Prerana Acharyya - 2020 Mitra Scholar by The Harker School

2019-20 Mitra FAMILY GRANT Recipient Dancing into Propaganda: Nazi Appropriation of Ausdruckstanz Prerana Acharyya

Dancing into Propaganda: Nazi Appropriation of â&#x20AC;&#x2039;Ausdruckstanz

Prerana Acharyya 2020 Mitra Family Scholar Mentors: Ms. Roxana Pianko, Mrs. Lauri Vaughan April 15, 2020

Acharyya 2 Ausdruckstanz, or German expressionist dance, arose out of a potent revolution opposing traditional dance and along with the nascency of similar avant-garde movements, such 1

as expressionism and Dadaism. The rising discontent during the early twentieth century about the limited nature and stagnation of ballet gave birth to a protest against the minimal room for 2

creativity and expression in the finite vocabulary of ballet. As artists sought freedom in their work, they looked beyond the guidelines set by traditional dances and reduced dance to its simplest component, pedestrian movement, before constructing a dance form out of this idea. Although Ausdruckstanz’ s origins during the Weimar period (1918-1933) defined its individualistic essence, it gained significant popularity by the time of Nazi rule and maintained this powerful status, regardless of the difference in intention between the dance and the political 3

regime, which condemned individual superiority. At the heart of National Socialism lay the idea of Führerprinzip, or “veneration of the leader,” which resembles religious worship in a 4

relationship defined by military authority. Another crucial part of the Nazi regime was 5

Volksgemeinschaft, or “the people’s community.” These ideals formed the basis of many Nazi endeavors, especially while they wrestled to gain control of Germany before setting their sights beyon"d their own nation. Though Ausdruckstanz was initially developed as a form of rebellion

“Ausdruckstanz," in International Encyclopedia of Dance, ed. Selma Jeanne Cohen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), Oxford Reference Online. 1

"Ausdruckstanz."

Terri J. Gordon, "Fascism and the Female Form: Performance Art in the Third Reich," Journal of the History of Sexuality, 2002, Gale in Context: World History. 3

"Führerprinzip," in Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. Israel Gutman (New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA, 1990), Gale in Context: World History. 4

David Welch, "Nazi Propaganda and the Volksgemeinschaft: Constructing a People's Community," Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 2 (2004): 213, JSTOR. 5

Acharyya 3 against the conformity of ballet, the Nazis appropriated its cultural significance and rising popularity in Germany during the early 1900s as propaganda for Führerprinzip and Volksgemeinschaft. Rebellion Against Ballet French dance traditions had dictated that only a select few--those with sufficient training and ability--were allowed to dance,. These requirements prohibited many from creative 6

expression, especially those from a lower socioeconomic background or class. Ballet and traditional court dances relied on a set vocabulary and were guided by a litany of rules. In addition, dancers rarely choreographed for social or political motives; they were limited to 7

providing entertainment for the court and upper echelon of society. At the turn of the twentieth century, artistic movements that were popular in the previous century, such as impressionism, were losing momentum due to the fact that artists had begun to search for evocative aesthetic and emotional renewal. The German dance scene had long been dominated by foreign dance styles from France and Russia, and the resentment that many German artists harbored about 8

relying on other countries’ traditional dances festered until they sought a release.

Expressionism, an artistic movement encompassing a multitude of mediums, was born. At the end of the nineteenth century, Germany had undergone two major developments: the Industrial Revolution and its unification from many disparate states to one entity. A general awakening of the body in the 1890s inspired artistic creators to look closer at the movement

Sonya Belle Levine, "From Ausdruckstanz to Tanztheater: The Search for a German Aesthetic in Dance" (master's thesis, Wesleyan University, 2017), 14, accessed December 11, 2019. 6

Levine, 14.

Levine, 15.

Acharyya 4 9

styles of the time. The rising Korperkultur (“body culture”) movement urged people to restore themselves to a state closer to nature and the body in contrast to the industrial focus that had 10

been permeating Europe. Each dancer began her own foray into a new frontier of dance and 11

rejected the conformity and vocabulary of classical ballet in a unique manner. Therefore, while expressionist dance began to take root, the styles of every person who identified as an expressionist did not need to correlate; in fact, each developed her personal design. During and after the Weimar period, the majority of German citizens searched for a 12

means of stabilization following the struggles of World War I and the economic downturn.

The worldwide economic crisis had a severely negative impact on the art industry; over time, with a decrease in funding for theaters and lessons, ballet did not seem to be the most prudent 13

option for dancers. The economic depression in the Weimar period forced dancers to find a 14

new source of patronage, which the National Socialists were conveniently able to provide. In light of these struggles, dancers sought an easily accessible dance form, and Ausdruckstanz did not necessarily require the complexities of funding, stage space, and costuming that ballet did. Its very essence, centered in freedom, appealed to the layperson. Cultural Significance of Ausdruckstanz 9

Gordon, "Fascism and the Female.”

Tonja Van Helden, "Expressions of Form and Gesture in Ausdruckstanz, Tanztheater, and Contemporary Dance" (PhD diss., University of Colorado, 2003), 17, accessed July 1, 2019. 11

Andree Grau and Stephanie Jordan, Europe Dancing: Perspectives on Theatre, Dance, and Cultural Identity (London: Routledge, 2002), 56, Ebook Central. 12

Evelyn Doerr, Rudolf Laban: The Dancer of the Crystal (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008), 137.

Susan A. Manning, "Modern Dance in the Third Reich: Six Positions and a Coda," in Choreographing History, ed. Susan Leigh Foster (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1995), 171. 14

Acharyya 5 Rudolf von Laban, commonly referred to as the “father of expressionist dance,” had a simple vision to elevate dance as an art form, on par with the more honored artistic mediums, 15

such as painting or opera. Influenced by the emergence of the body-centric Korperkultur 16

movement, Laban simplified dance to the tenet: “Man moves to satisfy a need.” This need could be as simple as moving from point to point or as complex as a means of coming to terms with one’s own identity. Laban believed that dance could be merely a visual representation of thoughts, but it also had the possibility to be an amalgamation of “dance-sound-word,” creating 17

a full, rich experience for any person. To him, the dancer was in full command of her body, 18

managed the space around her with finesse, and communicated with the environment. The dancer became independent of extrinsic factors. Furthermore, Laban believed that to ensure that dancers were respected for their work, he needed to develop a system of written notation that would allow dancers who were unfamiliar with the work to understand each of its elements and even permit laypeople to 19

appreciate the piece. With the creation of Labanotation, Ausdruckstanz had already surpassed previous dance genres in regards to its reach; by all means, this notation system was undoubtedly powerful in changing the perspective of non-dancers toward dance. Laban wrote in John Hodgson and Valerie Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban: An Introduction to his Work & Influence (Plymouth, MA: Northcote House, 1990), 12. 15

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, 18.

Carole Kew, "From Weimar Movement Choir to Nazi Community Dance: The Rise and Fall of Rudolf Laban's 'Festkultur,'" Dance Research: The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 17, no. 2 (1999): 76, JSTOR. 17

Ana Isabel Keilson, "The Embodied Conservatism of Rudolf Laban, 1919-1926," Dance Research Journal 51, no. 2 (August 2019): 18, ProQuest Research Library. 18

Rudolf Laban, Laban's Principles of Dance and Movement Notation, ed. Roderyk Lange, illus. Diana Baddeley, 2nd ed. (Boston, MA: Plays, Inc., 1975), 2. 19

Acharyya 6 his book, Laban’s Principles of Dance and Movement Notation, which delineates the methodology of his notation system, the possibilities that the written notation offers: The two professions, namely the dance-author and the dancer, would probably become separated. . . . But the ballet critic is not able to study the composition thoroughly from its score and compare it with the interpretation, at least not yet. He has to concentrate on the performance, and therefore often stresses mere technicalities without appreciating the theme and content of the work. The dance-author, the actual writer of a dance work, would be able to view his work more objectively when it was on paper, and had not as 20

yet been interpreted by an unfortunate dancer.

Moreover, since Laban had spearheaded the entire initiative while influenced by the fledgling artistic movements in Germany around him, both Ausdruckstanz and Labanotation were infused with a German spirit. The cultural significance of Ausdruckstanz was due in large part to the success of Labanotation: Because of the efforts of Laban and his followers, dance can be studied in a way quite unknown before he undertook his profound work on the grammar and syntax of movement, encompassing choreutics, eukinetics, instrumental body use, relationships 21

and their notation systems.

Ausdruckstanz was no simple dance form; it became a manifestation of the German conscious. The idea of the Volk (“people” or “nation”) culture provided the groundwork for dancers to examine the relationship between nature and the greater world and how each

Laban, 6.

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban, 24-25.

Acharyya 7 22

“individual functioned as a microcosm within the macrocosm.” The Volk heritage was a markedly German phenomenon, and the foundational tenets of individuality and connection with nature that Ausdruckstanz was built upon were intertwined with the essence of German culture. Another prominent figure in Ausdruckstanz was Mary Wigman, whose motives differed 23

from Laban’s in that her goal was not to elevate dance, but express herself freely. Wigman focused on an idea that she coined as “absolute dance,” in which she did not protest outright the political or societal pressures of the Nazis, but instead attempted to comprehend the 24

complexities of nature, the individual, and the collective. Nevertheless, as Wigman explored these ideas, her choreography was injected with the ideals that the Nazis promoted. Both Laban and Wigman collaborated on the idea of the “choric principle,” the link between the individual 25

and the group. Their manifestation of the choric principle served to deepen the connection of the self and determine the roles of the individuals in society: They established a Dionysian concept of expression that transcended law, order, and structure through ecstatic and ritualistic acts that encouraged the dissolution of the self. This disintegration of the “old conditioned self” theoretically produced an “individuated 26

self,” that was connected to the higher cosmic spheres of consciousness and nature.

Kew, "From Weimar," 76.

Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 158.

Grau and Jordan, Europe Dancing, 58.

Helden, "Expressions of Form," 17.

Helden, 17.

Acharyya 8 Although both Laban and Wigman emphasized the individual, they were quite interested in examining the role the self held in a greater context, and their experiments with solo and group work allowed them to investigate this concept further. Their devotion to their craft and determination to their cause quickly allowed them to rise to the forefront of dance in Germany, and Laban specifically became a widely known figure and representation of the German spirit. With the ease with which Ausdruckstanz gained popularity and the success of its founders’ endeavors, the dance reached its peak popularity as the Nazi regime took hold. Nazi Appropriation of Ausdruckstanz When considering the conjuncture of dance and politics, dance form is not necessarily the only means of representing ideology; the interaction of dance and the community through 27

reviews, productions, and criticism contribute to the reflection of particular outlooks. Dance can maintain elements of the political climate while also defying the same tenets that it seems to 28

promote. Therefore, it is necessary to consider both the choreographic elements of a dance form as well as the greater discourse surrounding it. The National Socialists centered their entire regime on very firm views. Some of their ideas had originated in previous centuries, but Hitler tied them together in a unique fashion that catered to the problems of Germany at the time and enticed the people to believe in him. Specifically, a vast proportion of the Nazi ideology is centered in the Volk:

Marion Kant, "German Gymnastics, Modern German Dance, and Nazi Aesthetics," Dance Research Journal 48, no. 2 (August 2016): 5-6, ProQuest Research Library. 27

Mark Franko, "Dance and the Political: States of Exception," Dance Research Journal 38, no. 1/2 (2006): 6, ProQuest Research Library. 28

Acharyya 9 The four major themes that recur in nazi propaganda during this period reflect the roots and antecedents of völkisch thought: 1) appeal to national unity based upon the principle: ‘The community before the individual’ (Volksgemeinschaft) ; 2) the need for racial purity; 3) a hatred of enemies which increasingly centered on Jews and 29

Bolsheviks, and 4) charismatic leadership (Führerprinzip) .

In their effort to promote these ideals and espouse German nationalism, the Nazis used all potential means of propaganda, and if they could not eliminate elements that differed from their goals, then they imposed their will on them to ensure their support. The original intentions of Ausdruckstanz held no relation to the National Socialist Party; hence, a link must be delineated between the two to assert that Nazism had a profound influence on the dance form. Critics Hermand and Trommler argue that the “mysticism and irrationalism” 30

of Ausdruckstanz allowed the Nazis to co-opt the genre with “relative ease.” Since Ausdruckstanz initially encompassed any movement style that protested the vocabulary of ballet, the Nazis did have the luxury to redefine certain aspects to fit their needs. According to critic Koegler, “the National Socialists imposed their vision of German dance on the dancers, 31

who had lost their own sense of mission.” Though the dancers retained their artistic goals, they may have been previously lacking in other contexts—socioeconomic or political—because of the turmoil following the first World War; with the vastness of the overarching ideology, the National Socialists were in a position to easily exploit the weaknesses of the

Welch, Nazi Propaganda, 217.

Manning, “Modern Dance,” 166.

Manning, 169.

Acharyya 10 32

movement—primarily, those in terms of coherence and organization. To connect the dots, Ausdruckstanz’s disregard for rules and guidelines, its very core and foundation, was the key factor that allowed the Nazis to take control. Regardless of any existing ideological essence in Ausdruckstanz, the Nazis appropriated it to fit their own model. The Third Reich wanted to maintain control with a far-reaching grasp, so it began to eliminate any burgeoning artistic movements. As Ausdruckstanz had already taken firm hold as a popular art form in the country, the Nazis chose to wrest control by appointing Joseph Goebbels as the Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, giving him control of 33

artistic endeavors. Goebbels asserted that he would work to produce an artistic movement that followed the state ideology or remove it altogether. Goebbels also “placed the needs of the mythologized Volk in the center of German culture,” a stark contrast to the individualistic nature 34

of the Weimar Republic. Once he established what he wanted the arts to look like during the 35

Nazi reign, he began a strict and disciplined undertaking to realize his vision.

Ausdruckstanz in its truest form was an expression of an independence that had been absent from previous artistic movements. Each individual dancer was a microcosm of the greater world, and no dancer’s ability to convey meaning hinged upon another dancer. The National Socialists denounced this emphasis on the individual, but were still able to use it to their advantage:

32 33

Manning, 169. Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 153.

David J. Buch and Hana Worthen, "Ideology in Movement and a Movement in Ideology: The Deutsche Tanzfestspiele 1934 (9-16 December, Berlin)," Theatre Journal 59, no. 2 (2007): 215, JSTOR. 34

Buch and Worthen, 215.

Acharyya 11 In their particular searches for “true” expression, the protagonists of Ausdruckstanz fervently believed that the essence of an individual being led to the notion of a collective consciousness, allowing the performer to propagate a life through dance—a life in which everyone is deemed to be a dancer. It was this ideology of exuberant subjectivity that enabled the National Socialists easily to incorporate the existing ideals of Ausdruckstanz into their particular view of social uniformity within a popular Aryan community of 36

peoples.

The goals of the dancers of Ausdruckstanz were to reimagine the role of the individual in the larger community by empowering each dancer and each person to hold the reins of his or her own life and to expand dance beyond the technically trained, bestowing independence on those who felt constrained by the societal notions of a true dancer. This very conception, however, due to its end goal of identifying the role of a single person in the larger mass, allowed the Nazis to expedite the integration of the individual into the community and attain emancipation of the individual through creating a collective. By espousing a distinctly German dance form and maintaining a stronghold on the representations of the dance that existed, the Nazis utilized what originally had been intended to be a freedom from the confines of a strict dance style as a means of advancing their own ambitions, thereby imposing their own guidelines on this genre of movement. They promoted German nationalism by appointing people who aligned with their ideals to positions of power in the artistic world and filtering every performance to ensure it represented what they stood for and wanted the populace to see. The control of the artistic realm was not only a means to send a

Grau and Jordan, Europe Dancing, 57.

Acharyya 12 message about their ideals to the general populace but correspondingly, the art also embodied the message itself. Rudolf von Laban Though outwardly Laban abided by the Nazis’ rules, critics disagree about his true internal alignment. Some such as Karina and Kant contend that “Laban’s readiness, and that of many other important dance artists, to accept the anti-Semitism of the new regime as fast as they could makes later excuses of ignorance impossible” and that he was a determined advocate 37

of Nazi ideology. Doerr partially agrees that Laban was enthusiastic about their policies, yet 38

he was unaware of the consequences. Others like Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop assert that he 39

simply acted out of necessity to fulfill his objectives of elevating dance. Since there is no clear record of Laban’s true alignment, however, his written works and his actions are the primary evidence for inferring his motives. Laban had realized that in order to enact his goals, he needed to gain the support of influential people. Appealing to the people in power, the National Socialists, Laban demonstrated his willingness to abide by their rules. The Nazis would have recognized Laban’s expertise in ensemble choreography and would have been interested in utilizing his public appeal to better control the large population. In 1934, Laban was appointed the director of all 40

dance in Germany and was in charge of movement and dance for the Deutsche Tanzbuhne. He

Lillian Karina and Marion Kant, Hitler's Dancers: German Modern Dance and the Third Reich, trans. Jonathan Steinberg (New York, NY: Berghahn Books, 2004), 16. 37

Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 159.

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban, 12.

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, 29.

Acharyya 13 had a unique method of choreographing group dances, expanding on what had been previously defined as movement choirs in the Weimar period: Movement choirs were promoted as a way of bringing ritual-symbolic festivals back into everyday life—special occasions where people could take pleasure in a mystical 41

merging with a mass in a cultic celebration.

These choirs created a freedom of expression that was new to the dance world; they became both a “vision of equality” and a “symbol of a self-contained collective organism, a form of 42

community work.” Under Nazi guidance, these movement choirs flourished, especially as they commandeered them to foster a sense of community, perfectly corresponding with Volksgemeinschaft and its emphasis on the collective. Renaming the movement choirs as Gemeinschaftstanz, or “community dances,” the Nazis established the event formally under the Ministry for Enlightenment and Propaganda and popularized it to the masses by endorsing its 43

collective connection with nature. Here, the Nazis firmly appropriated what was once a representation of a different time period and of a different mindset to serve their own purpose, even going so far as to label it as a novel event. Once these new movement choirs were sufficiently prevalent in German society, the Nazis introduced an element of dedication or 44

worship to Hitler. The focus on the mass and the homage to a central leader allowed the community dances to act as propaganda for both Volksgemeinschaft a nd Führerprinzip.

Kew, "From Weimar," 77.

Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 142.

Kew, "From Weimar," 78.

Kew, 78.

Acharyya 14 An example of one of Laban’s pieces, Titan, featured various groups “rushing together 45

in Dionysian chaos” and then falling back to separate in an organized and connected manner.

The groups acted as a single entity or organism, and the shapes created at the appropriate timing of all the dancers demonstrated a unified community or Volksgemeinschaft. Laban held a fascination with spatial awareness and the intention that could be conveyed by utilizing space in 46

different ways . Many of his pieces involved varied methods of using the space, but under the Nazi guidance, it came to be interpreted in different ways. The use of space, for example, in Titan allowed for something akin to a military hive mind to be born, directly in alignment with Nazi creed.

Evelyn Dörr and Lori Lantz, "Rudolf Von Laban: The 'Founding Father' of Expressionist Dance," Dance Chronicle 26, no. 1 (2003): 6, JSTOR. 45

Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 141.

Acharyya 15 Figure 1: A drawing made by Laban showing spatial tension between three people. From John Hodgson, Mastering Movement: The Life and Work of Rudolf Laban. Dörr and Lantz, "Rudolf Von Laban," 7. As the Nazis tightened their hold on the role of dance in Germany, Laban fell into line with the Nationalists’ ideas and began to enact their wishes even without explicit orders; he removed all non-Aryan children from ballet classes at Prussian Staatstheater in 1933, 47

unprompted by the Ministry of Propaganda. By executing these initiatives, Laban became inextricably intertwined with the ideals of the Nazis; indeed, even if his intentions were to promote dance, his position as the director, and therefore all of his actions in that position, were synonymous with the will of the Nazis. Additionally, since Laban had such an influential role in Ausdruckstanz, the Nazis had successfully established the leader of this dance movement as a version of their propaganda. The Nazis became the true management of dance, ironically of a dance form that specifically was created to not be managed. In 1935, the Nazis streamlined their efforts to control dance by only allowing a single prominent Master Academy of Dance, headed by Laban, and forcing all German dancers to 48

receive certification from the school if they wanted to choreograph or even perform. This action was intended to keep all artistic expression carefully under the thumb of the Nazis. The Academy became a centralized location for dancers to achieve cohesion with each other, limiting the freedom of their expression and advocating for community, but also uniformity, 49

among the dancers. With this strategic measure, the Nazis now had direct supervision over all

Karina and Kant, Hitler’s Dancers, 16.

Christine Dickson, "Dance Under the Swastika: Rudolf von Laban's Influence on Nazi Power," International Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities, June 1, 2016, accessed June 9, 2019. 48

Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 163.

Acharyya 16 the dancers and every piece that they created, ensuring that the dance style became the very embodiment of Nazi ideology. Laban’s leeway to conduct dance how he wished dwindled until 50

Laban became the very advocate of Führerprinzip. He remained at the beck and call of his superiors, unable to protest and unwilling to leave his place. However, Laban still attempted to hold onto his own goals to the best of his abilities while not outwardly rebelling against the Nazis. When he attempted to create a piece, Vom Tauwind und der Neuen Freude (The Warm Wind and the New Joy/Spring Wind and the New Joy), that spoke to the freedom that Ausdruckstanz had originally espoused and the intellectual curiosity that it sparked, the Nazis 51

removed him altogether from the German dance world in 1936. As the ones in control of dance and the propaganda they presented through it, the Nazis had no need for Laban once he did not serve their purpose. Ausdruckstanz Under the Ministry The first dance festival to abide by the values of the Ministry of Propaganda and 52

Enlightenment was the Deutsche Tanzfestspiele 1934. The goal of this initial festival was to display the achievement of the regime and of the greatness that was to follow Hitler on his path. 53

Many of the dances featured in the festival were choreographed specifically to embody the

values of the National Socialists while the others were already existing pieces. The choreographers were instructed to merge their artistic ideas with the political motives the Nazis

Karina and Kant, Hitler’s Dancers, 17.

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban, 46.

Buch and Worthen, "Ideology in Movement," 215.

Dickson, "Dance Under.”

Acharyya 17 advocated, “using dance to impart a sense of national identity associated with a mythic Volk 54

community shared by the performers and the audience alike.” The Volk were a key part of the German heritage, and the Nazis often advocated the German society to revive the old values of community. Regardless of whether the dance was a solo or a group endeavor, each piece was a component in the overall message the Germans were attempting to instill. Looking beyond the choreography, the festival itself was held in the Volksbühne, a theater focused on supporting Volksgemeinschaft and a central location for the prominent artists 55

of the time. Taking advantage of the existing ties the theater held to the Volk, the Nazis conferred the implications of its ideals upon the festival. All the artists were believed to be “Aryan,” and any Jews were eliminated, an abrupt change from the prevalence of Jews in the 56

dance scene before the Nazi regime. Conveniently, dancers who had some connection to the Jews, perhaps a distant relative, but were firmly aligned with the National Socialist point of 57

view were exempt from the brutal removal that the other dancers faced. The festival’s stress on unification, racial discrimination, and emphasis on the German essence became a recognizable part of the National Socialists’ propaganda. Deutsche Tanzkunst, a 1935 dance festival, embodied the ideas of Mary Wigman; she highlighted Germany as the heart of artistic 58

expression and accentuated a deep bond with nature. The entire festival served to display the artistic endeavors of the general people and as an important example of Volksgemeinschaft. T he 54

Buch and Worthen, "Ideology in Movement," 215.

Buch and Worthen, 218.

Buch and Worthen, 219.

Gordon, "Fascism and the Female."

Acharyya 18 success of these initial festivals in publicizing Nazi propaganda led them to make it an annual tradition, though it only lasted for a portion of their regime. 1936 Berlin Olympic Games What is widely considered the most important display of Ausdruckstanz and of Nazi propaganda was the opening shows of the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. These Games were a perfect opportunity for the Nazis to present their regime to the world and served as a preliminary means of international relations that predated the interactions that would soon follow. The popularity of dance as an artistic medium rendered it significantly influential in the Nazi agenda, and they requested to add the art form officially as an event to the 1936 Games.

Ausdruckstanz already had become a representation of German identity, and the Nazis had invested enough energy into the style for it to be prudent that they incorporate it into the event as an opportunity to display their success in a global fashion. Though the International Olympic Committee did not approve the inclusion of dance as a competitive event, the Germans decided 60

to host the International Dance Competitions as an accompaniment to the Olympics. These competitions devolved into a festival, so the Nazis decided to devote more of their time to the 61

opening shows. The festival was a strong way to interact with the other countries and compare the artistic projects, but the opening shows served to highlight Germany on its own. Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, sought a dance for the

Elizabeth A. Hanley, "The Role of Dance in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games," Journal of Olympic History 25, no. 1 (2017): 134, accessed December 12, 2019. 59

Hanley, 134.

Acharyya 19 opening shows that would prove the success of the Nazi regime in creating solidarity within the 62

nation.

Laban was originally commissioned to choreograph the shows, but the piece he created, Vom Tauwind und der Neuen Freude (The Warm Wind and the New Joy/Spring Wind and the 63

New Joy) was too individualistic for the Nazis’ standards and did not align with their motives. Goebbels noted in his diary:

Rehearsal of dance piece—free adaptation of Nietzsche, badly done and artificial work. I prevent a lot. That is all too intellectual. I don’t like it. Goes around in our costume, but 64

is not really one of our own.

In spite of the fact that Laban was the head of all dance in Germany, the Nazis remained in control. The hint of disagreement with their ideals—what Goebbels referred to as the intellectualism of the piece—resulted in immediate removal of Laban from not only the Games, but also his position as the leader of German dance. Be that as it may, this dance was in fact one of the most representative pieces of Ausdruckstanz with its free-flowing movement, intellectual overtones, and inspiration from free thinkers and philosophers such as Nietzsche. Nietzsche’s influence in Ausdruckstanz stems from his delineation of the Apolline and Dionysiac opposites: The Apolline is “the reasoned, consciously ordered form” while the “Dionysiac inner reality . . . ‘pays no heed to the individual, but even seeks to destroy individuality and redeem it with a mystical sense of

Doerr, Rudolf Laban, 167.

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban, 46.

Karina and Kant, Hitler’s Dancers, 119.

Acharyya 20 65

unity.’” Ausdruckstanz embodied this through its emphasis on the relationship between the individual and the collective as well as the unconscious connection with the inner movement, or movement that stems from something innate in one’s subconscious rather than a choreographed piece focused on its outward appearance. T hough Laban did appeal to the Nazis with the lay movement that “stressed the link between the communal nature of the movement choirs and the fascist state,” his incorporation of the Dionysiac reality and its corresponding mystical nature 66

threatened the control of the National Socialists. The Dionysian concept was emphasized in 67

the choric principle of Laban and Wigman, particularly its focus on disorder and mysticism.

The contrast between Laban’s and Goebbels’ visions proves that the difference in the intention of Ausdruckstanz and the Nazis was oddly ignored until it seemed to revolt ostensibly against the National Socialists’ very beliefs. The opening sequence of the Olympic Games was split into four sections with different 68

choreographers who better evinced Nazi ideals. Everything from the order of the pieces, the number of dancers, and the choreographer was a deliberate component of Hitler’s vision. Later critique of the choreographic elements of the pieces was possible due to Leni Riefenstahl’s 69

two-part documentary of the shows, titled Olympia. The film itself became propaganda;

Kew, “From Weimar,” 74; Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy, ed. Shaun Whiteside and Michael Tanner (London: Penguin Books, 1993), 81, quoted in Kew, “From Weimar,” 75. 65

Gordon, “Fascism and the Female.”

Helden, “Expressions of Form,” 30.

Natalie Zervou, "German Expressionist Dance at the 1936 Berlin Olympics: Modifying Dance Forms and Embodying the National Socialist Aesthetic" (master's thesis, University of Surrey, 2009), 67, accessed September 5. 68

Gordon, "Fascism and the Female.”

Acharyya 21 70

released in 1938, the documentary played a crucial role in showcasing the Nazi aesthetic. It not only captured the propaganda in the dance, but it also framed Hitler in a manner that very evidently spoke to his vision. In a way, the film, in its devoted capture of Hitler’s words and actions, was propaganda for Führerprinzip, though not directly mandated by Hitler to promote his cause. The first section of the shows, “Kindliches Spiel,” involved 1,600 children, aged ten to twelve, forming shapes in synchronization, the most prominent being of the Olympic flag. Not all of the performers in the opening shows were dancers; these children did not attend the Master Academy, yet Hitler’s vision needed a veritable army of people to enact. The discipline of the children and the perfect alignment of their bodies spoke to the militaristic detail of the regime, and the scene emphasized the unification of the masses as they collaborated together to 71

form the patterns. The intent of the Nazis to realize Volksgemeinschaft, “true harmony between the classes,” was displayed through this blatant spectacle of their military prowess by using the dancers to represent the youth they summoned to join their cause, regardless of their 72

economic background.

James E. Young, "Nazi Aesthetics in Historical Context," in After Representation?: The Holocaust, Literature, and Culture, ed. Robert M. Ehrenreich (Piscataway: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 91, Ebook Central. 70

Zervou, "German Expressionist,” 71.

Welch, "Nazi Propaganda," 214.

Acharyya 22

Figure 2: Example of the organized formations created by the children dressed in all white. Zervou, “German Expressionist,” 69. The second section, Palucca’s waltz, comprised three concentric rings of 2,300 young girls rotating in alternating directions until they all sat down to allow Palucca to perform a waltz 73

solo in the center. The deference to a single figure exhibited Führerprinzip, specifically the mass obedience to the leader Hitler. The third and fourth sections of the shows were centered on two opposing phalanxes composed of sixty men each; after the defeat of one, a group of eighty 74

women entered to mourn the fallen soldiers. The entire battle scene evinced a communal feeling for each side and amplified the idea of military prowess that had been revealed from the beginning. It even seemed to espouse sacrifice in war as an advantageous quality, corresponding with what the Nazis urged the Germans to find as a desirable attribute as well. Furthermore, the culmination of the four sections appeared to be a means for the Nazis to flaunt their strategic aptitude, military fortitude, and willingness to take action for their aims. By utilizing such a

Zervou, “German Expressionist,” 74.

Zervou, 79-82.

Acharyya 23 widely viewed platform, the Olympic Games, to endorse their ideals, the Nazis successfully both tightened their control on their own holdings and indicated their intentions to the larger public. Influence on Modern Dance Ausdruckstanz laid the foundation for future dance genres to build upon and specifically paved the way for modern dance. As Nazism has substantially influenced the former, modern dance therefore retains elements of Nazism. Following the disintegration of their careers in Germany, prominent leaders such as Rudolf von Laban and Mary Wigman traveled to other 75

European countries and America to continue dancing. These other countries had experienced similar artistic awakenings, and the seeds of freedom in expression had begun to sprout. With the entrance of these notable dance figures into these other dance scenes, unique fusions of these ideas burgeoned in these areas. After Laban’s separation from the Nazis, he began 76

teaching both his dance and his notation in England. Undoubtedly having been forced to abide by Nazi rules for a significant portion of his career, his choreographic style had been marred by their ideals. In Laban’s instruction to these many dancers, these elements must have bled through. Wigman’s extended visit to America definitely influenced the movement of Ruth St. Denis, Ted Shawn, Martha Graham, and Doris Humphrey—the leaders of American modern 77

dance. A Wigman school was opened in New York by Hanya Holm, and through the management of both German and American dancers, the conflux of Ausdruckstanz and the

Isa Partsch-Bergsohn and Harold Bergsohn, The Makers of Modern Dance in Germany: Rudolf Laban, Mary Wigman, Kurt Jooss (Hightstown, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 2003), 50. 75

Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban, 72.

Partsch-Bergsohn and Bergsohn, The Makers, 50.

Acharyya 24 78

burgeoning modern dance movement found its origins. The school did not teach any one specific style; true to the essence of expressionist dance, it simply welcomed any rebellion against the conformity of traditional dances and encouraged dancers to find connection with their own bodies. With the intermingling of ideas between dancers from different countries, elements of Ausdruckstanz cemented their position in the heart of modern dance. A unique addition to expressionist and modern dance was the idea of improvisation, or dancing freely with no previously choreographed guidance. While dancing herself as a part of Anna Halprin’s 1992 EarthDance, Susan Manning, a dancer and a scholar, perceived a connection between Nazism and modern dance during an improvisational moment when the dancers created a formation around a tree in a manner resembling the Nazi ideal of devotion to 79

nature. The link to Nazism stands out more clearly when considered in context of the improvisation; indeed, even in the absence of predetermined choreography, the dance held components of Nazi ideals. However, this idea raises the question of whether the spectator determines the response; the interpretive nature of modern dance allows it to be internalized differently by everyone who participates and watches the content, so what one viewer perceives may be entirely different in comparison to what another discerns. In the current age in which myriad dance genres are recognized and performed, Nazism may have affected more than just Ausdruckstanz. With the constant intermingling of thoughts, ideas, and creative expression, there is a unique link between all movement that is considered dance. Though Ausdruckstanz does not remain a widely performed genre, its impact during its time and its lasting legacy are undoubtedly salient today. 78

Partsch-Bergsohn and Bergsohn, 5 0.

Manning, "Modern Dance," 173.

Acharyya 25 Bibliography "Ausdruckstanz." In International Encyclopedia of Dance, edited by Selma Jeanne Cohen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Oxford Reference Online. Buch, David J., and Hana Worthen. "Ideology in Movement and a Movement in Ideology: The Deutsche Tanzfestspiele 1934 (9-16 December, Berlin)." Theatre Journal 59, no. 2 (2007): 215-39. JSTOR. Focusing on the Berlin Deutsche Tanzfestspiele in 1934, Buch and Worthen examines the contrast between the values endorsed by the National Socialist ideology and those promoted on the stage by analyzing archival sources of the festival and reconstructing it. Furthermore, they home in on the nascent tenets of expressionist dance and the festival's role in conforming to those paradigms. David Buch, a professor of music history at the University of Northern Iowa, uses previously unexplored primary sources of the festival to differentiate National Socialist discourse about dance with that of the Weimar Republic. Dickson, Christine. "Dance Under the Swastika: Rudolf von Laban's Influence on Nazi Power." International Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities, June 1, 2016. Accessed June 9, 2019. https://www.cornish.edu/dance/writing/dance_under_the_swastika_rudolf_von_labans_i nfluence_on_nazi_power/. Dickson provides a concise introduction to the intersection of Nazism and Ausdruckstanz by condensing a number of works on this topic. Dickson also provides her own insight by asserting that Laban aligned with the Third Reich of his own volition, a contrasting viewpoint to other scholars who believe Laban to have been coerced into collaborating with the Nazis. Doerr, Evelyn. Rudolf Laban: The Dancer of the Crystal. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008. Through an in-depth look into Rudolf Laban's life and work, Doerr delves into Laban's key influence in the formation of Ausdruckstanz and homes in on his instrumental Labanotation. Doerr presents Laban as a willing collaborator with the Nazis, while embedding his life into relevant historical context. With a complete appendix of his choreographed works and an examination of several primary sources, she provides a widely-renowned contribution to the discourse around Laban. Dörr, Evelyn, and Lori Lantz. "Rudolf Von Laban: The 'Founding Father' of Expressionist Dance." Dance Chronicle 26, no. 1 (2003): 1-29. JSTOR. Evelyn Dörr, author of Rudolf Laban: Dancer of the Crystal, provides a brief introduction to the content she examines further in her book. In this article, she provides context for Laban's movement principles by highlighting prominent schools of thought that influenced his work, such as Romanticism and Darwin's evolutionary theory. She also closely examines several of his most prominent pieces. Lori Lantz has translated this source from German to English.

Acharyya 26

"Führerprinzip." In Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, edited by Israel Gutman. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA, 1990. Gale in Context: World History. Franko, Mark. "Dance and the Political: States of Exception." Dance Research Journal 38, no. 1/2 (2006): 3-18. ProQuest Research Library. Franko provides a very necessary analysis of the manners in which political meaning can be derived from dance and vice versa by examining conjunctural and proto-conjunctural events. Franko posits that if dance is viewed in conjunction with its other elements, such as sound, costume, staging, and text influence, then it can present either political or ideological themes. He also provides insight into how politics and dance can merge and if one is more influential than the other, which few scholarly works delve into. Gordon, Terri J. "Fascism and the Female Form: Performance Art in the Third Reich." Journal of the History of Sexuality, 2002, 164. Gale in Context: World History. Gordon examines the role of gender and sexuality in the Third Reich and the contrast between the general repressive nature of Nazi Germany and the face of sexuality in Ausdruckstanz and other dance genres, originating from the Weimar period. By analyzing both Ausdruckstanz and the cabaret revue, she provides context to appropriation of dance and artistic form by the Nazis and discusses the phenomena that allowed Nazis to garner control of an entire artistic movement. Moreover, in investigating the topic through the lens of fascism and sexuality, she provides unique insight into the development of Ausdruckstanz. Grau, Andree, and Stephanie Jordan. Europe Dancing: Perspectives on Theatre, Dance, and Cultural Identity. London: Routledge, 2002. Ebook Central. Grau and Jordan examine several dance genres in Europe and their reception by people as well as their influence on future performing arts. Chapter 4 specifically looks at Ausdruckstanz and Tanztheater, while extending evidence to relate greater aesthetic concepts to these niche dance genres. Furthermore, they delve into the cultural significance of Ausdruckstanz and the ways in which it represents Germany in a nationalistic manner. By doing so, the connection to how the Nazis were able to appropriate the dance form becomes clearer. Hanley, Elizabeth A. "The Role of Dance in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games." Journal of Olympic History 25, no. 1 (2017): 133-40. Accessed December 12, 2019. https://library.olympic.org/Default/doc/SYRACUSE/168065/the-role-of-dance-in-the-19 36-berlin-games-why-competition-became-festival-and-art-became-political-?_lg=en-G B. Hanley specifically considers the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games and the role of all dances in its significance, thereby providing context beyond Ausdruckstanz by examining other international dance genres. She also offers a detailed history of how dance and other art forms were integrated into the Olympic Games and the efforts of the Nazis to include

Acharyya 27 dance as a greater component of the competition, which lays the foundation to draw conclusions about the intentions of the Nazis in incorporating dance as substantially as they chose to. Helden, Tonja Van. "Expressions of Form and Gesture in Ausdruckstanz, Tanztheater, and Contemporary Dance." PhD diss., University of Colorado, 2003. Accessed July 1, 2019. https://scholar.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=coml_gradetds. In a doctoral dissertation presented to the University of Colorado, Tonja Van Helden investigates the similarities and differences in form between Ausdruckstanz, Tanztheater, and contemporary dance. She analyzes case studies to determine the impacts of stylistic innovations of the time and trace the trajectory of ideas from ballet through expressionist dance to modern dance. Furthermore, by contrasting the styles, she offers insights into the concepts that formed the backbone of each genre. Hodgson, John, and Valerie Preston-Dunlop. Rudolf Laban: An Introduction to his Work & Influence. Plymouth, MA: Northcote House, 1990. In this critical work in the scholarship of Laban, Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop closely analyze the motivations of Laban and the effects of his actions on the dance community. A detailed analysis is provided from his early life to death, closely examining the key moments in his career. A thorough timeline of his life, career, and relevant context is offered at the end of the book. Hodgson and Preston-Dunlop portray Laban as reluctant to collaborate with the Nazis, finally succumbing because of his determination to elevate dance as an art form. Kant, Marion. "German Gymnastics, Modern German Dance, and Nazi Aesthetics." Dance Research Journal 48, no. 2 (August 2016): 4-25. ProQuest Research Library. Marion Kant, a primary scholar in the exploration of Ausdruckstanz as well as a dancer with experience in the genre, relates German expressionist dance with other German forms of movement to analyze the role of Nazi aesthetics in a greater context. With concessions about the extent to which conclusions can be drawn about the intersection of politics and art, Kant adds new insights to the scant discourse on this topic. She differentiates this article from the content of the book she co-authored with Lilian Karina by expanding the scope of her analysis. Karina, Lillian, and Marion Kant. Hitler's Dancers: German Modern Dance and the Third Reich. Translated by Jonathan Steinberg. New York, NY: Berghahn Books, 2004. Karina and Kant provide an important contribution to the discourse surrounding German expressionist dance as it looks closely at several prominent dancers of the movement. Furthermore, they examine the motivations of each of the dancers and the effects of their actions, which highlights the ways in which the Nazis were able to take control of the movement. Marion Kant, a dance historian at the University of Pennsylvania, and Lilian Karina, a prominent dance scholar, integrate their own perspectives into the book by drawing conclusions about each of the dancer's true alignment with Nazi ideology from the evidence they provide.

Acharyya 28

Keilson, Ana Isabel. "The Embodied Conservatism of Rudolf Laban, 1919-1926." Dance Research Journal 51, no. 2 (August 2019): 18-34. ProQuest Research Library. Keilson received her PhD from Columbia University after completing a dissertation on the history of German modern dance and politics and is currently a lecturer at Harvard University. As an extension of her previous research, she focuses on Laban and his political alignment, specifically the conservatism of his actions. With the disparate perspectives on Laban, she examines one viewpoint in the greater discourse about his ideology. Kew, Carole. "From Weimar Movement Choir to Nazi Community Dance: The Rise and Fall of Rudolf Laban's 'Festkultur.'" Dance Research: The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 17, no. 2 (1999): 73-96. JSTOR. Kew asserts the importance of socio-political contexting to develop a more complete understanding of the role of dance in Germany. Kew posits that the same ideologies and principles that incited the rise in popularity of Ausdruckstanz also contributed to its eventual disappearance and the demise of key figures such as Laban. Since German expressionist dance does not retain the same popularity today as it did during its nascent state, she provides insight into the possible reasoning for this occurrence. She also carefully examines the Weimar movement choir, a dance form that evolved into a different event under the Nazi rule, thereby investigating the transition between the regimes. Kuppers, Petra. "Modern Dance." In St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture Online. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2013. Gale in Context: World History. Laban, Rudolf. Laban's Principles of Dance and Movement Notation. Edited by Roderyk Lange. Illustrated by Diana Baddeley. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Plays, Inc., 1975. Rudolf Laban, widely known as the 'father of expressionist dance,' provides in this primary source a detailed explanation of Labanotation and the implications of a written notation on the future of dance. One of his long-term goals was to elevate dance to be on par with other dance forms, and he explains his motivations and methods in regards to the creation of his system of notation. He also provides illustrations of examples of the notation and accompanying description. Levine, Sonya Belle. "From Ausdruckstanz to Tanztheater: The Search for a German Aesthetic in Dance." Master's thesis, Wesleyan University, 2017. Accessed December 11, 2019. https://wesscholar.wesleyan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2743&context=etd_hon_th eses. In her thesis presented to Wesleyan University, Sonya Belle Levine examines the common threads between German dance genres and the reasons why Ausdruckstanz was born. She utilizes her own firsthand experience of witnessing the physical spaces in which the pieces were performed to enhance her argument. She investigates the

Acharyya 29 progression of dance throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century and how it lined up with major events in the political climate of Germany. Crucially, she is able to isolate the means by which the German aesthetic altered and the potential causes. Maletic, Vera. Body - Space - Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban's Movement and Dance Concepts. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1987. Maletic provides context to Ausdruckstanz by examining the birth of modern dance throughout Europe and the overall mindset of artists at the time. She initially dives into a detailed account of Laban's life before then discussing his theories of space, movement, and form. Maletic concludes with a projection into the future and the paradigms that have remained consistent throughout the history of dance. Manning, Susan A. "Modern Dance in the Third Reich: Six Positions and a Coda." In Choreographing History, edited by Susan Leigh Foster, 165-76. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1995. Susan Manning in her chapter in this book outlines five contrasting viewpoints from several scholars about modern dance in the Third Reich. She then presents her own viewpoint in which she argues that the National Socialists were able to resolve a crisis that had arisen due to the political, economic, and social climate, which led many dancers to collaborate with the Nazis. She also offers an examination of how Nazism is reflected in modern dance today by using her own experiences as a dancer as evidence. Newhall, Mary Anne Santos. Mary Wigman. New York, NY: Routledge, 2009. A close look into the life of Mary Wigman, Newhall delves into the actions and motivations of a key figure and leader in Ausdruckstanz. Looking closely at some of her most influential choreography, Newhall investigates the role that Wigman played in the development of expressionist dance. She also discusses Wigman’s impact on modern dance and other burgeoning movements in other countries. Partsch-Bergsohn, Isa, and Harold Bergsohn. The Makers of Modern Dance in Germany: Rudolf Laban, Mary Wigman, Kurt Jooss. Hightstown, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 2003. Partsch-Bergsohn and Bergsohn provide a seminal work in the discourse about Ausdruckstanz, utilizing the most prominent figures of the dance genre as keystones in exploring the history of Ausdruckstanz. Using dancers such as Rudolf Laban, Mary Wigman, Kurt Jooss, and Hanya Holm, they provide a detailed account of the most important parts of the dance genre, also incorporating Partsch-Bergsohn’s background as a student of Mary Wigman. Welch, David. "Nazi Propaganda and the Volksgemeinschaft: Constructing a People's Community." Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 2 (2004): 213-38. JSTOR. Welch looks broadly at Nazi propaganda and its intersection with one of its most important ideals, the idea of the collective. Though Welch does not specifically home in on dance, the overall insights into art provide the necessary context to draw conclusions

Acharyya 30 about dance. Welch investigates the ideal itself and the way the Nazis promoted these ideas to the public. Young, James E. "Nazi Aesthetics in Historical Context." In After Representation?: The Holocaust, Literature, and Culture, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, 89-98. Piscataway: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Ebook Central. Young carefully dissects the role of the Nazi aesthetic in all German art forms, including performing arts, visual arts, and literature. With this broad context, the primary ideals of Nazism are highlighted, and a clear picture of the way in which these art forms fit together is drawn. Furthermore, Young looks at the discourse surrounding art at the time to further contextualize the Nazi aesthetic. Zervou, Natalie. "German Expressionist Dance at the 1936 Berlin Olympics: Modifying Dance Forms and Embodying the National Socialist Aesthetic." Master's thesis, University of Surrey, 2009. Accessed September 5, 2019. http://www.nataliezervou.com/uploads/3/0/8/7/30879245/ma_diss._n_zervou.pdf. In a master's thesis presented to the University of Surrey, Zervou analyzes the portrayal of the Nazi aesthetic through German expressionist dance. She uses the feature film of the Olympic Games, Olympia, directed by Leni Riefenstahl as a primary source to analyze the dances of the opening shows in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. With clear attention to form and movement in the context of Nazism, Zervou argues that the embodiment of the Nazi aesthetic is evident in Ausdruckstanz.

The Harker School | 500 Saratoga Ave., San Jose CA 95129 OofC: 3/25/20 (RM)