No Limits | Fall/Winter 2017 by The Hotchkiss School

Hotchkiss Science Magazine

2017 FALL

NO LIMITS

CONTENTS

NO LIMITS EDITORS-IN-CHIEF

Sumin Goh ’18 Jay Lee ’18 Daniel Kim ’18

ART DIRECTOR

Tatr Assakul ’18

CONTENTS MANAGER CONTENT EDITORS LAYOUT EDITOR FACULTY SUPERVISOR

Michael Li ’18 Farzona Comnas ’18 Ellie DeSouza ’19 Bonnie Dana ’19 Amy Wang ’19 Dr. Susan Park

Graphics: Tatr Assakul ’18

MESSAGE FROM

THE EDITORS:

Did you know? WATER BEARS

he rapid development of technology sometimes makes us feel detached from all that’s going on in the world of science. You could look at the works of the Nobel Prize recipients, and the fact is that if you’re not heavily interested in the field, you wouldn’t understand the significance, or even the content of the subject that was deemed worthy of a Nobel Prize. But these rapid advancement in science and technology comes into our lives in the form of relatable subjects: new cars, new medicines, and even new shoes. In this issue, No Limits introduces interesting science and technology around us. We try to recognize what would have gone unnoticed and show the story behind all the science that co-exists with us. Editors-in-Chief

It can take a photon 40,000 years to travel from the core of the sun to its surface, but only 8 minutes to travel the rest of the way to Earth

Nature Jay Lee ’18

THE PROBLEM WITH CUSHIONED SHOES Sports Ian Gill ’19

ELECTRIC CARS OF THE FUTURE Technology Michael Li ’18

PUTTING ART IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Art & Science Ellie DeSouza ’19

THE YEMENI CHOLERA OUTBREAK Health Farzona Comnas ’18

WATER PURIFICATION Environment Cherry Wang ’18

MEMORY AND FORGETTING Commentary Sumin Goh ’18

NATURE

COMMENTARY

WATER BEARS

MEMORY AND

By Jay Lee ’18

Tardigrades, more commonly known as water bears, are some of the toughest animals on the planet. They can survive freezing temperatures of -272°C; they also can survive in boiling water. When scientists sent them into the outer space, all of them survived outside their capsules for 12 days! So, recently, physicists have been using them to study how life would fare under various catastrophes. The mechanism mainly responsible for tardigrades’ near indestructibility is “cryptobiosis,” a state in which an organism’s bodily functions become shut down. In harsh environments, tardigrades eliminate all moisture in their bodies before entering a period of long hibernation. The organism produces a sugar called “trehalose,” which preserves the tardigrade in a glass-like armor. Imagine an insect trapped in amber for millions of years. Oxford University researcher David Sloan, his colleague Rafael Alves Batista, and Harvard University astrophysicist Abraham Loeb are studying whether tardigrades can ever become extinct. The three catastrophic events they simulated were asteroid impacts, exploding stars, and bursts of radiation. In the case of a radiation burst or exploding star, Earth’s atmosphere would disappear and many organisms would die due to a lack of oxygen.

Others would be fried by the intense heat and radiation. Tardigrades, however, would be unaffected by the incident since many species live at the bottom of the ocean. As long as they have access to water, they would continue to thrive. To eliminate the ocean, an asteroid would have to weigh about 1.7 quintillion kilograms, a shocking number that only applies to 19 asteroids in our whole solar system. To picture this, it might be easier to think of the 6-milelong asteroid that caused the mass extinction of dinosaurs. A 1.7 quintillion kilogram asteroid could be around 326-miles-long. Luckily, the chances of all these events occurring are very small. The closest star that is likely to explode is extremely far away, and the chances of an asteroid that large hitting Earth are very low. However, one problem with this study is that there are thousands of different tardigrade species and each has its own adaptations and abilities. Not all tardigrades can enter cryptobiosis, not all can survive immensely high or low temperatures, and not all can survive in space. The study by Sloan, Batista, and Loeb combined all these abilities into one imaginary tardigrade. Yet, this animal continues to amaze us because it is a testament to the tenacity of life and the hope that life will continue to survive for billions of years.

FORGETTING

By Sumin Goh ’18 Graphics by Tatr Assakul ’18 Every day consists of many repetitive events. We say some form of “Hi! How are you?” whenever we pass someone we know; we tell more-or-less the same tales of our quests to meet deadlines; we generally walk the same paths and meet the same people. We take in incredible amounts of information each day, and we still strive to remember more as we greet new people, flip through flashcards, put something in the microwave, and such. But little do we give credit to a prime function of the brain: forgetting. In this high-strung world, people most commonly see forgetfulness as a display of the brain’s ineptitude. Although it can certainly take us to dark places like dementia, the original process of forgetting serves a critical purpose. In its proper function, forgetting works in parallel with remembering to carry out decision-making. Stored information from the past helps to form decisions, but to an extent. As the brain has limitations to its processing, too much information will overwhelm the brain and fail to be useful. Take hyperthymesia, for example. People with this condition have an unnatural recollection of the vast majority of their lives to such detail. Although they can tell you which days of the week have been the first days of school and what colored shirts their dads were wearing during an interval of time, they generally have trouble when it comes to seeing patterns and drawing conclusions. The vast combination of the useful and useless information presents an overload of work for the brain to analyze. Because of forgetfulness, most of us can easily deal with the massive amounts of incoming information we get day-to-day over a long span of time. As the result of forgetting and remembering combined, we get a bigger picture of the world with multiple layers of understanding without even noticing. The big picture keeps us moving forward; it gives meaning to the gigabytes of memories we’ve taken in. Moreover, the loss of some of the information doesn’t take away the meaning. Most of the time, it gives more than it takes.

ENVIRONMENT

SPORTS

THE PROBLEM WITH CUSHIONED SHOES

WATER

PURIFICATION By Cherry Wang ’18 We drink water every day; few people, however, are aware of what the water has been through before being consumed. Water collected from their original sources (lakes, rivers, etc.) usually go through a purification process involving coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection before becoming drinkable; this process is called the conventional water treatment process. As water pollution becomes an increasingly severe problem, the traditional process can no longer satisfy the requirements for drinking water when the raw water (the original water before any treatment) is drawn from more eutrophic areas. Ammonium Nitrogen, for example, is one of the typical micro-polluted nutrients that cannot be stopped by the conventional water treatment process. It is small enough to get past all four stages of the treatment and slip into pipes; this is good news for the microorganisms—more commonly known as germs, virus, or fungi—that reside in the pipe walls, but bad news for the pipes. By consuming these nutrients, the microorganisms multiply rapidly, and the acidic nature of their secretion promises erosion of the walls of the pipes. When large amounts of water flow through the pipes at high speeds, the eroded pipes are unable to

withstand the high pressure and are more likely to burst, resulting in waste of reparation funds and a delay in water supply for homes, parks, fire brigades, and more. To decrease the amount of nutrients entering the pipes, a new step can therefore be introduced, using just the presence of microorganisms to our benefit. By placing small fillers into the pool in which raw water is collected before the conventional treatment, we are giving the micro-organisms originally in the water a suitable environment to multiply. A large portion of the nutrients, such as ammonium nitrogen, that cannot be treated by the traditional treatment can then be eaten by the organisms before the raw water enters the coagulation and flocculation pool. This step is called the biological pre-treatment and was more often used in treatment of water from industrial waste, and less so in the purification of drinking water. When the water sources become increasingly polluted, however, its high efficiency is needed (In the specific example of ammonium nitrogen, the removal efficiency of the biological pre-treatment can be as high as 80%). With its help, the four steps are then effective enough to remove what is left of the nutrients, and to keep our water safe to consume.

By Ian Gill ’19 In 1964, Phil Knight, a business major student and runner at Oregon University, and Bill Bowerman, the head coach of the University of Oregon’s cross country and track programs, founded Nike. They were looking to upend fifteen years of running shoe dominance by the German shoe company Adidas by selling Japanese-made shoes with design changes by Bowerman. Evidently, they succeeded as Nike is now one of the largest sportswear manufacturer in the world, selling clothes, shoes, and equipment for nearly every sport imaginable. Not only does Nike fit into the premium running footwear category with most of its shoes costing over $100 per pair, but also it offers shoes with ample support and structure for runners. However, a recent British Journal of Sports Medicine study found that these types of shoes may actually be more harmful than helpful for all except the best runners. In an industry where the sales of running shoes are expected to reach $3.6 billion in the U.S. alone this year, companies’ profits depend on customers buying high-end shoes, even if they harm the user. For a non-contact sport, running has an extremely high injury rate. According to the National Center for Biotechnical Information, every year, between a third and a half of all runners suffer from injuries, mostly through running too many miles. Knee injuries and shin splints are two of the most common injuries seen in runners and occur most frequently when runners maintain bad running form. Running barefoot allows runners to correct incorrect postures because they feel pain from improper striding forms. But with most runners now wearing highly cushioned shoes, the shock and the ability to know if and when they are running incorrectly disappears, resulting in major problems that go unnoticed until they manifest in a full injury. This is why some of the best distance

runners in the world do not use running shoes until they are 16, thereby developing perfect, graceful strides. In fact, when Nike executives came to watch a track practice at Stanford, a school sponsored by Nike, they were surprised to find then Coach Vin Lananna urging his runners to run barefoot on grass for warm ups instead of using their complementary Nike Frees. Medical studies conducted by Dr. Irene Davis of the Running Injury Clinic at the University of Delaware have shown that running barefoot intermittently while training will strengthen the feet and legs, reducing the probability of injury. In fact, Nike was met with a resurgence of the barefoot running movement in the ‘70s, problematic since selling running shoes was the company’s core objective. To win back customers who had ditched their shoes, Nike gave a seemingly paradoxical statement: run barefoot with the new Nike Free. This ingenious marketing ploy allowed the company to sell shoes with less cushioning to promote better running form. Other running shoe companies created similar products, many offering similarly cheap and less-cushioned shoes, which a Harvard Medical study showed to lessen the probability of injury by a substantial degree. For the best runners, as long as the shoe is comfortable, they will continue to keep strong form. But for the millions of novice runners around the world, cheaper, less-cushioned shoes seem to be the widely-accepted answer for preventing injuries. While it is important to have a shoe that fits comfortably, people need to prioritize correct form and reduce the chances of a long-term injury if they want to run heavy mileage.

TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRIC CARS OF THE FUTURE

By Farzona Comnas ’18

By Michael Li ’18 Amid the rising costs of fossil fuels, fears of global warming, and the impending doom of the energy crisis, governments have begun looking towards alternative energy sources for a solution. With increased funding and growing tax benefits, renewable energy sources are poised to take over global power by 2040. Yet, despite the optimistic prospect of cleaner fuel, people are left with one “small” problem: what to do with the one billion cars that use gasoline or diesel. To find an answer, humanity must look towards the future: the electric car. For the first time, electric cars are poised to take over our roads. No longer are these vehicles old, bulky, and ugly boxes lumbering down a highway. The Tesla Model S has penetrated the car market with its sleek and fast design, a visually appealing design to customers. Furthermore, no car better signals the future of vehicular travel than the Tesla Model 3. With approximately half a million pre-orders

and an additional 1,800 new orders every day, the success of the first mass-market electric car is a wake-up call for traditional automakers. Companies such as Mercedes, Ford, and Volkswagen have now cracked under the pressure of consumer demand, pledging to launch their own electric cars by the end of this decade. Even Apple, a predominantly consumer electronics company, has been rumored to enter the car market in the future with their aptly-named plan: Project Titan. The assured profitability and demand behind electric vehicles has finally allowed for the rapid development and distribution of cars that utilize the cleaner energies many governments have promoted. Similar to many new technologies however, the sudden rise of electric vehicles poses many questions. The first problem revolves around the pricing of these seemingly luxurious cars of the future. Cars like the Tesla Model S and BMW i3 with a base

model cost of $69,500 and $43,395 respectively lie out of the price range of many buyers. Even the supposed “mass-market car of the future”, the Tesla model 3, has a basic price point of $35,000, around $11,000 more than the average market-mass car. Fortunately, due to the breakthroughs in lithium-ion battery production, this huge limiting factor has slowly been tackled. In fact, in the last five years, battery prices have dropped a staggering 75%. Considering the increased competition against Tesla’s current electric car “monopoly” from vehicles like the Chevy Bolt and the Nissan Leaf, it’ll only be a matter of time before a “true mass-market” electric car captures the attention of people in the future. The question of battery charges remains of equal concern to buyers. How far can a car travel in a single charge? Is this distance comparable to a traditional car? A traditional car, with an average 23.6 miles per gallon and an average tank size of

Epidemics are often results of poor living conditions and human crises, and the cholera outbreak in Yemen is no exception. Since 2015, The Yemeni population has been engaged in a civil war between the Houthi religious-political group and the forces loyal to the current president Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi. Following the resignation of former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, the Houthis, supportive of the previous president and skeptical of the new President Hadi, battled Yemen army forces to take over the presidential compound. In addition to the 54,500+ civilian casualties (about 8,000 killed and 46,500 injured) caused by attacks and Saudi Arabian air campaigns, over 1,817 Yemenis have died from Cholera as of April this year.

What is cholera?

Cholera is a diarrheal infection caused by the ingestion of the Vibrio cholerae bacteria through food or water. Symptoms include acute diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration, all of which can lead to an electrolyte imbalance. A severe imbalance results in muscle cramps and possible hypovolemic

shock and kidney failure, often causing immediate death. Hypovolemic shock occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood due to a significant loss of bodily fluids, inducing symptoms such as rapid breathing and unconsciousness. To treat this, the patient must be hooked up to an IV for blood and be given medicine like dopamine and epinephrine to increase blood pressure. Approximately only 1 in 10 infected actually develop these serious symptoms so the vast majority of people unknowingly spread the cholera virus through water for a few weeks after initial exposure to it. Compounded by the troubles of the war, sanitation levels in Yemen have continued to deteriorate, leading to difficult access of clean water and the accelerated spread of the disease. Even more devastating is the fact that cholera is only a mild disease when treated immediately with oral rehydration salts (ORS). By dissolving and drinking the ORS powder, patients replace lost fluids and electrolytes and immediately recover. For those that are severely dehydrated, intravenous fluids, antibiotics, and zinc supplements would facilitate the recovery. With this treatment, fatalities drop to less than one percent, yet due

to the civil war, medical care cannot reach civilians, proving the necessity for preventative measures in Yemen.

What is being done?

The World Health Organization (WHO) and other health partners are assisting the The Ministry of Public Health and Population of Yemen to strengthen the measures against cholera. Since April 2017, WHO has established 47 diarrhea treatment facilities and 278 oral rehydration centers. Due to a dilapidated health infrastructure and lack of health-worker salaries, the organization also provides workers with more training and equipment to better respond to cholera cases. In order to combat irregular salaries, lack of medical supplies, and the food shortage, WHO requires a minimum funding of $64 million, but has only received $10.2 million. As the death toll keeps rising, the Yemeni people are growing more desperate. Without proper support, they will continue to outrageously suffer and fall victim to an easily curable disease.

HEALTH

THE

YEMENI CHOLERA

OUTBREAK

For the first time, electric cars are poised to take over our roads. No longer are these vehicles old, bulky, and ugly boxes lumbering down a highway.

16 gallons, can travel just under 400 miles per tank. Comparatively, the top affordable electric counterparts, the Tesla Model 3 and Chevy Bolt, have a measly 238 and 220 range. Research and improvements in this area of motor efficiency and battery capacity is still required to further help bring these vehicles to the same level as normal gasoline cars. At the same time, some argue that 200 miles, even 100 miles, is more than enough to satisfy the needs of the average citizen. While this may or may not be true, the small charge coupled with the lack of charging stations has not quelled any anxiety. However, with the increasing demand in electric vehicles, several governments and companies have begun addressing the lack of charging stations. In the United States alone, the number of charging stations have increased fourteen-fold between 2011 and 2016, with new public outlets being added at a compounded annual growth rate of 65.3%. Tesla themselves have plant-

ed 2636 superchargers, planning to double the number by the end of this year. While there still seem to be many concerns about the reliability of electric cars, the necessity behind such vehicles truly becomes evident in our time of environmental collapse. Increased consumer demand, potential for profitability, and research breakthroughs have all driven these vehicles past some initial concerns. Further government support and increased competition among automakers will also help accelerate production in the coming decade. Yet, even now, more questions remain about electric cars. Can we quicken the charging time of lithium battery cars? Should we utilize and regulate automation in these cars? Regardless, it has become quite evident that electric cars will be an inevitable component of the near-future, and we must now work collaboratively to usher in this new era of transportation.

ART & SCIENCE

PUTTING THE ART IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE By Ellie DeSouza ’19 Graphics by Tatr Assakul ’18 This summer, I experienced two impressive examples of creativity: Renaissance art and artificial intelligence. At the start of the break, I went on the Hotchkiss in Florence trip and witnessed a myriad of exquisite and beautiful art. We visited the Uffizi Gallery, which houses some of the most famous Renaissance art including Sandro Botticelli's The Birth of Venus and Primavera. Another day, we found ourselves in the presence of David, Michelangelo’s famed statue. I found these works to be both breathtaking and unparalleled by anything I’d seen before. Visiting other museums in Europe with works by more contemporary but equally as brilliant artists, such as Picasso, Monet, and Miró, only added to this feeling of wonder. Listening to the local music and watching different films in these cities provoked a similar reaction of awe. In contrast to my exposure of the fine arts in Europe, I spent the last part of my summer doing research for an early stage technology company— Entertainment AI—that is developing artificial intelligence (“AI”) solutions for music and video. I learned how various leading companies, such as Google and Facebook, are applying AI and developing other computing tools to help shape, and even create, art and music. My experiences this summer have made me question whether artistic creativity is being enhanced or undermined by scientific creativity. Over the past few years, companies have begun to use AI to track consumer patterns and generate content. These computer systems have helped companies evaluate what kinds of ads people respond well to, thus making it easier for creative teams to design products, especially artistic offerings, that are better tailored to the consumer. In some cases, such as Spotify and Netflix, AI analyzes data and works on its own to serve the customer. For example, on Spotify, the program is responsible for curating

the numerous playlists organized by mood, genre, and occasion. On Netflix, AI recommends movies and TV shows based on your watching history. It does so by analyzing tags, or metadata descriptors, created by viewers that report on genre, talent, tone, and numerous other categories. These tags are then used to give recommendations fitting the customer’s entertainment preferences. However, now Netflix does more than merely recommend. Based on the analysis of consumer data, the company has designed hit original shows such as House of Cards to appeal to the tastes of subscribers. Beyond analysis, new developments have taken AI a step farther than being just a tool for creative minds; AI is becoming the creative mind itself. Researchers at Rutgers University’s Art and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory trained computers to analyze art and correctly identify style, era, genre, and even specific artists. These researchers have since created a system, which allows AI to independently create art. They then surveyed 18 people and had them look at AI-generated work alongside Art Basel and Abstract Expressionist pieces. The human subjects rated the works of art on intent, inspiration, visual appeal, and message. Surprisingly, the AI art received similar if not higher ratings to that of the human’s art. Creativity has set humans apart from every other being on earth, but now, as shown by this study, computers are capable of creating original art that appears to have just as much meaning as that of humans. One of the scientists at Entertainment AI joked that their virtual reality solutions could have shown me even better art while at home in Connecticut and saved me the trip to Florence. Of course, while it was only a joke, I couldn’t help but think to myself: maybe.