encourage imitation or copying of any kind, except for the sake of preserving record of great works.

"every person who wears cut jewels merely for the sake of their value is, therefore, a slave-driver.”

“glass beads are utterly unnecessary, and there is no design or thought employed in their manufacture.(...) The men who chop up the rods sit at their work all day, their hands vibrating with a perpetual and exquisitely timed palsy(...)

Neither they, nor the men who draw out the rods, or fuse the fragments, have the smallest occasion for the use of any single human faculty” “every young lady, therefore, who buys glass beads is engaged in the slave-trade, and in a much more cruel one than that which we have so long been endeavoring to put down.”

On the other hand: “glass cups and other vessels may become the subjects of exquisite invention ; and if in buying these we pay for the invention, that is to say for the beautiful form, or color, or engraving, and not for mere finish of execution, we are doing good to humanity.”

Again: “the cutting of precious stones, in all ordinary cases, requires little exertion of any mental faculty; some tact and judgment in avoiding flaws, and

But : “the working of the goldsmith, and the various designing of grouped jewelery and enamel-work, may become the subject of the most noble human intelligence.

Therefore, money spent in the purchase of welldesigned plate, of precious engraved vases, cameos, or enamels, does good to humanity” “ if you are to have the thought of a rough and untaught man, you must have it in a rough and untaught way ; but from an educated man, who can without effort express his thoughts in an educated way, take the graceful expression, and be thankful(...) do not silence the peasant because he cannot speak good grammar(...) thus in art, delicate finish is desirable from the greatest masters, and is always given by them. Lower men than these cannot finish, for it requires consummate knowledge to finish consummately, and then we must take their thoughts as they are able to give them.” “so the rule is simple : Always look for invention first, and after that,(...)demand no refinement of execution where there is no thought, for that is slaves' work, unredeemed. Rather choose rough work than smooth work, so only that the practical purpose be answered, and never imagine there is reason to be proud of anything that may be

The Nature of Gothic An example on Venetian glass: “modern glass is exquisitely clear in its substance, true in its form, accurate in its cutting. We are proud of this. We ought to be ashamed of it. The old Venice glass was muddy, inaccurate in all its forms, and clumsily cut, if at all. And the old Venetian was justly proud of it. For there is this difference between the English and Venetian workman, that the former thinks only of accurately matching his patterns, and getting his curves perfectly time and his edges perfectly sharp, and becomes a mere machine for rounding curves and sharpening edges, while the old Venetian cared not a whit whether his edges were sharp or not, but he invented a now design for every glass that he made, and never moulded a handle or a lip without a new fancy in it.Therefore, though some Venetian glass is ugly and clumsy enough, when made by clumsy and uninventive workmen, other Venetian glass is so lovely in its forms that no price is too great for it ; and we never see the same form in it twice.”

“we are always in these days endeavoring to separate the two ; we want one man to be always thinking, and another to be always working, and we call one a gentleman, and the other an operative ; whereas the workman ought often to be thinking, and the thinker often to be working, and both should be gentlemen, in the best sense”

“choose whether you will pay for the lovely form or the perfect finish, and choose at the same moment whether you will make the worker a man or a grindstone.”

Enough, I trust, says Ruskin been said to show the reader that the rudeness or imperfection which rendered the term 'Gothic ', one of the most noble characters of Christian architecture, not only noble but an essential .

Questioning his own argument Ruskin asks:"If the workman can design beautifully, I would not have him kept at the furnace. Let him be taken away and made a gentleman, and have a studio, and design his glass there, and I will have it blown and cut for him by common workmen, and so I will have my design and my finish too."

“only by labor can thought be made healthy, and only by thought can labor be made happy, and the two cannot be separated with impunity.” “in each profession, no master should be too proud to do its hardest work. The painter should grind his own colors ; the architect work in the mason's yard with his men ; the mastermanufacturer be himself a more skillful operative than any man in his mills ; and the distinction between one man and another be only in experience and skill, and the authority and wealth which these must naturally andjustly obtain.”

“it seems a fantastic paradox, but it is nevertheless a most important truth, that no architecture can be truly noble which is not imperfect.”

John Ruskin “since the architect, whom we will suppose capable of doing all in perfection, cannot execute the whole with his own hands, he must either make slaves of his workmen(...) or take his workmen as he finds them, and let them show their weaknesses together with their strength.” “accurately speaking, no good work whatever can be perfect, and the demand for perfection is always a sign of a misunderstanding of the ends of art.” “for two reasons, everlasting laws.

both

based

on

“the first, that no great man ever stops working until he has reached his point of failure ; that is to say, his mind is always far in advance of his powers of execution,(...)and therefore, if we are to have great men working at all, or less men doing their best, the work will be imperfect, however beautiful.”

"accept this then for a universal law, that neither architecture nor any other noble work of man can be good unless it be imperfect ; and let us be prepared for the otherwise strange fact, which we shall discern clearly as we approach the period of the Renaissance, that the first cause of the fall of the arts of Europe was a relentless requirement of perfection, incapable alike either of being silenced by veneration for greatness, or softened into forgiveness of simplicity.”

We finish this summary with Ruskins words as regards to rudeness or savageness... "true Gothic without it.”

can

not

exist

“the second reason is, that imperfection is in some sort essential to all that we know of life. It is the sign of life in a mortal body that is to say, of a state of progress and change.

Nothing that lives is, or can be, rigidly perfect (...) All things are literally better, lovelier, and more beloved for the imperfections”

pic 3. 2 William Morris (1892) Kelmscott Press Edition 'The Nature of Gothic'

P.R.B. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.

"Let us only look around at our exhibitions, and behold the cattlepieces, and sea-pieces, and fruit-pieces, and family-pieces, the eternal brown cows in ditches, and white sails in squalls, and sliced lemons in saucers, and foolish faces in simpers, and try and feel what we are, and what we might have been."

John Ruskin In September 1848 seven young artists John Everett Millais, William Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti along with William Michael Rossetti(1829-1919), James Collinson(1825-1881), Frederic George Stephens(1828-1907) and Thomas Woolner(1825-1892) gathered in Bloomsbury London "to form an secret pact an alliance based on their mutural aversion twoards the state of art in Europe and England. They sought their inspiration in the art from the middle ages and the early Renaissance before Raphael. They wanted to lift the meaning of art in a higher level and believed that art should be based on issues that were serious and heartfelt like life, love, passion and death on that rugit autom afternoon in London they formed the Pre-raphaelite Brotherhood and forever changed the face of British art."

Prerafaelitrna (26.2-24.5) National Museum Sweden.

Ruskin on the other hand who had the power 'to make or break an artist’s career' would publicly defend them and provide with the substantial funds to encourage their art.In the first volume of 'Modern painters' (1843) Ruskin had urged the young artists of Britain to go to Nature “in all singleness of heart, and walk with her laboriously and trustingly, having no other thought but how best to penetrate her meaning, rejecting nothing, selecting nothing, and scorning nothing" advice whether bad or good, as he said involved “infinite labor and humiliation” for those who followed it, thus it was for the most part, rejected. It was however carried out, 'to the very letter,' by a group of very young men who as reward, were attacked with the "most scurrilous abuse ever seen from the public press". They were the P.R.B.

The essence of Pre-Raphaelite work was the battle against superficial art and exaggerated traditionalism which had led to the hypocrisy and materialism of the Victorian world. Their aim was to establish an 'artistic renewal' and a 'moral reform' into the world of art in order to do so they studied nature; working to portray her simplicity and beauty "rejecting nothing, selecting nothing, and scorning nothing" and signed all their paintings with the initials P.R.B.

We begin. says Ruskin, examining the teachings of the Royal Academy " telling the yoth of fifteen or sixteen that Nature is full of faults, and that he is to improve her ; but that Raphael is perfection, and that the more he copies Raphael the better ; and after copying much of Raphael he should try in a Raphaelesque but yet original manner to occupy himself in composing a painting, yet subjected to Raphaelesque rules, which say that :

32

P.R.B. there should be a principal light, occupying one-seventh of its space, a principal shadow, occupying one-third of the same; that no two people's heads in the picture are to be turned the same way, and that all the personages represented are to possess ideal beauty" i Breaking free from the Raphaelesque shackles the P.R.B. revolutionized technically and thematically the manner of looking and rendering the world on canvas documenting current social issues such as the role of women in society, life, love, death, obsession, betrayal and human frailty.

Taking their inspiration from the medieval artists who preceded Raphael they claimed to “return the truth by imagining.”

They began painting outdoors ten years before the 'impressionists' introducing a 'heightened realism' in which every particularity of the natural world was minutely displayed, depicting the human form without idealizing it; ultimately their work was a departure from the 'trend style' that had dominated British paintings rejecting the academic 'dogma' of classicism and the 'formula' which had been created out of the paintings of Raphael; serious and heartfelt their workoften portrayed symbolswhich suggested deeper meanings while picking up 'everyday' moral issues such as 'justice', 'piety', 'domestic relationships' and the everlasting struggle of 'purity against corruption'. .

According to Holman Hunt , it was the discovery of Lasinio's book of engravings of the frescoes at the 'Campo Santo di Pisa' which convinced the group to reject 33

'High Renaissance' in favor of ii earlier art. simple and sincere.In the beginning of the Pre-Raphaelite Movement the artists were caught up by religious subjects: 'Christ in the house of his parents'(1850) by John Millais, would the painting which caused fury, but also made the Pre-Raphaelites their name. The 'heightened realism' introduced in the painting by Millais represented an alternative non idealized image of Christ and the Holy Family, 'returning the truth by imagining,' prompting the reaction of conservative Victorian taste.

Jesus was portrayed in a carpentry workshop, with a dusty and dirt floor as a 'red-headed Jewish boy' and the Virgin Mary as an 'ugly, every-day sempstress,' a furious Charles Dickens would write of “a hideous, wrynecked, blubbering, red-headed boy, in a bed gown,” and the figure of Mary as a “woman so ugly that she would stand out from the rest of the company as a Monster, in the vilest cabaret in France, or the lowest gin shop in England.”iii The Pre-Raphaleites would move on to contemporary subjects of urban life and scenes from the modern city. 'Mariana in the Moated Grange' (1851)from William Shakespeare's play 'Measure for Measure' portrays a woman which has just been rejected from her future husban rising tiered from her seat with her hands holding her waist. The painting depicts the role of women in society and their dependency on marriage in a medieval scenery but with a clear reference to their time.

In 'The Awakened Conscience' (1853)

P.R.B. William Holman Hunt does not bother to 'dress up' his scenery in a medieval fashion and takes a step further: he depicts a young mistress; rising from her position in the lap of her lover, looking out towards the open window, with a series of depicted symbols stressing the fact that the girl wants to escape from the shameful lifestyle.

Landscape painting, would then come to the attention of the P.R.B. in their hunt for the 'Holy Grail' of art. The train now made it easier for the young artists to travel in the rural areas outside of London experimenting on colouring nature outdoors.

Working with high definition and the precision of photographic lens the P.R.B. 'transformed' landscape painting into scientific representation.

'Ophelia' was the piece which established the P.R.B. in the consiousness of the British society, based on Shakespeare's tragedy 'Hamlet' Ophelia's death was completed by Millais in 1852.

The background scenery was painted along the banks of the Hogsmill River in Surrey and it is considered a landmark in landscape painting, due to its minute display of the flora of the river and the riverbank. Completed in two phases first came the outdoor landscape, and then indoor the figure of Ophelia modeled by Elizabeth Siddal(1829-1862) who sat in a bathtub in order to capture 'that' 'heightened realism.' thet the P.R.B. sought for. Holman Hunt's painting 'Our English Coasts,'(1852) depicts a herd of sheep hazardously hanging over a cliff near Hastings; a combination of a

deeper symbolic message embodied within a high definition depiction of the scenery. hich nevertheless, is the result of his work.

A character not yet mentioned, which however played a central role to both the formation and the 'development' of the brotherhood and was to later to be the main inspiration for the 'second wave' of PreRaphaelitism would be Dante Gabrielle Rossetti.

Rossetti's art was characterized for its 'eroticism and medievalism' in a 'dreamy-like' atmosphere this tendency can be seen from the very beginning, in his paintings 'Girlhood of Mary, Virgin' (1849) and 'Ecce Ancilla Domini' (1850) full of spirituality and symbolism.

The Brotherhood somewhere along the way separated with Millais and Hunt devoting themselves to landscape painting whereas Rossetti sought inspiration in Medievalism.

Hunt and Millas created art based on 'scientific and realistic knowledge' Rossetti on the other with his explorations in the 'world of wonder' hand would fuse the later wave of 'Aestheticism' which was destined to change the world of decorative arts for ever.

A new chapter in the history of art was written by the 'elder brother' of the P.R.B. Ford Madox Brown with his painting 'The Pretty Baa Lambs' (1851) which along with Holman Hunt's 'Hireling Shepherd' and Millais’s 'Ophelia' attempted to capture 'naturalistic light effects' Ford Madox Brown although never was member of the P.R.B. 'both inspired and drew 34

P.R.B. inspiration' from the brotherhood.

Following the dictum'go to nature and reject nothing, select nothing, and scorn nothing' Brown decided to paint not only the background of his painting but the entire scene outdoors including his model capturing colors lighting conditions - shadows daylight - sunlight. Brown later would write in his 1854 diary on this picture: “The Baa-lamb’s picture was painted almost entirely in sunlight which twice gave me a fever while painting. I used to take the lay figure out every morning and bring it in if it rained, my painting room being on the level with the Garden. Emma sat for the lady and Kate for the child. The lambs and sheep used to be brought every morning from Clapham Common in a truck. One of them ate up all the flowers one morning in the Garden, and they iv used to behave very ill."

The association of the three men in 1848 Hunt being twenty-one, Rossetti twenty, and Millais only nineteen, was to begin the most eminent art movement of modern England. Rossetti, was full of dreams and desires had the heart of a poet, and was gifted with the power of infusing his enthusiasm into others.

Hunt, was selfconscious fervent and hardworking, with ambitions of completing noteworthy and original achievements and Millais, was the marvel child, the shining star, an already successful artist, conscious of his talent, and full of the ambition of a genius.

Nontheless the influenced of the thought and the personality of Ford Madox Brown should not be forgotten.

Feeling that art was ' captured in the cage of

conventionality' and that the systematic generalization of rules was utterly malicious.

Brown first based his art on the love of study of actual fact and not on the cold convention of classic tradition.

Madox Brown had come under the spell of Romantisism in the early stage of his career; by 1845, already an able painter, he had visited the studios of the German Nazarenes, in Romev The Brotherhood of Saint Luke attempted to return to the art of the fourteenth and fifteenth century before the rationalism of the Reinessance and the Reformation; they had resident in Rome since 1910 and had made an international reputation for their work and archaist style.vi Ultimately Brown would be influenced by the works Hans Holbein (1497-1543)and Albrecht Dürer(1471-1528).

Today Madox Brown may be regarded as the originator of the PreRaphaelite Movement in England something although that William Holman Hunt would not agree with in his autobiography suggesting that it was rather him and Millais that had started the whole thing.'An English autumn afternoon' begun in 1852 and took Ford Madox Brown three years to complete it; 'microscopic' in its examination and with the eye of 'photographic lens' Ford Madox drew everything he could see out of the window from the north-east view of his house over Hampsteadand. Today the painting is literaly regarded as a 'microscopic treatise' of the life and natural history of North London. When Brown had it first exhibited in 1855. Ruskin asked him “what made you take such a very ugly subject, it was a pity for there was some nice painting 35

P.R.B. in it” his reply was that he had painted it simply “because it lay out of his back window.”vii Ford Madox Brown unlike Hunt and Millais who were painting detailed pictures, depicting accurate studies of nature, self-styled a more modest motivation: 'love of the mere look of things'.As in 'Work' and 'The Last of England' which were painted at the same period, 'An English Autumn Afternoon' depicts the ordinary everyday life of the people.viii

Pic 4.1 The Pre-Raphaelite periodical 'The Germ' 1850

Dante Gabrielle Rossetti (18281882) English painter and poet, was son of an Italian political refugee Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti (1783-1854)and Frances Mary Lavinia Polidori(1800-1886).From an early childhood the young Rossetti had displayed a talent in drawing and painting; on the oher hand his literary nurturing began with Shakespeare, Scott, Byron and the Bible and moved on to Shelly and Robert Browning and old Scottish ballads and of course Dante which was his favourite and even put it front of his given name in order to honour him. By 1847 he was deep into Robert Browning, Victor Hugo and De Muset amongst French poets.ix Given this information we can easily understand that the heart of young Rossetti must have been shaped into the heart of a Romantic. In 1848 impatient and discontent of the teachings in the Royal Academy, Rossetti wrote to Ford Madox Brown a letter; fascinated by his work and his 'admiration for his skill and genius he expressed his desire to become his pupil'x Brown would accept him as a scholar and their meeting would lay the foundations of strong life-lasting friendship.

It was about this time that Rossetti had also became acquainted with Millais and Hunt. His impression of Brown rose especially from the artist's contribution to the 'Free Exhibition of Modern Art', at Hyde Park Corner in the spring of 1848. The special piece which attracted Rossetti's attention was 'The First Translation of the Bible into English,' or, 'Wickliffe reading his Translation of the New Testament to John of Gaunt'(1847-8).xi The 36

P.R.B. painting itself also attracted much attention, arousing public controversies,and perhaps may be regarded as the first PreRaphaelite picture ever produced.

Rossetti's essential aim was to reach through art the forgotten world of romance, mystery, wonder and spiritual beauty.

A rebel against classicism, in his poetry as well as in his paintings Rossetti cultivated more than anyone else the 'modern revival' of the 'romantic spirit', 'the renaissance of Wonder' as it was called, so as much that the poet who would go beyond Rossetti would pass out of the realm of poetry into pure mysticism.xii Rossetti turned instinctively to the mysterious side of nature and life, walking on grounds that no other artists of that time dared step into, and remained so, to his last breath. In the spring of 1860 Rossetti would marry Elizabeth Siddall, the central model and muse of the Preraphaelite Brotherhood.

Rossetti's first picture was “The Girlhood of Mary Virgin”,(1849) hung in the " Free Exhibition" in Hyde Park, while Millais and Hunt were exhibiting their pictures at the Royal Academy.

The picture that followed, was “Ecce Ancilla Domini.”(1849-50) his later paintings are mostly an expression of romanticism but one may still trace an attention to details displaying the artist's will for sincerity in representation.xiii Most characteristic of this phase of Rossetti's work are his numerous water-colours executed between the years 1850 and 1860.xiv 'Dante on the Anniversary of the Death of Beatrice' (1853) ; 'Lancelot and 37

Guinevere at the Tomb of Arthur' (1854);'Paolo and Francesca' (1855)'The Blue Closet'(1857); 'The Wedding of St George'(1857).

In the second phase of Rossetti's art more characteristic were his work in oil.xv Perhaps the best known of the pictures of this period is 'Beat a Beatrix', the oil picture was completed in 1863xvi a year after Siddal's death.

This was followed such works as 'Fait Rosamund' (1861); 'Belcolore' (1863); and 'Lady Lilith' (1864).

The third phase of his work saw the completion of oil-colour versions of masterpieces such as 'Venus Verticordia'(1864-68), and 'The Belove'(1865-66) later came 'Joli Cceur' (1867); 'Proserpina' (1874); 'Veronica Veronese' (1872) and 'La Bella Mano' (1875).'His essentially romantic spirit delighted in the exotic and the unique.'xvii Technically, his capacity was not equal to his gift of imagination; it could be said that he was 'a poet working in pigments'; he sought for beauty and when he found it, it gave him the inspiration which transformed his paintings into masterpieces. But the distinction of Rossetti's work lies in the fact that he conceived and embodied not only beauty, but the element of 'strangeness in beauty' which Walter Pater (18391894) English essayist and art critic discerned as the “inmost .xviii spirit of romantic art”

P.R.B. William Holman Hunt (1827-1910) son of a city warehouse manager with a taste for art and literature would initially not be supportive of his son desision to embrace art as a career xix nevertheless, he did not repress Hunts temperament to draw either since he looked upon it as a 'fine amusement for the leisure' ; At the early age of twelve Hunt was pulled out of School and had gained a job in an office at that time the young Hunt would separete his time between reading, drawing and painting.

One day as his Master returned to the office he caught him drawing a sketch; instead of putting him down he told him: “In there is a complete box of oil colors, brushes, palette, and everything necessary for painting, and some day we shall shut ourselves up and have a good day with them together, a thing I dearly love."xx the box of oil colors eventually was passed over to Hunt and this is how he began his career as an oil painter.

Shortly afterwards he attend the mechanics institute to practice drawing; his father then took him to John Varley(17881842),professor of watercolor landscape and 'Zodiacal Physiognomy' in order that he further pursued his studies.xxi Between the age of seventeen and eighteen, after several attempts Hunt finally entered the Royal Academy where he met and studied along with his new friend fifteen year old John Everett Millais.

Already, in his student life Hunt had developed a remarkable power of patient work.xxii A loving care and patience in the execution of work is evident and so is his struggle to portray things as realistic as possible. In his

later works he would untangle his 'personal mark' confessing a strong religious feeling trough symbolism which penetrated his xxiii work.

'The Hireling Shepherd' (1851) was followed by works of a similar aim, 'The Awakened Conscience'(1851-53); 'The Strayed Sheep';(1852) and then the religious tendency of the artist's mind, already shown in 'A Converted British Family sheltering a Missionary',(1850) which promoted the world famous 'Light of the World.'(1853-54) The success of that great allegoric painting led to the artist's first journey East, in January 1854 Hunt left England to travel to Jerusalem and Palestine in order to depict biblical scenes in their natural scenery thus came 'The Scapegoat'(1854)'; 'The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple'(1854-60); 'The Afterglow'(1854-1863); 'The Shadow of Death'; 'The Plains of Esdraelon'(1877-78); and other well-known pictures all depicting a completeness of portrayal and symbolism, illustrating the history of Christianity in its actual surroundings. Once again except for its artistic importance the paintings also had the value of the historical landscape documentation.

Hunt admittedly was the master of xxiv definite presentment remaining entirely unaffected by all the movements in the art world after 1850, he spent too much labor on each of his works that made it it impossible to produce many.

Nevertheless perhaps no other ninteenth century painter made such a reputation by so few pictures as Hunt. On the early 'Two Gentlemen of Verona'(1850-51) 38

P.R.B. Ruskin would comment saying that "There had not been nothing in art so earnest or complete since the days of Albert Durer "xxv Hunt returned to Jerusalem in 1875 and painted 'The triumph of Innocence' is characterized as the most serious labor in his life.

pic 4.2 John Everett Millais

pic 4.3 Dante Gabriel Rossetti (photo cr. : Rosetti archive )

pic 4.5 William Holman Hunt

39

John Everett Millais (1829-1896) English painter and son of John William Millais, and Emily Mary from a very young age had shown his natural talent in sketching.

Once in London in 1838 after presenting some of his sketches to Martin Archer Shee(1764-1850), at that time the President of the Royal Academy it was strongly recommended that he attend Gary's Drawing Academy.xxvi He entered the Royal Academy schools in 1840 having already won a silver medal from the 'Society of Arts' in 1839. xxvii In 1846 he exhibited 'Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru' and in 1847 'Elgiva seized by the Soldiers of Odo.'xxviii In the beginning of 1848 he had already resolved to the Pre-Raphaelite ideology “to present on canvas what they saw xxix in Nature�

Millais's first picture on these new principles was a banquet scene from John Keats'(1795-1821) "Isabella" (1849), which contains all the characteristics of Pre-Raphaelite work, including minute imitation of nature down to the smallest details, as well as the study of all persons and objects directly from the originals.xxx His next important picture, 'Christ in the House of His Parents,' or 'The Carpenters Shop' (1850), represented an imaginary incident in the childhood of Jesus Christ but treated in un-beautified realistic manner, the piece as has been said before drew upon it a rage both, religious and artistic abuse.

The rest of his more strictly Pre-Raphaelite pictures include 'The Return of the Dove to the Ark (1851); 'The Woodman's Daughter' (1850-51) 'Mariana' (1851), 'The Huguenot' and 'Ophelia' (1852), all received from the

P.R.B. public, establishing his reputation as a sucessfull painter, a public which had also been greatly influenced by the sway of John Ruskin, who in his letters to 'The Times,' in 1851 and his pamphlet 'PreRaphaelitism' enthusiastically embraced the cause of the Brotherhood and supported that “as they gain experience may lay in our England the foundations of a school or art nobler than the world has seen for three hundred years”xxxi Millais who had become Ruskin's protégé would later marry Ruskins divorced wife Effie Gray(1828-1897).

In 1855 Millais exhibited "The Rescue," a scene from a fire, which drew great attention for its realistic depiction. Millais was one of the greatest painters of his time, and did more than any to infuse new and healthy life into British art he may have not been an idealist, but he could paint what he saw.

The Pre-Raphaelite days of Millais lasted from 1849 to 1859, and in the course of that time he produced a large number of important works, many of which are considered as masterpieces of the English school. When the three first formed the alliance it was ultimately Millais who was looked upon as the champion of the movement far more equipped technically than both Hunt and Rossetti. In his work one may distinguish Millais love for sincere and absolute accuracy of presentment. Later in his career he would abandon the aims of the Brotherhood and adopt to more commercial subjects.

He died a Baronet and the official Head of English art 'President of the Royal Academy' in 1896.

Refrences: i Pre-Raphaelitism (1851 )John Ruskin ii Pre-Raphaelitism and the preRaphaelite brotherhood (1905) William Holman Hunt pg130 iii Household words, Volume I (1850) Charles Dicken pg 225-226 iv Preraphaelite diaries and letters (1900)Rossetti, William Michael, pg 109 (Emma and Kate being his wife and daughter respectively) v The Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood : a critical monograph (1920)Ford, Ford Madox vi The art of Ford Madox Brown (1998 )Kenneth Bendine pg 12 viiRossetti: his life and works (1928)Evelyn Waugh pg 74 viiihttp://www.schoolsliaison.org.uk/2004 /bmag/resources/pre_raphs_web.pdf [1] Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery ix Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 under 'Dante Gabrielle Rossetti' x Waugh op.cit pg 26 xi ibid pg 40 xii Britannica loc.cit xiii The English pre-raphaelite painters, their associates and successors (1910)Bate Percy pg 41-42 xiv ibid pg42 xv ibid 43-44 xvi ibid 45 xvii ibid 50 xviii ibid loc.cit xix Painting was no way to make a living - Story of Morland xx Holmanop.cit pg12 xxi ibid pg 15 xxii Percy op.citpg 26 xxiii ibid loc.cit xxiv Ibid pg 26 xxv The complete works of John Ruskin, Volume 18 (1891)John Ruskin pg 70 xxviEncyclopedia Britannica 1911 under 'Sir John Evert Millais' xxvii ibid xxviii ibid xix The life and letters of Sir John Everett Millais, president of the Royal Academy (1900) Millais, John Guille pg 55 xxx Britannica op.cit Millais xxxi Letter to the Times 26 may 1851

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P.R.B.

pic 4.6 'Christ in the House of His Parents' John Everett Millais (1849-50)

pic 4.8 'Ecce Ancilla Domini' (The Annunciation), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (184950)

pic 4.7 The Shadow of Death William Holman Hunt (1870 -1873)

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P.R.B.

pic 4.89 'Ophelia' John Everett Millais, (1851-52) / Model : Elizabeth Siddal

pic 4.10 'Pretty Baa-lambs' Ford Madox Brown (1851-1859)

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Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. 1861 Origins of the Art and Craft Movement “The growth of Decorative Art in this Country, owing to the efforts of English Architects, has now reached a point at which it seems desirable that Artists of reputation should devote their time to it.�

Prospectus Morris, Marshall Faulkner & Co The decline of rural handicrafts in a direct way; the as a result of the rise of broader range of society, the 'industrial society' was a cause 'hoi polloi' remained unaffected. for concern for many designers The question to which extent and social reformers of the mid should the message of Medievalism ninteenth century.

The machine and Pre-Raphaelitism be diffused made production of the industrial within mediums other than the revolution and the idea of 'fine arts,' was to be 'mechanical perfection' that had laboriously answered by a dominated the English society the 'fellowship' of artists, poets cause of doom for English and architects, who under the craftsmanship. All the same the premiership of William Morris factory system by the extreme (1836-1896) in a workshop in division of labor among its Queen square London would workmen left no space for succeeded in realizing the Preindividual artistic expression Raphaelite and Medieval values among the younger generation of in the the most amazing and craftsmen working and training in effective way. The formation of the new factories. Nevertheless Morris, Marchal, Faulkner & since the 1840's a movement Company would have a profound twoards the study of medieval art effect on Victorian 'taste', in England had emerged and many infiltrating and gradually architects, designers and transforming the perception and antiquaries expressed interest in style of the contemporary the medieval world: such as the interiors.

The firm notabely Pugins, Henry Shaw(1800-1889), carried not only the 'medieval William Burges (1827-1881) and look' in design, but also the George Edmund Street (1824-1881). 'medieval idea' of construction All the same in the world of and workmanship; their sucessful visual arts it would be the 'translation' of design elements school of Pre-Raphaelites which from the 'fine arts' into a new would lead the rebellion against vocabulary for everydday objects classicism; their careful and and the 'applied arts' would rise throughout method of painting the standard and taste of would ultimately turn attention domestic decoration as well as to the 'beauty of color and revive the dignity of hand design,' thus awakening, labour. This foremost achievement 'sleeping conspicuousnesses.' and of bringing 'art' within the expressing the further need to reach of thousands by decorating return to a more pure way of the 'less obvious' articles of life. household ultimately 'rescued' design from the 'decay and The 'message' nevertheless could ostentation' of the lifeless not have influenced the people industrialized products of the

Pre-Rapahaelitism, Aestheticism It would be the association of William Morris and Edward Brune Jones(1833-1898),proponents of the 'Arts and Crafts Movement' with the Pre-Raphaelites ideals which was destined to change the course of decorative arts forever. In 1853 William Morris entered Exeter College Oxford and made a lifelong friendship with another freshman Edward Brune i.

Jones Their acquaintance would grow primarily due to their mutual interests in literature and art. Both Morris and Jones had come to Oxford with the intention of taking Holy Orders and entering the Church. The two of them along with a Birmingham group at Pembroke joined together to form a companionship which was to be known as “The Brotherhood.”ii They would get together in regular meetings and study architecture, theology, ecclesiastic history, medieval poetry romances and chronicles as well as Tennyson and Ruskin.

Young William at this time would discover his talent in verse and begin to write his first poetry.

Morris' and Jones' ideas would emerge from the same dilemmas that had formed the earlier group of Pre-Raphaelites particularly following the publications of “The stones of Venice” and much later “Unto this Last” both of which sought to relate the moral and social health of a nation, to the quantities of its architecture and designs; ideas which had a profound influence on both men challenging their views, beliefs and philosophy.

Nevertheless it was not until 1854 in Ruskin's 'Edinburgh Lectures' did either Morris or Brune Jones ever hear of the name

of Dante Gabrielle Rossetti or the existence of the 'PreRaphaelite Brotherhood'iii . The spark to set ablaze the two young men would come from a woodcut of Rossetti's 'Dante drawing the Face of Beatrice'iv The 'poetic fancy and rich coloring' of the little picture had an enormous effect on both men who now saw in Rossetti the truest exponent of their own high ideals and truths and from that moment on they both decided to leave the church and pursue an artistic career.

In 1855 Eduard Burne Jones, still an undergraduate went to London to the 'Working Men's College' (a center of art and literature work at the time) at Great Ormond Street in order to find Rossetti (who spent there a considerable amount time teaching and lecturing) and ask him for his opinion of some of his designs.V When Rossetti eventually saw the young artists drawings admiring his imagination and feeling for beauty' urged him to drop his degree, and to devote himself entirely to artvi through Jones, Rossetti would also come to know William Morris. Now the highly spirited Burne-Jones left Oxford , and settled in London in order to begin a systematic study and practice of art. William Morris, on the contrary, in no hurry to leave Oxford, would complete his University studies, visiting his friend in London during weekends and receiving his B.A. degree in 1856.vii

Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. 1861 On the 1st of January 1856 after just having graduated from Oxford Morris launched The 'Oxford and Cambridge Magazine' which was to include besides poems and short stories, social articles.

The 'experiment' was considered to some extent to be the successor of the 'Germ.'viii and within its pages saw moments of fine poetry.

The new publication contained several of Rossetti's best poems, such as 'The Staff and Scrip,' and 'Nineveh,' as well a series of medieval romances and poems written by the two young artists (MorriS-Jones) who helped launch the 'second phase' of the PreRaphaelite movement, developing the reputation of the PreRaphaelites poets to new horizons. The magazine came out in monthly numbers and lasted a year long; and all its contents were anonymous. In that same year the firm of George Edmund Street for whom Morris had been working for in Oxford would move to London and the young Morris in a feverish manner would work hard both on painting and architecture.

After 1856 Rossetti had quite diverged from the initial path of Pre-Raphaelitism and had become an inspiration for the medievalstrand of the Pre-Raphaelite movement. His close association with Morris and Burne-Jones, helped to initiate the second generation of Pre-Raphaelitism, which aim was to express 'spiritual truths' through 'aesthetic beauty'.

From the 1860s onwards, Morris, BurneJones, and Rossetti would integrated in their romantic medieval artwork ornamental design developing thus a separate characteristic of the PRB’s

legacy.ix This 'new' separate school, also termed PreRaphaelite, was considered as the 'second face' of the movement in which Edward Burne-Jones would become its central figure and would be better termed the x 'Aesthetic Movement' In the summer of 1856 Gabrielle Rossetti in the company of William Morris visited the city of Oxford in order to paint the new Oxford Museum; a neo-Gothic building which John Ruskin had also been involved with.

The building was designed by the Irish architects Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899)and Benjamin Woddward (1816-1861)but a agreement didn't come forth since Rosetti allegedly denied to paint the figure Newton gathering pebbles on the shore of the 'Ocean of Truth'xi on this same occasion the two artists were also shown the newly completed 'Hall of the Oxford Union Debating Society.' and observant of the blank spaces of the gallery window-bays Rossetti impulsively offered to paint a series of Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte D’ Arthur.xii Then seven artists would volunteered to help; the company consisted of course of Gabrielle Rossetti, Burne-Jones and William Morris along with Arthur Hughes(18321915), Val Prinsep (1838-1904), Spencer Stanhope (1829-1908), Alexander Munro(1825-1871), and J. Hungerford Pollen (1820-1902).

The work was carried out by the group in the form of fresco, but as none of the artists was familiar with the processes and art of fresco as well as the fact that it was done too soon and too fast it consequently soon began to fade; the scheme after two

Pre-Rapahaelitism, Aestheticism at least attempts to restore was finally dropped, in 1859.

All the same the effort alone became a highpoint in developing the groups ideological 'platform' especially in regards to medievalsim; remaining as an important relic of the 'Aesthetic Movement' as well as Williams Morris' first attempt towards the decorative arts. On the other hand the experience of working side by side with Rossetti and other established artists and designers proved invaluable for the artistic self-awareness of both Morris and Burne-Jones and although Brune-Jone's displayed a stunning technical ability and proficiency as a painter.

Morris's 'grotesque' figures which were 'poorly and clumsy painted'xiii contrasted his backgrounds which revealed a natural tendency towards design.

After his marriage to Jane Burden(1839-1914) in 1859 Morris desided to build his family house in Upton and embody all his principles of decorative art.

Philip Webb(1831-1915) which had become acquainted with Morris during their co-workmanship in G.E.Street's office in London was commissioned to design the 'Red House.' Then Morris his newlywedded wife and his friend along with their wives would entirely decorated the house, building up all the furniture, designing the stained glass windows, painting the murals, weaving tapestries and textiles all in proper xiv medieval fashion.

Noteworthy amongst others is Rossetti's painting upon one of the doors of the 'Red House' 'Dante meeting Beatrice in a Florentine street, and in the Garden of Eden.'

In the summer

of 1860 the house was ready for habitation; in a letter to P Professor Norton of Cambridge, Massachusetts Rosetti would write of the house: “I wish you could see the house which Morris has built for himself...it is more of a poem than a house.�

The experience of building the 'Red House' made it clear that apart from the fact that it was impossible to buy anything ready made of 'tolerable taste', it was also almost impossible to get things made by order.

Carpentry was the only trade in which the tradition of hand workmanship had survived... glass, china, wallpapers, stuffs, silver plate, could only be procured in debased machine made patterns.xv Therefore after the success of the 'Red House' the idea to form a co-operativexvi society of artists, in the form of medieval craft guilds came about; this idea was soon to expand into a legal firm in which at its head, would stand the figure of William Morris who also provided the largest share of capital.

Through Rossetti who was amongst the first to agree, Ford Madox Brown was enlisted followed by Burne Jones; Charles Falkner,xvii and Phillip Webb, architect of the ' Towers of Topsy'xviii a.k.a.

'Red House'. The business started in January under the Title 'Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co'- To create and sell medieval inspired items for home - The prospectus set forth that the firm would undertake carving, stained glass, metal work, paper hangings, chintzes and carpets.

In the following years, similar to the days of the 'Oxford Murals' and the 'Red House' work

Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. 1861 in a collaborative way.

The contributing partners hoped that the income from 'the shop' would supplement that of the painter and the architect, supporting their art through craft would liberate them from obligation of commercial work. Morris' vision on the other hand was much more radical; he believed that craft was the only socially responsible form of art and 'the firm' was his first attempt to bring aesthetics beyond the realm of 'fine arts'.

The partners would meet a regularly in a 'sufficient informal' manner to discuss the companys projects.

The company would continue to operate for several years up to 1875 on much the same basis. “It is a portion of the artistic and industrial history of our times, written upon our walls in the guise of wall-papers, spread beneath our feet in the form of carpets, and patent to the eye in a hundred ways.�xix

pic 5.1 Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris.

Refrences: ihttp://www.victorianweb.org/authors/morr is/wmbio.html ii 'The Life of William Morris' (2001) John William Mackail pg77 iii 'William Morris: design and enterprise in Victorian Britain' (1991) Charles Harvey,Jon Press pg22 ivhttp://www.victorianweb.org/painting/pr b/cvitan.html v 'Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones' (1904) Burne-Jones, Georgiana, Lady, pg128 vi 'The English pre-Raphaelite painters, their associates and successors' (1905)Bate, Percy Hpg101 vii Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 under William Morris viiihttp://www.rossettiarchive.org/docs/a p4.o93.raw.html ixhttp://www.victorianweb.org/painting/pr b/cvitan.html x As a movement it should be regarded distinct from the Decadent Aestheticism which succeeded it. xi 'Mural painting in Britain 1840-1940: image and meaning' (2000) Clare A. P. Willsdon pg 258 xii It has also been suggested that the commission was patronage of John Ruskin but the exact details of the story vary. xiiihttp://www.victorianweb.org/painting/ prb/cvitan.html xivhttp://www.victorianweb.org/authors/mo rris/wmbio.html xv 'Rossetti his Life and Works' (1928) Evelyn Waugh pg 103 xvi The original idea is attributed to Peter Paul Marshall, a civil engineer and close friend of Rossetti. xvii An old Pembroke friend,of Morris who abandoned a mathematical fellowship at University College, Oxford, to manage the economics of the firm. xviii Topsy was the nickname of Morris 'Topsy from Uncle Tom's Cabin'. xx Ibid pg 60

Pre-Rapahaelitism, Aestheticism

pic 5.2 The 'Red House' London commissioned by William Morris and designed by Philip Webb (1859) (photo cr. : William Morris Society)

pic 5.4 Trellis wallpaper, (1862) William Morris and Philip Webb.

pic 5.3 Window detail in 'Red House'

pic 5.5 St George Cabinet Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. attributed to Philip Webb and William Morris

pic 5.6 Sussex armchair Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co attribulted to Philip Webb and or Ford Madox Brown (?) (photo cr.:Victoria -Albert Museum)

pic 5.7 Armchair Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &Co attribulted to Dante Gabrielle Rossetti (photo cr Rosetti archive)

Miscellaneous - Authoritarian Prometheus Kratos and Via. “The archaic fire that is stolen by Prometheus symbolized the intellectual energy that helped mankind rise from animality and through the instrumentalisation of nature initiated the beginning of artistic and scientific evolution” i

Prometheus was son of Titans Ipateus and Themis;ii the original race of gods that sprung out from Uranus and Gaia.iii He sided with Zeus and the other Olympians; the younger race of gods, during their battle to overthrow the Titans; a clash known as War of the Titans or Titanomachy (Greek: Τιτανομαχία) a series of battles fought between the two races of deities before the existence of mankind.

Prometheus is credited for teaching humans art, science and craft. He stole fire from the Gods and gave it to humanity for its own benefit.

This action alone is considered to have been the beginning of civilization.

Prometheus symbolizes the autonomous being, which rises against authority making decisions and facing his destiny; Punished for his action Prometheus was arrested and bound to a stake on Mount Kaukasos, chained with help of brothers Cratos and Via, where an eagle was sent to feed upon his everregenerating liver day-to-day.

The literal English translation of Cratos (Greek: Κράτος) and Via (Greek: Βία) would be in this case Authority and Violence. The revolutionary act portrayed in this myth is the theft of fire an element which was lone privelage of the Gods... Light(!)

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Behind his act lies the questioning of absolutism; Thus Fire = Power = Light is an equation that exists since prehistoric– mythological times.

The rather provoking combination of Absolutism in the form of Cratos and the Gods, Rebellion in the face of Prometheus, and punishment in the form of Violence are knotted together in a allegoric myth: a system which one may clearly today in the organization of modern society.

“Where the state begins, individual liberty ceases, and vice versa”.

Mikhail Bakunin

Refrences: i Text from “Prometheus the Art performance” a multimedia performance inspired by the myth of Prometheus hosted by Mouseio Benaki. www.prometheus.gr iiIn Greek mythology, the Titans (Greek: Τιτάν Tītān; plural: Τιτνάες Tītânes) were a race of powerful deities that ruled the earth long before the existence of mankind. iii Heaven and Earth

Luminaire Craftmanship

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Art

Discover L. S. Lowry (1887-1976)

A Lancashire Village (1935)

photo cr.:Open Directory - L.S. Lowry

Piccadilly Circus (1960)

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Music-Film-Documentaries

-Six-part dramatised television series (2009) following the lives of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood - 'the men who blew the art world apart' (BBC)

-'Victorian Revolutionaries' documentary examining the PreRaphaelite Brotherhood who 'brought notoriety to British art in the 19th century(...)shocking their peers with a new kind of radical art.'(BBC)

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