Scar

SCAR

Bryan Pickle

a representation of damage; not as damage, but the remaining mark of physical healing.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Position

p_01

Framework

p_03

Intellectual Allies

p_09

Methodology

p_21

Site

p_27

Proposal

p_33

Reflections

p_37

Acknowledgements

p_40

Appendix

p_42

Literary Architecture and Built Works

Works Referenced Images Credited

p_09 p_13

p_42 p_44

“If history is understood not just as a sequence of actions but also as the accumulation of reactions across time, then design is both the production of space flush with potential and the mitigation of negative outcomes.�

-Christopher Meyer, Daniel Hemmendinger and Shawna Meyer

POSITION

Position

Architecture has a role in memorializing the ongoing conflicts of war, rather than only a role of memorialization after war. The time between the end of a conflict and the erection of a memorial allows for the victorious regime to write the narrative for how such a conflict will be remembered in the collective memory of future generations. To avert this storyline, Scar injects itself into the discourse of architecture regarding topics concerning collective memory, war, identity, and territory by questioning the nature of memorials in a conflict’s future. Architecture has the capability of recording a genocidal conflict in real time and, therefore, allows a future memorial to materialize from the documentation of the present continuation of a genocidal conflict.

The mechanics of genocide in a contemporary context obscure the former knowledge of genocidal conditions.

No longer is the totalitarian asserting their discriminations on their armies to eradicate select minorities the mode of operation. Genocidal war has become more than the dual hierarchy of a powerful group eliminating a powerless group; it has become a governing party, its powerful opposition, and the citizens pillaged in the middle.

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This is the case in the conflict of South Sudan—a war regarding resources, territory, political ideology, identity, and, ultimately, power. The cast of groups involved include the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), its opposition group, and the citizens stuck in-between the warring fronts.

This in-between territory of the warring fronts has a similar spatial characteristic to the political hierarchy of the conflict.

The expansion and contraction of warring fronts creates a zone of acquired territory that becomes neutral as it is populated with temporal-spatial markers, leaving the warring identities on either side.

How can these documented scars on a landscape aid in the fleeing of displaced citizens? How might these scars become appropriated and misappropriated during the war? How will these scars be remembered and embedded in the culture following this period of genocidal war?

Scar will develop as a project, asking and seeking answers to these questions, as an approach to altering the discourse of memorialization in architecture.

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“In the minds of these children and those who are now young people, consciously or unconsciously, the links between the past and present are evoked through the genocide sites, personal artefacts, forms of memorialization such as gravestones, and legacies such as missing or injured/ disabled family members.�

-Sean Field

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FRAMEWORK

4

Framework

In the End, Memorialization The approach to this proposal always had the inclination to memorialize the victims of genocide. However, the discourse surrounding memorialization is not new, and it certainly is not new through the frame of genocide. Through early attempts at claiming a direction to this project, the discussion quite often questioned how this project would articulate a new position within the discourse of architecture concerning memorialization and its methods. One of the restraints that set a trajectory for the future outcome of the project was that the genocide to be memorialized must be a contemporary conflict and must be ongoing. This setting provided the framework to question why architects and architecture most often memorialize conflict once it has concluded, instead of the recording the ongoing conflict itself, which has certainly become a guiding question to Scar.

Though the question of creating a memorial for an ongoing conflict is provocative, there are counter-questions and claims to this proposal. Will placing architecture in a war zone indicate support for one of the warring sides over the other? Will the implanted architecture be misused? How can an architectural implementation be neutral? Will the intervention make the warring situation 5

worse? Can architecture even play a role in the diminishment of war?

Though it is tempting from an outside perspective to determine a “good” and a “bad” side in a conflict, to firmly position oneself on either warring side is ethically dangerous to the citizens at risk from a genocidal conflict with no clear and single aggressor or motivations. Armed with this knowledge, neutrality is the necessity. In the cases of contemporary genocide, there are often three parties: a warring governmental power, a warring rebel power, and a population of citizens clinging on for survival. Often, the citizens looking for a perceived normality is where the neutrality lies in the mechanics of these wars.

How, then, can architecture memorialize this population of neutrals during the war?

Why Genocide The site for Scar is located within the boundaries of South Sudan, most focused on the central region up to the region in the northeast, following the line where territories of identity collide. South Sudan presents itself as an interesting case study in the discourse of genocidal war and how it may become memorialized in the future.

South Sudan’s largest ethnic group is the Dinka ethnicity, South Sudan’s second

Framework

largest ethnic group is sthe Nuer ethnicity, and the remaining population is comprised of 18 smaller ethnic groups.1 While South Sudan was fighting for independence against Sudan, the two larger ethnicities, even though their common enemy was the northern Sudanese, would occasionally enter skirmishes with one another amidst the war. This was simply a preview for the war that would come in the world’s youngest nation.

One of the vital members of the South Sudanese Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) that helped achieve independence from the North was Salva Kiir. He was a gifted military strategist, and his role in brokering the peace deal with Sudan led him to be a hero among the newly formed country of South Sudan.

Unsurprisingly, Kiir became the nation’s first president. Though beloved by his country, and specifically his fellow people of the Dinka ethnicity, Kiir has been labeled as a rather ungraceful politician— in some cases not even a politician. One of his critics made note of this in 2013 when he decided to run against Kiir for the presidency of the country. This man, also with military leadership experience as well as refined political experience, was Riek Machar of the Nuer ethnic group. This challenge set fear to Kiir, and his response was to attack Machar, sending Machar

to flee and sending the country to war between the militant Dinka and militant Nuer.2 A war like this has been seen before, such as in the circumstances that resulted in the Rwandan Genocide. Despite this conflict occurring merely 24 years ago, the world has not learned from these fatal errors. In fact, the South Sudanese war is not the only field where genocidal war is currently occurring, as there are still at least 3 other genocidal wars taking place in the world today in the year 2018.

Can architecture play a role in the diminishment of genocide?

Weapons of War The weapons of war change the mechanics of the war itself. Air was not understood to be hijackable on the battle field until it assaulted Allied powers in World War I. This ability to change the program of seemingly normal objects is the inspiration for Scar. Two projects have served as precedents for Scar with the consideration of how war appropriates the program of objects: the Kopiec Kościuszki in Poland and the Maginot Line in France.

The Kopiec Kościuszki was constructed in memoriam for the war hero Tadeusz Kościuszko to both the United States of 6

Framework

America and Poland, his native land.

The mound sits atop one of the hills that overlook Kraków and has a 360-degree panorama of the landscape. During the 1850s, the Austrian Empire claimed the Silesian region of Poland and appropriated the memorial as a strategic lookout point over the city. The mound transitioned programs from a memorial dedicated to a war hero to an object of war strategy.

The Maginot Line, unlike the Kopiec Kościuszki, is not a singular spot, but rather an entire network that extended the entire border dividing France and Germany. The line is comprised of many programs, but the programs with the furthest reach were the ouvrages. These, mainly concrete in structure, utilized the ground and terrain as a method of protection. In some cases, the ouvrages took earth and mountains and transformed them into a defensive shelter by burrowing underneath and spreading their occupied space. In essence, these war machines hijacked earth, mountains, and other conditions to appropriate them to become defensive war devices.

While there are many precedents explaining the appropriation of neutral conditions into weapons of war, there are human acts that become weapons. In the context of South Sudan’s civil war, rape has become a method of terror.3 The financial 7

conditions for the warring fronts are too poor to consistently pay their military. In response, the soldiers of the military look for a way to compensate their efforts. Their payments either become the bounty from pillaging conquered villages and cities or, just as frequently, the sexual possibilities of neutral citizens.

External Conditions for the Internal South Sudan’s landscape is quite lush compared to the conditions north of the country. Comprised of mostly savanna, there are regions of high-rainfall and lowrainfall.4 These conditions on the savanna allow grasses to thrive, and these grasses reach to tall heights. In many cases, these tall grasses have become referred to as the “bush,” and are frequently the hiding spots of both internally displaced persons and militant persons.5 The bush offers the architectural opportunity to consider the section of the project, and how its visibility may have effects in the midst of war. Will the proposed markers sit below the highest point of the sections? Will they serve as beacons in the savanna landscape? Will these objects be seen far away or will they only be seen as you encounter them?

The bush, as a sectional opportunity, provides many approaches to what these objects will become during and after the

Framework

genocidal conflict.

Architecture’s Role in War

Architecture has, most often, acted as a network of defense in the midst of war, such as the houses of the Warsaw Ghetto during the Warsaw uprising. However, in genocidal war, architecture has been appropriated to become killing machines, such as the incinerators in the Auschwitz extermination camp. Architecture, in this sense, has no neutral position in a continuing war.

Architecture, however, can and should be looked through different lenses to understand its position in the world.

Through a political lens, Scar could be considered neutral in the war by taking no position for or against warring fronts.

Simultaneously, it can be biased by taking a position in support of the neutral citizens as opposed to the agencies of war.

Architecture, Memorialization, and Scar As indicated from the introduction to the Framework section, Scar has always intended to become a memorial of some form. With the intent of placing markers during an ongoing war, the condition of Scar as a memorial has always been in the future. This is positioned against architecture’s normality of memorializing conflict in the present, which allows the

memorial to be disconnected from the conflict it serves to remember.

As objects visible during the war, they can and will have memory projected upon them. These objects will stand as monoliths marking the path and expanse of the war and the lives lost. However, the intent is that these objects embed themselves on the emerging society and culture after the civil war has concluded, so that the memory of the conflict does not overbear the realization that society has accepted and moved past its scars. A village could recognize that these objects represented a time during the civil war, and by viewing it they may be reminded of the war, the pain, and the loss that came with the conflict. However, the objects do not demand their memory, as memorials are typically programed to do. Scar is inherently passive as a memorial, and, rather, looks to play a part in the healing of society.

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“But we think that the process of remembering is in the present, that it is an action, not an object. The purpose of the memorial is not to physically manifest memory as an object but to invite people to think, which is an action.�

-Julian Bonder

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INTELLECTUAL ALLIES

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Intellectual Allies

Memory is a Verb6 Julian Bonder + Krzysztof Wodiczko

“But we think that the process of remembering is in the present, that it is an action, not an object.

The purpose of the memorial is not to physically manifest memory as an object but to invite people to think, which is an action.”

Listen7 John McAslan

“...we wanted to create a place of memory and understanding, rather than a specific focal-point of loss. There’s absolutely nothing architecturally bombasitc in the scheme... [Hannah Lawson’s] aim was always to create an organic, calm place of release, of rest for the dead – and, of course, for the living.”

The Territory of Hatred and Compassion8 Charles Parrack

“The justification for killing civilians in wartime is that the war being fought is a ‘total war’, a war where victory is only won by complete destruction of the enemy. If the enemy is defined as a social or religious group, then the whole group, military and civilians are considered potential enemies.”

The Destruction of Memory9 Robert Bevan

“He just gathered us around and pulled the movable pews around us as if he were trying to protect us and said something I will never forget: ‘Don’t be afraid, my children, because soon we will all be in heaven together.’”

The Agency of Mapping10 James Corner

“As a creative practice, mapping precipitates its most productive effects through a finding that is also founding; its agency lies in neither reproduction nor imposition but rather in uncovering realities previously unseen or unimagined, even across seemingly exhausted grounds..”

Taking Measures Across the American Landscape11 James Corner + Alex S. MacLean

“Measure is intrinsic to the design, habitation, and representation of land. it underlies the variety of ways land is traversed and negotiated; it enables the spacing, marking, delineation, and occupation of a given terrain; and it reflects the values and judgements of the society that live upon the land.”

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Intellectual Allies

Contested Spaces12 Edited by Louise Purbrick, Jim Aulich and Graham Dawson

One Long Night13 Andrea Pitzer

Theatricality, Dark Tourism and Ethical Spectatorship14 Emma WIllis

The Monumental Challege of Preservation15 Michèle Valerie Cloonan Pamphlet Architecture 3616 Christopher Meyer, Daniel Hemmendinger and Shawna Meyer

“Yet children, whatever their age, are not simply consumers of knowledge. They also construct and have knowledge. In the minds of these children and those who are now young people, consciously or unconsciously, the links between the past and present are evoked through the genocide sites, personal artefacts, forms of memorialization such as gravestones, and legacies such as missing or injured/disabled family members.”

“Concentration camps house civilians rather than combatants—though at many points, from World War I to Guantánamo, camp administrators have not always made an effort to distinguish between the two..” “...she expresses ambivalence about memorials that at once both keep past tragedies visible in the present and at the same time render their histories mute. Furthermore, she points out that while tourists might be comfortable seeking out distant and foreign tragedy, it is much more difficult to confront histories of violence and death that are closer to home.”

“In this respect, Lin created an early interactive experience with mourners that is similar to the instant memorials that are created alongside highways, at accident scenes, or at any locale where someone has met an untimely death.”

“If history is understood not just as a sequence of actions but also as the accumulation of reactions across time, then design is both the production of space flush with potential and the mitigation of negative outcomes.”

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Intellectual Allies

Maginot Line AndrĂŠ Maginot + Marshal Joffre French-German Border 1920 - 1940

While this series of monolithic structures, known as ouvrages, served as fortifications against the strengthening German army, the majority of these structures currently exist in a condition of dereliction.

At the time of their usage, each ouvrage possessed an individual territory. This territory is described from the radius of its missile trajectory, which often ends at the border of Germany (up to 25 kilometers in distance). This collection of individual territories creates a much larger network which was both permeable and seemingly impenetrable.

The compelling aspect of this architecture is the territory that the objects claim. Each individual structure conglomerates towards a larger network of once inhabited objects along a highly contested border. When the structures had been mostly abandoned in the 1960s17, it offered a unique field of monolithic objects that had an opportunity to be occupied. This opportunity was seized in several conditions, ranging from wine cellars to discotheques.

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Intellectual Allies

1. Map of the Maginot Line ouvrages

2. Landscape over the a turrent

3. Sectional Diagram of typical ouvrage

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Intellectual Allies

The National Memorial for Peace and Justice MASS Design Group Montgomery, Alabama, USA 2018

While the project is a singular object within the landscape of the city, its reach is much greater than the city limits. In addition, while the architecture has completed its construction, the project is not yet complete. Surrounding the built complex is a series of steel monuments, each with the name of a county where a racial terror lynching took place18.

The intention is that these monuments will be claimed by the respective municipalities inscribed on each monument. As these monuments are claimed, the territory of this architecture grows.

“What is most compelling about this project is how it acts as a site for reciprocity between collection and dispersal. The project rekindles the history of Montgomery as a slaveyard for domestic slave trade, this acts as a moment of collection.�

The qualities of being centralized and simultaneously dispersed are provocative in reference to the organization of an architecture.

The ongoing story of the project also lends some inspiration to the Scar project, where there may be an indefinite timeline to the construction and documentation of a project and a larger conflict.

The clarity and unapologetic nature of this project serve as aesthetic goals for the future Scar project.

-MASS Design Group

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Intellectual Allies

4. NMPJ central courtyard

5. NMPJ’s claim on the form slave trading territory

6. Field of corten steel monuments, waiting to be claimed by their respective counties

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Intellectual Allies

Kopiec Kościuszki Citizens of Kraków Kraków, Małopolska Voivedeship, Poland 1823

The Kościuszki Mound was constructed in memoriam of Tadeusz Kościuszko, a Polish and American war hero. Several decades later, Poland was invaded on several sides (AustroHungarian, Prussian, and Russian) and ceased to exist as Poland. Kraków, under Austrian control, experienced fortifications around the city, including the Kościuszki Mound which became “Fort 2.”19 “Fort 2” became a strategic point for the observation of the land outside the city limits of Kraków, and was part of a much larger fortification system. This system, following World War II, was mostly abandoned with some exceptions similar to the Kościuszki Mound. As this abandoned system of fortifications embedded itself in the expanding city of Kraków, some forts have received attention with the prospect of adaption.

This multi-programmed monument serves as an inspirational precedent for the potentional of Scar.

Though the monument started as a memorial for a war hero, it was transformed into a tool and resource for war, and then it was subsequently transformed into a memorial for both Kościuszko and Poland’s war history.

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Intellectual Allies

7. Chapel on “Fort 2” Kopiec Kościuszki complex

8. Inside the walls of “Fort 2”

9. Kopiec Kościuszki complex

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Intellectual Allies

Stolpersteine Günter Demnig Europe 1992-present

The Stolpersteine project is the world’s largest decentralized memorial.20 The project seeks to commemorate the individual victims of the Holocaust by locating where a person freely was before they fell victim to the Nazi’s eventual extermination. The bronze bricks are seamlessly integrated into the cities’ fabrics, with only the material texture and surface indicating that where the brick lies is a place of distinction.

Scar looks to replicate a similar tactic of memorialization through decentralization. While the objects that will be used as the eventual architectural implementation do not mark the specific points of where individual victims were before their demise, the objects will mark where the warring fronts were at a given time and a given place. The intent is that these objects will embed themselves in the eventual cities or landscape as seamlessly as the Stolpersteine have into their respective cities.

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Intellectual Allies

10. Close up of Stolperstein brick

11. Dense collection of Stolpersteine indicating a family lost

12. Stolperstein with mementos, showing the range of victims in the Holocaust

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“Measure is intrinsic to the design, habitation, and representation of land. it underlies the variety of ways land is traversed and negotiated; it enables the spacing, marking, delineation, and occupation of a given terrain; and it reflects the values and judgements of the society that live upon the land.�

-James Corner

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METHODOLOGY

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Methodology

Genocide is not an isolated event; it often begins from war. In many contemporary contexts, these wars often emulate out of battles for territory and resources. With regards to the given site, a region in the northern part of the country, spanning approximately from Malakal to Wau, South Sudan, it is increasingly important to fully understand the civil war engulfing the entire country.

The war within the country of South Sudan is split between three main fronts: the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) led by South Sudan’s President Salva Kiir, the an opposition army led by South Sudan’s Vice-President Riek Machar, and the citizens who identify neutral to the fighting. As a method, it is important to see how these front’s have shifted over time as they gain and lose power as well as where they gain and lose resources.

In addition to mapping the fronts, the main resources and exports of the country should be mapped. This could serve as a predictor for the shift of the warring fronts in the future. Furthermore, the borders of South Sudan can be demarcated with a volume of the citizens who have been deplaced as a result of the shifting fronts.

While mapping serves as a beneficial method for understanding the dynamics of the war, this takes its frame from the 23

military view of the country. This project is geared towards those harmed through acts of genocide–the civilians of South Sudan who have been caught in the cross-fire. In order to understand a changing dynamic in the lives of the civilians, collaging and experiential mapping will be used.

In this method of exploration, collages will explain the built environment, the communities, the street, etc. from the years preceding the war; the horrors of execution, gang-rape, and torture forced onto the civilians fleeing their homes, and the conditions of the Internally Displaced People’s camps.

For the part of experiential mapping, the routes in which citizens take to ensure their livelihood will be marked, as well as the qualities of the land where they traverse. In some cases, the unfathomable acts of voilence will also be mapped.

Models will be made to assist in the mapping of the dynamic and changing borders. This form of modeling with also play with aspects of time, both past and future.

Methodology

Planometric view of territorial expansion/contraction study

Aerial view of the territorial study, exposing the sectional potential

Submersion into the sectional perspective views of the territorial study

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Methodology

SUDAN

WAU CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

25

SPLA

Warring Intensity

Opposition

White Nile River

Methodology

MALAKAL

ETHIOPIA

JUBA

KENYA

UGANDA

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“The justification for killing civilians in wartime is that the war being fought is a ‘total war’, a war where victory is only won by complete destruction of the enemy.

If the enemy is defined as a social or religious group, then the whole group, military and civilians are considered potential enemies.”

-Charles Parrack

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SITE

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Site

With the discourse of architecture’s role in ongoing conflicts, Scar locates itself in the middle of an ongoing genocidal conflict.

While there are many opportunities for site, be those physical or fictional, the lack of discourse of this type of memorial requires a tangible region and conflict in order to nest its potential explorations.

There are several genocidal conflicts in the year 2018 CE that are unresolved: the Rohingya Muslim-Myanmar crisis, the Syrian Civil War, the Yemeni Civil War, and the South Sudanese Civil War. Scar focuses its site within the South Sudanese Civil War. This, like other civil wars in the contemporary context, has three main parties: the governmental power, its powerful opposition, and the civilians caught in-between the feud.

However, a point of interest is how young this land is. South Sudan gained its independence from Sudan in 201121 after over 30 years of fighting the northern and wealthier part of the country22. Two years later, South Sudan begins its civil war.

The governmental power, the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), is led

by Salva Kiir and comprised of the Dinka ethnicity. The rebel opposition is led by Riek Machar and is comprised of the Nuer ethnicity as well as some smaller groups. The capital of the country, Juba, is 29

controlled by the SPLA, and their territory reaches around Wau to the north of Malakal. The rebels control a thin central region spanning from Malakal to Wau. While the site will take on the regional landscape of South Sudan occupied by the various ethnic groups, there are specific cities that are pivotal in the shifting of the warring fronts. The north-eastern region of the country is oil-rich and is also bisected by the White Nile River, which flows into the southern part of the country. These criteria make the city Malakal, South Sudan’s second largest city, a vital and pivotal city in dictating the outcome of the civil war. This explains why Malakal “has changed hands many times and has been almost completely destroyed in the process.”23 While the territory acquired when capturing and maintaining Malakal affects the dynamics of the dueling fronts, it also affects the neutral citizens. In 2016, a protection of civilians site was attacked by one of the fronts, displacing approximately 47,000 people24 into the territory around the city.

Scar recognizes the dual landscapes under siege by dual forces. The range of territorial conditions offers the opportunity to explore a variety of potential architectural solutions to the proposed discourse.

Site

13. UN Protection of Civilians camp destroyed after an attack on February 17th and 18th, 2016

14. The bush of South Sudan, and the larger landscape

15. Soldiers of the SPLA are in process of being deployed

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Site

SUDAN

WAU

SOUTH SU

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

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Site

MALAKAL

ETHIOPIA

UTH SUDAN

JUBA

KENYA UGANDA

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“He just gathered us around and pulled the movable pews around us as if he were trying to protect us and said something I will never forget: ‘Don’t be afraid, my children, because soon we will all be in heaven together.’”

-Armenian Genocide survivor from the town of Marash

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PROPOSAL

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Proposal

This proposal seeks to question the nature of memorials in the future of a conflict. In this proposal, the architecture records the conflict in real time, and the future memoiral becomes the present continuation of a genocidal conflict.

The proposed architecture to be implemented onto the scarred landscape will be a series of deployed objects.

While currently ambiguous, the future explorations of this project will seek to clarify what these objects are, and more specifically how they can assist in the closing moments of the civil war and life after the civil war.

The future explorations of Scar certainly align with the discourse and advantages of a kit-of-parts system of architecture, or, in its most basic form, the typological studies of utilizing simple objects. An example of this could be the social and political conditions surrounding an obelisk. Through examples of ancient architecture, obelisks, approached from a cultural lense of the subject, have been used as a symbol to mark death and legacy of significant people. This is the case for architectures found as early as when the ancient Egyptian culture thrived, to as recent as the completion of the Washington Monument found in the District of Columbia.

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Through a political lense, objects like obelisks can aid in the midst of war. Objects on the battleground have their functions quickly and constant reappropriated to either protect or assault and, quite often, both. An obelisk can therefore act as a defensive barrier to shield a participant of battle from oncoming projectiles.

Moreover, an obelisk can assault as a visual barrier for an attacking participant of a warring conflict.

In the same way that war can reappropriate an object’s program, architecture also has the capacity to reappropriate objects. In the case of an obelisk, this can become an impromptu structural column to a larger structure for a market, a home, or another socially-driven program. The obelisk can be a point of interest within a surrounding work of architecture and could serve the purpose of a monument in rememberance of the civil war. Or, perhaps, the obelisk could remain untouched, along with a larger network of obelisks, as a reminder to the society of South Sudan of their history with civil war.

The field of objects, laid in the midst of war, have the opportunity to embed themselves into the fabric of South Sudanese society as reminders of its warring and genocidal past. Scar will reveal how such an opportunity may be accomplished as an architectual exploration.

Proposal

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“...she expresses ambivalence about memorials that at once both keep past tragedies visible in the present and at the same time render their histories mute.

Furthermore, she points out that while tourists might be comfortable seeking out distant and foreign tragedy, it is much more difficult to confront histories of violence and death that are closer to home.�

-Emma Willis

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REFLECTIONS

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Reflections

Scar proves to be a valiant attempt at engaging a non-normative discourse in regards to architecture, war, and memory.

It is with great anticipation that Scar will provide the framework to allow a larger disccusion on the roles of memorials and war through many explorations in the coming semester.

Though the subject is not very well articulated through the scope of the proposal, an interesting aspect of Scar is how the field of preservation interacts with the architecture. As the markers are left at the conclusion of the war, the intent is to leave the neutral citizens to determine how these monuments will be programmed. This, however, does invite an opportunity for the country’s ruling identity to shape how the future collective memory will be experienced. What should be remembered, and what will be forgotten?

Another subject that was not given the appropriate attention is in regards to the children that suffer amongst the genocidal war. How might the future of a memorial be affected by the youngest group that experienced the conflict? This question, along with others regarding trauma, collective memory, and pedagogy should engage with the trajectory of this project.

For this memorial to be successful in its 39

future, it should concern itself with the future population that will interact with it.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For this section, I will begin by admitting that I am indebted to the immense help and direction I was given throughout the project. Thank you Jennifer Akerman, for pushing me each week to ensure that I was on track to be happy with the ending result; Julie Beckman, for engaging in my deep and dark subjects and directing my work to a positive light; numerous faculty, who offered feedback and engaging questions to ensure I thought holistically about this project; and several colleagues, who simmered my flames in times of need and offered incredible critique throughout the process.

Most importantly, thank you to my late grandmother, Adelaide Veronika MĂźller Erwin. Your perseverance through the hardships in life have inspired me to seek to give voices to the voiceless.

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APPENDIX Works Referenced

1. Central Intelligence Agency, “The World Factbook: South Sudan,” accessed December 9, 2018 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ geos/od.html.

2. Castoro, Rocco, Tim Freccia, and Robert Young Pelton, Saving South Sudan, VICE: YouTube, 2014. 34 min.

3. Associated Press, “At scene of South Sudan mass rape, ‘no one could hear me,’” Associated Press News, December 9, 2018, https://www.apnews.com/ f238be641b294ab6a830a3fe1ff5f051.

4. Encyclopædia Britannica, “South Sudan: Plant and animal life,” accessed December 10, 2018 https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Sudan#ref300731.

5. Associated Press, “In South Sudan, a child soldier long thought dead comes back,” Associated Press News, December 9, 2018, https://www.apnews.com/ ee5a9674dd774e469be8d6cd83a5fadd.

6. Bonder, Julian, and Krzysztof Wodiczko, “Memory Is a Verb,” interview by Renée Loth, Architecture Boston, no. 3 (2012): 46-51.

7. McAslan, John, “Listen,” Blueprint, no. 352 (May 2017): 17.

8. Parrack, Charles, “The Territory of Hatred and Compassion,” Architectural Design 69, no. 7-8 (1999): 10-12.

9. Bevan, Robert, The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War, London, UK: Reaktion Books Ltd, 2006.

10. Corner, James, “The Agency of Mapping: Speculation, Critique and Invention,” Chap.

1.12 in The Map Reader, edited by Rob Kitchin and Chris Perkins Martin Dodge, 89-101. United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

11. Corner, James and Alex S. MacLean, Taking Measures across the American Landscape, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

12. Aulich, Jim, Graham Dawson, and Louise Purbrick, ed. Contested Spaces: Sites, Representations and Histories of Conflict, New York: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2007.

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Appendix

Works Referenced (Continued)

13. Pitzer, Andrea, One Long Night: A Global History of Concentration Camps, New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2017.

14. Willis, Emma, Theatricality, Dark Tourism and Ethical Spectatorship, New York: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2014.

15. Cloonan, Michèle Valerie, The Monumental Challenge of Preservation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2018.

16. Christopher Meyer, Daniel Hemmendinger, Shawna Meyer, Pamphlet Architecture: Buoyant Clarity (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2018).

17. Séramour, Michaël, “Histoire de la ligne Maginot de 1945 à nos jours,” Revue historique des armées, 247 (2007): 86-97 https://journals.openedition.org/rha/1933#quotation.

18. “The National Memorial for Peace and Justice,” Museum and Memorial, Equal Justice Initiative, accessed December 6, 2016, https://museumandmemorial.eji.org/memorial.

19. “History of Kosciuszko Mound,” Kościuszko Mound in Kraków, Komitet Kopca Kościuszki w Krakowie, accessed December 6, 2016, http://kopieckosciuszki.pl/en/historia-kopcakosciuszki.

20. Nowak, Swann, “Stolpersteine vs Memorial,” Mapping Zebras, FH Potsdam, accessed December 10, 2016, https://infovis.fh-potsdam.de/mappingzebras/.

21. British Broadcasting Corporation, “South Sudan becomes an independent nation,” BBC News, July 9, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14089843.

22. British Broadcasting Corporation, “Salva Kiir: South Sudan’s president in a cowboy hat,” BBC News, June 21, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12107760.

23. Thomson Reuters, “In South Sudan ghost town, peace deal not yet a reality,” Reuters, September 14, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-southsudan-malakal/insouth-sudan-ghost-town-peace-deal-not-yet-a-reality-idUSKCN1LU1B9.

24. Medesins Sans Frontières, “MSF condemns outrageous attack in UN protection site in Malakal,” press release, March 2, 2016, https://www.msf.org/south-sudan-msfcondemns-outrageous-attack-un-protection-site-malakal.

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Appendix

Image Credits

1. The Maginot Line. C.S.Hammond & Co. Source: The Xenophile Historian. http:// xenohistorian.faithweb.com/europe/eu15.html#Maginot (accessed December 6, 2018).

2. Anonymous, Schoenenbourg works, Block 4. (November, 2005). Photograph. Source: Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Maginot_Line#/ media/File:Fort_de_Schoenenbourg_forward_bunker_11-2005.jpg (accessed December 6, 2018).

3. Anonymous, The Maginot Line. (1970). “The World Book Encyclopedia,” Field Enterprises Educational Corportation. Source: blog “Progress is fine.” http:// progress-is-fine.blogspot.com/2012/07/maginot-line.html (accessed December 6, 2018).

4. Anonymous, The National Memorial for Peace and Justice. (2018). Photograph.

Source: MASS Design Group. https://massdesigngroup.org/work/nationalmemorial-peace-and-justice (accessed December 6, 2018).

5. Anonymous, The National Memorial for Peace and Justice. (2018). Photograph.

Source: MASS Design Group. https://massdesigngroup.org/work/nationalmemorial-peace-and-justice (accessed December 6, 2018).

6. Anonymous, The National Memorial for Peace and Justice. (2018). Photograph.

Source: Museum and Memorial, Equal Justice Initiative, https:// museumandmemorial.eji.org (accessed December 6, 2018).

7. User: Sebek2d, Kosciuszko Mound 3. (August 2006). Photograph. Source: Polish Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Kosciuszko_Mound_3.jpg (accessed December 6, 2018).

8. Anonymous, Kopiec Kościuszki. (2016). Photograph. Source: Trip Points. https:// www.trip-points.com/sightseeing-places/kosciuszko-mound-kopiec-kosciuszki. html (accessed December 6, 2018).

9. Anonymous, Kopiec Kościuszki na majówkę. (April 2017). Photograph. Source: Malopolska Online. https://www.malopolskaonline.pl/rozmaitosci,Kopiec_ Kosciuszki_na_majowke-21795.html (accessed December 6, 2018).

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Appendix

Image Credits (Continued)

10. Egon Lauppert, Melanie Lachs. Photograph. Source: Melanie Lachs, Stolpersteine in Graz. http://www.stolpersteine-graz.at/stolpersteine/lachs-melanie/ (accessed December 10, 2018).

11. Karl-Josef Hildenbrand, Stolpersteine für Familie Oberdorfer. (May 2017). Photograph.

Source: Bayern, Welt. https://www.welt.de/regionales/bayern/article164237405/ Kuenstler-verlegt-erste-oeffentliche-Stolpersteine-in-Augsburg.html (accessed December 10, 2018).

12. J.J. Kucek, Stoperstein für Emmerich Gutmann. (August 2016). Photograph. Source: Emmerich Gutmann, Stolpersteine in Graz. http://www.stolpersteine-graz.at/ stolpersteine/gutmann-emmerich/ (accessed December 10, 2018).

13. Doctors Without Borders, Malakal, South Sudan. (February 2016). Photograph. Source: MSF Media, Médecins Sans Frontières. https://msf.exposure.co/2016 (accessed December 10, 2018).

14. Rungsun Klinkaeo, Sudan. (May 2015). Photograph. Source: Mr. Rungsun’s Album Archive, Google Images. https://picasaweb.google.com/lh/p?uname=111071375087 731116073&aid=6146754488953053249#map (accessed December 10, 2018).

15. Tim McKulka, SPLA Soldiers Redeploy South. (July 2008). Photograph. Source: United Nations Photo, Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/un_photo/4682384562/ (accessed December 10, 2018).

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