The Role of Architectural Design in a Circular Future

“

The Role of Architectural Design in a Circular Future ”

By Adam Cowan

2021 - 2022

Matric. No. 17015227

10,881 Words

Research Dissertation submitted to the Glasgow School of Art, Mackintosh School of Architecture

For the BArch (Hons) Programme

1. Introduction

In his book Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Emergency Barnabas Calder states that “The full implications of climate crisis response in architecture require a revolution as sweeping and total as that seen in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as architecture adapted to fossil fuel energy” 1 This indicates the relevance of the climate crisis to architecture, and the magnitude of change it demands. The climate crisis is primarily a result of human industrial activity which emits carbon into the atmosphere. 2 This carbon warms the planet, melting ice caps, raising sea levels and increasing the frequency of dangerous weather events – all of which are harmful to humans, and cause cascading damage to ecosystems.

In 2015, all UN nations committed to the Paris Climate Agreement which set legally binding emissions goals designed to limit irreversible damage to our planet. These goals seek to avoid entering the most damaging phase of climate change (above +1.5°C), and require a reversal of current emissions trends as quickly as possible, and to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 3 As the construction and operation of

1 Barnabas Calder, Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Emergency (London: Pelican, 2021), Pg 439

2 United Nations, “What is Climate Change?”, UN.org, Accessed 30/07/2022, https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change

3 United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change, “The Paris Agreement”, UNFCCC.int, Accessed 20/07/2022, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement

Figure 1 – Changing Temperatures Associated with Industrialisation

buildings account for 37% of global C02 emissions, it is unlikely that any of these goals can be met without extensive changes in architecture 4 Architecture, and the wider construction industry, are not the only sectors scrambling for solutions to protect our planet. They are, however, lagging behind all other sectors (according to Yamina Saheb, co-author of the most recent IPCC report). 5 The need for change has, perhaps, never been greater.

The climate crisis is a consequence of our consumption of materials under an excessively wasteful system that relies on fossil fuel energy The way we design and construct buildings has perpetuated a ‘take, make, waste’ cycle since industrialisation, which relies on the constant extraction of finite resources from the Earth. 6 Due to the one-way flow of materials from ‘cradle to grave’ (source to disposal), this system is described as linear. In 2012, the construction industry accounted for 60% of the UK’s material consumption and 50% of the country’s waste 7 By comparing consumption rates to the earth’s ability to provide materials and absorb pollution (biocapacity), the concept of ‘overshoot days’ reveals the both the

4 United Nations Environment Programme, 2021 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction (Nairobi: United Nations, 2021), Accessed 22/06/2022 https://globalabc.org/resources/publications/2021-global-statusreport-buildings-and-construction

5 Jennifer Hahn, “Architecture “lagging behind all other sectors" in climate change fight says IPCC report author”, Dezeen, 06/04/2022, Accessed 22/06/2022, https://www.dezeen.com/2022/04/06/ipcc-climatechange-mitigation-report/?fbclid=IwAR1tQH69h9sp1-pDDKsq2dGt5njIZrtoWj8iFd4QQzDX6NHlkbAIvKx96io

6 Michael Braungart and William McDonough, Cradle to Cradle (London: Vintage, 2009), Pg 27

7 Duncan Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas: A Designer’s Guide Towards a Circular Economy (London: RIBA Publishing, 2017), Pg 20

Figure 2 – Earth Overshoot Days and Country Overshoot Days

overextraction problem, and the disparity between the countries responsible [Figure 2] 8 In 2022, the UK passed its overshoot day on the 19th of May, meaning it will rely on overconsumption for the remaining 62% of the year. Meanwhile, large proportions of waste are irretrievably destroyed in landfills or incinerators long before the end of their useful life. 9 We cannot justify burning and burying materials which required huge amounts of energy, emissions and labour to create, especially when considering their finite nature and the environmental harm at their points of extraction and destruction – it is incompatible with the climate goals Fortunately, there are promising answers available to the problems at hand. The circular economy is a model that changes this system with the goal of indefinite sufficiency, thus supporting a stable climate as a prerequisite.

Inspired by the need for holistic action in architecture, and based on the potential effectiveness of the circular economy as a solution, this research project aims to examine the obstacles to, and opportunities created by, the pursuit of a circular economy in architecture design. The research is guided by the question “ W hat are the implications of pursuing circular economy goals within architectural design , with specific focus on the early stages of design ?” The circular economy concept is increasingly well established, with many countries already implementing plans to achieve a circular economy, to varying extents. 10 In contrast to the linear economy, a circular economy consumes and pollutes far less,

8 Global Footprint Network, “About Earth Overshoot Day”, Earth Overshoot Day, Accessed 25/07/2022, https://www.overshootday.org/about-earth-overshoot-day/

9 Caroline O’Donnell and Dillon Pranger, The Architecture of Waste: Design for a Circular Economy (Oxford: Routledge 2021), Pg XVIII, XXIII

10 Ellen MacArthur Foundation * and Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 7

Figure 3 – Linear vs Circular Economies

minimising waste by reusing and reconfiguring materials. A 2010 study concluded that 20% of the UK economy is already operating in a circular way, showing that this is not an impossible idea 11

The current linear economy has permeated the way we design. Its control over the products available to us, their costs, and regulations heavily influence our standard practices and restrict the scope of what we can design without contributing actual harm to the environment and future generations These complex reciprocal relationships have hardened over decades, creating inertia that resists the industry's necessary change. 12 While architects have a relatively minor influence over the construction industry, they have a more considerable influence over, and responsibility for, the design process. 13 Architects are ideally placed to navigate the constraints of the industry and individual projects to implement designs which strive to participate in the circular economy fully. Given the amount of material commanded through the design of architecture, and its contextual nature, architecture may be the most local manifestation of a circular economy. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, leading proponents of the circular economy movement, say that design is necessary in “turning ambition into action”. 14 This research will contribute towards the production of architecture for a circular economy by emphasising the connections between architectural design and the circular economy, exploring the implications of its uptake, and giving designers the awareness required to grasp the opportunities at hand.

This paper is structured in chapters designed to guide the reader from the context of our current material economy and its relationship to architectural design, onward to the circular economy and required transitions in the design process. Following this chapter, chapter two reviews existing literature in the field, building a background and identifying themes which are necessary to the continued discussion.

Chapter three focuses on identifying and exploring distinct paradigm shifts which can guide architects to

11 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 11

12 Hahn, “Architecture lagging behind all other sectors”

13 Space Caviar, Non-Extractive Architecture Vol. 1, (Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2021), Pg 12

14 “Circular Design”, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Accessed 05/06/2022, https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-design/overview

contribute to the circular economy through their designs. Lastly, chapter four applies knowledge from the previous chapters in analysis of selected exemplar case studies which display circular economy principles as key drivers in their design. A final conclusion will summarise and reflect on the findings of the research.

This research draws on a range of books by architects engaged in circular design. Walter Stahel is regularly referenced, and is considered by many to be the father of the circular economy. His contributions span over forty years and are woven through much of the discussion. Similarly, Cradle to Cradle by Michael Braungart and William McDonough is a core reference, a book which highly popularised and built on circular economy ideas, especially in relation to design, written by two of the most active contemporary voices in the field. Duncan-Baker Brown’s Re-Use Atlas also provided a great amount of diverse interdisciplinary voices, interesting case studies and an important picture of the current state of progress towards circularity. While he does not cover circular design, Barnabas Calder’s work was centrally important in giving historic context, and understanding the relationships between architecture, energy, materials and labour, which are all challenged by the circular economy.

This project focuses mostly on the early stages of architectural design, often known as the concept design stage. RIBA provides the definition “concept design is about getting the design concept right and making sure that the look and feel of the building is proceeding in line with the client’s vison, brief and budget”. 15

Although architects in the UK follow the RIBA stages, it is not common to publicly present work in a way that cleanly identifies the design stages. The case studies instead follow this line of inquiry by evaluating statements made by the architects about the initial concept and relating them to the final work. Since design changes become increasingly more costly and difficult as projects start on-site and approach completion, the concept design stage is the determining factor for holistic ambitions such as circular design. This is mirrored in Sofie Pelsmakers’ advice that “the more holistic your design concept is at this 15 RIBA, Plan of Work 2020 Overview (London: RIBA, 2020), Pg 20. Accessed 07/07/2022, https://www.architecture.com/knowledge-and-resources/resources-landing-page/riba-plan-of-work

early stage, the more it will reduce the negative environmental, climactic and societal impacts”. 16 Some research has demonstrated that as much as 80% of the environmental impact of designed products are introduced at the concept design stage, implying that the most meaningful gains in circular design are achievable at the concept design stage. 17 This is why the question focuses on the early stages of architectural design - to direct research that identifies the most relevant factors for architects, applicable at their most influential point in the design process.

There are many relevant barriers to circular design which lie outwith architecture, summarised in section 2.4, that are too expansive to explore in this dissertation. Awareness of these adjacent problems are important, as it is in the nature of circular design to break down interdisciplinary boundaries. The Ellen Macarthur Foundation frames the circular economy as a “systems solution”. 18 Systems theory says that focusing on individual, isolated parts of a system (reductionism) can introduce unexpected consequences elsewhere in the system, echoed in Cradle to Cradle which says “to concentrate on any single criterion creates instability in the larger context”. 19 This works both ways, and to create systems change we must address every part of the system with a holistic, interconnected approach Baker-Brown advocates this, writing that “buildings will increasingly have to be designed as urban systems solutions”. 20 A transition to the circular economy is so big that it requires collective effort - movement on everyone’s part. Architecture and the construction industry constitute an enormous part of our economy, and our environmental problem. Changes we make here are absolutely necessary to change the whole system.

16 Sofie Pelsmakers et al., Designing for the Climate Emergency: A Guide for Architecture Students (London: RIBA Publishing, 2022), Pg 12

17 RSA. The Great Recovery – Rearranging the Furniture (London: RSA, 2015). Accessed 06/07/2022, https://www.thersa.org/reports/the-great-recovery-rearranging-the-furniture

18 “Circular Economy Introduction”, Ellen Macarthur Foundation, Accessed 05/07/2022, https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-economy-introduction/overview

19 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 147

20 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg XVI

2. Setting the Scene

This chapter reviews existing literature which later discussion will rely on, grouped into themes necessary to understanding the role of circular economy in design The chosen themes are the circular economy; energy and materials; circular design and (circular economy) outwith architecture The circular economy discusses foundational principles of the circular economy movement, to give greater ability to relate it to design. Energy and materials evaluates the new energy-based overview of architectural history written by Barnabas Calder, which clarifies how energy and materials systems command architecture, which underpin the relationship between the circular economy and design. The next section better defines circular design by bringing together existing works which relate architectural design directly with the circular economy, thereby demonstrating the influence that circular economy principles have over architectural design. The last section broadly acknowledges some of the relevant factors outwith architecture, which influence the uptake of the circular economy, often negatively.

2. 1 The Circular Economy

The circular economy goes far beyond architecture, encompassing all forms of design and branching into economics, sustainability and politics Despite this, architects can be found at the forefront of circular economy writing. Walter R. Stahel, a Swiss architect, is the longest serving proponent of the circular economy and the first to explore many facets of the field which have spread and developed in the decades since. His initial report for the European Commission titled “Jobs for Tomorrow: The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy” 21 (co-authored by Geneviève Reday-Mulvey, submitted 1976 and published 1982) combines the idea of substituting labour for energy and materials directly with the concept of extending product lifespan as a means of reducing waste and resource consumption. His 1982 Report titled “The Product-Life Factor” 22 develops the idea of ‘closing the loop’, proposing a spiralling system which consists of cascading cycles of re-used (useful) waste [Figure 4].

Stahel founded the Product-Life Institute which has pioneered research-led sustainable consultancy across many sectors for forty years 23 The Circular Economy: A User’s Guide draws on Stahel’s entire career,

21 Geneviève Reday-Mulvey and Walter R. Stahel, Jobs for Tomorrow: The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy, (United States: Vantage Press, 1981)

22 “Product-Life Factor (Mitchell Prize Winning Paper 1982)”, Product-Life Institute, Accessed 23/06/2022 http://www.product-life.org/en/major-publications/the-product-life-factor

23 “Welcome to the Product-Life Institute”, Product-Life Institute, Accessed 23/06/2022, http://www.productlife.org/

Figure 4 – Stahel’s first diagram of the circular economy

reinforcing the circular economy concept and addressing practical concerns that are essential to engage the entire industrial economy. Stahel weaves his detailed ideas on ownership, liability and economics together using a comparatively indefinite word - “caring”. He proposes this is a key difference between the circular and linear economies. 24 In a circular economy, caring is the driver of each process. Caring is required in any situation where you want to maintain something, and in the circular economy we must care at every step of design and manufacture if we are to maintain our finite stock of materials at its highest quality, for the longest time. 25 How we motivate, expand and apply this care is a central thread in most circular economy writings, showing that seemingly emotive ideas have their place as a binding and guiding force for an otherwise overwhelming number of small decisions.

Michael Braungart and William McDonough’s book Cradle to Cradle (2002) reveals how we can change the design process to be not only less harmful, but regenerative. Michael Braungart’s background as a chemist brings materials science expertise to the argument, while William McDonough’s career as an architect informs the discussion of design. The book is filled with examples of diverse, singular cases where circular economy ambitions have inspired products or buildings which are healthier for people, animals and the planet – and often economically superior. Cradle to Cradle is a convincing manifesto, distinguished from many other works in the field by its tone and perspective, 26 which are critical in motivating designers to alter their practice. They state that “it’s not the solution itself that is necessarily radical, but the shift in perspective from which we begin”. 27

24 Walter R. Stahel, The Circular Economy: A User’s Guide (Oxford: Routledge, 2019), Pg 11

25 Stahel, The Circular Economy, Pg 66

26 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 4

27 Ibid, Pg 84

Figure 5

as merely ‘doing less bad’. 28 They offer

and

anecdote “It is not protecting your child if you beat him three times instead of five, and it is not protecting the environment simply to use your car less often”. 29 They propose that the circular economy, in which designers have considered and connected together sources and final destinations of materials (eliminating waste), is the only way to be truly ‘good’. Cradle to Cradle is not about scarcity, but about encouraging abundance in the long term 30 Their logic goes, that if natural systems can evolve to be reciprocal and regenerative (producing surplus) in almost all instances, why can man-made systems which pursue these goals not thrive similarly? Extending beyond the individual building, the authors hint at the potential of a system (built environment) comprising of completely regenerative, reciprocal parts - “Imagine a building like a tree, a city like a forest”. 31

Stahel provides a fundamental overview of the circular economy and its potential on an industrial scale. His proposed solutions to overcome the practical barriers to the circular economy have given the movement enough credibility to progress in the forty-plus years since his work began. Braungart and

28 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 31

29 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 4

30 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 155, 186

31 Ibid, Pg 139

– Too much focus on being ‘less bad’ cannot take you above the line, only doing ‘more good’ can Braungart

McDonough are dismissive of many sustainable ‘efficiency’ trends, which they describe

the

McDonough present a way of thinking which unveils a new dimension of design opportunities and demonstrate that sending materials to an ‘early grave’ is not the only option. These writings on circular economy are calling on designers to think bigger - to know that our decisions manipulate material flows, influence their extraction, their disposal and their overall harm to the planet.

2. 2 Energy, Materials and Architecture

Barnabas Calder proposes in his book Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Emergency that energy itself is a fundamental driver of architecture. As technology made energy more available, more was consumed, and life for the average human being improved. 32 Calder shows how architecture evolved with these changes in energy supply, without fail, across the globe and throughout history. Calder does not focus on circular economy (or sustainable architecture), but provides a solid foundational understanding of the climate emergency and its relationship to architecture. Viewing past historic architectural changes through the energy lens is important to this research as it will help to understand the circular economy transition as the next part of the story. A transition to a circular economy is unprecedented in the way that it decouples human progress from energy and materials consumption for the first time. 33 Recalling Stahel’s work, it is also perhaps the first time that it is favourable to substitute human labour for materials and energy, reversing a trend towards reduced labour demands seen throughout Calder’s energy history. This explains why the circular economy demands a revolution in how we design, as it reverses some of the fundamental drivers of our architecture

Calder shows that in the past, restrictions on material/energy use have been due to scarcity. Civilisation has always expanded as far as the available energy, labour and materials have allowed Before fossil fuels, societies had such a short reach that exhausting their nearby land would be catastrophic. 34 Since fossil fuels, the development of global transportation networks (ships, planes, trains and trucks) have extended this reach, giving access to such a bounty of new fuels and materials that we have enjoyed over a century of perceived abundance. 35 This is perceived, not real abundance, as we have been globally exploiting

32 Calder, Architecture, Pg XI

33 “Circular Economy Introduction”, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Accessed 28/06/2022

https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-economy-introduction/overview

34 Calder, Architecture, Pg 222

35 Ibid, Pg 230

resources which cannot be replenished. 36 This point approximately 150 years ago has been suggested as the beginning of the linear economy. 37

Figure

Recognising the grip fossil fuels have on our attitudes to materials, and the design of buildings, is the first step in moving away from the linear economy and toward circular design. Calder looks back on a pattern of scarcity that is now rapidly approaching a global apex Cradle to Cradle looks forward, to a future of lasting abundance for humans and nature. This sustained abundance would come from designing out waste, drastically reducing materials consumption, and becoming resourceful and regenerative in every aspect of design. The critical difference between the past, which Calder expertly navigates, and the future persuasively advocated by Braungart and McDonough, is a circular economy driven by intelligent and creative design. If we continue wasting our materials we risk passing an irreversible tipping point, collapsing our planet's natural systems and missing the opportunity of sustained abundance The onus is on designers to put the brakes on scarcity and pursue the circular economy with conviction. Yamina Saheb (IPCC report co-author) provides this ultimatum for the construction industry: “Either get this right, or it’s wrong forever”. 38

36 Baker-Brown, The Reuse Atlas, Pg 22

37 Ibid, Pg 8

38 Hahn, “Architecture “lagging behind all other sectors" in climate change fight says IPCC report author”

6 – Illustration pointing out that ‘disposable buildings’ are a recent phenomenon

2.3 Circular Design

The circular economy is concerned with material flows and waste, therefore, design is fundamental to the circular economy. It is designers who give form to materials and configure them to perform functions. These designed objects are discarded once their usefulness expires, and their assembly has a large influence on whether their materials are fated for landfill, incineration or reuse. Architects play the same role as any other designer in this regard, albeit dealing in larger quantities of materials. 39 This section will cover some interesting avenues fundamental to circular design.

Circular design requires us to challenge our relationship to materials. One of Cradle to Cradle’s most important ideas is the reframing of waste as nutrients, based on the premise that in nature there is no such thing as waste. 40 These nutrients flow in two separate biological and technical cycles (biosphere and technosphere) - visualised in the Ellen Macarthur Foundation’s famous butterfly diagram [Figure 7]

Figure 7 – The butterfly diagram of technical and biological cycles

39 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 15 40 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 92

The biological cycle contains all materials which can be safely returned to the earth and reused by nature. The technical cycle is a consequence of industrialisation and consists of synthetic manufactured materials which are not safe or useful to the biological cycle The distinction between use and consumption is important – only natural materials are truly ‘consumed’, whereas technical ones must be used and preserved. The current linear system makes good use of neither cycle, actively contaminating the biosphere with waste from the technosphere. Duncan Baker-Brown highlights this as an issue that Cradle to Cradle has not properly addressed, and emphasises the urgency of a “ great clean up” of the planet (biosphere) as an urgent transitory step. 41 For architecture, this may mean finding opportunities to ‘upcycle’ commonly available non architectural waste. Redefining materials and waste as nutrients has real consequences to how we design, with implications on which materials we select and how we combine them, with a solid grasp of how they are returned to either cycle at the end of their use. 42

Designers who understand local needs and environments can design appropriate solutions that work with, not against them. This comes down to a shift in how we understand our context, broadening the scope of analysis in time and space 43 Expanding our timescale for a project considers the effect it will have on the people who inherit the built and natural environments we leave behind – will our legacy be useless, unsalvageable and unmaintainable buildings? Or will it be buildings which can be upgraded, dismantled and reused? Broadening the physical understanding of context is to consider the ecosystems and societies that suffer when we extract and inappropriately discard materials. In Upcycling (2020) the value of materials as a cultural resource is introduced – “They convey meanings, demands and desires while remaining open to gaining new layers of meaning… the presence of reused building parts encourages us to tell their stories”. 44 How we harness past materials and the messages they convey becomes a design opportunity The term spolia was introduced as a known concept in architecture during the 1930’s. Spolia

41 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 2

42 O’Donnell and Pranger, The Architecture of Waste, Pg 42

43 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 145

44Hans-Rudolf Meier, “Reuse from Classical Antiquity to the Present”, in Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture, edited by Daniel Stockhammer, Pg 35-49, (Zürich: Triest Verlag, 2020) Pg 39

can be understood as reclaimed elements with decorative or iconographic qualities, a practice which dates back to at least Roman times. 45 This is an intersection of material and contextual ideas, where designers must consider whether the materials they choose to reuse are continuing the story of their context, or not.

The intangible value of culture can inspire users to appreciate a building and prolong its life, increasing its participation in the circular economy – this is known as ‘emotionally durable design’, usually in reference to smaller objects than buildings 46

45 Ibid, Pg 39

46 “Designing Products to be Used More and for Longer”, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Accessed 05/07/2022 https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/articles/designing-products-to-be-used-more-and-for-longer

2.4 Outwith Architecture

The idealistic architect is portrayed as a polymath who intelligently manoeuvres social and cultural issues, improving people’s lives using design The realistic architect does rely on strong awareness, however, operates under many constraints over which they have very little control: economics, politics, legislation, supply chains, to name a few. The role of the architect will lose purpose and relevancy if it ignores these wider issues. 47 This section acknowledges these issues at a broad level, relating them to the uptake of circular design.

Walter Stahel’s early circular economy writings likely owe most of their traction to their identification of explicit economic barriers He identified many entrenched structures of our capitalist, linear industrial economy which must be eroded in order for the circular economy to emerge. His proposals are split into the era of ‘R’ and era of ‘D’, domains in which he outlines the scales, benefits, challenges and key actors. 48

Core ideas include sustainable taxation, extending liability beyond the point of sale to protect the longterm circulation of materials, and an ‘owner-user’ model in which most materials are provided as services 47 Space Caviar,

Figure 8

Era of R (Reusing etc.) and Era of D (Disassembly etc.)

and returned for re-use. 49 Where technologies for reclaiming pure materials do not yet exist, opportunities for research and development are highlighted. 50 Stahel also defines new metrics to measure success in a circular economy, which quantify the labour and wealth generated per kilogram of material used –incentivising lower consumption. 51 This goes against the current dominance of GDP, which is also criticised in Cradle to Cradle. 52 Until the mechanisms by which people make money are changed to incentivise circular design, its pursuit will remain an unnecessarily steep uphill battle.

Stahel’s performance economy relies on a transition from ownership to usage – most products simply do not need to be owned, and the circular economy is safeguarded when the manufacturer/supplier is involved in maintaining and reclaiming their own product’s value. 53 This brings into question some deep cultural norms, described by Baker-Brown as “our seemingly inbred postmodern desire to ‘have stuff’ or ‘make more money’”. 54

49 Ibid, Pg 59,

50 Ibid, Pg 24, 47, 21

51 Ibid, Pg 60-61

52 Braungart and McDonough, Pg 35-37, 81

53 Stahel, The Circular Economy, Pg 67

54 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 18

Figure 9 – Stahel’s Metrics for a Circular Economy

Architect Jack Self’s Home Economics exhibition is an experiment in domestic sharing, that imagines an architecture based on occupancy by hours, days, months, years and decades In a society obsessed with ownership, Self’s exhibition is counterculture in the way it advocates sharing as a luxury – not a compromise – proposing a viable route to a better, more efficient domestic life. 55 Explorations like this reveal the cultural friction around our relationship with objects and materials, hindering the sharing and ownership models that circularity relies on.

Duncan Baker-Brown’s Re-Use Atlas gives brief insight to political barriers to the circular economy, describing “political weakness where decisions are swayed by the need for short term economic growth to be re-elected and political cycles that cannot deliver long-term sustainable visions”. 56 The five-year cycle of most democratic political systems is badly placed to pursue decades-long goals, especially when these goals disrupt the systems which favoured their election in the first place. Additionally, most influential players in our current economy – who lobby the government – benefit hugely from the short-term plundering of our natural resources. Steps such as the EU’s 2030 circular economy plan are noble, however these political structures have a lot more to give, and will only bend further under immense public pressure. Public awareness of the climate crisis is an arena fraught with misinformation, greenwashing, distraction and apathy. Global citizens are slowly waking up, partly reflected in shifting

55 Amy Frearson, “British Pavilion calls for architects to redesign home ownership rather than houses”, Dezeen, 26/05/2016, Accessed 06/07/2022, https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/home-economics-british-pavilionvenice-architecture-biennale-2016-uk-housing/

56 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 20

Figure 10 – Spaces from the Venice Architecture Biennale “Home Economics” exhibition

mainstream terminologies - from ‘global warming’ to ‘climate change’, then the ‘climate crisis’ and more recently the ‘climate emergency’. The urgency is growing. Design professionals can lead the way, exceeding building regulations (the minimum standard) by engaging with documents like LETI’s design guides, the proposed “part Z” building regulations and the RIBA 2030 challenge, which all step in where legislation has failed.

57 Baker-Brown concludes that “it isn’t about getting policymakers to introduce policies, it’s about getting the architects, material purchasers, developers, facility managers, operators, financiers, electrical, mechanical and civil engineers and potential users to buy into the circular economy and understand the benefits” 58 – emphasising the rather long list of construction industry roles which must engage with the circular economy issue.

57 RIBA, “2030 Climate Challenge”, Architecture.com, Accessed 30/07/2022, https://www.architecture.com/about/policy/climate-action/2030-climate-challenge “Proposed Document Z –our proof of concept for implementing embodied carbon regulation”, Part Z, Accessed 30/07/2022, https://part-z.uk/proposal “Publications”, LETI, Accessed 30/07/2022, https://www.leti.london/publications

58 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 28

3. Changing How We Think About Design

Architecture is mired in harmful design practices which emerged as useful solutions to past problems, but are incompatible with the new challenges of a circular economy In holistic movements like circular design, specific implications can quickly become countless, and inflexible rules risk becoming counterproductive to designing more contextually appropriate buildings. If we instead identify conceptual areas which require clear paradigm shifts to the status quo, which are then used to underpin all design decisions, we can create strong adherence to the circular economy goals. This raises two new questions: what are these key paradigm shifts? And how can they be realised through architecture? This chapter will focus on this first question, leaving the next chapter to explore the second. Each author tends to have their own guiding themes through which they break down circular design. For this research, the themes of context, materials and longevity have been used. These themes emerged during the research process as useful groupings to organise analysis of existing literature. The three headings contain several paradigm shifts from the status quo, selected to challenge the thinking of architects and influence their practice by highlighting the benefits and potential of circular design.

The definition of context is frequently challenged in circular design discussions, for good reason. How we define it in both space and time is important, as is the emphasis we put on it in our design process. Context is regularly considered at the scale of streets, adjacent buildings, and the surrounding town/city/region or even landscape These understandings of context are important to create architecture which strikes a meaningful connection with its surroundings; however, they still provide only a blinkered view when considering the entire cycle of a circular economy. Designers must understand a larger, more holistic macro scale so that we do not neglect opportunities to utilise context in new ways, to the benefit of circular design

As discussed in section 2.2, the linear economy arose from the perception of abundance created by the newly interconnected globe. The historic mismatch between our reach and our awareness of detrimental environmental consequences have allowed us to blindly reach out, take and waste resources. Now, there is global scientific consensus about these environmental consequences, yet the systems established before this awareness are struggling to adapt to a more global definition of context. One such relic of the linear industrial economy is the idea of ‘away’ – the mythical source and final destination of our materials, which stifles the proper understanding required to build a circular economy As Braungart writes “But where is away? Of course, away does not really exist. Away has gone away”. 59 This highlights that ‘ away ’ fails to treat the planet like the closed loop system that it is. Recognising this as a longstanding blind spot in our understanding of context, removes another barrier to circular design. The idea that context is global directly places sometimes-abstract issues like overconsumption, pollution and climate change at the heart of architecture. Successful architecture which contributes positively to a global context can no longer compromise global systems. This requires architects to consider new questions which are rarely explored in linear design, related to the social and environmental consequences of where our materials come from

59 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 27

and where they go, how far reaching is the influence of each building, and how long for? Posing these questions during the early design stages will guide materials and technologies from which the finished architectural form is derived.

Diversity of architecture, and the diversity of context, is one of the central joys of creating and experiencing architecture. 60 Understanding and responding to unfamiliar contexts in new ways, with new techniques and technologies drives innovation and offers many practical benefits. Linear industrial processes favour standardised, mass-produced design solutions which often fail to embrace the diversity of context 61 Cradle to Cradle highlights that “one size fits all” solutions incite massive resource waste, and often unexpected harm, as they over-design for an excessive “worst case scenario”. 62 One positive example held up in Cradle to Cradle is Ford’s River Rogue car manufacturing plant. By setting a simple goal of “becoming native to each place”, the client received a building which exceeded the original brief, and innovated new solutions applicable to their many other complexes. 63 Buildings which are “native” are created with understanding of the unique cycles of their context, allowing resourceful use of nearby materials and consideration of the building’s legacy in that area – as a whole, reconfigured, or at the end of its useful period. The standardisation of design has in some cases ‘designed out’ the designer, neglecting proper contextual responses. Circular design can empower designers to diversify their expertise to match the rich contexts in which they practise, potentially gifting new relevance to the role of the architect. This also exactly aligns with Stahel’s vision of substituting materials and energy for labour, where the designer is the labourer in question

Placing more value on context may be seen to undermine the architect’s ability to be original, and to exert their individual influence. In Upcycling, Daniel Stockhammer writes “For the designers of our built environment, treating architecture as a project (and the intellectual property) of many generations entails

60 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 144

61 Ibid, Pg 33

62 Ibid, Pg 30

63 Ibid, Pg 164

a transformation from creator to contributor” 64 This aptly identifies a transition that is inherent in circular design, and a potential point of friction for architects who idolise authorship and ownership over the actual pursuit of relevant (and environmentally necessary) architecture. Considering that 80% of the buildings that will exist in 2050 (the deadline date for UN net-zero goals) already exist today, we are set for, at the very least, decades of retrofit and careful intervention in the built environment. 65 As Stockhammer writes, “‘New’ ways of building must break away from the dogma of the new build”. 66 There is unprecedented work to be done in adapting current building stock. There has never been as much demand to work with context, or with as much context, as there is right now. These avenues for exploration give designers new opportunities to develop design in their own way. Reframing our definition of context has uncovered new potential value from which architecture can derive relevancy and meaning, which is an important motivator for change.

64 Daniel Stockhammer, “The Building as Process”, in Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture, edited by Daniel Stockhammer, Pg 15-31, (Zürich: Triest Verlag, 2020), Pg 25

65 UK Green Building Council, “Climate Change: UKGBC’s vision for a sustainable built environment is one that mitigates and adapts to climate change”, UKGBC.Org, Accessed 25/07/2022, https://www.ukgbc.org/climatechange-2/

66 Stockhammer, Upcycling, Pg 21

Materials are the lifeblood of the entire circular economy. Circular design requires moving away from current ideas of waste [Section 2.3] The previous section touched on the incompatibility of throwing ‘away’ in a global context Our planet is a closed system, where no materials can leave or enter. The stability of the planet is largely regulated by natural, circular processes which we can choose to participate in or not. Refusing to participate – as we currently do – is only leading to a relentless pile-up of materials that have been ‘knocked out’ of these natural cycles. These are the materials we currently regard as waste. Solving this issue is twofold – it is about learning to design with waste, and learning to design out waste.

Materialism is a sculpture series by Studio Drift which demonstrates the presence and value of constituent materials in everyday objects, such as an iPhone, bike and car [Figure 11]. Reflecting on the work, they say, “If humankind could somehow perceive this connection to materials, to the collective consumption and the earth it impoverishes, it would be a leap in our social evolution, in building an awareness that everyone must somehow become better stewards of the future”. 67 If architects could learn to understand the component parts of a building as temporary stores of valuable materials, then the way we treat our existing buildings would surely change. This is the basis of the ‘buildings as materials banks’ which prompts us to understand that buildings are only a temporary collection of materials that must one day re-enter a longer cycle. 68

67 “Materialism”, Studio Drift, Accessed 26/07/2022, https://studiodrift.com/work/materialism/

68 “About BAMB”, BAMB, Accessed 26/07/2022, https://www.bamb2020.eu/about-bamb/

Figure 11 – Three sculptures from the “materialism” series

Designing with existing waste is the more pressing issue facing architecture, as it curbs emissions and material extraction within the timescales required for climate goals. This seems more daunting than ‘designing out waste’ as it requires mobilising, or making useful, vast amounts of material that were not optimised for reuse. Under the linear system in which they were designed, they were destined for disposal. This challenge is what Duncan Baker-Brown calls “mining the Anthropocene” (the Anthropocene is the modern period in which humans have altered the planet’s climate, ecosystems and geology). 69 Also known as ‘urban mining’, there are emerging practices and companies already taking advantage of waste in innovative ways. 70 ROTOR, a Belgian practice, has researched sourcing and designing with salvaged materials. Ambitious practices engaged in circular design often find themselves working with suppliers to redesign supply chains, a step out of the comfort zone of most architects. Rotor DC and Madaster are online repositories of materials for re-use that assist architects in scouring their local context for materials, selecting an appropriate palette and uncovering opportunities before delving into design. Madaster’s ‘materials passports’ accurately document the quantity, quality and potential uses of the materials in a building – a snapshot of their financial value which incentivises considerate reuse. As more architects seek out these services, or establish new ones where they do not yet exist, their uptake will hopefully be exponential. The existing progress in this area shows that architects do have the power to influence wider supply structures and material flows, simply by altering our demands in intelligently justifiable ways 71

Designing out waste is about designing buildings which keep their resources as free as possible for future reuse. These principles are important to any architectural intervention – be it a new building, retrofit, extension or otherwise. They also apply to the re-use of existing waste, which should ideally be done in

69 Duncan Baker-Brown and Hattie Hartman, “Duncan Baker-Brown on Mining the Anthropocene”, Architects Journal: Climate Champions, podcast audio, 17/11/2021, Accessed 26/07/2022, https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/aj-climate-champions-podcast-duncan-baker-brown-on-miningthe-anthropocene

70 Philipp Entner and Daniel Stockhammer, “From Linear to Circular Construction: Lichtenstein’s Building Stock as the Material Bank of the Future?”, in Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture, edited by Daniel Stockhammer, Pg 133-148, (Zürich: Triest Verlag, 2020), Pg 141

71 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg 16

ways that preserve or increase the usefulness of a material, with downcycling as a last resort. If we do not embrace this way of working, as Baker-Brown writes, “we would simply displace the waste problem in time, leaving an undesired heritage to our children”. 72 Cradle to Cradle refers to products which damage human or ecological wellbeing (usually in the long-term) as “crude products”. 73 Architects need to consciously avoid designing ‘crude buildings’. This can be done in many ways, and creative solutions are emerging constantly as new players enter the field. Generally, materials should be recycled and easy to recycle. 74 This requires knowledge of local recycling capabilities, and that specified materials are free from unnecessary additives that contaminate future products (and are often undesirable and harmful to human health). 75 After specifying ‘circular’ materials, their detailing and assembly remains highly important. The Architecture of Waste (2021) uses a typical window as an example – highlighting over 200 individual parts which each depend on different adhesive, mechanical or friction fixing. This is exacerbated by the variety of fixings required to embed it in the building fabric. Pranger and O’Donnell write “The problem becomes one of design. We can no longer design buildings and details in a way that we have done in the past and simply specify recycled or recyclable materials. We must completely rethink our design practices”. 76 This ultimately means that if materials cannot be separated easily and economically for reuse, then you have condemned them to be wasted from the second you construct that detail. Emerging global certification programmes such as Cradle to Cradle Certified ensure in detail that materials and products meet these criteria, across the areas of material health, product circularity, clean air and climate protection, water and soil stewardship and social fairness. 77

72 Ibid, Pg XVII

73 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 37

74 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg XVII

75 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 66

76 O’Donnell and Pranger, The Architecture of Waste, Pg 42

77 Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute, “What is Cradle to Cradle Certified?”, C2CCertified.org, Accessed 27/07/2022, https://www.c2ccertified.org/get-certified/product-certification

3. 3 Longevity

Longevity is a responsibility of architecture which is elevated through circular design. Baker-Brown hints that longevity goes beyond materiality when he writes “Built structures are moments of history frozen in stone, the durability of which depends on their desirability over time more than the materials chosen”. 78 While materials are important, longevity ‘zooms out’ to the larger implications of an architecture that endures and evolves for much longer periods than we currently design for. By expanding our understanding of the timescale that a piece of architecture exists for, and the sources of its usefulness, we can intentionally boost longevity

Stahel describes how the circular economy relies on longevity to slow the cycles of consumption, writing “in the saturated markets of industrialised countries, doubling the service life of goods halves both production and waste volumes”. 79 He describes the “factor of time” as the key difference between circular and linear economies, presenting it as a third axis to the original factors of efficiency and engineering which measure success (Quality) in the linear economy [Figure 12]. 80 This is visualised as a three

78 Baker-Brown, The Re-Use Atlas, Pg XVIII

79 Stahel, The Circular Economy, Pg 21

80 Ibid, Pg 21, 75-76

Figure 12 – Stahel’s 3D optimisation space

dimensional space in which risk engineering, efficiency and time determine the quality of a design, implying that linear solutions barely leave the efficiency/engineering plane. This is because linear solutions are not long-term or sustainable and do not exploit the metric of time.

There are many competing, sometimes nebulous definitions of sustainability. For simplicity, this example will use United Nations definition, adopted in 1987, which says “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. 81 This again highlights the overlap between circular economy and sustainability, as both are models for long term prosperity. Cradle to Cradle introduces the phrase “intergenerational responsibility”, 82 which seems highly relevant to architects – the designers of a built legacy which is inherited by following generations. This responsibility, and the aforementioned concerns of scarcity and pollution, can only be tackled by prioritising longevity through circular design. A particular concern facing longevity is that it is especially vulnerable to short-sighted financial concerns. Issues such as liability, insurance, raising capital and the quest for returns on investment all contribute to the industry standard of designing buildings for a 60-year lifespan. This is despite the fact that well designed and maintained buildings can last for several hundred years – equivalent to ‘throw away’ products, but for architecture. 83 As designers we must remain focused on the fact that longevity contributes to the stability of our planet, and survival of many species, including ours.

81 United Nations, “Sustainability”, UN.org, accessed 26/07/2022, https://www.un.org/en/academicimpact/sustainability

82 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 185-86

83 David Cheshire, Building Revolutions: Applying the Circular Economy to the Built Environment (Newcastle: RIBA Publishing, 2016), Pg 22-23

There are a variety of ways to design for longevity. Building life can be extended through flexible programmes, where elements like partitions, services and façade systems are made independent of the structure and are relatively easy to adapt should the needs of the users change. This concept originates in the high-tech movement, where “the aim is to make buildings flexible enough to adapt to almost any use”, according to Colin Davies in High Tech Architecture. 84 This concept, described as ‘building in layers’, is explained in relation to circular design in Building Revolutions which divides buildings into six layers which each have independent lifecycles. Properly distinguishing these layers in the design of a building makes altering elements like services, partitions and even secondary structures a viable financial option, giving longevity to the overall building and assisting end-of-life disassembly. 85

84 Colin Davies, High Tech Architecture (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), Pg 12 85 Cheshire, Building Revolutions, Pg 36-37

Figure 13 – Building layers

4. Culminations of Circular Design

The previous chapter identified several paradigm shifts that enable circular design. This chapter will focus on the question: how can these paradigm shifts be realised through architecture? This will be done through analysis of two selected buildings, based on ideas explored in the previous chapter Studying the designer’s workflows and design philosophies helps to understand how they translate these paradigm shifts into physical architecture. These case studies also provide more opportunity to explore contextual responses and innovative details which derive from the initial concepts Some additional buildings worthy of mention are the Venlo City Hall (By Kraaijvanger Architects and C2C ExpoLAB, Netherlands, 2016), the University of East Anglia Enterprise Centre (By Architype, England, 2015) and the Brighton Waste House (By Duncan Baker-Brown, England, 2014).

4.1 Cork House

Cork house is an eye-opening example of what it means to rethink architecture holistically, performing to contemporary standards with unconventional materials, and providing an enriching user experience while ensuring the whole-life impact on the environment is a positive one. Completed in 2019, it showcases circular design in many ways - through its materials, ease of disassembly, biodegradability and innovative design approach. The house was designed and self-built by Matthew Barnett Howland, working alongside Dido Milne (both directors at CSK Architects) and Oliver Wilton (a Bartlett School of Architecture environmental design professor). It is the first full, permanent realisation of cork architecture resulting from research into the material conducted by the Bartlett, the University of Bath and the Building Research Establishment 86 The research led nature of the project and the resulting innovation makes it an inspiring precedent for subsequent architectural experiments in cork, earning several awards and a Sterling prize nomination in 2019.

86 Matthew Barnett Howland and Oliver Wilton, “Cork Construction Kit”, The Journal of Architecture 25, no. 2 (2020): Pg 138-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602365.2020.1733812

Figure 14 – Exterior view

The 75m2 dwelling forms an annexe in Howland and Milne’s Garden in Eton, England. 87 The building’s rectangular footprint is divided into five pyramidal roof bays topped with skylights These five bays mark distinct functions within – an external entrance area which leads inside to cleaning/washing, cooking/eating, living and sleeping spaces. 88 There is one bedroom and one bathroom, with a secondary sleeping platform nested above the bathroom, accessed by a ladder and hatch.

The garden surrounding the building has been planted with locally sourced, native species which blend the earthy texture of the cork into the landscape while supporting the local ecology.

87 Paula Pintos, “Cork House / Matthew Barnett Howland + Dido Milne + Oliver Wilton”, ArchDaily, 04/05/2020, accessed 27/07/22, https://www.archdaily.com/938586/cork-house-matthew-barnett-howlandplus-dido-milne-plus-oliver-wilton

88 RIBA, “Cork House”, Architecture.com, accessed 27/07/2022, https://www.architecture.com/awards-andcompetitions-landing-page/awards/riba-regional-awards/riba-south-award-winners/2019/cork-house

Figure 15 – Roof plan, floor plan and cross section

Figure 16 – Sketched perspective section

The building has a literal light touch on the site, with cork weighing significantly less than a normal single storey building. This allows the building to rest on steel screw pile foundations, eliminating the need for a concrete foundation and making the project cement free. 89 These piles are easy to unscrew at the end of the building’s life. Aside from having high embodied carbon, concrete is problematic as it can only be downcycled to aggregate. It contains neither biological nor long-term technical nutrients, making it an undesirable material.

Cork is intriguing not only for its properties, but in that it has never been used in this way before. Cork has a long history as an internal finish and insulation, and a briefer one as an external cladding – however it was, until cork house, unprecedented as a weatherproof, airtight and structural solution. 90 Cork forests can be harvested for their soft bark around every ten years, while still supporting biodiversity in large regions. 91 The leading use of cork for sealing wine bottles only uses higher grades, leaving behind significant waste during both forestry and manufacturing. Binding cork blocks with pressure and superheated steam avoids chemical binders and allows cork to biodegrade without polluting the soil, keeping its biological nutrients available. Research into the material shows it is highly insulating (thermally and

89 Howland and Wilton, “Cork Construction Kit”, Pg 157

90 Gregory Fonseca, “Virtual Building Tour – Cork House by CSK Architects and the Bartlett School of Architecture”, AIA, 07/04/2021, Accessed 27/07/2022, http://www.aiauk.org/news/2021/4/7/virtual-buildingtour-cork-house-by-csk-architects-and-the-bartlett-school-of-architecture

91 Howland and Wilton, “Cork Construction Kit”, Pg 139-40

Figure 17 – Exterior views of planting

acoustically), load bearing and rot resisting. Wooden dowels were eliminated from the original details as they would be likely to rot before the cork would – showing its high resistance. 92 It exceeds airtightness standards and is sufficiently fire resistant for use with claddings, coatings or sprinklers. Other materials include cedar cladding on the roof and acetylated timber doors and windows – both of which are reusable and biodegradable. Reclaimed CLT joinery inside brings lightness, while copper and brass fittings stand out in the dark atmosphere. Mastery of details developed in the research keep every junction of the structure airtight and watertight, with copper flashing in the roof troughs assisting drainage.

The “whole life” ambitions of the project influence every decision about materiality and connection. Every element of the building is screw or friction fitted, with the skylights ingeniously acting as “paperweights” to hold down the pyramids and walls – avoiding adhesives. 93 The disassembly of the building has been tested before transport to site, proving it is practical to dismantle and reclaim each material for biodegradation or reuse. Wilton, one of the designers and researchers, explains that cork is not readily biodegradable and must be ground and spread into soil before bacteria will break it down. He is so confident in the material and detailing that he says the building is “built to last indefinitely” similar

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t76Wjw1ZVkQ

93 “Grand Designs: House of the Year, Season 5, Episode 1/4”, Grand Designs, Channel 4, 23/10/2019, television broadcast. https://gsa.planetestream.com/View.aspx?id=5341~4n~NRVw9gmG

Figure 18 – Interior view and roof drainage detail

92 Kirsten Dirksen, “Biodegradable Home Built by Hand with Cork LEGOs, No Glue”. YouTube Video, 27:51. Posted by “Kirsten Dirksen”. 06/10/2019. Accessed 27/07/2022.

to any other well designed and maintained timber building. 94 The highly insulated envelope requires little heating from its wood stove, which burns branches regularly pruned from nearby trees. For cooling and ventilation, the motorised skylights utilise the stack effect of the pyramid-chimneys. Meanwhile, on-site photovoltaics lower the carbon cost of the electricity - the result is that the Cork House has the lowest whole-life carbon ever assessed by its consultants. 95

Herzog and De Meuron say that “with cork we use a material that addresses the senses: visual, aural, haptic and olfactory”, a quote that rings true in the accounts of those who have visited Cork House. 96 Visitors speak of an atmospheric darkness, a warm soft-but-firm touch and comforting quiet acoustics. The woody smell of the cork is especially enjoyed, activating a sense rarely utilised in architecture. The compressive structure requires deep walls and corbelled roofs that Howland endearingly describes as “primitive, cave-man stuff”, 97 but there is joy and safety in a building which is as legible as the cork house.

Due to the monolithic and enduring nature of compressive stone construction, Howland says that the cork inherits a “multi-century nature” which many find comforting. 98 Barnabas Calder remarks that the Cork House is “sustainable architecture’s closest counterpart so far to the early villas of Le Corbusier, exemplifying the principles that must come to dominate the architecture of the coming decades”. 99

Through research it can be said that the cork house exemplifies circular design, with great care taken to nurture materials into a highly effective piece of architecture that gives back to circular flows at the end of its life with ease. The discovery of a new way of building using an excitingly underutilised material transcends Cork House and demonstrates the architectural rewards of circular design

94 Kirsten Dirksen

95 Howland and Wilton, “Cork Construction Kit”, Pg 161

96 Herzog and De Meuron, “08 Nov 2013 - Exhibition Metamorphosis”, HerzogdeMeuron.com, accessed 27/07/2022, https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/news/2013/exhibition-metamorphosis_131108.html

97 “Grand Designs: House of the Year, Season 5, Episode 1/4”

98 Ibid

99 Calder, Architecture, Pg 441

4.3 K118 Extension

The Swiss practice Baubüro In Situ holds strong beliefs on circularity in architecture, which is fully expressed in their three-storey extension and refurbishment of the K118 warehouse building in Winterthur, Switzerland (completed 2021). This project demonstrates how departing from linear values, with an open mind to new design processes, can produce a high-quality circular building. Barbara Buser, practice co-founder and architect, explains that the main value of the project, to her, is about challenging “the way of thinking about architecture, about construction, about participation” that she justifies by saying “we’re running into extinction if we continue the way we are”. 100 The client, the Abendrot Foundation, is a pension fund that invests in a portfolio of sustainable, low-emission buildings that they deem ecologically and culturally important

100 Holcim Foundation, “Reuse, Recycling and Upcycling: Holcim Awards Prizes for Europe”, HolcimFoundation.org, 13/11/2021, accessed 28/07/2021, https://www.holcimfoundation.org/media/news/awards/awards-europe2021?backTo=%2fprojects%2fextending-the-cycle%3fshow%3d63372d8f-23be-410f-86e8-7f7506338848

Figure 19 – Exterior views

The client owns the wider site and buildings around K118, a former storage yard adjacent to the city’s station, hosting many ex-industrial buildings. The entire site was developed strictly on the basis of retaining these existing buildings, and project managed by a team from Baubüro In Situ. 101 The team picked K118 as an opportunity to explore a strategy of maximum re-use, which the client backed under the stipulation that it cost no more than using new materials. 102 The main spaces are twelve flexible units that house studios, think-tank offices and tinkerer workshops. These spaces can access a kitchen and toilets at the centre of each floor and circulate via an external (covered) steel staircase featuring large balconies, and an internal lift. 103

101 Holcim Foundation, “New Again and Again: Extending the Cycle in Switzerland”, Global Holcim Awards Gold 2021, Accessed 28/07/2021, https://www.insitu.ch/doc/419, Pg 15

102 Baubüro In Situ, K118. Extending the Cycle in Switzerland, (Zurich (unpublished), 2021), Accessed 28/07/2022 http://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/flip/A21/Extending-the-Cycle-in-Switzerland/, Pg 1

103 “K.118 – Kopfbau Halle 118, Winterthur, 2021”, Baubüro in Situ, Accessed 28/07/2022, https://www.insitu.ch/projekte/196-k118-kopfbau-halle-118

Figure 20 – Plans

Figure 21 – Elevation and Section

Their process of starting ‘materials first’ and mining the nearby urban landscape decided every element of the building, requiring the architects to set aside their preconceptions and open their process up to many external factors. 104 Before even beginning to design, the catalogued and procured building components from over 50 sites [Figure 22], amounting to approximately 600 tonnes. 105 This was a great undertaking before even beginning to design. This is yet another example of Stahel’s model – the use of (design) labour to reduce material consumption - which required important and unconventional budgeting in the project 106 Buser lists the value retained through reclaiming materials, such as workmanship, materiality, energy/carbon, and cultural values. She says “I find it disrespectful to simply throw away a window or a

104 Barbara Buser, “In Situ: Working with Found Materials”, in Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture, edited by Daniel Stockhammer, Pg 149-159, (Zürich: Triest Verlag, 2020), Pg 151

105 Baubüro, K118, Pg 5

106 Paula Pintos, “K118 Kopfbau Halle 118 / Baubüro in Situ”, ArchDaily, 26/09/2021, Accessed 28/07/2022, https://www.archdaily.com/968958/k118-kopfbau-halle-118-hauburo-in-situ?ad_medium=gallery

Figure 22 – Map of Reclamation Sites

door after a depreciation cycle of ten years” 107 – this recalls Stahel’s idea of ‘caring’ for our materials. Buser cares, and her practice’s work shows it.

Design Process

Notable reused features include the distinctive orange profiled metal cladding, a large photovoltaic solar panel array, steel structure from a distribution centre and the large steel external staircase taken from an office building, from which granite cladding from the new balcony decks were also sourced. 108 Where new materials are introduced, they are kept simplistic and natural, such as timber studs, straw bale insulation and clay plaster. Timber and straw are renewable, and all their biological nutrients can be reclaimed.

Calculations by the practice show that this wall build-up contains only 15.6% of the carbon of a typically constructed wall, thanks to these material selections and the almost ‘carbon-free’ reclaimed materials. 109

The project conceded to the use of some concrete which proved uneconomical to avoid, but still achieved 60% emissions savings over a typical equivalent building 110 K118 is assembled from huge amounts of reclaimed material, while being designed for disassembly. While simultaneously engaging in adaptive

107 Holcim, “New Again and Again: Extending the Cycle in Switzerland”, Pg 17

108 Ibid, Pg 18

109 Buser, Upcycling, Pg 159

110 Holcim, “New Again and Again: Extending the Cycle in Switzerland”, Pg 19

Figure 23 – Façade Studies Showing Flexible

reuse and reclamation, Baubüro In Situ have created a building that is extremely receptive to future reuse. As a home for enterprising thinkers and tinkerers, this makes K118 an inspiring environment. Every surface has lived a second life, and is likely to live many more – the architecture incites curiosity about its material history and future, exuding the circular values of its creators. While figures of reused tonnage and carbon savings demonstrate excellent results for this one building on this one site, the ethos of the designers involved in producing this architecture contain paradigm shifts which could direct architecture as a whole towards a more resourceful, reciprocal and opportunity-filled future. Recalling earlier discussions on ownership and the roles of creator vs. contributor (sections 2.4 and 3.1), the need for architects to challenge their design process has seemed to imply an uncomfortable loss of control – this project proves otherwise. Poignon, the project architect, shows admirable openness to this new, more organic design process when he says “the components stimulate creativity immensely. You simply let yourself be inspired by what you have available”. 111 Releasing the traditional control levers of an architect, over materials and dimensions, displays a level of vulnerability to external forces that can only be underpinned by the confidence of an empowered designer. Buser fittingly calls this new style of design an “inversion of the design process”. 112 This project shows that architects operating under the paradigm shifts of circular design can adapt their design process to create a more resourceful type of architecture that fulfils human and environmental needs in the present and future.

5. Conclusion

This dissertation began by introducing the base concepts of the climate and material consumption, both of which are approaching crises that threaten the way we live. It established that the climate crisis is a consequence of our consumption of materials under an excessively wasteful system, that is bolstered by the energy made available through fossil fuels. The circular economy is a holistic solution for a new system which tries to permanently address both these problems in their entirety, and design is its most useful tool in doing so. Architecture is an especially affected field of design, as architects hold influence in the construction industry, which is one of the largest offenders for global emissions, material consumption and waste. This was the basis for the research question “ W hat are the implications of pursuing circular economy goals within architectural design, with specific focus on the early stages of design ?” . To set the scene, the second chapter began by going over original ideas about the circular economy, and studying the connection between architecture, energy and materials. Initial links between circular economy and design were then established, to form an understanding of what ‘circular design’ means, before addressing architectural design. The chapter also covered some of the limitations acting on architecture, including our ‘ownership culture’ and the complexities of public, private and political agendas.

Changing how we think about design looked at identifying and organising paradigm shifts that are relevant to architects, in answer to the question “what are these key paradigm shifts? ” . The three groups that emerged were context, materials, and longevity. Context explored what it means to understand a global context and design for it, while highlighting diversity as a resource and the dangers of ‘one size fits all’ design. This also raised questions about whether architects create or contribute to context. Materials deepened earlier discussion, challenging our relationship to materials and perceptions of waste. This led into the concept of mining our built environment and the emerging means to do so. Longevity investigated the importance of time, particularly the timescales we design for, who we design for (intergenerational responsibility), and the differing lifecycles of building components

Culminations of circular design analysed two case studies which embody a range of the previously discussed paradigm shifts to an exemplary level, in an attempt to answer the question “how can these paradigm shifts be realised through architecture? ”. Special focus was paid to the designer’s workflows and design philosophies that became present in the work, and how they aligned with circular design. Cork house contained lessons on material innovation, testing and iteration, reusability, biological materials and carbon negative architecture, which all contributed to a building with unique and appealing atmospheric and aesthetic qualities. The K118 Extension gave insight to a team of architects innovating their design process, achieving maximum reuse, huge carbon savings and design for deconstruction. The inverted design process, how the designers navigated it, and the building it produced, all show a great deal of potential for circular design.

It became clear from the outset that the architecture of the circular economy could easily become a nebulous topic. This paper could have been entirely dedicated to any sub-section of circular design. Design for disassembly, biodegradable materials, upcycling, adaptive reuse and regenerative design are all captivating topics that deserve detailed analysis. However, focusing on any one of these would not have addressed the much larger nature of the problems that circular design offers architecture. As research developed, the question evolved to put emphasis on the early stages of design. This became necessary as several sources agreed that the scope of circular design is so wide that it must be considered from the outset of the design process. This was also rationalised through understanding that the circular economy is a systems issue, and what that means to architects attempting to understand and design for it By chapter three, these issues converged. The ‘implications’ of circular design that were becoming clear, were more abstract than originally imagined. New sub-questions named these abstract ideas as ‘paradigm shifts’ as they all represented a reframing or expansion of ideas and definitions that have been fairly fixed in architectural theory since industrialisation This focus on paradigm shifts was also guided by the methods used in existing literature to explain the circular economy. Stahel references French poet Saint-Exupéry’s notion of inspiring men to build boats by creating a “longing for the sea”, as an example of how we

mobilise groups of people (in the case of this research, designers) to achieve a complex issue, and not necessary by focusing on individual tasks. 113 Braungart also writes “it’s not the solution itself that is necessarily radical, but the shift in perspective from which we begin” 114 – reinforcing this paper’s attempt to identify these shifts in perspective, in the context of architecture. Choosing to analyse the issue at a larger scale proved more important to the production of research relevant to architects seeking to understand the impact that the circular economy will have on how they approach design.

At the time of writing, there is clearly a long way to go to make circular design mainstream in architecture. The architectural climate action network (ACAN) have clashed with RIBA over their shortlist for the prestigious Stirling Prize, highlighting turmoil in the profession over where its values lie, and revealing a struggle to adjust to designing for the climate crisis 115 This research identifies several entrenched perspectives in architecture which are challenged by circular design, linking together their origins and the shifts required. The chosen case studies highlight that practising under these new paradigms can produce an exciting new architecture which addresses humanity-level threats that have been mounting for over a century. Only by generating awareness, motivation and direction among architects can we mobilise our collective design skills, to make quick progress towards a circular architecture. This research is intended as a contribution to a more relevant, hopeful and persisting style of architecture, suited to our current and future needs.

113 Stahel, The Circular Economy, Pg XV, 88

114 Braungart and McDonough, Cradle to Cradle, Pg 84

115 Architects Journal https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/acan-blasts-greenwashing-and-socialcleansing-in-stirling-prizeshortlist?fbclid=IwAR3Df_yw4FeI2MiNKD9b2PJZxPVYv3NtCOVN37284QG7R5BwPCopjeZhPAI

6. Bibliography

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Baker-Brown, Duncan, The Re-Use Atlas: A Designer’s Guide Towards A Circular Economy (London: RIBA Publishing, 2017)

BAMB, “About BAMB”, BAMB, Accessed 26/07/2022, https://www.bamb2020.eu/about-bamb/ Baubüro In Situ. “K.118 – Kopfbau Halle 118, Winterthur, 2021”. Baubüro in Situ. Accessed 28/07/2022. https://www.insitu.ch/projekte/196-k118-kopfbau-halle-118

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Braungart, Michael and William McDonough, Cradle to Cradle (London: Vintage, 2009)

Buser, Barbara. “In Situ: Working with Found Materials”. In Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture, edited by Daniel Stockhammer. Pg 149-159. Zürich: Triest Verlag, 2020

Calder, Barnabas. Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Emergency. London: Pelican, 2021.

Cheshire, David. Building Revolutions: Applying the Circular Economy to the Built Environment. Newcastle: RIBA Publishing, 2016

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t76Wjw1ZVkQ

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Fonseca, Gregory. “Virtual Building Tour – Cork House by CSK Architects and the Bartlett School of Architecture”. AIA. 07/04/2021. Accessed 27/07/2022. http://www.aiauk.org/news/2021/4/7/virtualbuilding-tour-cork-house-by-csk-architects-and-the-bartlett-school-of-architecture

Frearson, Amy. “British Pavilion calls for architects to redesign home ownership rather than houses”. Dezeen. 26/05/2016. Accessed 06/07/2022. https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/home-economicsbritish-pavilion-venice-architecture-biennale-2016-uk-housing/

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7. List of Figures

1. Changing temperatures associated with industrialisation

University of Reading, Show Your Stripes, https://showyourstripes.info/s/globe

2. Earth overshoot days and country overshoot days

Global Footprint Network, Earth Overshoot Day, https://www.overshootday.org/

3. Linear vs circular economies

Left: Muntagnard, Our Perspective on Circularity in Textiles, https://muntagnard.ch/en/our-perspective-on-circularity-in-textiles/

Right: Caroline O’Donnell and Dillon Pranger, The Architecture of Waste: Design for a Circular Economy, Pg 211

4. Stahel’s first diagram of the circular economy

Product-Life Institute, Product-Life Factor (Mitchell Prize Winning Paper 1982), http://www.product-life.org/en/major-publications/the-product-life-factor

5. Too much focus on being ‘less bad’ cannot take you above the line

William McDonough and Michael Braungart, The Upcycle, Pg 34

6. Illustration pointing out that ‘disposable buildings’ are a recent phenomenon

Daniel Stockhammer, Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture, Pg 142

7. The butterfly diagram of technical and biological cycle

Ellen MacArthur Foundation, The Butterfly Diagram: Visualising the Circular Economy, https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy-diagram

8. Era of R (Reusing etc.) and Era of D (Disassembly etc.)

Walter R. Stahel, The Circular Economy: A User’s Guide, Pg 41

9. Stahel’s metrics for a circular economy

Walter R. Stahel, The Circular Economy: A User’s Guide, Pg 61

10. Spaces from the Venice Architecture Biennale “Home Economics” exhibition

Dezeen, British Pavilion calls for architects to redesign home ownership rather than houses, https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/home-economics-british-pavilionvenice-architecture-biennale-2016-uk-housing/

11. Three sculptures from the “materialism” series

Studio Drift, Materialism, https://studiodrift.com/work/materialism/

12. Stahel’s 3D optimisation space

Walter R. Stahel, The Circular Economy: A User’s Guide, Pg 76

13. Building layers

David Cheshire, Building Revolutions: Applying the Circular Economy to the Built Environment, Pg 36

14. Exterior view

David Grandorge, Dezeen, Cork House / Matthew Barnett Howland + Dido Milne + Oliver Wilton, https://www.archdaily.com/938586/cork-house-matthew-barnetthowland-plus-dido-milne-plus-oliver-wilton

15. Roof plan, floor plan and cross section

Matthew Barnett Howland with Dido Milne and Oliver Wilton, RIBA, Cork House, https://www.architecture.com/awards-and-competitions-landingpage/awards/riba-regional-awards/riba-south-award-winners/2019/cork-house

16. Sketched perspective section

Grand Designs: House of the Year, Season 5 Episode 4, 07:40-15:20

17. Exterior views of planting

Urquhart and Hunt, Cork House, https://urquharthunt.com/work/cork-house/

18. Interior view and roof drainage detail

Ricky Jones (left) and Alex de Rijke (right), RIBA, Cork House, https://www.architecture.com/awards-and-competitions-landingpage/awards/riba-regional-awards/riba-south-award-winners/2019/cork-house

19. Exterior views

Left: Martin Zeller, ArchDaily, K118 Kopfbau Halle 118 / Baubüro In Situ, https://www.archdaily.com/968958/k118-kopfbau-halle-118-hauburo-insitu?ad_medium=gallery

Right: Baubüro In Situ, K.118 – Kopfbau Halle 118, Winterthur, 2021, https://www.insitu.ch/projekte/196-k118-kopfbau-halle-118

20. Plans

Baubüro In Situ, K.118 – Kopfbau Halle 118, Winterthur, 2021, https://www.insitu.ch/projekte/196-k118-kopfbau-halle-118

21. Elevation and section

Baubüro In Situ, K.118 – Kopfbau Halle 118, Winterthur, 2021, https://www.insitu.ch/projekte/196-k118-kopfbau-halle-118

22. Map of reclamation sites

Baubüro In Situ, K118. Extending the Cycle in Switzerland, http://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/flip/A21/Extending-the-Cycle-inSwitzerland/ Pg 2

23. Façade Studies Showing Flexible Design Process

Baubüro In Situ, K118. Extending the Cycle in Switzerland, http://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/flip/A21/Extending-the-Cycle-inSwitzerland/ Pg 1