2022-23 JOHN NEAR GRANT Recipient
Caged Songbirds:
The Revitalization of Traditional Japanese Music Subculture During Internment
Rahul MulpuriCaged Songbirds: The Revitalization of Traditional Japanese Music Subculture During Internment
Rahul Mulpuri
2023 Near Scholar
Mentors: Ms. Jennifer Sandusky and Ms. Meredith Cranston
April 12, 2023
There exists no clearer a person who embodies the subversion of America’s patriotic authoritative control over music than Mary Kageyama Nomura. Before the mass movement of Japanese Americans to internment camps as a method of containment of anti-American sentiment following Pearl Harbor, Nomura was a child singer and performed for servicemen. 1 After the signing of Executive Order 9066, she was forced to relocate to the Manzanar concentration camp at the age of sixteen. Despite her young age and difficult circumstances, Nomura shone as a prominent vocalist and performer at the camp, becoming known throughout the Manzanar community as the “Songbird of Manzanar.” 2 Although few recordings of her during internment have been preserved, videos of her vocal performances in the last two decades have become accessible. One such recording of Nomura in 2008 is a rendition of “The Manzanar Song,” written by former Manzanar High School teacher Lou Frizzell, at the Manzanar Pilgrimage. 3 (see fig. 1)
Despite being far past her vocal prime at the time of the recording, Nomura’s contralto voice exhibits a profound and resonant timbre that sparks both nostalgia and inspiration. Furthermore, her ability to alternate between a wobbling, yet piercing, vibrato and an admittedly trite straight tone demonstrates extensive vocal prowess and refined technique. Nomura also possesses a dominant and versatile lower register; while the composition of “The Manzanar Song” lacks a display of a potential fluttery and breathy falsetto, her chest voice displays enormous range, with an ability to extend all the way down to a sturdy B2.
1 James Ricci, "Accentuating the positive." Los Angeles Times, July 13, 2004. https://www.latimes.com/archives/laxpm-2004-jul-13-et-ricci13-story.html
2 Ricci.
3 Mary Kageyama Nomura, "The Manzanar Song." 2008 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0C9uInLDh9w
Nomura, now ninety-seven years old, represents one of the many individuals whose lives were deprived by the internment of Japanese Americans.
4 However, her legacy and contributions to the Japanese American diaspora and musical subculture during her internment remain relevant and impactful. Although the War Relocation Authority initially imposed the Western musical tradition, the cultural homogenization among Japanese American detainees combined with waning oversight revitalized traditional musical and performance subculture across internment camps and resulted in syncretism.
https://fullertonobserver.com/2023/04/11/a-red-rose-for-the-songbird-of-manzanar/
The first generation of Japanese American individuals, known as Issei, were Japanese immigrants that moved during the late 1890s and early 1900s in the pursuit of economic security and financial stability 5 They worked as manual laborers and as part of the railroad force, with Oregon especially providing numerous job opportunities for them 6 Many Issei were unable to find proper housing, with laborers generally sleeping in crude structures such as tents 7 Nisei were the second generation of Japanese Americans, being born to Issei. These individuals generally had greater access to economic opportunities due to their parents’ work and were pushed by their parents to pursue lucrative careers such as agricultural farming. 8 With the enclaves formed by various Issei, Nisei had a wealth of opportunities to interact with each other and be a part of a community similar to those experienced in Japan by their relatives; however, many also formed non-Japanese friends at school and in their community. 9 Many felt indoctrinated into American society, values, and culture but never experienced predominant oppression or expectations of subservience to their white counterparts. 10 The number of Nisei exponentially grew from 87 to 2361 in the thirty years following 1909 in Oregon alone. 11 World War II, a massive and catastrophic event that rocked the globe, was the predominant event of the 1940s. Japanese draw-in to World War II and their quest for an
5 Eiichiro Azuma, “A History of Oregon’s Issei, 1880-1952.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 94, no. 4 (1993): 316. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20614543.
6 Azuma, 316.
7 Azuma, 319.
8 Azuma, 339-40
9 Joy Yamaguchi, "Traditional and Western Japanese American Musical Practices Before and During Internment." (2016): 4-5.
10 Yamaguchi, 5.
11 Azuma, “A History,” 340.
expansive imperialist empire resulted in them attacking the United States in the event known as Pearl Harbor in 1941. 12 Since many turned to the easiest opportunity for blame to explain such terror, many Americans held contemptuous views of Japanese Americans, who were homogenized as part of Japan’s imperialistic mission and traitors to American society based on racist and prejudiced beliefs 13 Japanese Americans were rounded up by Executive Order 9066, signed by then-President Franklin D. Roosevelt; over 120000 Japanese Americans were rounded up in this effort, mostly from the West Coast. 14 Japanese American internment was traumatic and psychologically disturbing to many, who found it degrading to their rights and, rightfully, incredibly unjust. 15
World War II’s Effect on Music in America
The war precipitated many changes in music education policy throughout America, including an increased emphasis on performances at assemblies and meetings at school through the idea of “unity through music.” 16 There was also an increased emphasis on folk music and patriotic tunes, as they embraced traditional American roots. 17 As a consequence of music being
12 Raymond J. Sontag, “The Origins of the Second World War.” The Review of Politics 25, no. 4 (1963): 502. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405846
13 Nancy Nakano Conner, “From Internment to Indiana: Japanese Americans, the War Relocation Authority, the Disciples of Christ, and Citizen Committees in Indianapolis.” Indiana Magazine of History 102, no. 2 (2006): 92. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27792706
14 Conner, 92.
15 Donna K. Nagata, Jacqueline H. J. Kim, and Kaidi Wu, "The Japanese American Wartime Incarceration: Examining the Scope of Racial Trauma." National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6354763/.
16 Amy Beegle, “American Music Education 1941-1946: Meeting Needs and Making Adjustments during World War II.” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, vol. 26, no. 1, 2004: pp. 55–56 JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40215297
17 Beegle, 62
an encouraged activity for children, students started to write various songs in music classes, one such example being “Fighting The J*ps”:
“The J*ps are all such silly saps / We’ll show them how to fight! / We’ll sure make monkeys out of them / Before they see the light.” 18 In these activities and classrooms, teachers sanctioned these racist and prejudiced beliefs when the children were composing, so many negative attitudes of these children towards Japanese Americans were allowed. 19 Overall, music was a central part of education during World War II, with many music educators and teachers attempting to aid the American cause through the promotion of patriotic values in its education. 20
Aside from music education, popular music during World War II was of a variety of genres, including big band, swing jazz, and country. 21 The war also precipitated pro-patriotic and American-themed music whose intentions were not as obvious. For instance, Bing Crosby’s “White Christmas,” which debuted around two weeks after the Pearl Harbor attack, has become a modern Christmas staple and the best-selling single globally of all time. 22 However, while enjoying the nostalgic sounds of childhood, many listeners fail to recognize the song’s subtle depiction of a soldier returning home to family to enjoy a holiday many in the military particularly adored the song and requested it for its beauty. In particular, the line “where the
18 Bertha W. Bailey, “Creative Expression in Wartime,” Music Educators Journal 29, no. 4 (1943): 9.
19 Beegle 63-64
20 Beegle, 62
21 T. Pearson, "1940’s Music Played in the 40'S Bands Groups Singers Memories from The People History Site." ThePeopleHistory https://www.thepeoplehistory.com/40smusic.html
22 “Dreaming Of A ‘White Christmas.’” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, Dec 17, 2020.
https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/dreaming-white-christmas
treetops glisten” evokes a sense of nostalgia for individuals who seek to return to the “merry and bright” days. 23
Japanese American Instrumental Musical Traditions Pre-Internment
Before internment, San Francisco and Los Angeles contained significant musical opportunities for Japanese Americans. 24 Almost forty people would participate in the practicing of the Native-to-Japan lute shamisen, and the stringed koto. 25 Furthermore, many Nisei decided to pursue learning the biwa, an instrument similar to the lute; it was prominent particularly around 1940, with over fifty students choosing to pursue the instrument. 26 However, one style of interpretive vocal singing, the naniwa-bushi, declined in popularity in the United States. 27 (see fig. 2)This style of singing involved traditional vocal narration combined with an accompanied shamisen 28 Despite the uniqueness of this form of narrative singing, increased contemporary culture and radio reliance facilitated a decline of this practice. 29
23 Dave Kindy, "'White Christmas' Was the Song America Needed to Fight Fascism." Spokesman, 2021. https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2021/dec/26/white-christmas-was-the-song-america-needed-to-fig/
24 Minako Waseda, "Extraordinary Circumstances, Exceptional Practices: Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." Journal of Asian American Studies 8, no. 2 (2005): 175. doi:10.1353/jaas.2005.0044.
25 Waseda, 175.
26 Waseda, 175.
27 Waseda, 176.
28 Waseda, 176.
29 Waseda, 176.
Furthermore, various American entertainers became especially popular with the younger Nisei crowd such as Bing Crosby, the singer of the aforementioned “White Christmas,” who was extremely well-known with the younger Japanese American crowd as many aspired to replicate and learn his tunes. 30 There also was a push towards honing one’s experience with swing music, as many Nisei enjoyed listening to songs such as “Chattanooga Choo Choo” by Glenn Miller and “Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy” by the Andrews Sisters. 31 The piano and violin were also often learned by Nisei in the 1920s, with many of their parents instructing them to prioritize practicing
these widespread and seemingly important Western instruments along with pursuing Japanese music training. 32
Japanese American Theatrical and Performance Traditions Pre-Internment
With gains in economic success, Japanese Americans became increasingly immersed in Japanese performing arts at the dawn of the 1930s. 33 For instance, the yokyoku, a Japanese theater vocal accompaniment group, developed increased attention with almost one hundred students wanting to participate in Los Angeles alone. 34 Furthermore, other forms of performance and theatrical arts became more prominent; for instance, the ondo, a type of Japanese musical performance involving folk songs during the Obon festival, was often promoted by both Issei and Nisei 35 (see fig. 3) While the performance traditionally involved the honoring of long-lost ancestors, the concept of a congregation of Japanese American individuals for a common cause became generationally shared between both the Issei and Nisei. 36
32 Susan Miyo Asai, “Transformations of Tradition: Three Generations of Japanese American Music Making.” The Musical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (1995): 433. http://www.jstor.org/stable/742437.
33 Waseda, "Extraordinary Circumstances, Exceptional Practices: Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." 175.
34 Waseda, 175.
35 Waseda, 176.
36 Waseda, 176.
However, multiple Japanese performance styles declined in popularity in America. The kabuki, a type of traditional Japanese drama with flamboyant and elaborate costumes, was not prevalent among forms of common Japanese American entertainment at the time; furthermore, the gidayk, a type of Japanese chanting performance, diminished in popularity. 37 The decline in the prominence of both of these performances is largely attributed to the increase in attention towards Japanese Pop music that destroyed traditional musical and theatrical performance art 38 However, the rise of Western and European influences on Japanese American subculture lead to
37 Waseda, 176.
38 Waseda, 176.
the spread of the shinpa geki. This form of theater based its production on traditional Japanese theater but was heavily influenced by European dramas and their themes, with many performances involving interpretations of the works of playwrights such as William Shakespeare, being performed frequently in Hawaii at the start of the twentieth century 39
As Issei emphasized the development of a well-rounded education for the children, many parents pushed their children to learn various instruments. 40 Many private instructors for these Japanese American children were Nisei; in addition, to distinguish the authenticity of teachers,
39 Waseda, 177.
40 Waseda, 175.
Japanese Americans interested in music were instituted a Natori license that certified their expertise in a certain musical or performance field. 41 Most of the emphasis on the learning of music in the community was not singularly focused on Japanese musical revitalization, as even popular Japanese instruments such as the koto had only seven teachers available, with four of those being Nisei in Los Angeles. 42 Music teachers, instead, started focusing on the piano, violin, and contemporary and Western vocal techniques. 43 The increased emphasis on music education helped propel the Japanese American musical subculture toward increased Western attention; in 1920, the first Nisei women graduated college with majors in music, traveling around the country to play Western classical music for various audiences, organizations, and other music connoisseurs. 44 Furthermore, in 1930, an all-Nisei orchestra was formed, allowing a greater reach of the Western musical tradition to the Japanese American audience. A shift towards this seeming progressiveness was viewed by many Nisei and foreigners as achieving higher intellectualism by playing newer and, seemingly objectively superior, music. Despite ingrained racism among many white Americans regarding the quality of such Western performances, Japanese Americans’ adaptability to the musical tradition captivated them. 45
41 Zaibei Nihonjinkai, Zaibei Nihonjinshi: 708.
42 Waseda, "Extraordinary Circumstances, Exceptional Practices: Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." 175
43 Waseda, 175.
44 Rafu Shimpo, June 17, 1930; July 13, 1930.
45 Rafu Shimpo, Jan 11, 1930.
The Birth of the War Relocation Authority
The War Relocation Authority was the management task force and federal agency in charge of managing the internment of Japanese Americans during and following World War II. 46 (see fig. 5) It was set up by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942 and initially drafted after Executive Order 9066, the infamous bill that forcibly incarcerated all people of Japanese American ancestry; however, the actual start of the agency’s enforcement came with the signing of Executive Order 9102, which formally established the WRA. 47 Many white Americans supported the signing of the bill and the incarceration of Japanese Americans due to their supposed threat and danger to America, which was a view constructed by immense xenophobia and a lack of tolerance. 48 The WRA attempted to further intensify these beliefs by criminalizing Japanese Americans as “enemy aliens” in order to estrange them from society. 49
46 Greg Robinson, "War Relocation Authority." Densho Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.densho.org/War%20Relocation%20Authority.
47 Robinson.
48 Robinson.
49 Robinson.
The War Relocation Authority encouraged the promotion of Western classical and pop music, as part of their mission was to assimilate Japanese Americans into traditional white American culture and ideologies. 50 Consequently, many teachers who specialized in Western music and history were hired to teach and promote American music such as jazz. 51 Indeed, the WRA encouraged the proliferation of musical education and proficiency among JapaneseAmerican interns by creating a Music Department in each camp, 52 providing materials and areas for performances. 53
The Loyalty Questionnaire
The War Relocation Authority over time ignited increased frustration among Japanese Americans. 54 The WRA acknowledged their discontentment and wanted a potential opportunity to please potentially “loyal” detainees; in 1943, the United States Department of War wanted to discern whether or not a Japanese American internee was indeed loyal to the United States or supposedly allied with Japan, the United States Department of War required all internees to answer a loyalty questionnaire. 55 (see fig. 6) The form asked individuals whether or not they would be open to serving in the armed forces or if they were still loyal to the Japanese state. 56
50 Minako Waseda, "Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." Témoiger/ Getuigen: 114. https://doi.org/10.4000/temoigner.5765
51 Waseda, 116.
52 Waseda, 114.
53 Waseda, 116.
54 Robinson.
55 Robinson.
56 Robinson.
Many of those detained were confused by the purpose of the questionnaire and became increasingly frustrated with their mistreatment and answered no to one or both of these questions. 57 An individual who answered no to both was known as a “no-no,” and the prevalence of these individuals, who were generally older Issei, became a barrier to resettlement and the ceasing of internment. 58 Furthermore, plans to release individuals who answered yes to both questions were never brought to fruition, so these loyalty questionnaires did little to help the WRA pick the cooperative detainees to let go. 59 Instead, the WRA furthered its control over the more outspoken and seemingly disloyal Japanese American no-nos and segregated them; over twelve thousand of these individuals were sent to the Tule Lake segregation center for their disloyalty. 60 In a rage, these inmates organized a strike that was perceived by the WRA as violent 61 The event further exacerbated the negative depiction of Japanese Americans and xenophobia by the general public, as only these more sensational events were brought to the attention of the media; this further stopped loyal detainees from resettlement due to fear of future retaliation and retribution; however, it also sparked an increased awareness of the systemic oppression and injustice that Japanese Americans were facing altogether, sparking an increased sense of racial unity among both loyal Nisei and no-nos alike. 62
57 "Japanese American Incarceration.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/japanese-american-incarceration.
58 “Japanese American Incarceration.”
59 Robinson.
60 "Japanese American Incarceration.”
61 Robinson.
62 Robinson.
The War Relocation Authority’s Waning Oversight
Eventually, the WRA began to realize that Japanese Americans were not very threatening at all to America and did not show explicit disobedience. 63 Consequently, the WRA decided to lift the internment barriers and help resettlements for all internees that were not located in Tule
Lake. 64 They started to lose authority, power, and funding and could thus not keep up the costs of continuing internment broadly. Ultimately, most Japanese Americans were released for resettlement throughout America in 1945, with detainees in the Tule Lake camp having to wait until March of 1946 to return home. 65
Japanese American Instrumental Musical Traditions Throughout Internment
Throughout Japanese American internment, an increased emphasis on music led to the popularization of traditional Japanese music styles within camps. 66 This was supplemented with the WRA’s initial intention of promoting Western music, which resulted in the bolstering of popular and classical music forms. 67 With a greater sense of cultural homogenization among detainees and excessive free time, individuals had time to form bands, particularly swing ones that combined both American and Japanese influences. 68 For instance, the Manzanar Jive Bombers were known prominently in the Manzanar camp to provide music for other internees and pass time, despite their lack of professional music experience. 69 Furthermore, when some Japanese Americans were assigned to be interned, they brought smaller and lesser-used instruments such as shakuhachi with them, which allowed them to learn and play them; bigger instruments such as the koto were also transported to the camps upon request. 70 This increased emphasis on newer instruments displays a change toward moving back to traditional Japanese
64 Robinson.
65 Robinson.
66 Asai, 436.
67 Waseda, "Extraordinary Circumstances, Exceptional Practices: Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." 182.
68 Asai, 436.
69 Asai, 436.
70 Waseda, "Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." 115.
music. However, younger Japanese Americans also formed bands funded by the WRA’s Recreation Department that played jazz music, representing the permeation of American influences on their identity despite their exclusion from white society. 71
Japanese American Theatrical and Performance Traditions Throughout Internment
With “a safe place to continue” pursuing Japanese American theater, some camps chose to focus on promoting Japanese performing arts and respective cultural traditions. 72 Many detainees had a deep appreciation and nostalgia for kabuki, engei-kai (a form of drama and vocal talent shows), and traditional bon dances; these cultural events elicited significant attention from detainees, proving to many of them a sense of connection to their heritage. 73 To help set up these events such as the kabuki and engei-kai, detainees would help create props and clothing to aid the quality of these performances. 74 These performances served as a method for internees to find common ground despite their “humiliating time” at the camps. Compared to before internment, the kabuki especially experienced a significant resurgence in recognition, with its performances being described as “the most popular entertainment for the Issei.” 75 The impact of these demonstrations lasted far past pure enjoyment, however; a former Santa Fe detainee indicates that these performances led to the shift of mood of internees to be more relaxed, displaying the legacy of these traditions on Japanese Americans’ lifestyles as well. 76
71 Waseda, 116.
72 Waseda, 115.
73 Waseda, 115.
74 Waseda, 115.
75 Waseda, "Extraordinary Circumstances, Exceptional Practices: Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." 182.
76 Waseda, 181.
Japanese American Music Education Throughout Internment
Following initial internment, the WRA’s construction of the various Music Departments required music teachers for schooling and recreational purposes. 77 As a result, various Japanese American internees volunteered to become musical educators and oversaw managing musical activities and education. These teachers were paid by the WRA like doctors and other educators. 78 Some of these Japanese American teachers even directly promoted the learning of the koto, as indicated by the daughter of a former internee at the Tule Lake and Topaz camps, who endearingly referred to these teachers as “sensei.” 79 The WRA did not even attempt to suppress the playing or education of such music, as even the stringent Manzanar camp’s policy indicated that “so long as patriotic music is not played, Japanese music may be played in the center.” 80 This allowed for the reconnection of educators and Japanese American individuals writ large to explore their traditional musical and theatrical traditions since “the WRA tolerated Japanese cultural activities in the camps.” 81
Conclusion
Eighteen years after World War II, a Japanese individual named Kyu Sakamoto broke through the Western and global music industry with his hit pop song, “Sukiyaki,” in 1963, and its lyrical simplicity and melodic versatility still have relevancy today. 82 However, internment
77 Waseda, "Music in Japanese American Concentration Camps." 114.
78 Waseda, 115.
79 Waseda, 118.
80 Waseda, 115.
81 Waseda, 114.
82 Thomas Filbin, “Review of The Ineffable Persistence of Sukiyaki,” by J. M. Coetzee, Ward Just, Jean Echenoz, Linda Coverdale, Jean-Philippe Toussaint, Matthew B. Smith, Jean Hanff Korelitz, Caitlin Macy, Jonathan Dee, and Joseph Epstein. The Hudson Review 63, no. 2 (2010): 332. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25703781
still needs to be understood as ultimately a fundamental and irreparable mistake that ought to never be repeated to any group of people in any form. Its suppression of freedom and the stripping of fundamental human rights was unethical and even papered over and largely ignored by the public until former President George Bush acknowledged the terrible injustices against the Japanese Americans in 1990 and offered reparations. 83 However, the unification of the Japanese American diaspora and the revitalization of traditional Japanese musical subcultures brought increased attention among Nisei, Sansei, and other Japanese individuals of their home traditions while they grappled with increased Western influence. Despite experiencing significant challenges and adjustments when returning home, the Japanese American community started to return to a life free slowly but surely from incarceration and trauma. 84 Ultimately, no matter how hopeless a situation may seem for individuals and a community, the strength and resistance following that event can bring about positive change for that group and the world.
83 “Japanese American Incarceration.”
84 “The Return of Japanese Americans to The West Coast In 1945.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, May 26, 2021. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/return-japanese-americans-west-coast-1945.
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