The Echo: Founders' Issue 2021

WRIGHT OR WRONG? An insight into some glaring inconsistencies in commonly accepted flight aerodynamics.

THE ORIGINS OF COVID

An investigation into different factors influencing the spread of COVID-19

75 YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE

Showcasing some of the major achievements & progress of Indian science since independence.

Special Section Traversing The Red Planet

Founders’ Issue Issue no. 90 Founder’s Issue 1

FROM THE

Editor’s Desk For the last two years confined in our homes, the pandemic stole the spotlight in the scientific community, engulfing news, and media with displays of valor and intelligence by health professionals, scientists, and everyone else in between.

Despite the new struggles of every day, science has, as always, continued to prevail.

As of this writing, a third of the world population is fully vaccinated from COVID with vaccines that scientists collaborating worldwide created in just a year. The Indian Budget 2021 allocated 50,000 crores to the National Research Foundation to further encourage innovation and research, while other science and research budgets around the world increased as well in recognition of the vitality of science.

This year’s issue reflects this vitality, covering a broad spectrum of topics strongly rooted in the present possibility and past accomplishment, from

questioning the theoretical fundamentals of human flight, to the possibilities of biocomputing, to the experimental discovery of a chemical melting mystery and more. It is also an indicator of how far the scientific community has arrived, a thematic highlight in this issue with our special section on Martian Rovers alongside stand-alone sections on the Origins of COVID, 75 years of Indian Independence, as well as recognition of pioneering and potentially revolutionary research both worldwide, and within our own nation.

When you, our reader, delve into the 90th edition of the Echo in our 45th year, I hope you recognize the culmination of hours of edits, designs, and discussion that has gone towards creating every page and endeavor to explore beyond the boundaries of each article’s eight hundred words.

We hope you enjoy reading this issue and take away something which piqued your interests in one way or another. We sure did!

Signing Off,

Mayank Agrawal Editor-in-Chief

2 The Echo

Editor-in-Chief Mayank Agrawal

Chief-of-Design Shrivar Kanudia

Editors

Agam Bhatia Karmanya Raj Shaan Bulchandani Soham Agarwal

Design Team Arjun Mitra Avi Sahni Svanik Garg

Senior Editors Aryan Prakash Harsh Tibrewala Ruhaan Goel

Senior Correspondents Hridayam Tusnial Krishay Sutodia Svanik Garg

Junior Correspondents Aradhya Jain Vivaan Sood

Masters-in-Charge Mr. Rajesh Majumdar Ms. Ruchi Sahni

Founder’s Issue 3

Contents Articles Indian Scientific Award 38 Nobel Prizes 2021 40 The Echo’s Recommendations 42 References 44

Click on this icon for more information for all articles.

75 years of Science

We explore som achievements a Indian science Indian indepen

Page 20

Origins of C

We look into th of COVID 19’s health authori various theorie them.

Page 16-19

Wright or Wrong

Biocomputing: the Future

Melting My

Page 6

Page 8

Page 10

Comparing mRNA & traditional vaccines

Qurom Sensing of Bacteria

Phantom L Sensation

Page 14

Page 22

Page 23

04 The Echo

f Indian

me of the major and progress of over 75 years of ndence.

COVID-19

he investigation s very roots by ities, and the es arising from

ystery

Limb

Martian Rovers Special Section This section takes a deep dive into Martian rovers and their technicalities over the years to better understand our extraterrestrial endeavors’ technological and scientific progress.

Introduction 28 Sojourner 29 Spirit & Opportunity 30-31 Curiosity 32-33 Perseverance 34-35 Zhurong 36

Page 26-37

The Plastid Thief

Biomimicry: the future of design

Page 12

Page 13

Controlling MosquitoBorne Diseases Page 24

Founder’s Issue 05

Wright or Wrong?

Harshvardhan Maskara sheds light on the surprisingly glaring inconsistencies in commonly accepted flight aerodynamics.

W

ith agencies like SpaceX setting new benchmarks in aeronautics each passing day, it is rather underwhelming to read the title of this article outside of a high school textbook. We are now in the year 2021, yet this fundamental question I pose to you does not yield a complete, foolproof answer. It seems counter intuitive, and I too feel dumbfounded saying that the most common explanations of what gives airplanes lift are actually flawed. So why do airplanes float in the air?

Since the Wright Brothers took flight in 1903, airplanes’ ability to lift off has been associated with the curved surfaces on their unique wings, now known as the airfoil.

Bernoulli’s Theorem and Newton’s Law for action and reaction have been commonly used to demonstrate the concept of the airfoil. The explanations based on these two theories are actually accurate to a large extent and their flaws do not affect flying in general. However, having scientific temperaments, it is our prerogative to answer unanswered questions, hence we must continue our endeavours towards a more consistent and complete theory.

As most of us understand, the wings of the aircraft have a flat surface complemented by a curved one. The difference in shape creates a variation in the speed with which air flows over each of them, inducing a pressure difference across the cross section of the aircraft’s wingspan, hence providing lift. This is based on the Magnus Effect, which is derived from Bernoulli’s theorem.

The image below/to the side aids in understanding the phenomenon.

Although the explanation provided using this theory is largely accurate, there are certain arguments which refute the points put forth. There do exist planes which are able to fly with flat wings so long as the wing is positioned at an appropriate angle to the incoming wind. Similarly, certain aircrafts possessing the capability of acrobatic flying can cruise inverted, which contradicts the theorem. After all, when the curvature of the airfoil is on the opposite side, shouldn’t it result in a downward exertion of force? Furthermore, while the theorem is experimentally true, Bernoulli has not comprehensively explained why higher velocity results in lower pressure zones to be created.

06 The Echo

Talking of the incident angle between an aircraft’s wing and the wind, we come across the second explanation based on Newton’s 3rd Law. As the law makes explicit that every action has an equal and opposite reaction, we can use the same understanding to state that the force exerted by the wing on the air is counteracted by an opposing force which provides the upward lift. In the images to the right, it can be observed that the wind is pushed down and behind by the aircraft wing but if one applies simple high school physics, the force can be resolved into vectors, and the vertical component is portrayed to be providing the aircraft with the essential upward thrust.

Although this explanation is more universally applicable, there are loopholes, as it too cannot explain the difference in pressure induced by the velocity difference of wind. The pressure variation is created irrespective of the wing’s shape and a concrete reasoning is not given.

That said, let’s have a look at the efforts of present-day scientists who have devised a theory to account for multiple factors affecting an airplane’s flight, producing an explanation which, hopefully, takes us closer to the goal. Using a technology called “Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)”, scientists and aerodynamicists enable themselves to visualise the flow of air around the craft’s wing. Emerging ideas have come about as a culmination of existing theories and an especially intriguing one is proposed by pioneering researcher in the aviation

se M hi sp in ad a to pu of ha m pr 2n sh H is cr of ap co st ex

As ef in pe w ca a

ector, Doug Mclean. Prior to introducing his ideas, Mclean agreed that the existing four elements – area of igh pressure, area of low pressure, increase in airflow peed and the pushing down of air by the wing - are nstrumental in producing a theory. The original idea he dded to this intricate problem almost comes across as suggestion of something mystic. Mclean has referred o a fifth element which he believes is the missing uzzle piece, reciprocity. His principle of reciprocity f lift proposes that the system of 4 elements work in armony and are directly affected by each other by mutually dependent acts of cause and effect. Mclean’s roposition is a complex one elucidated using Newton’s nd Law, which affirms that the application of a net force hould cause change in speed or direction of motion.

Herein, the force exerted due to the pressure difference caused by the air particles’ acceleration itself and if the raft were to remain stationary, this synchronous fusion f 4 elements would not exist. While Mclean’s assertions ppeal to reason, it is still a far-fetched idea, and he has onceded to the lack of evidence in his theory. So, as it tands, there is still no holistic and consistent theory to xplain why airplanes can stay afloat in air.

s we watch aircrafts evolve from biplanes to more fficient and dynamic machines capable of venturing nto space, it is imperative for us to let this thought ervade our minds that we yet do not know well enough why that vessel stays up there. Perhaps, this exploration an even lead young, curious, and enthusiastic minds to Nobel Prize.

Vector Diagram of an Moving Airfoil

The exisiting four elements

Founder’s Issue 07

Biocomputing: The Future Svanik Garg outlines the benefits of using biocomputers in comparison with traditional ones.

When you look at the origin of the word computer, the one which calculates, you learn that electronics are not an essential part of what a computer is. A computer is any device that can handle data, and in this perspective, our brains are one of the most powerful computers. The computers we use today are electronic devices known as classical computers.

They use machine language to give instructions and execute tasks. A process known as Linear Computing allows the computer to accomplish one task at a time and is suitable for running software and executing programs. But what if we needed to solve complex equations and project scientific data with no bounds? Will classical computers be able to sustain it?

The most advanced technology developed by us as a solution to this problem is a supercomputer. It consists of many computers working simultaneously.

However, this isn’t enough. What we actually need is a computer that can execute multiple programs instantaneously (parallel computing). A quantum computer could be a good alternative, but it has various limitations and conditions, therefore it isn’t practical in all scenarios. Given all these problems, scientists are looking towards biological

computing, an alternative that serves all our needs.

Biological computers are made from living cells.

Instead of electrical wiring and digital signals, biological computers use chemical inputs and other

08 The Echo

biologically derived molecules such as proteins and DNA. The most famous one uses Myosin, a protein present in our muscle tissue, to guide other protein filaments through artificial channels, in order to execute programs. Just like a desktop computer, these organic computers can respond to data and process it. Current biological systems are as powerful as your personal computers, however, the potential they have is extraordinary. Once you’ve programmed a single biological cell, it’s extremely

Research at Stanford suggested that, biocomputers can certainly replace all supercomputers within 10 years! cost-effective to grow billions more with only the cost of the nutrient solutions and a technician’s time. It’s also anticipated that biocomputers might actually be more reliable than their electronic counterparts. To illustrate, think about how our bodies still survive even though millions of our cells die off, but a computer built from wires stops functioning even if one wire is severed. In addition, every cell has a mini-factory at its disposal, so once it’s been programmed, it can synthesize any biological chemical. Biological computers can also be extremely effective in our space endeavors, as they require negligible resources compared to their electrical counterparts.

Traditional computers use microchips which heat up quickly. Supercomputers are also not qualitatively different from traditional computers. They use a lot of energy, heat up quickly, and require massive

cooli On th calcu much Ther comp elimi

Anot biolo abilit Bioco an in mole will the a bioco the s respo hard softw syste

Disad worr and it up repre betw halfcomp

Solut of th prob abov woul Thes abou sugg go to

ing units in order to function at full speed. he other hand, biological matter can perform ulations and process data without using as h energy, and without heating up significantly. rmal throttling is a major issue in our current puter architecture, but it is completely inated in bio computing mechanisms.

ther advantage of biocomputing is that ogical molecules also display an intelligent ty to self-organize and self-repair. omputing engineers can find ways to simulate ntelligent software on top of a biological ecule hardware. The intelligent software provide the biological molecule hardware ability to produce, organize, and repair the omputing system. Similar to a living organism, software in biological systems will be made onsible for producing and assembling the dware, and this will further help in running the ware. So, it is a very self-reliant and efficient em.

dvantages of Bio computers are also a sign of ry. Firstly, human assistance is always required time consuming lab procedures can only set p. It will have no universal method of data esentation, which would affect connectivity ween different bio computers. DNA also has a -life which would affect the reliability of Bioputers.

supercomputers within 10 years! It is remarkable given how much time we took to make the original computers.

tions could dissolve away before the end result he computation is found, which can be very blematic in complex problems. As mentioned ve Information can be untransmittable, which ld mean its use globally wouldn’t be possible. se problems do have solutions but its all ut the time it will take. A research at Stanford gested that, biocomputers have a long way to o replace PCs, they can certainly replace all

While biocomputing is in an early phase, biocomputers have the potential to enable far more powerful computing than today’s best computers — while using less energy and generating negligible heat. Furthermore, biocomputers will be able to use parallel computing, which will represent a significant improvement upon regular computing, and will be able to better self-organize and self-repair. At the end of the day, all we need is a computer that does not limit human imagination, and presently, bio computers seem just right for that purpose.

Founder’s Issue 09

Melting Mystery

Harsh Tibrewala examines the counter-intuitive phenomenon of the same substance melting at different temperatures.

H

ave you ever heard about a pure substance that melts at two different temperatures? For most of us, the answer to this question is no.

Acetaldehyde Phenylhydrazone, C8H10N2 , (often abbreviated as APH) is one such compound that had baffled scientists in the early twentieth century and now it presents to us the mysteries of science in a rather intriguing manner. Emil Fischer, a Nobel Laureate in Chemistry, discovered this compound in the late nineteenth century; and he found out that identical batches of the same compound would melt at different temperatures on different days, posing a very unique puzzle to scientists. Scientists all over the world proposed explanations to justify this peculiar phenomenon but were unable to find any experimental evidence to support their claims. Many scientists even claimed that Fischer had made an error. However, 120 years after its discovery, scientists were finally able to explain the event,thanks to modern-day technology.

Early researchers hypothesized that the sample of APH was contaminated with impurities.

Experiments showed that adding some drops of acid would produce the crystals which had a lower melting point, whereas adding some drops of alkali would produce ones with a higher melting point.

To reverse the change, one could merely add a bit of alkali to increase the melting point or add some acid to decrease it. This process is similar to adding

10 The Echo

Emil Fischer

salt to ice to decrease its melting point. Whilst there is a similarity, it was dismissed as a justification for the phenomenon because the amount of acid and alkali required was too little (a thousandth of a molar equivalent) to make any difference in the structure of the crystal such that it could affect the melting point.

The mystery of APH remained unsolved until 2012 when Terry Threlfall and Hugo Meekes, two eminent scientists, read Fischer’s paper and decided to attempt to solve this forgotten mystery.

Meekes suggested that the crystals in APH were polymorphs, which are solids that have different crystalline structures. They used methods fuelled by advancements in modern technology such as X-ray diffraction and nuclear magnetic resonance to try to find some difference between the structures but were forced to conclude that in solid form, the crystals of APH which melted at different points, were indeed structurally identical. The compound Acetaldehyde Phenylhydrazone seemed to break one of the fundamental laws of thermodynamics which said that the same material cannot melt at different temperatures if its initial and final stages were the same. So, the researchers assumed that if the initial stages were the same, then the final stages, i.e, the liquid forms of APH must be different.

Till solid to e and isom the diffe was the APH ima the fash

The have isom liqu and hap isom reve poin isom into case mel of b the an i and This chal mod bey you how phe equ field to d

then, all the experiments were conducted on d APH. Researchers now diverted their efforts examine the structure of the liquid that formed d finally had a breakthrough when they found mers. An isomer is a type of compound with same type and number of atoms arranged in a erent manner structurally. The solid form of APH s entirely made of the Z isomer of APH only but liquid form also contained the E isomer form of H. To understand this better, one can look at the ages to the right: the same atoms are present in compound, but they are arranged in a different hion.

e scientists reasoned that since the molecules e more space in the liquid state, they tend to merize into the E isomer and do so until the uid becomes a stable mix of the two isomers d an equilibrium is reached. This generally ppens when the ratio of Z isomer molecules to E mer molecules reaches 1:2. Further investigation ealed that the solid which had a high melting nt, melted into a liquid containing only Zmers. As the solution cooled the Z isomers flipped o E isomers until equilibrium was reached. In the e of the solid with the lower melting point, it lted directly into a liquid that had a stable mix both the isomers. It was finally concluded that state where APH has a high melting point was intermediate between the liquid in equilibrium d the solid. s phenomenon is one for the books as it llenged the knowledge of scientists before dern technology and forced them to think yond the horizon. This is a beautiful example for ung minds interested in science to learn about w difficult it was to accurately explain scientific enomena without advanced technological uipment and how nascent advancements in the d of technology have made it easier for scientists do the same.

E-ISOMER

Z-ISOMER

The compound APH seemed to break one of the fundamental laws of thermodynamics!

Founder’s Issue 11

The Plastid Thief Aradhya Jain explores the multitudes of possibilities that animal photosynthesis has created for the scientific community.

P

hotosynthesis is the process through which plants produce their food. We have been taught that photosynthesis cannot be performed by humans and animals alike. But what if I told you that scientists have discovered, not just one, but multiple species of animals that have the ability to perform photosynthesis? It seems completely unbelievable!

This process through which certain types of animals perform photosynthesis is called Kleptoplasty. The term comes from the word “Kleptis” which is Greek for thief, and plastid, the collective term for certain types of cell organelles, including chloroplasts, which conducts photosynthesis.

Most of these species capable of kleptoplasty belong to the phylum “Mollusca”. These animals eat algae or other types of plants, and only partially digest them, breaking open the cell membrane, spilling out the insides. Since algae photosynthesize, the cells of the algae contain chloroplasts. In molluscs, certain specialized cells called “phagocytose” swallow chloroplasts whole and store them, not digesting them at all despite these cells being located within a structure in the mollusc’s digestive system.

So, the relationship of chloroplasts with the animal is a type of symbiotic relationship, each being dependent on the other to survive. Some believe it to be a type of parasitic symbiosis, because as the chloroplasts slowly decay in a foreign environment and their supply gets exhausted, the animal benefits from the food it creates. However, others in the community say that it is commensalistic as the animals are not purposely harming the chloroplasts, which are instead decaying on their own. As the supply of chloroplast depletes due to the animals being unable to create the specific proteins essential for their survival, the molluscs need to consume more algae and extract more chloroplasts to continue photosynthesizing.

Different species have different lengths of time in which the chloroplasts can survive. Currently, the longest known length of time the chloroplasts can survive is up to a duration of ten months, in the kleptoplasty species Elysia chlorotica, known commonly as the Eastern Emerald Elysia or Emerald Green Sea Slug. Many of the members of the Superorder Sacoglossa, to which the two species depicted here belong, have received the names “Solar Powered Sea Slugs”, and “Leaves that walk” due to their ability to photosynthesize.

12 The Echo

Some real world applications of this phenomena include inserting this ability into certain small multicellular animals, which alongside some gene editing, should be able expel the glucose produced. They can then be used to produce a quick growing food source, instead of waiting weeks for a plant to grow to provide glucose.

Genes can also be inserted into animals already modified to absorb the chloroplasts, by editing the chloroplast DNA to produce the desired chemical molecule. This can also be used as a fast, and somewhat natural way to accurately produce drugs similar to how bacteria cultures create medicine such as penicillin as a byproduct.

As with any organism on the planet, global warming has had, or will have an effect on these organisms. As of now, it is unknown exactly how it will affect their photosynthetic capabilities, however, certain studies seem to show that photosynthesis efficiency as well as the chloroplast abundance are negatively affected with changes in temperature. But, we’re still learning. The process of Kleptoplasty is still a relatively new discovery.

The term itself was only coined in the year 1990, when gene sequencing was still in its infancy and there is a lot left to discover. These animals are proof that beings of flesh and mass, like us, can be “solar powered”, and maybe one day, we will figure it out how to accomplish this.

EASTERN EMERALD ELYSIA

Biomimicry: the future of design Tejveer Dhingra outlines the significance of nature in various aspects of design.

N

ature has provided mankind with everything it needs. Some things are given directly, whereas some are hidden in the subtleties of the environment.

Biomimicry is one such powerful tool that takes inspiration from the strategies found in nature to solve human design challenges. It itself isn’t a product, but a process which involves design based on natural organisms and processes to spark innovation. Biomimicry has the potential to radically improve various fields of design including manufacturing industries and material science. Recent developments in technology, such as electron microscopes, have given scientists the ability to experiment and discover solutions to problems that would otherwise be very difficult to solve. What makes biomimicry a very special practice is its ability to produce clean, green and sustainable systems and it does so simply because mother nature always maintains a natural equilibrium.

Nature never moves anything in a straight line, but always in swirls and spirals; the human heart does not have a single straight line in it, yet is unmatched in efficiency. Swirls and spirals have been used for thousands of years by humans for art and architecture and many grand buildings of the ancient world are built based on the geometry of flows.

It raises the question: why have humans disregarded this key practice since the industrial revolution? Maybe the general understanding amongst humans is that using simpler systems and solutions, like straight lines, provides an efficient solution with low energy requirements, but the evidence suggests the contrary!

A well-known example of biomimicry in modern use is the Shinkansen bullet train in Japan. Eiji Nakatsu took inspiration from the Kingfisher bird to reduce pressure on the train while travelling at high speeds. Before his

redesign, the trains produced loud booms in tunnels due to the build-up of air pressure. This caused people living in cities to complain about the train, acting as a hurdle to its success. Nakatsu was inspired by the kingfisher’s streamlined beak which enables it to dive into water without creating a ripple or a splash. It moves quickly from air, a low-pressure medium, to water, a high-pressure medium, which is exactly the case with the Shinkansen train passing through tunnels. The Kingfisher’s beak increases in diameter from the tip to the head, and acts as a shock absorber for sudden pressure changes. It allows water to flow past its body smoothly, rather than being hurled forward. The train is a symbol of nature inspiring modern design and paves the way for many projects in the future.

Sunblock, a common household product, was inspired by hippopotamuses and the technique they employed to protect themselves from the harmful ultraviolet rays.

After extensive research, it was found that hippopotamus sweat is antifungal, antiseptic, non-toxic, and waterproof.

Along with all of this, it was also found to be very effective at blocking the sun’s rays. Given these findings, institutions started re-engineering the molecular structure of the sweat to make it have a better odour. This has revolutionized the industry of sunblock and is considered an important chemical engineering breakthrough.

Conclusively, biomimetics has assisted in developing new products and materials that are more efficient and more productive than conventionally designed products.

These current projects inspired by nature’s solutions and the study of its breakthrough alternatives have led to a new field which promises to revolutionize the landscape of the design industry. Biomimicry has the potential to change the world in a way which will never be forgotten.

Founder’s Issue 13

Comparing mRNA vaccines and traditional vaccines.

Aryan Prakash outlines the differences between the nascent mRNA vaccines and traditional vaccines

The development of vaccines against the SARSCoV-2, the Covid-19 virus, has ushered in the nascent technology of mRNA vaccines into the scientific spotlight. The reason for their sudden rise to prominence, and their effectiveness, lies in the science behind the functioning of these vaccines and their differences between traditionally synthesised vaccines.

The science behind traditional vaccines Traditional vaccines are made by inserting either a dead or weakened version of the virus or another virus vector containing genetic material of the original virus into your body. This stimulates your body to generate an immune response to protect you if the body is exposed to the virus again. For example, to help battle smallpox, a weakened version of cowpox proved effective.

The science behind mRNA vaccines Each virus produces a single specific protein as dictated by its genetic instructions - a long, strand-like molecule called ribonucleic acid (RNA), composed of nitrogenous bases called nucleosides.

The mRNA vaccines use strands of mRNA, a different form of RNA, derived from the original virus. Once

14 The Echo

injected, the mRNA enters the cells of a body and is translocated, a process by which the mRNA binds to ribosomes (the organelles responsible for synthesis of proteins) which causes them to produce the protein coat of the virus. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, the spike protein begins developing on the surface of the cell. This protein coat, while being harmless to the individual cell, is identified as a foriegn substance

by the immune system, and triggers a full scale response.

Initially, the addition of the mRNA into the bloodstream was enough to elicit a violent immune response; however, scientists overcame this by devising new methods to enclose the mRNA into miniscule fat molecules, which not only allowed a greater number of spike proteins to be produced, but also protected the mRNA from the defences used by the immune system, and by altering the order of nucleosides in the in the mRNA, which allowed a greater number of spike proteins to be produced, thus increasing the effectiveness of the immune response while also protecting the mRNA from the defences used by the immune system.

How do their effectiveness and safety differ?

The mRNA vaccines have shown to provide a more powerful immune response than the traditional vaccines because it stimulates the immune system to produce two kinds of defences against the virus: antibodies and natural killer cells. The natural killer cells immediately terminate cells which are infected with a virus and the antibodies latch on to the actual virus and attempt to kill it. Although this does not render the traditional vaccines, which only cause antibody production, ineffective against the virus, it does demonstrate potential and increased success rate of the mRNA vaccine.

This can be seen by the fact that the two major mRNA vaccines, one by Pfizer and the other by Moderna, have had both the highest efficacy rate at preventing

had both the highest efficacy rate at preventing symptomatic Covid-19, with Pfizer vaccine at 95% efficacy and Moderna vaccine at 94.1%, and the most promising phase 3 testing results. Additionally, vaccines going with the traditional route have proven to generally have a lower efficacy at preventing Covid 19, such as the Covishield vaccine with efficacy of 63%, Johnson and Johnson at 66%, Covaxin at 81% the and Sputnik V vaccine at 91% efficacy. The reason the Sputnik V vaccine is more effective at preventing Covid-19 is due to its usage of variable dosing: it uses different viral vectors with each dose of the vaccine. Covaxin too has proven effective as it uses a different version of the weakened virus.

In terms of safety, mRNA vaccines do not show signs of intermingling with human DNA as they cannot enter the cell nucleus. Traditional vaccines need chemicals and cell cultures for their production, putting them at risk of contamination as has recently occurred in the production of the Johnson & Johnson vaccine. mRNA vaccines, on the other hand, are produced by a method which is independent of cells, therefore there is no risk of contamination.

Both types of vaccines have proven sufficient against viruses in general, and have proved to be 100% efficient in preventing deaths. The vaccines are also significantly reducing daily cases when a large proportion of the population is vaccinated: Israel has fully vaccinated 56% of its population against the virus and as a result, its Covid graph has come down immensely. Although the new technology of mRNA vaccines seems successful and promising, the importance of getting vaccinated should not be overlooked, regardless of the vaccine type.

Founder’s Issue 15

The

Origins

of COVID 19 W

e all know that this terrible pandemic has snatched away millions of lives, pushed many more into poverty, accentuated issues of mental health, & led to an economic recession for most major economies of the world.

However, there is a question nagging us since COVID first emerged: where did this virus come from?

The Natural Origin Theory I

n the initial stages of the pandemic, many assumed that the virus originated in the infamous Huanan wet market in Wuhan, where it ‘jumped’ from an animal onto a human.

This popular belief was mainly due to a letter published in the pre-eminent medical journal,

16 The Echo

the Lancet, where a group of 27 well respected & eminent scientists & virologists stood “together to strongly condemn conspiracy theories suggesting that COVID-19 does not have a natural origin”. This paper shaped most of the global opinion on the origins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. However, the only evidence available at that time was that the SARS 2 virus was from the same family as the previous major epidemics of viruses: SARS 1 & MERS (which had spread from animals), & that the first presumed cases of the virus were from the wet market, similar to the SARSCoV-1 outbreak in 2002. Based on only this, the scientists “overwhelmingly concluded that this virus had originated in wild life”. According to them, the animal which transmitted the virus would be found soon after further research. However, some startling revelations were made this year which forced us to re-examine this theory more carefully.

What made us re-examine the theory?

O

n May 23rd, 2021, a Wall Street Journal report based on US Government intelligence showed that three researchers from China’s foremost virology research institution, the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV), were hospitalized, presenting with an unknown pneumonia-like disease and symptoms consistent with COVID-19 in November 2019 - one month before the first official cases of COVID-19 had been reported.

Interestingly, the institute had been undertaking some controversial research related to coronaviruses since 2013, due to an incident in a mineshaft in the Yunnan Province of China in 2012. Six mine workers had gone into this mine shaft to clean up faecal matter left from a certain species of horseshoe bats residing there. A few days later, all six of them presented pneumonia-like symptoms, and within a week, three of them succumbed to this novel disease. Alerted by the Chinese authorities, the deputy director of the WIV, Dr Shi Zhengli, visited the mine shaft in 2013 & collected samples of the virus from the remaining faecal matter. She began conducting research on these coronaviruses & sequenced the genome (observed & recorded the genetic material) of the virus which infected the miners, known as RaTG13 virus. The research on this virus led to some revelations which pointed to circumstantial evidence for the lab leak theory (explained ahead), which caused us to re-examine it.

The Lab Leak Theory On the Next Page...

Next Page

Coronavirus Research at the WIV & its implications Gain of Function Research Low Biosafety Labs used in the Research Further doubts raised on the Natural Origin Theory Conclusion

Founder’s Issue 17

Gain of F Research

Coronavirus Research at the WIV & its implications

D

r Shi Zhengli collected numerous samples of coronaviruses from the mine & stored it in a biobank (repository of viruses) for further research at the WIV. This research, known as gain of function research, involved isolating different viruses in the laboratory, then conducting whole genome sequencing to determine the genetic material present in each virus. Then, the spike protein - which is a major determinant of characteristics of viruses - of the original virus is cloned & implanted onto

S

cientists wished conduct this resear they could study, in greater detail, the dangerous viruses controlled environme how they attack their predict when the v or similar viruses strike human beings additionally create va & cures against them, would allow humanit

the back of a different virus to test whether its pathogenicity (ability to cause disease) had improved. This was checked by examining how the virus binds to human receptor cells, which allowed virologists to determine the lethality of the genetically engineered virus. This does sound like preparation for biological warfare but fortunately, there is a much more plausible reason why this type of research is conducted all over the world, not just by the Chinese, which is much more scientific in nature.

The

Lab Lea

Further doubts raised on the Natural Origin Theory R

ecently, it was revealed that a main author of the paper in the Lancet, which “condemned” anyone who questioned their theory, was the president of the company, EcoHealth Alliance, which provided funding to the WIV for that very gain of function research on coronaviruses. This was a major conflict of interest in the paper supporting the natural origin theory which dealt a huge blow to its reliability, especially in the purview of the public. Whether the result of this genetic

18 The Echo

manipulation in the WIV was the COVID-19 virus or not is not known yet, but these facts have provided some evidence for the theory that COVID-19 did indeed escape from the lab, although, we must remember it is not conclusive proof.

Another fact putting the natural origin theory under scrutiny is how in the SARS-CoV-1 & MERS epidemics, the animal source of the virus was found within 4 months of investigation by local health authorities, but in

Theory

the case of COVID -19, even after 19 months of relentless investigation by Chinese authorities with the stellar “bat woman” of China (who also uncovered the source of the SARS-CoV-1 virus - Dr Shi Zhengli) at their aid, no natural source has been uncovered yet. If the virus was of natural origin, why did it not leave a big enough trace in nature so that it’s source could be uncovered? This fact also drew criticism for the natural origin theory.

Function h

to rch so much more in a ent hosts, viruses may s, and ccines which ty and

science to be well equipped to fight and quickly quell a pandemic or epidemic such as COVID-19. This is known as gain of function research.

However, the risks of this type

of research fuel a debate in the scientific community as it may jeopardize public health if a virus somehow escapes from the laboratory in the midst of ongoing research. Interestingly, Dr Shi Zhengli revealed in a paper published in the journal “Nature”, that the RaTG13 virus being worked on at the WIV had a 96% genetic similarity with the COVID 19 virus. We must however note, that even a 4% difference in genetic code can have a major effect on the features of a virus, although many experts believe that with the technology present, this genetic engineering may be achieved.

ak

What We Think

I

n the end, when we weigh the evidence for the natural origin of the virus against the evidence for the lab leak theory, it does seem unlikely to be a natural virus due to lack of evidence and the vested interests in fuelling that theory.

Additionally, the circumstantial evidence for the lab leak theory makes it plausible that the virus leaked from a lab, although it does not provide us a definitive answer. More transparency & information from the Chinese officials could have helped in finding the origins of this dreadful virus so that humanity could attempt to prevent such a devastating pandemic from occurring, but unfortunately the Chinese government has refused to aid the world in any such activity, thus putting an end to new developments on the origins of the virus.

Low Biosafety Labs used in the Research

D

r Shi Zhengli herself revealed that this research was being conducted in laboratories of biosafety levels 2 & 3, which are not the highest level of biosafety labs available at the WIV. This is another piece of evidence pointing out the plausibility of the lab leak theory as the research was conducted in low safety laboratories, which significantly increases the probability of the virus escaping during research.

Founder’s Issue 19

75 years of I

This section explores some of the major achievements and pro

1947-1971 ◊ The first Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) was founded in Kharagpur in the year 1951. As a result of Government funding over the years, there are now 23 IITs across the country, which continue to be leading sources of scientific research in India, & extremely attractive destinations for higher education for many aspiring youngsters across the country even today.

1972 -

◊ India launched its first satellite, Aryab

was a massive achievement by ISRO exposure of working with complex m other landmark projects & achievemen the scientific progress of the nation gre

◊ The first drug & vaccine company, Hindustan Antibiotics Limited was founded in coordination with the WHO & UNICEF in 1954, which aimed to provide cheap medicines to the Indian people. It was followed by Indian Drugs & Pharmaceuticals Limited. The formation of this company was very important for the progress of the Indian pharmaceutical industry & healthcare.

◊ AIIMS (All India Institute of Medical Sciences), a group of public medical institutes, was first established on 8th February,1956 through funding of the Government of India. Today, there are over 15 AIIMS spread out all over the country, which continue to be a source of inspiration for many aspiring medical students, an affordable & reliable source of healthcare for many Indians, as well as a centre for advanced medical research. Without them, medical education & medical facilities in modern day India would have been vastly different.

◊ The Government of India set up the INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee

◊ The INSAT is the largest domestic s

for Space Research) in 1962, headed by the father of the Indian space program, Dr Vikram Sarabhai. Dr Sarabhai also founded the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, under the aegis of INCOSPAR, for facilitating further space research in India. The organization was later superseded by the now famous ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization).

◊ ISRO made the path breaking discover

world & it was commissioned by ISRO of meteorological data to the Indian majorly in various other purposes such

one of the few organisations to posse It proved to be extremely vital in sate accurate & precise location data.

◊ The science of DNA fingerprinting w

1991, allowing us to identify people b their DNA & was a marker of huge pro a great deal of research on the differen he brought the use of DNA fingerprint

◊ Dr Subhahash Mukhopadhyay from Calcutta was the first physician to create India’s first baby produced using “In Vitro Fertilization” or IVF in 1978. This was a revolutionary achievement in the field of medical science which allowed infertile Indian couples to have babies of their own.

20 The Echo

Indian Science

ogress of Indian science over 75 years of Indian independence.

- 1997

bhatta, into space on April 19, 1975. This O because we gained the experience & machinery. It paved the way for various nts by the organization which furthered eatly.

satellite communication system in the O in 1983. It is one of the main providers Meteorological Department & is used h as telecommunications & broadcasting.

ry of the atomic clock in 1989; becoming ess this highly sophisticated technology. ellite navigation & the measurement of

was first established by Dr. Lalji Singh in based on their unique characteristics of ogress in the field of biotechnology. After nt patterns & trends in the genetic code, ts into practice in India for the first time.

1997-2021 ◊ In 1999, 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led

by Dr. Swami Manohar, developed the ‘Simputer’ (Simple, inexpensive & multilingual people’s computer) as a handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are inconvenient. ◊ The first evidence of lunar water was discovered by the Moon Impact Probe released by ISRO’s Chandrayaan-1 in 2009. ◊ Bhargav Sri Prakash invented Digital vaccines, which are evidence-based prevention approaches that use digital technologies to influence positive human behaviour through training specific cognitive functions in 2011. ◊ In March, 2014, India was declared polio-free by the World Health Organisation after the massive Pulse Polio Vaccination drive started by the Government in 1994. ◊ Anandharamakrishnan Chinnaswamy developed an engineered human stomach, a small intestine dynamic digestive system & custom built a 3D food printer which could print a wide range of food materials from semi-solid paste to hydrogels. ◊ The Indian pharmaceutical company Zydus Cadila developed the world’s first DNA vaccine against COVID-19, which uses a radically different technology to protect us against COVID-19.

Founder’s Issue 21

Quorum Sensing of Bacteria Hridayam Tusnial examines a unique bacterial phenomenon and explores its implications.

T

he ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment is a characteristic feature of even the most primitive species present on the planet. An essential aspect of the sensitivity towards the surrounding is keeping track of the population of the species to divide resources efficiently. Although we have developed sensory organs which allow us to assess our environment thoroughly, a few evolved species of bacteria use a method called quorum sensing to count their relative population in the surrounding environment.

The meaning of the word quorum drops a large hint on how this process works. Simply put, it is the ability to recognise and respond to cell population density by altering the gene transcriptions inside the cells. It mainly detects the cell population density by the secretion and absorption of inducers-which simply are molecules that change gene expression.

Subsequently this will produce a significant difference in the appearance of the organism and will denote a tropism (reaction to stimulus).The reactions that take place inside the nucleus to change gene expression are very complex but the whole process can be simplified into a flow of events.

The process is based on three factors that include the secretion of signalling inducer molecules that diffuse through the air, the absorption of autoinducers and the regulation in gene transcription. At first, the bacteria secretes a signaling inducer which diffuses through the environment. Later, the bacteria absorbs the same autoinducer they had secreted some time ago and if the population of bacteria in the culture exceeds a certain amount (threshold value) it brings about changes in the gene transcription. We will observe a dim glow from the culture in a phenomenon known as bioluminescence.

It is undeniable that this phenomenon is not simply limited to bioluminescence in response to a tropism, but is part of a very large network of intricate communication for a range of purposes. By conveying their population sizes among themselves, they can establish the possibility of the presence of a foreign organism and communicate the threat whilst simultaneously checking whether they are

22 The Echo

competent enough to defend themselves against invasion. In addition, this can also serve as a method to indicate their presence to other species of bacteria and assert dominance.

The scope of this natural communication method extends outside the primitive unicellular kingdom to insects such as bees and ants along with the water inhabitants - fishes and squids. While ants and bees generally use this for better coordination and efficient decision -making for the entire colony, it can also be used in defence mechanisms, camouflage, attraction, communication, warning, mimicry and illumination.

Some fish also cultivate artificial bacteria in small pouches that are known as light organs. These light organs will emit light only when the population of bacteria present inside them is large enough and therefore involves quorum sensing. Just like any other technology which first took its inspiration from nature, Bioluminescent Activated Destruction or “BLADe” is an experimental cancer-therapy method that has the potential to be a revolutionary breakthrough in cancer treatment. It uses light sources like the luciferase molecule along with a photosynthesizing agent and aims at the cancer source to kill it without any side effects. Until now it has shown promising results when tried with rats and other animals, and human trials are expected to begin soon.

Soon, the concept involved in quorum sensing will start being applied in new promising products including decorative light and self-organising computers which would decrease notions of human supremacy regarding the evolution and enhancement in the transfer of information. Instead, it would make its origin in nature serve as a marker to show the beauty and advancement of communication methods of much less developed species.

Phantom Limb Sensation

Vinesh Uniyal explores the curious occurrence of the phantom limb sensation as well as its possible treatments.

I

f I told you, an amputated hand would still hurt after removal, it would sound absurd right? Well that is the case 80% of the time, and the phenomenon is called the Phantom limb sensation or PLP. It is a concept where a limb which is amputated ceases to exist physically but our brain doesn’t notice that and thinks otherwise. A general understanding is that a loss of a limb will normally result in a loss of pain and sensation. However, amputees often complain about a persistent sensation or memory of the amputated part of their body. Nearly all amputees face PLP in varying magnitudes, however painful experiences are quite rare. The sensation is often described as ‘ghostlike’ by many people. It has also confused doctors for a long time, as there is no known source of pain in the body, so it just seems like an illusion of the brain.

A plausible explanation for PLP, is that the removal of stimuli input from a particular part of the body leads to an excited state in the cerebral cortex(outer layer of the brain) resulting in a sensation. Thus the spinal cord and brain send mixed signals to the amputated effectors. For example, the brain might send a command to clench the amputated arm, but as the limb is not present, it does not send any response. Due to lack of feedback, the brain repeatedly sends the signal leading to continued sensations of clenching and pain.

Another theory suggests the cause concerning brain mapping. Maps are local regions in the brain that increase or decrease, depending on the regularity of stimuli.

These maps store information and every part of the body corresponds to a map. Thus, when a limb is amputated, the maps undergo reorganization. The surviving brain maps look for more incoming stimulation and invite neurons from nearby maps by releasing nerve growth factors. This may cause cross-wiring errors. Hence, due to the mistakes, another map shifts and takes over the amputated limb’s map. For instance, the map for the mouth may take over or invade the adjacent amputated hand or leg map. So, touching the mouth or cheek can stimulate the phantom limb, which can cause pain.

Even though the problem looks straightforward, a way to treat it still eludes medical science. As of now, there is no guaranteed treatment for PLP, even with painkillers. Mirror therapy, discovered by Indian American neuroscientist VS Ramachandran, seems like a viable solution. It ‘tricks’ the brain into thinking that a present limb is the amputated limb. A large box with two compartments divided by a vertical mirror facing the ‘good’ hand is used. There is no top so the patient can see his hand and its reflection. When the patient moves his/her ‘good’ hand back and forth, the amputated hand will also appear to move back and forth. The brain gets the impression that the reflection is the amputated hand.

This brings about a plastic change in the brain leading to the rewiring of maps, curing the pain by altering body image.

PLP supports the notion that pain is more than just a reflexive response to injury. As Dr. VS Ramachandran once said, “Our own body is a phantom, one that our brain has constructed purely for convenience.”.

Founder’s Issue 23

Controlling-Mosquito Borne Diseases

Ruhaan Goel questions methods & human ethics as scientists develop technologies to control mosquito-borne diseases

H

ave you ever wondered if there could be technology available to eradicate an entire species of disease-spreading insects at human will?

The idea seems to be a boon to everyone in Indian and other tropical countries, especially as the diseases in question have caused countless casualties in the past. This technological advancement is immensely powerful as it allows human beings to intervene in the divine process of creation itself. But as they say “with great power comes great responsibility” and exterminating an entire species for the sheer sake of human comfort questions the human conscience.

Even though this is a delicate issue, a thoughtful decision needs to be made quickly as researchers are very close to making this breakthrough.

Scientists at Oxitec, a pioneering BioTech firm, have been working tirelessly with the aim to eradicate mosquito-borne diseases caused by a pathogen known as Aedes aegypti. This pathogen is responsible for causing diseases like Zika, Dengue, Chikungunya and Yellow Fever. The firm plans

24 The Echo

to release genetically modified male mosquitoes carrying a lethal gene into the environment. With this gene present, the female offspring of the mosquitoes will be dependent on a chemical to survive. The chemical, tetracycline, is not available naturally, leaving the female offspring destined to die. This process will cause the number of female mosquitoes to decrease steeply and will have a domino effect on the overall population of the species, causing it to become extinct. The method, popularly known as ‘release of insect carrying dominant lethal’ or RIDL, was designed keeping in mind a unique characteristic of the pathogen that only female mosquitoes can transfer it to humans Oxitec has already conducted trials in the Cayman Islands and Panama. It is seeking approvals to conduct trials in larger countries with large populations of ‘Aedes aegypti’ like India. Its most recent success is in the United States of America. It got FDA’s approval in 2016, EPA’s approval in 2020, and it has started experiments in Florida Keys after federal approval.

Such an increase in operations depicts the success of Oxitec and the industry it is a representative of.

However, the project has witnessed an outcry from various environmental groups. 240000 people have petitioned against Oxitec’s plans of using the US as a testing ground. The groups believe it to be a needless operation in the midst of a pandemic but this response was expected given the limited understanding of the program.

The technology is actually safer than traditional methods of control. Pesticides destroy soil biomass and cause other forms of pollution, but, genetically modified mosquitoes pose a risk only to their own species. Observations have proven that genetically modified mosquitoes do not have any significant impact on humans. The environment may also benefit from the elimination of ‘Aedes aegypti’ as it is an invasive species but this impact is uncertain due to the intricacies of the natural ecosystem.

Apart from the burden of pressure groups, the program has many more hindrances. Firstly, such a large scientific program is not very feasible until there is high demand for the technology. Secondly, the problem of multiple species transmitting one

pathogen remains. In Brazil and Florida, dengue is transmitted by two species and even if one dies out, the other prevails. Thirdly, we lag behind efficient governance mechanisms for operating such procedures. These shortcomings clearly tell us that there are many more milestones to reach before we commercially use this technology.

Some other technologies that eliminate vectors include Population Transformation and CRISPR based systems. Population Transformation would include the genetic modification of an insect in such a way that it either restricts or blocks the ability of vectors to transfer pathogens. The idea is to change a whole population of vectors into non vectors. The CRISPR based systems use advanced technology to edit the genomes of insects. The technology is still in development.

The technologies mentioned in this article focus on vectors, but if we are capable of developing this then it won’t be long before we are able to develop such technologies for every single species. This raises huge flags on the ethical front and a huge controversial question arises - ‘Are humans to be trusted with this technology’? The answer for this can only be given as time passes.

Founder’s Issue 25

Special Section

Traversing The Red Planet

Martian Rovers

26 The Echo

Founder’s Issue 27

M

ars has been on our radar from the day we first achieved space flight, an undiscovered land humans could hope to populate someday.

Since then, the idea that Mars may have harbored water and life has almost become common knowledge; however, the question is, “How did we get to know that?” Rovers have played a crucial role in helping us achieve this goal as a portal for us to connect to this distant planet on the ground, helping us understand the entire planet’s chemistry, geography, geology and everything else in between.

Throughout this section the Echo summarises and explores the many different discoveries and understandings we have gained through these rover missions which are invaluable towards our success in one day inhabiting this planet. These rovers are a testament to the development of technology over the years, each making different conclusions using different instrumentation in distinct locations on the Martian surface. In the following pages, we will explore all these aspects, showing the progression in sophistication, accuracy and achievements of the six rovers we have successfully landed on Mars in the past 25 years.

1 sol ≈ 24 hours 40 minutes

“Mars is there, waiting to be reached.”

– Buzz Aldrin, American pilot, and astronaut

28 The Echo

Sojourner »

Operational Time - 83 sols

The Sojourner is a six-wheeled vehicle weighing just 10.5 kg. Its maximum speed reached one centimeter per second. Sojourner travelled approximately 100 metres in total, never more than 12 m from the Pathfinder station.

»

During its exceeded 83 sols of operation, it sent 550 photographs to Earth and sent chemical samples of 16 locations near the lander while taking atmospheric samples.

»

Sojourner landed on the surface of Mars using an innovative petal shaped airbag inspiring subsequent rovers to do the same.

Length: 65 cm Width: 48 cm

Heigth: 30 cm Weight: 10.5 kg

CONTROLLING THE ROVER »

All the possible combinations of strategies are programmed before hand, including getting past obstacles identified by laser beams emitted from the rover.

»

During the communication session, the rover received a command string from Earth containing the coordinates of the arrival point, which it would have to reach autonomously.

»

The steering angle and rotating speed of the wheels were controlled by intricate potentiometer circuits.

»

In case of a malfunction the rover could have also be rotated directly from the mission command center through the use of a gyroscope, although with a delay.

INSTUMENTATION

»

The rover contained an Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer that analysed the rocks and the Martian soil by processing returning radiation from the object . »

There were two experiments on boardThe Wheel Abrasion Experiment (WAE) was designed to measure the friction of Martian soil on thin layers of Al, Ni,Pt and obtain information on the grain size of the landing site.The second was the Material Adherence Experiment (MAE) designed to measure the daily accumulation of dust on the back of the rover and the subsequent reduction in the energy conversion capacity of the solar panels.

Founder’s Issue 29

Spirit & Opportunity Opportunity and Spirit were the two identical robotic rovers sent on a Mars Exploration mission in 2004. The rovers were sent to opposite parts of the planet: the Opportunity rover touched down on the Meridiani Planum, whereas the Spirit rover landed on the Gusev impact crater.

Both the rovers were sent to areas with high likelihood of water signatures. The mission was extremely successful as both the rovers remained active well beyond their three month goals: the Spirit Rover was active from 2004-2010, whereas the Opportunity Rover was active from 2004-2018.

Spirit Rover: 2208 sols (2004 - 2010) Oppurtunity Rover: 5110 sols (2004 - 2018)

HOW THEY ARE OPERATED

»

The Deep Space Network of antennas » provide communication links between the rovers and Earth.

»

On-board memory includes 128 MB of DRAM and 3 MB of EEPROM. That is about as much memory as a standard home » computer, however it is roughly 1000 more than the Sojourner Rover.

»

MISSION & CORE OBJECTIVES

»

Determine whether life arose on Mars, by focusing on questions regarding water.

»

Characterise the geology of Mars by detailed mineralogical study of rock samples which reveal their content and the conditions in which they formed.

»

Prepare for human exploration by characterizing the chemistry and mineralogy of the Martian soil and dust, and perhaps some of the potential hazards that they may pose to humans.

INSTRUMENTATION »

Panoramic Camera (Pancam) – examines the texture, color, mineralogy, and structure of the local terrain.

»

Navigation Camera (Navcam) – monochrome with a higher field of view but lower resolution, for navigation and driving.

»

Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (MiniTES) – identifies promising and resource rich rocks for closer examination, and determines the processes that formed them.The instrument is designed to look skyward to provide temperature profiles of the Martian atmosphere.

»

Hazcams, two B&W cameras with 120 degree field of view, that provide additional data about the rover’s surroundings and allow it to navigate without getting trapped in any mini crater.

30 The Echo

»

Activities such as taking pictures, driving, and operating the instruments are performed under commands transmitted in a command sequence to the rover from the flight team. » The rover carries an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) that provides 3-axis information on its position, which enables the rover to make precise vertical, horizontal, and sideto-side (yaw) movements.

The rover us power itself When fully ill generate abo four hours pe

It was specul 90-sol missi arrays to ge reduced to a anticipated d however Spir

Spirit also ho sends and r directions, an is steerable a specific direc

ses a multi-panel solar array to using energy from the Sun. luminated, the rover solar arrays out 140 watts of power for up to er sol.

lated that by the end of Spirit’s ion, the capability of the solar enerate power would likely be about 50 watts of power due to dust coverage on the solar arrays, rit was active for almost 8 years.

THE ROVER’S ARM »

Mössbauer spectrometer (MB) MIMOS II – used for close-up investigations of the mineralogy of iron-bearing rocks and regolith.

»

Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) – close-up analysis of the abundances of elements that make up rocks.

»

Magnets – for collecting magnetic dust particles.

»

Microscopic Imager (MI) – obtains close-up, high-resolution images of rocks and regolith to send back to the research center for analysis .

»

Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) – clearing out weathered rocky surfaces in order to expose fresh material (minerals,soil types and rocks) for examination by instruments on board.

osts one low-gain antenna that receives information from all nd one high-gain antenna that and can send information in a ction.

LEARNINGS - SPIRIT

»

Spirit found rocks that were ten times richer in key chemicals such as magnesium and iron carbonates than any other Martian rock studied before, indicating that these rocks formed when Mars was warm and wet (having a thicker carbondioxide atmosphere and nearneutral-pH water). This warmer, watery environment could have supported life much better than the harshly acidic conditions the rover found elsewhere.

»

Spirit also found 90% pure silica, which is significant because on Earth pure silica exists in hot springs, where life often exists.

»

Moreover, Spirit discovered an ancient volcano. Powerful steam eruptions from heated underground water produced conditions which may be able to support microbial life like on Earth.

LEARNINGS - OPPURTUNITY

»

Discoveries mostly included geological structures as evidence of the presence of water in the planet at an initial stage -This includes the discoveries of spherules which are concretions- (masses of matter formed by precipitation of minerals).

Presence of holes and cavities in rocks such as spherules indicate that the rock has been weathered physically largely by the action of crystals of water freezing and thawing constantly.

»

Scientists also managed to locate a region full of haematite-the natural ore of iron.By examining the soil’s exact composition we might get an idea of how the haematite got there in the first place. This in turn can guide scientists to understand the past environment and determine whether it was favorable to ancient life.

»

Opportunity also successfully showed us it was possible to remotely operate a rover 34 million miles away for over a decade on another planet, overcoming engineering and driving issues as it continued to perform scientific work.

Founder’s Issue 31

Curiosity Launched on 30th July 2020 Landed on Feb 18th 2021.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Curiosity’s main objective is to find out if the red planet ever had the optimal environmental conditions to support microbes and to do so it can identify climatic patterns along with geological features. The rover has demonstrated long range mobility on the Martian surface and it showcased the ability to land a very large and heavy rover on the surface of Mars.

INSTRUMENTATION To help collect resources, study them and find bio signatures, the rover has 5 instruments: 1. Planetary Instrument for X-Ray Lithochemistry (PIXL) is an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to determine the fine scale elemental composition of Martian surface materials and to help study regolith on board.

2. Radar Imager for Mars’ subsurface experiment (RIMFAX) is a ground-penetrating radar to image different ground densities, structural layers, buried rocks, meteorites, and detect underground water.

3. Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) is a set of sensors that measures temperature, wind speed and direction, pressure, relative humidity, radiation, along with dust particle size and shape.

4. SuperCam is an instrument suite that can provide imaging, chemical composition analysis, and mineralogy in rocks and regolith from a distance.

5. Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) is an ultraviolet Raman spectrometer which uses finescale imaging to determine fine-scale mineralogy and detect organic compounds.

OPERATIONS

The rover utilises a radioisotope power system that generates electricity from the heat of plutonium’s radioactive decay. It contains 3 antennas that serve as its eyes and ears. The Rover Compute Element is the brain of the rover. The rover sends radio waves to communicate with Earth through NASA’s Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiters. Using orbiters is beneficial since they are closer to the rovers than the conventional Deep Space Network antennas on Earth, and they have Earth in their field of view for much longer time periods than the rover does on the ground. That allows them to send more data back to Earth at faster rates.

32 The Echo

OBSERVATIONS Curiosity’s scientific tools found chemical and mineral evidence of past habitable environments on Mars. Powder from the first drill samples that Curiosity obtained included elements like sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and carbon; all of which are considered “building blocks” of life. Its instrument suite has also found heavier isotopes of hydrogen, carbon and argon, indicating that Mars has lost much of its original atmosphere and water.

Curiosity made the first definitive identification of organics (considered life’s building blocks) on Mars, in December 2014, however this does not necessarily point to the existence of life. The rover also detected high levels of radiation upon reaching Mars, levels that would exceed NASA’s career exposure limit for astronauts, if left unshielded from it.

Founder’s Issue 33

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Perseverance’s main aim is to seek biosignatures of ancient microbial life on mars. It is looking for habitability, identifying past environments which could support life. Instruments on board are designed to collect samples of rock and soil for possible return to Earth. It is also testing various oxygen production methods, which will help us understand what the planet demands for future colonization.

OPERATIONS

Perseverance Launched on November 26th 2011, and landed on August 5th 2021.

The rover’s radioisotope thermoelectric power generator (MMRTG) has Plutonium-238 oxide as its power source. It the BAE Systems RAD750 radiation-hardened single board computer which helps it execute every task and run all the instruments on board. The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) is a procedure to produce small amounts of oxygen from the carbon dioxide in the martian atmosphere. The Mastcam-Z is a stereoscopic imaging system with the ability to zoom at very high levels and is used for imaging (sometimes for miscellaneous experiments also).

34 The Echo

INSTRUMENTATION

Curiosity’s large size helps it to house 10 scientific equipment, 17 cameras, a laser to vaporize and a drill to collect powdered rock samples. The toolkit of instruments present include a gas chromatograph, a mass spectrometer and a tunable laser spectrometer to identify a wide range of organic compounds and find the ratios of different isotopes of key elements. An instrument called CheMin examines rocks gathered by the robotic arm. It is designed to identify the minerals in soils. The Mars Hand Lens Imager takes close-up pictures of rocks and soil, revealing details smaller than the width of a human hair.

Other instruments include the Mast Camera to image the rover’s surroundings in high definition, the Radiation Assessment Detector to measure radioactivity at the surface and the Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons instrument to measure subsurface hydrogen up to 1 meter below the surface.

OBSERVATIONS

Data from perseverance is still being processed and only a limited amount has been received as of now. The MOXIE has already produced 5.37 grams of oxygen showing signs that it is really a viable method to produce oxygen in Mars.

Ingenuity Perseverance also carried an experimental Mars helicopter named Ingenuity. The solar-powered helicopter drone has a mass of 1.8 kg. It aims to demonstrate flight stability in the rarefied Martian atmosphere and study the potential to scout for ideal driving routes for the rover over its planned 31-day experimental flight test window. Other than a camera, it carries no scientific instruments. The helicopter communicates with Earth via a base station onboard Perseverance.

Founder’s Issue 35

Zhurong Planned operational lifetime of 90 sols.

Zhurong is a Mars rover that is China’s first rover to land on another planet, administered

by China National Space Administration (CNSA).The six-wheeled rover weighs 240 kg, and is 1.85 m tall.[38] It is powered by four solar panels and carries six scientific instruments and has a planned operational lifetime of 90 sols

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. Study the topography and geology of the local area.

2. Examine the soil, and any ice content.

3. Survey the elements, minerals and rocks.

4. Atmospheric sampling.

OPERATIONS

Among the six scientific instruments, RoPeR works when the rover is in motion.

MarSCoDe, MSCam and NaTeCam work when being stationary; RoMAG and MCS work both when moving or still. The rover also consists of a Remote Camera.

A small camera dropped by the rover to take photos of the rover and the lander on 1 June 2021. Captured images were transferred to the rover via Wi-Fi.

INSTRUMENTATION 1. Mars Rover Penetrating Radar (RoPeR) Groundpenetrating radar (GPR), consists of two frequencies, to image about 100 m (330 ft) below the Martian surface.

2. Mars Rover Magnetometer (RoMAG) obtains the fine-scale structures of crustal magnetic field based on mobile measurements on the Martian surface.

3. Mars Climate Station (MCS) (also MMMI Mars Meteorological Measurement Instrument) measures the temperature, pressure, wind velocity and direction of the surface atmosphere, and as a microphone to capture martian sounds.

4. Mars Surface Compound Detector (MarSCoDe) combines laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and infrared spectroscopy.

5. Multispectral Camera (MSCam) Combined with MarSCoDe, MSCam investigates the mineral components to establish the relationship between Martian surface water environment and secondary mineral types, and to search for historical environmental conditions for the presence of liquid water.

OBSERVATIONS

The rover has not provided a significant amount of data which can be analysed and therefore, no conclusions can be drawn regarding the success of the rover.

36 The Echo

6. Navigation and Topography Cameras (NaTeCam) With 2048 × 2048 resolution, NaTeCam is used to construct topographic maps, extract parameters such as slope, undulation and roughness, investigate geological structures, and conduct comprehensive analysis on the geological structure of the surface parameters

L

ooking forward, years after when the first humans landed on Mars, the technology of these rovers may seem obsolete, but in totality, these rovers are the primary way we have studied the planet, and reflect upon humanity’s hunger for space exploration, just like one can’t fathom how we went to Moon with a computer that wouldn’t be able to store, let alone open, a small mp3 file.

Mars rovers have achieved feats, which were impossible to even think of just 3 decades ago. As human missions slowly become a possible reality in the coming decades,understanding the development and results of these rovers over the years is an important piece of space & scientific history.

If this section piqued your interest, a simple search on a browser about any of these topics will lead you to a host of interesting information beyond the scope of this section. Our journey with these rovers has seen the American dominance of space, given how 5 out of the 6 successful missions have been from NASA, however in recent times, rovers like China’s Zhurong also highlight how the entire landscape is changing, diversifying for the betterment of humanity and science. There are several missions planned for the future which have been mentioned below as well.

ExoMars 2022 Rover and Surface Platform

Mars Sample Return is a proposed mission to return samples from the surface of Mars to Earth.

“It’s not a matter of if we’re going to go to Mars, it’s a matter of when.”

- Anne McClain, NASA Astronaut

Founder’s Issue 37

Indian Sci The Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar

Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award 2020 for Physical Sciences

Rajesh Ganapathy

Surajit Dhara

Dr Rajesh Ganapathy & Dr Surajit Dhara received this joint award for their experimental work on improving our understanding of mechanical response and soft condensed matter. They observed glass and monitored it over several days. By monitoring the particles with an optical microscope and machine learning methods, they identified a parameter called ‘softness’, which determines the extent of devitrification, a process by which glassy substances change their structure into that of crystalline solids. They fed their machine learning model pictures of a colloidal glass, and the model accurately predicted the regions that crystallized days in advance. Their article was published in the Journal Nature Physics.

Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award 2020 for Chemical Sciences

Dr. Subi Jacob

38 The Echo

Dr Jacob was awarded the same for the work on supramolecular synthesis. Supramolecular chemistry deals with ensembles of molecules with weak intermolecular interactions. Intermolecular linkage is non-covalent in the case of supramolecular polymers.

Since these materials deal with non-covalent interaction they exhibit unique reversible, adaptive, dynamic, and self-healing properties that are not possible with covalently linked classical polymers. He was involved in the study of life-like synthetic materials by synthesizing materials away from equilibrium and is credited with the creation of a new category of self-assembled materials called transient materials which can have potential applications in sensing, security and drug delivery.

ientific Awards Awards for notable and outstanding research in India

Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award 2020 for Chemical Sciences Dr Dash was rewarded with this prestigious award for her work on new methodologies to synthesize a diverse range of molecules applicable in mainly therapeutic targets.

She has done extensive research in the development of selective ligands for nucleic acid secondary structures using dynamic combinatorial target-guided approaches.

The resulting ligands have been found to modulate gene expression and kill cancer cells thereby providing novel therapeutic approach for cancer as well as neurodegenerative diseases. She has developed small molecular probes that detect quadruplexes and can also be used for diagnostic applications.

Dr. Jyotirmayee Dash

Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award 2020 for Medical Sciences

Dr. Vatsala Thirumalai Dr Vatsala Thirumai for her work on neural circuits which are responsible for locomotion in animals. The cerebellum or ‘little brain’ is one region that is very important for movement generation. Purkinje neuron is the main nerve cell type in the cerebellum. By recording electrical activity patterns from single Purkinje neurons, she showed that these neurons fire electrical signals in two modes: a constant ‘hum’ or an intermittent ‘burst’. This discovery underlines how versatile single neurons are in processing information.

She is currently investigating how Purkinje neurons choose between the hum and burst mode. In more recent work, she showed that the signals from these Purkinje neurons help the larva respond quickly to expected environmental stimuli.

Subhadeep Chatterjee The award was jointly awarded to Subhadeep Chaterjee for his research about bacterial communication systems in xanthomonas(phypathogens), which cause many economically significant plant diseases. These pathogens communicate with each other using a unique fatty acid signaling molecule known as Diffusible Signal Factor (DSF) by a process known as quorum sensing (QS). His research has shown that ‘Xoo’ utilizes DSF-QS signals to switch between the planktonic and biofilm lifestyles. This switching plays an important role in disease development, particularly during pathogen entry and colonization. The fundamental findings have implications for bacterial disease management, including those of medical importance, and give key insights on microbial evolution.

Founder’s Issue 39

Nobel Pr Chemistry

Benjamin List

Phy

David MacMillan

Syukuro Manabe

Benjamin List and David MacMillan have been jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021. They are responsible for the development of assymetric organocatalysis, a new tool for molecular construction.

The duo, independent of each other, in 2000 discovered that small organic molecules could catalyze complex reactions.

The molecules that List and MacMillan introduced were also particularly suitable for asymmetric synthesis, a process that greatly benefited the pharmaceutical industry.

Today, their research has been refined, and catalysis has become an integral component of the world GDP. The discovery has also made the process of catalysis greener and economical.

Much of the world’s plastics, perfumes, and flavors are available because of List’s and MacMillan’s discovery

“

The Nobel Prize in Physics 202 Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasse their studies of complex system to Giorgio Parisi for discovering fluctuations in physical systems

The other half is shared by Hasselmann for physically quantifying variability, and relia Syukuro Manabe explained ho dioxide leads to increased sur physical climate models, and ex radiation balance and the vertic Klaus Hasselman created mode and developed methods for iden imprinted naturally or artificially

Giorgio Parisi identified hidden materials, leading to diverse im including mathematics, neurosc

“

This concept for catalysis is as simple as it is ingenious, and the fact is that many people have wondered why we didn’t think of it earlier.

Klaus Has

- Johan Åqvist, Chair of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry.

“

This year’s Laure all contributed to deeper insight properties and e complex physica

- Thors Hanss C

40 The Echo

rizes for 2021

ysics

sselmann

Physiology

Giorgio Parisi

21 has been jointly awarded to elmann, and Giorgio Parisi for ms. One half has been awarded g the interplay of disorder and from atomic to planetary scale.

Syukutro Manabe and Klaus modelling Earth’s climate, ably predicting global warming. ow increasing levels of carbon rface temperatures, developed xplored the interaction between cal transport of air masses. els linking weather and climate ntifying signals and fingerprints y in the environment.

David Julius

Ardem Patapoutian

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021 has been awarded to US based scientists David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian. The duo discovered the receptors that allow humans to feel temperature and touch. Mr Julius using capsaicin, an active component in chilli peppers, identified nerve sensors that allowed the skin to respond to heat. On the other hand, Mr Patapoutian discovered discrete pressure sensitive sensors that respond to mechanical simulation.

The groundbreaking discoveries have impacted our understanding of heat, cold, and mechanical force for a long time. The discovery is essential in understanding how nerve impulses help us to perceive and adapt to the world around us.

Today, their discoveries are being used to develop treatments for diverse diseases including chronic pain.

patterns in disordered complex mplications in a number of fields cience and machine learning.

son, Chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics.

“

The work by David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian has unlocked one of the secrets of nature

“

“

eates have o us gaining t into the evolution of al systems

- Thomas Perlmann, S ecretary-General of the Nobel Committee

Founder’s Issue 41

THE EC

RECOMME

SCI-FI CL

What if?

Randall Munroe | 11yr +

Cosmos Carl Sagn | 13yr +

BOOKS

The Emperor of all Maladies Siddhartha Mukherjee | 14yr +

42 The Echo

Surely you’re joking, Mr. Feynman!

Richard Feynman | 14yr +

Enders Orson Scott /

Back to th Netflix |

CHO’S

ENDATIONS

LASSICS

MOVIES

s Game / Netflix | 13+

he Future | PG-13

War of the Worlds Netflix | PG-13

Unnatural Selection Netflix | PG-15

Apollo 13 Google Play | PG-13

Armageddon Amazon Prime | PG-13 Founder’s Issue 43

A deeper dive

References 44 The Echo

Biomimicry: The future of Design?

The Plastid Thief

Biocomputing: The future?

Quorum Sensing of Bacteria

Comparing mRNA vaccines and traditional ones.

Phantom Limb Sensation

Melting Mystery

Controlling MosquitoBorne Diseases

Further References and Image Credits Founder’s Issue 45

echo The

The Doon School Mall Road Dehradun India Pin. 248001 © The Doon School, 2021. All rights reserved.

All the information is correct at the time of going to press.

Corporate Identification No.: U99999UR1928NPL002455 The Indian Public Schools Society Registered Office: The Doon School, Chandbagh, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

46 The Echo