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Health, Safety and Environment

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elcome once again!

In a recent World Health Organisation global status report on road safety it was reiterated that injuries due to road traffic crashes are a significant and major global health and development problem. Many experts have described road traffic accidents as a man-made disaster. Interestingly the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) who has generally focused on the effects of natural disasters on it member states have now started to examine this phenomena which has affected most persons in the region namely, road traffic fatalities.

In our last publication Issue 28 we placed the focus on Road Safety however a surge of road traffic fatalities over the past three months has compelled us to once again focus on the ongoing carnage on our roads. We have seen and read about several horrific crashes that have claimed the lives of many persons and left even more in pain and grief. At the recent Regional Road Safety Conference in St. Vincent and the Grenadines we heard of the great effort that is being put into road safety programs around the region, we also heard about the many challenges that are being faced in the implementation of sustainable road safety programs. St Vincent and the Grenadines has had an unprecedented high number of road fatalities in the first half of this year.

To date that figure is sixteen. A large percentage of these fatalities involve Mini Busses and other informal forms of transport in the islands.

Our feature article written be Lenita Joseph looks at the correlation between educational levels of these Mini Bus operators and the number of crashes.

Ms. Joseph who is the Chief Transport Officer in the Transport Department of the Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport (Saint Lucia) is responsible for the management and administration of all matters related to motor vehicular and road traffic in Saint Lucia. She has been a driving force for road safety in her native Saint Lucia and the Caribbean. In recognition of her commitment to road safety we are pleased to make her our featured HSE professional in this issue. Though our focus is on Road Safety you can also find other interesting articles such as the final part of the very interesting research on ‘The health effect of particulate matter exposure to chicken farmers in Trinidad’ while Norma Cherry – Fervier writes on Rainwater Harvesting.

I thank all of you our readers, subscribers, writers, advertisers and our Editorial Board who continue to give freely of their time. We appreciate your continued support through these tough economic times and assure you of our commitment to keep on highlighting the HSE issues around the region.

We encourage you to send us your feedback so we can keep improving the publication.

In closing I urge you to be continuously vigilant on our roads, we must work together to get the message across. Something can be done and something must be done to reduce the senseless killing on our roads.

Thank you.

Janice Smith Editor-in-Chief 4

Trincity, Trinidad W.I.

afety Mate is the leading Emergency Instruction Device developed for the lay responder.

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P.9 July 2015

Contents 9. ABC + 123= Road Safety

16. Fall Safe: Protect Yourself from Falls P. 28

19. The Health Effects of Particulate Matter Exposure to Chicken Farmers in Trinindad: Part 2 of a Two-Part Series...

28. The Benefits of Defensive Driving 32. Improving Caribbean Road safety:

Towards a Framework for the Caribbean: Part 2 of a Two-Part Series...

P. 15

ISSUE 29

42. Grief: A Human Response to Accidents

PUBLISHER Jaric Environment, Safety and Health Services Limited.

EDITOR IN CHIEF Janice Smith

45. Rainwater Harvesting: Adapting to

Climate Change and Improving Water Security using an Age-Old Technique

P. 48 Health Corner

EDITOR Appleloniah Kipps EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. Anthony J. Joseph Devitra Maharaj-Dash Eric Kipps Kandiss Edwards Magdalene Robin WRITERS Caleb Edwards Cherma St. Clair Eric Kipps Joseph Ramsarran Lenita Joseph Mark R. Corbin Norma Cherry-Fevier CREATIVE DIRECTOR Kenneth Henry GRAPHIC DESIGNER Stefan Francis PHOTOGRAPHY Shutterstock Steve Taylor BUSINESS ADDRESS The HSE Quarterly Lot 5B Trincity Industrial Estate, Trinicity Email: thehsequarterly@jaricesh.com Website: www.jaricesh.com The opinions expressed in the HSE Quarterly do not necessarily reect those of the editor, publishers or their agents.

th

8 Regional Road Safety Conference 2016 Barbados “Exploring Realistic Solutions for Regional Road Safety”

Save the Date

25th & 26th May, 2016

ABC + 123 = Road Safety

By Lenita Joseph Chief Transport Officer Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport Saint Lucia

Do you know your ABC and your 123 of road safty?

Every year, thousands of young persons leave school at secondary or tertiary level, some with aspirations of furthering their education and others with hopes of finding employment. The introduction of Universal Secondary Education into the Saint Lucia education system assured that every child would benefit from and derive life skills at least at secondary school level.

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According to the Central Statistics Office (Saint Lucia), in 2010, approximately 11,052 persons in the 15 to 64 age category, had attained education up to lower/junior secondary/senior primary school level. Thirty-two thousand, one hundred and twenty (32,120) persons had attained education up to upper secondary school level and 11,622 were schooled up to post secondary, non-tertiary level. Forty-two thousand, three hundred and sixty-two (42,362) persons had attained education up to pre-primary (infant) or Primary level.

The age grouping of 15-64 is significant as it is the age range within which most persons acquire a driver’s license. The legal age to acquire a learner’s permit in Saint Lucia is seventeen (17) years under Section 27 (b) of the Motor Vehicles and Road Traffic Act, 2008 (Cap. 8.01) of Saint Lucia.

Schools compared to 6,752 boys.

From the academic year 2001/2002 to 2012/2013, the student/teacher ratio has steadily declined from 18 to 14 with a corresponding increase in the number of teachers per school from 39 to 43. This implies that there is more opportunity for student/teacher interaction.

Further, for that same period, there was also an increase in expenditure per pupil from EC$2,359 to EC$4,899.

offered to members of the public. Understandably, there are still persons in our society who were not able to benefit from a structured education and who, for one reason or another desire to obtain a driver’s license. However, alarmingly, a review of statistics for oral exams for the year 2014 revealed that an increasing number of young individuals, especially males, between the ages of 17 and 40 were sitting for the oral exam. For the period January In Saint Lucia, applicants for to December 2014, two hundred a driver’s license have two (2) and nine (209) out of two hundred options for taking the driver’s and thirty-eight (238) (or 88%)

theory examination – written and oral. Many years ago, agriculture was the mainstay of Saint Lucia’s economy. Fishing, and crop production, especially banana farming sustained many families for decades. The Transport Department of the Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport has been offering oral theory examinations to cater to that segment of the population who were self-employed, beyond school age and needed to get their goods to markets, ports or docks from remote farms.

According to the Ministry of Education, Human Resource Development and Labour, (Saint Lucia), for the academic year 2012/2013, a total of 6,956 girls were enrolled in Secondary Today, oral exams are still 10

of candidates for oral exams were males. Further, these male candidates were concentrated in the age ranges as follows: • 17 to 25 years (66 males) • 26 to 35 years (48 males) • 36 to 45 years (48 males) This triggered an immediate review of the individuals who presented for oral testing for drivers licenses. A number of factors had to be considered including the standards of driving instruction, examination administration procedures and learning styles of individuals to

determine why such young persons opted to sit the oral examination.

Over the past decade, Saint Lucia has recorded a number of road fatalities. Between the years 2002 to 2014, a total of three hundred and thirty-nine fatalities (339) were recorded, out of which two hundred and fifty-nine (259) or (76%) were males.

This high fatality rate amongst young males, the higher issuance rate of driver’s licenses to males and the higher rate of males sitting oral exams raise cautionary flags which must be further explored. Is there a correlation between the academic abilities of male driving candidates and the high rate of Source: Transport Department, Ministry of fatalities of young males?

Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport, Saint Lucia (2015) The graph below illustrates fatalities by gender for the period 2002 to 2013.

While we have been able to establish that not all fatalities were drivers of the motor vehicles, in 2014, we noted that 39% of fatalities were drivers and equally, 39% were pedestrians. Thirteen percent (13%) were passengers and nine (9%) percent were pedal cyclists.

In considering the possible factors which may be contributing to the high road fatality rate amongst males, the Transport Department undertook several reviews including : Source: Transport Department, Ministry of (i) Analysis of driver’s licenses issued from 2002 to Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport, Saint 2014; Lucia (2014) (ii) The pass/fail rate of driving instructors (i.e. how successful were students of each driving school); In 2014, Saint Lucia recorded twenty-three (23) road fatalities from twenty-one (21) crashes. (iii) The test questions most students answered Twenty (20) (or 87%) of these fatalities were males. incorrectly; and The most prominent vehicles in these crashes are (iv) Analysis of the oral examinations. cars and motorcycles. The graph below illustrates the comparison of fatalities by age group and All of the foregoing are very closely intertwined gender. as the responses to one may very well answer questions which arise in another.

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(i) Analysis of Driver’s Licenses issued from 2002 to 2014

(100) question test paper which consists of a wide range of questions also issued to students. The pass mark for this examination is ninety-six (96) Data collected from the Licensing and Registration out of one hundred (100). Other requirements system of the Transport Department for the period include completion of at least Secondary School 2002 to 2014 is illustrated in the graph below. It is education, a clean police record, and successful evident that more males are issued with driver’s demonstration of the Method of Instruction licenses every year. These statistics are a basic Technique (MOIT). The latter ensures that the gender representation of driver’s licenses issued instructor possesses the ability to impart driver during that period of time. education with clarity, maintains composure and can adapt to the varied learning styles of students.

Prior to being granted a license to operate, the instructor trainee is apprenticed to a driving school for a six month period during which time his skills and abilities are monitored by two driving examiners. There are approximately seventy (70) licensed driving instructors operating in Saint Lucia.

These new procedures have only recently been effected and as such, there are instructors who need to be exposed to more training. This was Source: Transport Department, Ministry of one of the triggers for collecting data on driving Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport, school/instructor performance.

Saint Lucia (2015) The performance of all licensed driving instructors (ii) Pass/Fail Rate of Driving Instructors is reviewed quarterly. The quality of driving instruction is key in establishing an instructor’s The Examination Answer Sheet allows the ability to impart critical instruction, being Transport Department to capture the name of the cognizant of the student’s learning abilities. Very driving school/instructor with whom the student often students complain of simply being given a is registered. This has been a very useful tool in pamphlet and told to read or study prior to sitting collecting data regarding the performance of the the theory exam. various driving schools/instructors to determine what and which interventions are required to The highest pass rate per instructor attained to improve driver education and behavior through date is 80% which has served as a benchmark driving schools. for improvement. Compulsory annual training seminars have also been planned to ensure reUnder Section 34 of the Motor Vehicles and Road training of all instructors. Successful completion Traffic Act (Cap. 8.01), the Licensing Authority is now a requirement for renewal of Instructor’s may issue an Instructor’s License to an individual Licenses. who meets the prescribed requirements. A person shall not operate as a driving instructor for reward (iii) Test Questions Answered incorrectly by unless said person holds a valid Instructor’s License. most Students In an effort to qualify as a driving instructor, applicants must meet several requirements The Transport Department offers several test including successful completion of a one hundred papers for various classes of motor vehicles.

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Students who wish to sit motor car examinations may be given any one of twenty-five (25) test papers with twenty-five questions. Omnibus examinations are one of four (4) with thirty (30) questions and motorcycle examinations are one of two (2) with twenty-eight (28) questions. All test papers are multiple choice. In reviewing the answer sheets, it was determined that most students failed questions relating to identification of road signs. The inability of learner drivers to identify and interpret these common markers along the road ways is significant in identifying the corrective actions that need to be taken by both instructors and students.

The Department has gone a step further by exploring the introduction of electronic testing of learners. The data captured from the electronic tests will greatly assist both the Department and the Driving Instructors in crafting a training manual for learners which will directly address the shortcomings which have been identified with both instructors and students. (iv) Analysis of Oral Examinations The chart below illustrates data captured for the administration of oral examinations for the year 2014.

Source: Transport Department, Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport, Saint Lucia (2015) The Department has two (2) examination centres – one in the north and one in the south of the island. In attempting to address the shortcomings which may be contributing to the numbers of young persons who are opting to sit oral driver theory examinations is to further dissect the data into geographic location of students. Are there certain communities or perhaps even schools which are marginalized academically?

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What are the limitations to universal secondary Road fatalities destroy families which are already education which allow individuals to sail through the struggling in the low income bracket, further institution and still remain under educated? compounding the economic situation of these families. Many families are driven into poverty either Preliminary figures for 2015 tell a similar story to 2014. when the breadwinner is the victim of a fatality, or a As at March 2015, 81% of all persons who sat oral family member who is a victim requires constant and examinations were males. Twenty-nine (29) were expensivemedicalattention. Manyoftheseindividuals between the ages of 17 and 25; Forty-seven (47) were are barely earning minimum wages, usually as a result between the ages of 26 and 35; Thirty-nine were aged of their level of academic achievement. Young males 36 to 44 and eighteen (18) were 45 and over. are at their most productive between the ages of 21 Notably, for the period January to March 2015, 68% and 40 with the most financial commitments such as of all males who sat the oral exams passed while home/vehicle ownership and family.

32% failed. In comparison, 96% of females were successful the majority of whom fell into the 26 to 29 While in many other countries, the fatality rates are age group. higher among pedestrians and pedal/motor cyclists, in Saint Lucia, as already mentioned, the fatality rate These obvious disparities in the pass/fail rate based on is highest among drivers. Insufficient research into the gender and age category, juxtaposed against the road incomes of these learner drivers and/or their families fatality statistics over the past decade and considering has been carried out to determine whether they are the added twist of the literacy capabilities of potential low, middle or high income earners. Our focus then drivers, the theory of a relationship between road must be placed primarily on these road users who safety and literacy must be explored. are at most risk and put other road users at high risk. While Universal Secondary Education aims to Is the high rate of road fatalities among young males ensure that every child gets placed in an institution of

in Saint Lucia directly correlated to their academic abilities? Is the inability to correctly identify and interpret road signs and markings a major contributor to road deaths? Just how important is a person’s academic achievement to road safety? While these issues may not be significant in other territories, in Saint Lucia, the “coincidences” in the data cannot be ignored.

learning at secondary level, many of these individuals are leaving these institutions still unable to function academically. The interpretation is that there is an obvious (and dangerous) disconnect at some point which must be remedied.

Expenditure per pupil (at Secondary level) has more than doubled over the past decade enhanced with an improvement in the student/teacher ratio. Yet, Much emphasis and focus has been placed on other there are many individuals leaving the hallowed detrimental factors such as substance abuse (alcohol, walls of Secondary institutions still unable to function narcotics, etc), speeding and use of electronic devices “literally”. Further research is critical in determining as major contributors to road deaths. However, it is the types of employment engaged in by these the view of the writer that while these factors may individuals and the impact on their quality of life if be most prevalent globally, each individual country involved in a crash. Understanding their limitations has its peculiarities which need to be further explored may serve the dual purpose of providing a solution to prior to crafting a focused response strategy. improving road safety, as well as improving our socioeconomic status nationally.

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LENITA JOSEPH Chief Transport Officer

Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport, Saint Lucia Ms. Joseph is the Chief Transport Officer in the Transport Department of the Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport (Saint Lucia); a position she has held since January 2012. She is responsible for the management and administration of all matters related to motor vehicular and road traffic in Saint Lucia. She holds a MBA in Project Management from Henley Management College and completed post graduate studies in Project Management with the University of Cambridge and Environmental Management, with Nippissing University and the Sir Arthur Lewis Community College.

Lenita Joseph has received a wide range of Development training including Road Traffic Injury Prevention from the Johns Hopkins International Injury Research Unit; Integrated Urban Transport Planning with the World Bank Institute; International Arbitration, Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (CIArb); Document Examination, Caribbean Institute of Forensic Accounting (CIFA); Fraud & Forensic Auditing, Caribbean Institute of Forensic Accounting (CIFA); Social Analysis and Participatory Project Development, Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) and Caribbean Consulting Group (CCG); and Advanced Negotiation Skills, UNDP/ Harvard-MIT, Consensus Building Institute (CBI).

in Saint Lucia aimed at not just reducing the number of road fatalities, but through statistical data analyses, identifying the causes of fatalities and serious crashes in Saint Lucia.

Through the efforts of Ms. Joseph and her team at the Transport Department, Saint Lucia was awarded the International Road Federation (IRF) Caribbean Regional Find-A-Way Award in May 2013. Her department is working closely with the National Council of and for Persons with Disabilities to assess the quality of life of persons living with disabilities as a result of road crashes and was instrumental in producing recordings of interviews and testimonials with a number of survivors of road crashes.

Ms. Joseph is currently collaborating with the Traffic Police in Saint Lucia to amend and enforce a number of laws including speeding, drinking and driving and use of mobile devices while driving. She remains passionate and committed to the cause to reduce road fatalities and serious injuries from road traffic crashes.

She also serves as a member of the Rotary Club of Gros Islet (Saint Lucia) which serves as a vehicle for voluntary, community outreach, especially to young adults.

As Chief Transport Officer, Ms. Joseph has been involved in a number of road safety initiatives 15

Fall Safe :

Protect Yourself from Falls

By Caleb Edwards Chief Instructor Global Martial Arts Club

Every time we walk from one place to another, we fall. Walking is considered as a series of calculated and coordinated falls where we land on our feet. The problem lies when our calculations are inaccurate because of factors present in our environment are absent from our calculations. These are the times when we fail to fall on our feet and other areas of the body collide with the ground causing injury. Since there is no way to ensure that you will never fall it is prudent to find a method to Fall Safe. To identify this method we must consider; the causes of falls, who are currently the most effective in falling safe, who needs to fall safe and how to fall safe.

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Falls can be caused by a deliberate action by an external force or a personal miscalculation.

Deliberate action can come from a push, pull or impact. In the workplace it is usually as a result of not following safety guidelines. Causes include; poor housekeeping, uneven floor surfaces, poor lighting, changing level, trip hazards and wet floors. These factors make our calculations for walking more difficult and complex, leaving room for misjudgement and error. This is especially the case when we are in a hurry and miscalculation leads to a fall. There are occasions where you may fall due to an external force. You may be hit by a vehicle or bump into another human being.

uniform gripping techniques, pins, chokes and arm locks. Sambo is a Russian style of martial arts developed during World War 2 to assist in fighting the German forces. It is a combination of Russian martial arts and Kodokan Judo. Activities include punches, kicks, throws, chokes, uniform gripping techniques, pins, chokes, arm locks and leg locks.

These martial arts are deeply rooted in warfare and they use the damage to their opponent, caused by falls, to obtain victory. The philosophy is that impact of a throw would cause more damage than the fist. Throws are a major part of these martial systems. They have been known to generate high intensity falls and practitioners are Slips and falls can occur during work, sporting frequently required to mitigate the effects of these activities, emergencies or in transit from one falls. Someone who understands these techniques location to another. Practitioners of Wrestling, would reduce medical expense due to injury for Judo and Combat Sambo are effective at falling falls below six (6) feet. safely.

Image 2 - Fall on irregular surface Image 1 – Judo Technique

Source: Carmen Bruno, Judo Techniques (2010) Source: Slip and Fall Attorney of SWFL, 2014 Wrestling is one of the oldest sports in existence and is mentioned in Biblical times where Jacob wrestled with an Angel. It is a combat sport that uses clenches, throws, pins and submissions. Judo is a combat sport that originated in Japan and was derived from Jiu-jitsu. This art was used by the ancient Samaria. Dr. Kano, its founder, removed most of the dangerous techniques to ensure the safety of its participants. It consists of throws,

Falling safe is for everyone. Statistics show that trips and slips is the most common cause of injury in the workplace. They are responsible for One third of major work injuries. More than 50% of persons injured in this manner are members of the public.

Employers face loss in production, insurance issues and possible legal action. It is therefore prudent to employers and employees that they are Fall Safe.

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This helps people to enjoy an Sambo are sporting activities active life with minimal injuries that have been proven to have due to falls. effective Fall Safe programs.

There are many details in falling An organisation can expose its safely one of which is breathing. employees to Fall Safe programs It is not recommended that however it can be challenging to someone hold their breath when get your customers who interact they fall. It is better to breathe with your organisation to out with control which assists in participate. The ability to engage reducing impact from the fall. the ground safely is beneficial There are areas in the human for all aspects of life. Who likes body that can better manage to fall and get injured? No one! impact with the ground such as Persons performing activities the upper back that can better such as walking, jogging, biking, manage impact than the lower basket ball, football, rugby, back because of the amount of volley ball, tennis and cricket to muscle that is located there. name a few, can benefit from knowing how to fall safely.

Often the surfaces that people fall onto are irregular and these The incidence of receiving a techniques are modified to deal sprained ankle can be reduced by with such circumstance. Falling being able to engage the ground on irregular surfaces can prove safely. There are circumstances challenging. Wrestling, Judo or where falling is inevitable and Sambo does not directly address avoidance can cause injury. this issue. A key point to note When someone can confidently is that the one most venerable manage engaging the ground area of the body when falling on safely, he can avoid putting his an irregular surface is the spine. limbs and body in harm’s way Therefore it is better to fall face when falling is unavoidable. down on such a surface because the spine is more venerable at To learn how to Fall Safe someone the rear of the body. Another should learn from an instructor consideration is that our body competent in activities that mostly consists of water and it require its participant to fall can be contorted to reduce the safely. Judo, Wrestling and impact of an irregular surface.

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It is impossible to never fall however it is prudent that all safety measures are followed.

When a circumstance occurs where you have no choice but to fall it is better to fall safely. The most effective people in falling safely are persons who practice combat sports such as Wrestling, Judo and Sambo. The Fall Safe methods from these Martial Arts can be used for any human activity. Engaging the ground safely is an acquired skill. When people are able to mitigate the impact of falls medical expenses would be reduced. Leisure activities would also be better enjoyed by persons knowing that if they should fall they can engage the ground safely.

References Carmen, Bruno. 2010. Judo Techniques – A Study on The Ukemis. https://brunocarmenisjudoblog. wordpress.com/2010/07/10/ judo-techniques-–-a-study-onthe-ukemis/ (accessed June 19, 2015).

Healthy Working Lives (n.d.).

Slips, trips, falls. Workplace risk assessment and Policy.

THE HEALTH EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER EXPOSURE TO CHICKEN FARMERS IN TRINIDAD Part II of a two-part series...

By Joseph Ramsarran BSc.

In Part I of this series the writer introduced us to the correlation between the level of Particulate Matter (PM) exposure and possible health effects experienced by poultry farmers.

In this part the writer presents the methodology employed and the results found as well as recommendations that can be implemented to reduce the concentrations of PM within poultry houses and exposure of poultry farmers in Trinidad.

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METHODOLOGY

the air. Also a Dusttrak II Aerosol Monitor was used to measure Health Assessment the concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in the air during each In order to gather data and activity. The DustTrak was used assess the health of the farmers, to monitor dust concentrations a questionnaire consisting of over a three (3) day period.

16 questions was formulated and distributed to 50 workers In the initial survey, two (2) employed in five (5) farms at poultry houses (at Warrenville five (5) different locations in and Longdenville) were Trinidad and ten (10) employees chosen to identify which of the in a controlled group – an office activities generated the highest work environment, to assess concentrations of PM in the air. the potential health effect of Six (6) tasks were monitored exposure to PM on employees. using the Dustrak monitor and Interviews calibrated to capture data at five (5) minute intervals for 20 Interviews were conducted to minutes. These included the determine whether farmers were spreading of litter, feeding aware of the risks associated poultry, rotation of litter, with particulate matter on their catching poultry, cleaning of work environment and whether houses and litter removal. steps are currently being taken to reduce inhalation of PM. They Based on the results gathered were also asked whether they from the initial survey, four (4) are aware of the strategies that specific work activities were can be implemented to reduce identified to be comprehensively particulate matter exposure. monitored for an extended The owners/operators of the period of time due to the high farm were the main targets concentration of PM generated of the interview due to their into the air. These were: responsibility in ensuring a safe working environment and that • Spreading of litter measures are implemented • Feeding of poultry to reduce dust concentrations • Rotation of litter within their poultry farm.

• Litter removal

PM2.5 was conducted at 5 different chicken farms at various locations throughout the country and 1 controlled environment (See Map below).

1. Warrenville, Caroni – Rural community 2. Mausica Road, D’Abadie – Rural community 3. Longdenville, Chaguanas – Rural community 4. Arena Road, Freeport – Rural community 5. New Grant, Princes Town – Rural community 6. Frederick Street, Port-ofSpain – Urban district (Controlled environment)

Activities That Generate PM

Interviews were conducted to determine whether farmers were aware of the risks associated with particulate matter on their work environment and whether steps are currently being taken to reduce inhalation of PM. They were also asked whether they are aware of the strategies

The activities chosen for the extended survey were also There are a number of activities monitored for PM10 and PM2.5 within the operations of a using the Dusttrak aerosol chicken farm that generate PM in monitor. the air. A visual observation was one method used to determine SAMPLING SITES which of these activities resulted in a significant increase in PM in The sampling of PM10 and 20

METHODOLOGY Health Assessment In order to gather data and assess the health of the farmers, a questionnaire consisting of 16 questions was formulated and distributed to 50 workers employed in five (5) farms at five (5) different locations in Trinidad and ten (10) employees in a controlled group – an office work environment, to assess the potential health effect of exposure to PM on employees.

Interviews

that can be implemented to reduce particulate matter exposure. The owners/operators of the farm were the main targets of the interview due to their responsibility in ensuring a safe working environment and that measures are implemented to reduce dust concentrations within their poultry farm.

• Spreading of litter • Feeding of poultry • Rotation of litter • Litter removal The activities chosen for the extended survey were also monitored for PM10 and PM2.5 using the Dusttrak aerosol monitor.

Activities That Generate PM SAMPLING SITES There are a number of activities within the operations of a chicken farm that generate PM in the air. A visual observation was one method used to determine which of these activities resulted in a significant increase in PM in the air. Also a Dusttrak II Aerosol Monitor was used to measure the concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in the air during each activity. The DustTrak was used to monitor dust concentrations over a three (3) day period.

In the initial survey, two (2) poultry houses (at Warrenville and Longdenville) were chosen to identify which of the activities generated the highest concentrations of PM in the air. Six (6) tasks were monitored using the Dustrak monitor and calibrated to capture data at five (5) minute intervals for 20 minutes. These included the spreading of litter, feeding poultry, rotation of litter, catching poultry, cleaning of houses and litter removal.

The sampling of PM10 and PM2.5 was conducted at 5 different chicken farms at various locations throughout the country and 1 controlled environment (See Map below).

1. Warrenville, Caroni – Rural community 2. Mausica Road, D’Abadie – Rural community 3. Longdenville, Chaguanas – Rural community 4. Arena Road, Freeport – Rural community 5. New Grant, Princes Town – Rural community 6. Frederick Street, Port-of-Spain – Urban district (Controlled environment)

Based on the results gathered from the initial survey, four (4) specific work activities were identified to be comprehensively monitored for an extended period of time due to the high Figure 1. Map Showing Sample Locations throughout Trinidad concentration of PM generated into the air.

These were:

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Extended Survey

INSTRUMENTS

In this survey, 4 significant tasks in 5 sample poultry houses were monitored together with The Dusttrak IIAerosol Monitor was used to measure the controlled environment for PM2.5 and PM10: PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations throughout the results of this controlled environment were the entire survey. It is a battery-operated, data- included with each of tasks results for comparison logging, light-scattering photometer that gives only. real time aerosol mass readings. It is based on 90̊ light scattering and can measure PM10 and PM2.5 Spreading of Litter simultaneously.

Dusttrak II Aerosol Monitor

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) SAMPLING Initial Survey In the initial sampling period six (6) tasks were monitored and samples were taken during each of the activities. The average PM results of the initial survey in the 2 poultry houses monitored are shown in Table 1 below.

Graph 1 – PM concentrations in spreading litter The PM concentration that was sampled for this task over the 5 houses proved to be diverse. PM2.5 levels were found to be more dominant than PM10 at Warrenville and Longdenville. It was observed that sawdust was used as the litter bedding for the both houses. This may have influenced the outcome as sawdust particles are one of the smallest compared to other bedding material.

Table 1 – Showing PM sample results for each activity 22

Feeding of poultry

Litter removal

Graph 2 – PM concentrations in feeding

Graph 4 – PM Concentrations in litter removal

The concentrations for both PM10 and PM2.5 remained consistent amongst the five houses for this task. However, it was revealed that in all 5 houses, PM2.5 was the most dominant variable when compared to PM10.

Similar to results observed in the previous task, average PM10 concentrations was the prevailing variable when compared to PM2.5.

Rotation of litter

Employment

HEALTH EVALUATION

The gender distribution of workers at both the poultry houses and the controlled environment were mostly dominated by males – over 90% and 70% respectively. However, the length of time that employees have spent in the dusty poultry environment is staggering.

Graph 3 – PM concentrations in rotation of litter Compared to the results of PM10 and PM2.5 from the other tasks evaluated, this task generally recorded the highest concentrations in both variables at all 5 poultry houses. PM10 concentrations were by far the most dominant variable in this task at all the houses.

Graph 5 – Poultry workers

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Phlegm

Cough

Runny Nose

Sneezing

Graph 5 shows that over 75% of the workers stated that they have been working between 5 to 15 years in this environment while half of this percentage worked for more than 10 years. At the same time 10% stated that they have been working even longer – over 15 years. The control group also showed a similar percentage as over 70% of the workforce worked in this environment between 5 to 15 years.

Symptoms of exposure Symptoms prior to working in the present environment Graph 6 below reveals that over 95% of all employees in the poultry environment did not experience any of the following symptoms before working in the poultry houses; cough, phlegm, cough and phlegm, wheezing, breathlessness, eye irritation, sneezing or runny nose.

Wheezing

Results of the control group show similar findings as 90% of employees did not experience any of the previously stated symptoms above before entering into their present work environment.

Symptoms subsequent to being employed in the present environment The results of the health evaluation in Graph 7 revealed that the prevalence of eye irritation among the poultry workers represented the highest percentage (96%) when compared to the other symptoms. However, the prevalence of cough (82%), phlegm (80%), cough and phlegm (76%), wheezing (74%), sneezing (86%) and runny nose (82%) were also recorded as significantly high.

Graph 7 – Symptoms in poultry workers Graph 6 – Poultry workers 24

years. While just 20% of the farmers knew that PM can be a threat to workers, 80% thought that the spraying of chemicals in the houses and lifting heavy feed bags was the only threat to health and safety.

Four of the 5 poultry house owners, stated that there were no immediate plans in implementing control measures in the houses, while one owner recognised the need for the protection of workers health and safety and had made steps forward in acquiring PPE for the workers.

DISCUSSION Graph 8 – Symptoms in office employees

Symptoms of the poultry workers were observed to be more prevalent during the day as 86% stated that they experienced their symptoms while at work. However, a minority (8%) experienced symptoms at nights and 6% stated that they experienced symptoms at both day and at nights.

It was also observed that visits to the doctors’ office were high among poultry workers. Over 50% had reason to visit the doctor at least 2 to 5 times per year while 22% visited 1 to 2 times for respiratory conditions.

The period of study evaluated the concentrations of PM to which poultry workers are exposed compared to a controlled environment and the correlating exposure levels compared to the health effects in both poultry workers and the control group.

The concentrations of PM itself were found to be extremely high for the 4 tasks evaluated within all of the poultry houses evaluated. This was found to be consistent to publications from UK’s HSE that states that high PM concentrations are found during laying down litter, crop maintenance and litter removals while feeding was also identified as a source of high PM concentrations by Aarnink et Smoking criterion al (1999). This indicates that the levels measured It was exposed that 66% of the poultry population for these tasks in Trinidad are synonymous with were smokers or have been smoking for a period of results found in similar studies elsewhere. time. Symptoms were recorded slightly higher in poultry workers who have been smoking between The lowest average PM2.5 concentrations were found to exceed the maximum acceptable standards 5-10 years. of international bodies like the WHO by more than 4 times, more than 3 times the US EPA standard Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) The use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and just over 1 and a half times the acceptable was found to be lacking in all of the poultry houses levels for the T&T standard. Similarly, stats evaluated. Forty-eight (48) out of a possible 50 of recorded for the average lowest concentrations of the subjects stated that they do not use any form PM10 when compared to standards showed that of PPE whilst performing their jobs while only 2 the levels exceeded the WHO standard by over 3 and a half times and just over the limit set out in stated that they do. the T&T standards. However, when compared to the US EPA standard, the PM10 concentrations fell INTERVIEW RESULTS well short of the limits set out by almost half.

All of the farmers interviewed revealed that they have been operating their poultry farm for over 10 25

The highest average concentrations for both PM2.5 when compared to the WHO standard was measured at almost 6 times the acceptable levels while it was measured at over 4 times the US EPA standard and 2 times the T&T standard.

For PM10, the highest average concentrations were calculated at over 13 times the WHO standard, almost 2 times the US EPA standard and nearly 3 and a half times the T&T standard.

The implementation of control measures would have drastically reduced PM concentrations. The most effective measure may have been ionisation as it was found to be the most effective measure by Gast et al (1999), Ritz et al (2006) and Mitchell et al (2003) when compared to oil and water-based spraying which may have also reduced the concentrations by half as found

by Ikeguchi (2002), Ellen et al (2000), Von Wachenfelt (1999), Takai et al (1995) and Zhang et al (1998).

While the majority of poultry worker did not experience symptoms prior to working in the poultry houses, over 75% were found to have developed respiratory symptoms subsequent to working in the houses. When

compared to the reference population the results indicated that the prevalence of respiratory symptoms in poultry workers was found to be significantly higher subsequent to working in the present environment. The prevalence of cough, phlegm, coughs and phlegm, wheezing, eye irritation, sneezing and runny nose in the poultry farmers was found to be over 10 times higher than in the controls.

there is another factor that may have contributed to the outcome - smoking. Results revealed that the prevalence of symptoms in smokers were slightly higher than in non-smokers. It was found that there was an 8% increase in the frequency of symptoms in smokers when compared to non-smokers.

While it is evident that the presence of PM within the poultry houses has led to the occurrence of respiratory symptoms in poultry farmers,

CONCLUSION

It was revealed from the results of the questionnaire that over 95% of the poultry workers did It can be seen and the results not use PPE. While some knew of from the health evaluation its existence, none was provided indicate that there is a direct to them by their employers. This correlation between the duration may explain the high prevalence spent in the poultry farms and of respiratory symptoms the occurrence of respiratory experienced by poultry farmers symptoms in poultry workers. when compared to workers in This finding is consistent with the control group. those found by Brown (1990) and Morris et al (1991) in a The lack of knowledge by poultry comparable study. operators of the dangers of PM These findings were further has been the major reason for confirmed by the total amount of the none-implementation of visits to the doctor for respiratory control measures within the symptoms and illnesses. Over poultry houses. Although costs half of the poultry workers visit may have been an issue in one the doctor more than 5 times case, the general perception of as much as those in the control workers towards the use of PPE group. needs to be changed.

26

Poultry houses have long been known as a major source of particulate matter (PM).

Monitoring of the 5 houses revealed that within the poultry houses, 4 tasks generated significantly high concentrations of PM – spreading of litter, feeding poultry, rotation of litter and litter removal. The PM2.5 and PM10 from these houses was observed to exceed the WHO standard for all tasks in all 5 houses by over 3 times and significantly higher than the US EPA and T&T Draft Standards.

reduce PM concentrations by over half.

• The implementation of a monitoring system which would ensure that controls are working properly and make changes where necessary.

• The provision of proper PPE to all poultry workers and ensuring that it is used properly and at all times while carrying It was concluded that there is a out their tasks through training direct correlation between poultry programmes. workers and the prevalence of respiratory illnesses. Over 95% • Educating the workers and of the poultry workers, who did operators on the seriousness of not encounter symptoms prior PM exposure and its effects on to working in the houses, have health. now experienced one or more respiratory symptoms.

• The passing of the Draft Air Pollution Rules and enforcement The lack of knowledge of workers of the provisions of the Rules. in the use of PPE have also However, in the meanwhile, contributed to an increase in health operators can use the standards effects, while simultaneously, outlined by the WHO and the the lack of controls by operators US EPA in ensuring acceptable have gravely contributed to the PM concentrations within the negative effects on health on poultry houses. poultry workers.

REFERENCES RECOMMENDATIONS The following is a list of recommendation that can be implemented to reduce the concentrations of PM within poultry houses and exposure to poultry workers.

• The implementation of proper PM control measures such as an Ionising system, oil and water spraying and or proper ventilation of poultry houses.

These measures would help to

Aarnink, A.J.A., P.F.M.M. Roelofs, H. Ellen, and H. Gunnink, 1999. Dust sources in animal houses. Pages 34-40 in Proc.

International Symposium on “Dust Control in Animal Production Facilities”, Aarhus, Denmark.

Brown, A.M., 1990. The respiratory health of Victorian broiler growers, The Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 152, pp.521-524.

Ellen, H. H., Bottcher, R. W., von Wachenfelt, E. and Takai, H., 2000. Dust levels and control methods in poultry houses. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health Vol. 6: pp.

275–282.

Environmental Management Authority,

27

2001. State of the Environment Report (SOE) 2000.

Gast, R. K., B. W. Mitchell, and P. S. Holt.

1999. Application of negative air ionization for reducing the experimental airborne transmission of Salmonella enteritidis to chicks. Poultry Science. 78:57–61 Ikeguchi, A., 2002. Ultra Sonic Sprayer Controlling Dust in Experimental Poultry Houses.

Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Journal of Scientific Research and Development. Vol. 4: pp. 1-10 Mitchell, B. W., Ritz, C., Fairchild, B., Czarick, M. and Worley, J., 2003. Electrostatic Space Charge System for Air Quality Improvement in Broiler Production Houses. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers.

Ritz, C.W., 2006. Methods to reduce dust in broiler houses. Paper presented at the National Poultry Waste Management Symposium, Springdale, Arkansas.

Ritz, C. W., Mitchell, B. W., Fairchild, B. D., Czarick, M. and Worley, J. W., 2006.

Improving In-House Air Quality in Broiler Production Facilities Using an Electrostatic Space Charge System. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, Vol. 15: pp. 333-340 Ritz, C.W., Mitchell, B.W., Fairchild, B.D., Czarick, M. and Worley, J.W., n.d. Dust and Ammonia Control in Poultry Production Facilities Using an Electrostatic Space Charge System. University of Georgia, USDA Agricultural Research Service.

Takai, H., Moller, F., Iversen, M., Jorsal, S. E. and Bille-Hansen, V., 1995. Dust control in pig houses by spraying rapeseed oil.

American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 38(5): pp. 1513-1518.

Trinidad and Tobago Draft Air Pollution Rules, 2005. Second Schedule – Maximum permissible levels for non point sources.

Zhang, Y., Tanaka, A., Dosman, J. A., Senthilselvan, A., Barber, E. M., Kirychuk, S. P., Holfeld, L. E. and Hurst, T. S., 1998. Acute Respiratory Responses of Human Subjects to Air Quality in a Swine Building. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 70: pp.

367-373.

The Benefits of Defensive Driving

By Eric Kipps Road Safety Consultant Introduction A comprehensive study of road traffic accidents in the United States and Canada found that human error was the sole cause in 57% of all accidents and was a contributing factor in over 90%. In contrast, only 2.4% were due solely to mechanical fault and only 4.7% were caused only by environmental factors (Treat et al., 1977). Over the years, there have been several other related studies in other countries that have reported similar results. These include Industrial Accident Prevention E. G, Heinrich (1959) and Preventable Anesthesia Mishaps: A Study of Human Factors Cooper, Newbower, & McPeek, (1978). In response, there have been a number of intervention strategies developed by reputed researchers and practitioners in the field of road safety, one such strategy is the Defensive Driving Course (DDC) as a means of crash reduction.

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Defensive Driving

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) (2006) defines Defensive Driving as “driving to save lives, time, and money, in spite of the conditions around you and the actions of others.� Based on Accident Facts complied by the National Safety Council identifying the causes of motor vehicle deaths on United States (US) highways, Chris Imhoff drafted a driver safety program called the Driver Improvement Program in 1964.

This name was later changed to the Defensive Driving Course during the field testing phase.

Since then, several organizations including the US Navy have incorporated the program as a critical component of their driver safety program. The DDC also gained international endorsement as it was exported to countries such as Israel, New Zealand, Japan and even Trinidad and Tobago. Other countries such as the United Kingdom have developed their own version of defensive driving courses by tweaking the original format in order to ensure its compatibility to their specific driving conditions.

Losses from traffic crashes have both social and personal impacts. According to data from the Trinidad and Tobago Central Statistics Office (CSO), on an average, there are 190 fatalities resulting from traffic collisions, with an additional 3000 plus persons incurring serious injuries (CSO, 2007). It has been proven that while drivers can control most of their actions most of the time, they are totally powerless to control the actions of other drivers, simply because they are incapable of predicting what other drivers are about to do (NSC, 2001). The increasing number of new drivers and vehicles on the road creates a continuing need for defensive driving training across all age groups.

be adopted by the Trinidad and Tobago Licensing Authority.

There is also a significant cost benefit associated with defensive driving training, in the United States. For instance, insurance companies such as Geico have recently instituted a defensivedriving course for persons older than 50 years old. Once the course has been successfully completed, these drivers may qualify for insurance discounts of 5 percent to 10 percent.

Similarly in Trinidad and Tobago, several auto insurers have offered discounts for drivers who have successfully completed the defensive driving course, their focus however, being the younger drivers (under 25).

The Defensive Driving Course

The art of defensive driving goes beyond mastery of the rules of the road and the basic mechanics of driving. The primary aim is to reduce the risks associated with driving by anticipating dangerous situations, despite adverse conditions or the mistakes of others. This can be achieved through adherence to a variety of general rules, as well as the practice of specific driving techniques.

In an article presented by the US Based Safe Motorist in 2006 the American Safety Council stated that about 38% of all fatal car crashes are alcohol related with another 30% attributed to speeding. The goal of good defensive driving is to reduce the risk of these accidents by properly educating students to exercise caution and good judgment while driving. The defensive driving course is therefore structured The Case for Defensive Driving On the legislative front, the around six key areas namely the Training United States, Canada, United Human Factors, Dynamics of a

Kingdom among others have Crash, Safety Equipment, Crash The US National Safety Council made defensive driving training Prevention Techniques and lists motor vehicle crashes as mandatory for drivers who have Traffic Laws. the No. 1 cause of occupational committed traffic violations fatalities and the leading cause including road rage incidents. Human Factors of death for ages 2-39 and These measures have proven ages 50-72 (Traffic Facts, 2008). to be very effective and should Research has shown that passing 29

a practical driving test or course is not sufficient for drivers to be safe for life. Findings from a survey conducted among 100 drivers in Trinidad and Tobago indicated that more than 75% of the respondents were not satisfied with the basic training received (Kipps, 2007). Drivers’ attitudes and behaviors are regarded as a major contributor to road traffic collisions. This is largely because drivers often hold distorted cognitions about their driving skills; believe they are less likely to be involved in an accident compared with their peers and may not believe that they are at risk or need to change their attitude while driving.

The Dynamics of a Crash Vehicle crashes are almost always a preventable result of a series of events.The combination of speed, place of impact and size of object being impacted can determine the severity of the crash. In every accident, however, the act of one vehicle hitting another vehicle or other object is not the only collision that can occur. The concept of the second collision, in which the driver and other passengers

collides with the windshield, seat or other object within the car when not wearing a seat belt can be just as dangerous as the initial collision.

Crash Prevention Techniques

The key to any good defensive driving strategy is being aware of how traffic crashes are avoided and recognizing potential Defensive driving courses hazards before it is too late. In a address the issue of vehicle typical defensive driving course, crashes and the second collision students learn crucial crash by listing the elements of a crash prevention techniques that and illustrating how the forces include: associated with the crash can be avoided or limited.

• scanning the roadway and adapting to surroundings; Safety Equipment • employing the three-second rule for following distances; Approximately half of all • knowing your vehicle’s stopping deaths that are as a result of an distance; automobile crash could have • being aware of reaction distance; been avoided if the victims • environmental hazards; were wearing their seat belt • vehicle emergencies; properly. Generally, when one • sharing the road; speaks to the issue of vehicle • passing and necessary clear safety equipment, most persons distance; often default to the seat belt. • right of way; Other items such as air bags, • speed adjustments and railroad child safety seats and head rests crossings. all serve to protect drivers and passengers and reduce the risk Traffic Laws of injury or death in the event of a crash. Defensive driving courses A large portion of many defensive offer tips on how to use these driving curriculum requirements devices properly and ensure is the country specific traffic occupant safety when traveling laws. While for many students the roadways. this portion serves as a mere refresher course, some traffic 30

laws are not known to all students and re-learning References: these traffic laws can help turn a traffic offender American Safety Council into a good defensive driver. http://www.safemotorist.com/articles/Defensive_ Driving.aspx Conclusion The World Health Organization has predicted that by the year 2020, road traffic deaths and injuries will exceed HIV/AIDS as a burden of death and disability (WHO, 1983). Since its inception in 1964, the National Safety Council’s Defensive Driving Course has set the standard for improvements in driver training. With more than a million new drivers accessing the course each year, defensive driving programmers have registered the highest rate of success in reducing the number, severity and associated costs of accidents.

National Safety Council Traffic Facts 2008.

Available from http://www.nsc.org/safety.

(Accessed November 11, 2009).

Safe Practices for Motor Vehicle Operations (2006).

American National Standards Institute ANSI/ASSE Z15.1-2006

Treat, J. R., Tumbas, N. S., McDonald, S .T., Shinar, D., Hume, R. D., Mayer, R. E., Stanisfer, R. L., and Castillan, N. J. (1977) Tri-level study of the causes of traffic accidents. Report No. DOT-HS-034-3-535-77, Every day, people around the world die or are Indiana University. maimed in vehicular accidents. Given our present road safety situation where we see an annual Trinidad and Tobago Central Statistics Office increase in motor vehicle collisions, Trinidad and 2006 Data. Available from Trinidad and Tobago website tp://www.cso.gov.tt/ Tobago should follow the lead of those developed Government nations who have integrated defensive driving (accessed November 11, 2009). programs into their road safety initiatives.

World Health Organization 83:17177. Available From https://www.who.int/.../road_traffic/.../ roadsafety_training_manual_unit_1.pdf (accessed November 11, 2009).

Register today : : (868) 221-4100 : info@jaricesh.com 31

Latin America and Caribbean Road Danger Reduction Forum

IMPROVING CARIBBEAN ROAD SAFETY

Towards a Framework for the Caribbean Part 2 of a Two-Part Series

By Mark R. Corbin

In the Caribbean, road safety is the responsibility of a wide range of stakeholders working across muliple disciplines and performing various roles.

Across these disciplines efforts are focused on the three ‘E’s - Engineering, Education and Enforcement. However, one of the greatest challenges facing Caribbean road safety is people’s attitudes and behaviours in relaion roads.

The good work being undertaken across the region could quickly lose its momentum and focus if a sustained campaign on changing attitudes and behaviours is not introduced as part of the way forward.

Attitudes to speeding must change because drivers and their passengers recognise that there is a link to speed and fatal collisions but further work is required to re-­enforce this message to all road users.

Although legislation exists across many territories that make it illegal 32

to ride a motorcycle without a helmet, or drive in a private vehicle without the use of seat­‐belts, there is still some way to go before these are fully embraced and accepted as a normal part of any journey.

Furthermore, the advent of the mobile phone has also presented new challenges relating to road user attitudes. It appears that there is a perception that the use of mobile phones in vehicles whilst driving is not a problem. This attitude is posing a new concern for Caribbean policy makers. Current research indicates growth in mobile phone subscripions is fastest in low and middle-­income countries where there are now twice as many mobile phone subscripions as in high­‐income countries, reflecting the relative size of these markets (WHO, 2011).

To change attitudes and behaviours particularly in these areas, requires collaborative effort from all stakeholders.The main stakeholders within the Caribbean road safety sector and their roles are given below.

One of the greatest challenges facing Caribbean road safety is people’s attitudes and behaviours in relation to roads.

Caribbean Governments The governments of the Caribbean play the biggest and most influential role in road safety and the wider transport sector.

The role of government is to set policy for the transport sector, allocate funding and work on managing relationships across departments to ensure that effective programmes are developed and delivered.

Emergency Services The police play a vital role in the Caribbean road safety model. Police forces across the region are responsible for enforcing traffic laws, road policing and collision investigation, which are all key roles relating directly to road safety. These roles place the police in a unique position particularly regarding understanding road user attitudes and behaviours.

The role of the fire service mainly surrounds attending the scene of very serious and fatal collisions.

They also play an active role in the community contributing to road safety campaigns in schools.

The Ambulance services across the Caribbean are essential to road safety.

In many cases they provide the first vital life saving treatment required at the collision scene and where necessary ensuring that victims are transported to hospital.

departments deal specifically with all casualties and in many cases respond to mass casualty situations away from the hospital environment.

The Community Government, police and emergency services are central to the successful delivery of road safety initiatives.

However, the role of the community is to ensure that they take responsibility for safe road use on the road network that is designed to serve them.

There will be no improvement to the road safety situation in the Caribbean unless the message of personal responsibility for actions by the community, is embraced by all.

Driving Instructor The support and instruction that is received when learning to drive plays an essential role in the habits and attitudes that are subsequently formed.

Driving Instructors who are skilled, well trained and have an understanding of the broad road safety agenda play an important role in preparing new drivers for the road.

Education and Schools The Ministries of Education on each Caribbean Island formulate educational policies.

The role of accident and emergency departments within hospitals is to receive and treat victims. In the case of road safety, accident and emergency 33

Any programmes that are delivered in schools must have the approval from the Ministry. Their role is to ensure that the education curriculum includes studies on the environment in which students live and move.

Business and Industry The role of business and industry in relation to road safety in the Caribbean surrounds the contribution to sponsoring campaigns in schools and supporting the voluntary sector.

Providing support for activities is essential, as in many cases this is the only method through which road safety campaigns can sometimes be funded.

Supporting the road safety agenda more broadly is also a key role for business and industry. In the Bahamas work is ongoing to educate workforces about road dangers and threats to health.

Through on-site presentations and regular engagement with the police force, businesses are playing more of an active role in addressing the issues that may be directly aecting their sta (CRSSG, 2012).

One area of industry that has a more important role than many others is the car dealerships and private vehicle importers. These have a direct role in determining the type, make and features of vehicles that ultimately end up on Caribbean roads.

Insurance Companies The insurance companies of the Caribbean ensure that the necessary insurance policies are in place thereby reducing the number of uninsured drivers.

The companies work with other agencies to ensure that the number of instances of non‐compliance can be controlled in order to reduce the risk to road users in the event of a collision.

The insurance companies also play an important role in assisting in reducing the burden of road trauma to victims and their families.

Voluntary Sector The voluntary and community sectors have historically made a significant contribution to road safety in the Caribbean.

Most of this work has focused on campaigning for specific laws like seat beats, helmets, penalties for speeding amongst others.

Within societies where resources are generally scarce, the voluntary sector has played the role of ensuring that the message of road safety has remained in the public space effectively.

National Road Safety Councils In recent times, some islands in the Caribbean have introduced National Road Safety Councils (NRSC).

These bodies comprising members from the private and public sectors and local communities, support the introduction of policies and the implementation of programmes.

In some cases strong political leadership underpins the work of the NRSCs.

THE WAY FORWARD This report and the recommendations will mark the start of a journey to build

sustainable improvements that could transform the way that road safety is perceived locally, regionally and internationally.

There is plenty of work to be done to ensure that the significant challenges highlighted throughout this document can be tackled effectively and in a way that is systematic and sustainable.

It is important that the Caribbean embrace the principles of the ‘safe system’ approach to road safety.

This approach seeks to develop a road transport system that is better able to accommodate human error and takes into consideration the vulnerability of the human body ( World Bank, 2009).

The approach starts with the acceptance of human error thus the realisation that traffic crashes cannot be completely avoided. The principles of this approach must be embraced in order to achieve our vision.

To make this vision a reality a new way of thinking will be required at all levels across the region. Governments must set the example by demonstrating a commitment to ensuring a safer region for all people.

It will be imperative that stakeholders remain focus on delivering the change required and exploring new ways of working collaboratively at national and regional levels.

Setting a Target Working towards the vision will require support from all partners across the region.

Effectively utilising the best practice from Jamaica and following further reviews of Caribbean collision data, a casualty reduction target should be set for the Caribbean against an agreed baseline average, to be achieved over a 10‐year period.

This approach will ensure that governments and other stakeholders with an interest in road safety can focus on achieving a reduction in deaths and serious injuries.

The people of the Caribbean cannot continue to accept the level of deaths that are occurring on our roads.

Embracing the principles of the safe systems approach and the five pillars of the Decade of Action ( WHO, 2011) could provide the focus for building the foundations of a new Caribbean road safety model. It must be acknowledged that we are not going to completely eliminate road deaths from the regions roads in ten years.

However, the implementation of the following recommendations will serve to provide a foundation on which to build, thus creating a safer region for future generations.

The people of the Caribbean though, will require the greatest change and biggest challenge. We cannot continue to accept that deaths and serious injury on roads is an inevitable consequence of road travel.

Long term sustainable improvements to road safety to ensure a safer society across the Caribbean.

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“Five Pillars of the Decade of Action” Pillar 1 - Road Safety Management

Pillar 2 -­Safer Roads and Mobility

‘Adhere to and/or fully implement UN legal instruments and encourage the creation of regional road safety instruments.

Encourage the creation of multisectoral partnerships and designation of lead agencies with the capacity to develop and lead the delivery of national road safety strategies, plans and targets, underpinned by the data collection and evidential research to assess countermeasure design and monitor implementation and effectiveness.’

‘Raise the inherent safety and protective quality of road networks for the benefit of all road users, especially the most vulnerable (e.g. pedestrians, bicyclists and motorcyclists).

This will be achieved through the implementation of various road infrastructure agreements under the UN framework, road infrastructure assessment and improved safety- conscious planning, design, construction and operation of roads.’

Pillar 3 - ­Safer Vehicles

Pillar 4 - Safer Road Users

Pillar 5 - Post Crash Response

‘Encourage universal deployment of improved vehicle safety technologies for both passive and active safety through a combination of harmonization of relevant global standards, consumer information schemes and incentives to accelerate the uptake of new technologies.’

‘Develop comprehensive programmes to improve road user behaviour.

Sustained or increased enforcement of laws and standards, combined with public awareness/ education to increase seatbelt and helmet wearing rates, and to reduce drink-­ driving, speed and other risk factors.’

‘Increase responsiveness to post crash emergencies and improve the ability of health and other systems to provide appropriate emergency treatment and longer term rehabilitation for crash victims.’

Recommendation 1 The establishment of a Regional Caribbean Road Safety Agency Actions required to improve the road safety situation in the Caribbean must align with what has worked well in developed nations. Experience suggests an adequately funded lead agency and national plan or strategy with measurable targets is a crucial part of a sustainable response to road safety ( WHO, 2011) .

fatalities.

This report has identified the lack of quality data as a major challenge for the region. A further responsibility of the agency could be collecting, collating and publishing annual reports on the condition of road safety across the region.

The European Commission Road Safety model (European Commission, n.d.) could serve as a best practice example in this area.

This agency could be funded by Caribbean governments and be given responsibility for developing a long-term strategy for Caricom and the wider Caribbean with ambitious, challenging but realistic targets covering a 10 year period.

It would provide the catalyst for driving change across the region and be the single point of contact for international agencies working to support the reduction of global road

The establishment of a lead agency within each island of the Caribbean would also provide further strengthening for the sector which would then feed into the regional body.

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Recommendation 2 Develop a long term national transport plan for each Caribbean island Road safety is a component of transport and should not be seen as an isolated issue from the wider sector. The aim of the national transport plan would be to provide an opportunity for governments to set out clear solutions to the existing problems within the transport system. Road safety would be included alongside other policy areas like public

transport, walking and cycling and other areas to give a holistic approach to the transport sector. Australia (Brisbane City Council, 2008), Norway (NMTC, 2010)and the United Kingdom (Centro, 2011) have all taken a similar approach to the transport sector with high levels of success.

Recommendation 3 Build on the success of the Jamaica model for data systems management Jamaica has the most comprehensive system for data collection, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information within the Caribbean. This has provided the foundation for year on year improvements in reducing road casualties (GCGRS, 2013). Jamaica has received global recognition for the work done in reducing road casualties. The success of Jamaica must be understood and lessons learnt workshops

and seminars should be rolled out across the Caribbean thereby allowing other territories to learn from experience within the region. This could be coordinated through the newly created Regional Caribbean Road Safety Lead Agency, which would be best placed to ensure that best practice within the region is disseminated and new sustainable ways of working are created.

Recommendation 4 Strengthen and improve the roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders Governments Jamaica has the most comprehensive system for data collection, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information within the Caribbean. This has provided the foundation for year on year improvements in reducing road casualties.

Jamaica has received global recognition for the work done in reducing road casualties. The success of Jamaica must be understood and lessons learnt workshops and seminars

should be rolled out across the Caribbean thereby allowing other territories to learn from experience within the region.

This could be coordinated through the newly created Regional Caribbean Road Safety Lead Agency, which would be best placed to ensure that best practice within the region is disseminated and new sustainable ways of working are created.

Police The police must continue to provide important support to road safety. This is crucial particularly for the provision of collision data and other information and working with engineers and other professionals, to ensure any remedial measures being considered are credible and necessary.

The police bring a wealth of experience and perspective

that is based on experience gained from the field. Their role however needs to be strengthened particularly with training and the provision of modern enforcement equipment, which will allow them to better detect and prosecute speeding, wreck-­‐less driving, drink and drug driving.

Businesses and Industry businesses across the Caribbean will have their employees exposed on a daily basis to perceived and real road dangers.

Whether it’s travelling to and from work as a pedestrian, driving to the office or driving for business, the workplace is an active participant in contributing to those who are present within the highway network on any given day. Encouraging

work base training programmes led by the voluntary sector and police could be a useful method of improving the knowledge of workforces in relation to the local road safety problems.

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Voluntary Sector The voluntary sector’s role could be further improved to address widening programmes in schools, working with the business community to develop campaigns and also developing road safety information for mobile platforms.

These organisations have an important role to play in building the capacity of the sector in seeking to provide education, training and research.

Insurance Companies Insurance companies must be encouraged and be incentivised to do more for improving road safety. Their role could be strengthened to include providing supporting data regarding high risk roads. Working with the police, government departments, professionals and other stakeholders, insurance companies must become an integral part of a more coordinated approach. Through improved collaboration and sharing of information this could help

to reduce the instances of vehicles also being used in crimes. Another key area where insurance companies could strengthen their role is in providing support through working with governments for the introduction of levies to help fund road safety activities. This approach is widely used in Australia (State Government Victoria, 2013), Finland (Bab2e, 2001) and Canada (Bab2e, 2001).

Recommendation 5 Establish a system of Road Safety Audits and identify collision black spots

Adopt and roll out a set of standards for road safety audits to be undertaken across the Caribbean. This must be robust ensuring that any audit recommendations are implemented or a system of exceptions is in place to deal with recommendations that aren’t being taken forward.

Identify the existing areas of black spots and collision clutter sites and prepare a programme of interventions to address

these as part of any short-­‐term investment plan.

Embracing the systems approach will require a shi` away from users towards a more collaborative responsibility model. This will mean that designers, planner, police and other professionals take ownership and become more accountable as designers of the system.

Recommendation 6 Improve safety performance and maintenance of vehicles

The roles and responsibilities within the vehicle import sector could be strengthened with active participation in the Latin New Car Assessment Programme (Latin NCAP, n.d.). This programme aims to encourage manufacturers to improve the safety performance of the vehicles they offer for sale in Latin America and the Caribbean region.

Vehicle importers are directly responsible for the make, type and features of vehicles imported into the Caribbean.

Becoming more active in Latin NCAP is key to raising the standards of vehicles offered for sale across the region.

Further to this, it is vital that a rigorous programme of annual

checks is put in place for all vehicles over 5 years old, in order to reduce the instances of poor quality vehicles contributing to serious injuries and deaths.

If the Caribbean is going to make any meaningful stride forward towards addressing it’s road safety problem, the standard of privately owned and operated public service vehicles needs to be tackled at the highest level. This will require working more closely with various stakeholders across the region to provide sustainable solutions to issues relatying to this area. Public transport must become a viable and safe alternative mode of travel as part of the strategy for improving road safety across the region.

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Recommendation 7 Develop education programmes in schools and research at universities

how to cope with the risk of the road could allow them to gain greater insight and understanding before obtaining a driver’s license.

The support of teachers within nursery, primary and secondary schools will also form an essential part of developing progressive, impactful and sustainable road safety policies. The teacher’s role must be one of support and inspiration to encourage young people to develop more awareness of road dangers and highway safety. Within Caribbean societies teachers are at the heart of guiding by example and are able to bring unique influence into the lives of young people.

In order to truly maximise the role of the education sector for the benefit of road safety, research by the University of the West Indies must be encouraged. This should be seen as an avenue to broaden understanding and improve the knowledge base of key professionals involved in road safety and wider transport planning. Encouraging and supporting the use of research through the University of the West Indies will help to better understand the issues surrounding deaths on our roads. In addition the Caribbean must establish a mechanism for monitoring and evaluating the impacts of interventions on Caribbean roads to enable lessons learnt to be shared across the region.

We know from the Caribbean data that vulnerable user groups like pedestrians and cyclists are more likely to die in fatal collisions. Many young people in the Caribbean make journeys to school by walking or on bicycle. It therefore stands that the school environment provides the best opportunity to instill this knowledge.

New standards and qualifications for improving driving instructors to better prepare students for driving on the Caribbean roads must also be adopted. This should consider not just the quality of instruction but also the quantum of experience; which should include a set minimum number of hours gained, before drivers are licensed.

Further to primary and secondary education many Caribbean students go onto tertiary level studies through colleges and polytechnics. It is at this stage that many transition from being vulnerable road users to car drivers. The introduction of strategies to help them stay safer as drivers and passengers is an essential requirement. Providing the young people of the Caribbean with an opportunity to understand

Recommendation 8 Invest in long-­‐term strategies focused on attitude and behaviour change

Governments and stakeholders must collaborate on establishing a sustained road safety campaigned focused on improving road user attitudes and behaviours across the region. This must include delivering high profile television advertisements, coupled with newspaper adverts, radio shows and social media channels such as YouTube.

The authorities must also actively enforce existing laws that provide for the enforcement of drink and drug driving, speeding, wearing of helmets and seat belts.

To support further capacity building within the road safety sector, more resources will be required to support training of road safety professionals, who can actively work with all stakeholders to raise the awareness of the road deaths.

In order to change attitudes towards road safety the citizen of the Caribbean must be at the heart of delivering the needed improvements. The participants in the road environment must recognise that each person has to take responsibility for their actions. Regardless of whether it is for safe vehicle operation, safe cycling, use of helmets and seat belts, supervising children walking, controlling alcohol use, everyone must play a part.

To enable more active participation at the local level, decision making should be widened to include local community groups in the decision making process particularly during preliminary designs of road projects.

To tackle the area of deaths amongst young people, the Caribbean must develop and deliver direct marketing campaigns aimed at young people who are learning to drive. This could incorporate a range of elements aimed at reducing the trauma from road injuries and death amongst young drivers.

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Recommendation 9 Provide improved digital infrastructure to allow for greater collaboration across agencies Due to the nature of road safety many partners serve various roles. Those working within the healthcare, trauma and crash scene recovery need further support. These agencies must be encouraged to share information about collision data and victims. This could be achieved through utilising cloud base

technology that would allow the agencies to see each other’s reports thereby enabling new ways of sharing and opening up opportunities to better understand post crash care. This information could then be used to aid further development across the road safety sector.

REFERENCES Bab2e, 2001. Financing Road Safety Through Levies on Insurance and License Fees, TRL Limited, Ross Silcock, http://www.grsproadsafety. org/sites/ grsp.drupalgardens.com/files/levies. pdf.

World Bank Global Road Safety Facility, 2009.

Country Guidelines for the Conduct of Road Safety Management Capacity Reviews and the Specification of Lead Agency Reforms, Investment Strategies and Safe System Projects.

Brisbane City Council, 2008. European Commission Mobility and Transport, Road Safety -Brisbane City Council Transport Plan for Brisbane 2008 – 2026.

WHO, 2011. Mobile Phone Use: A growing problem of driver distraction, Geneva.

WHO, 2011. Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 – 2020.

Caribbean Road Safety Stakeholder Group, 2012.

Summary of Bahamas Initiatives Centro, 2011. West Midlands Local Transport Plan: Making the Connections.

Global Campaign for Global Road Safety, 2013.

Jamaica receives global recogni2on for road safety, Make Roads Safe Press Release, 29 April 2013. http:// www.makeroadssafe.org/news/2013/ Pages Jamaicareceivesglobalrecognitionforroad safety. aspx.

Lazn, NCAP, n.d.

For further information contact: info@caribbeanroadsafety.org www.facebook.com/caribbeanroadsafety Follow on Twitter @ caribbeanroads

Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications, 2010. National Transport Plan 2010 – 2019.

State Government Victoria, 2013. Vic Roads, Motorcycle Safety Levy, http:// www. makeroadssafe.org/news/2013/Pages/ Jamaicareceivesglobalrecogni2onforroad safety.aspx.

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Issue 29 HSE Tips & Quotes Road Safety

Tips

Quotes

1. You need reliable tyres. Check tyre pressure regularly and ensure the spare tyre is in good condition.

Recklessness is a species of crime and should be so regarded on our streets and highways.” – Unknown

2. Maintain an appropriate following distance while driving.

“The best car safety device is a rear-view mirror with a cop in it.” – Dudley Moore

3. Stay focused on the road. Eating, applying makeup and texting are dangerous while driving.

“You never know when a crash can happen so don’t take chances.” – Michael Schumacher “When we talk about teen driver safety, it tends to be viewed as a problem that only affects teen drivers. I don’t want to de-emphasize the importance of teenage casualties but your mother might be in a car hit by a teen driver.” – Robert Darbelnet

4. Ensure everyone is buckled up.

5. Obey the traffic rules at all times. No short cuts.

6. Be civilised. Don’t throw trash out of the window.

“It takes about 8,460 bolts to assemble an automobile and only one nut to scatter it all over the road.” – Unknown

7. Don’t drive while tired. Have someone else drive or pull over and take a power nap.

“Take it easy driving, the life you save may be mine.” – James Dean

8. Always check the water and temperature levels in your car.

9. Overloading your car with passengers and cargo can be dangerous.

10. Be prepared. Save the numbers for emergency and roadside assistance.

Source: CarSifu, 2012.

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N

Context

Grief: A Human Response to Accidents

By Cherma St. Clair MSc, PGCE, BA (Hons), DipMid, RN Lead Nurse Practice Development, London, England

Accidents can be caused by multiple factors and have heartfelt impacts on those involved. The catastrophic effects on the quality of life for the “victim” and the devastating effect on family and friends are usually profound. The associated cost isn’t just financial. It has a human, social and economic outlay. This article will focus on the human cost, expressed through grief and or mourning.

(scaring or loss of limbs), persons must come to terms with the new “being” status. People grieve differently, some internally and others externally; a few of us exhibit both and we do this in different stages.

According to Kübler-Ross (1969) there are five stages of grief and mourning which are universal and experienced by people from all walks of life.

The first stage of grief is Denial, followed by Anger, Bargaining, Depression and Acceptance (see Table 1). The five stages do not necessarily occur in any specific order. Individuals often move between stages spending different lengths of time working through each step and express each stage with different levels of intensity before achieving a more peaceful acceptance of loss. Many are not afforded the luxury of time required to achieve this final stage of grief. Throughout each stage, a common thread of hope emerges; for as long as there is life, there is hope and as long as there is hope, there is life.

The human cost of an accident is very difficult to quantify, as the true value is much more expensive in real terms than cash. Together with physical injuries and suffering, these effects may result in the breakdown of relationships and marriages, and depression not only for the victim; but for close family and friends. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder maybe another symptom experienced with ongoing emotional turmoil as a reaction to trauma. In essence, the human cost encapsulates life changes from one scale to another, where coping through grief is crucial for healing.

We often associate grief with death and rightly so as this is a natural response to coping with a loss.

However there are circumstances when loss is not death but permanent life changes, be it physical, emotional or psychological, and grief must also be considered as very relevant. Mourning for what used to be, such as in the case of altered body image 42

Table 1 – Grief Cycle

Source: On Death & Dying, Elisabeth KĂźbler-Ross, 1969. Interpretation by Alan Chapman 2006-2013.

Accidents resulting from multifaceted causal agents or not, have repercussions in the form of nonfinancial human costs. The response to overcome the human cost is critical for healing. Mourning or grieving facilitates healing.

References Kubler-Ross, E. 1969. Death and Dying http://www.businessballs.com/elisabeth_kubler_ross_five_ stages_of_grief.htm (accessed March 20, 2015).

Chapman, A. 2013. Review and interpretation of the Grief cycle http://ok.gov/sde/sites/ok.gov.sde/ files/Five%20Stages%20of%20Grief.pdf (accessed March 21, 2015).

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2

1 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13

14

15

16

17

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3) An instance of one moving object or person striking violently against another.

1) The controlled operation and movement of a vehicle, such as a car, carriage, truck, or bus.

4) A group consisting of parents and children living together in a household.

2) Something, typically money, awarded to someone as a recompense for loss, injury, or suffering.

6) A state in which a person’s normal capacity to act or reason is inhibited.

5) A belt or strap securing a person to prevent injury, especially in a vehicle or aircraft.

8) Physical harm caused to something in such a way as to impair its value, usefulness, or normal function.

7) The condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk, or injury.

12) A person walking along a road or in a developed area.

9) Rapidity of movement or action.

13) The action of teaching a person or animal a particular skill or type of behavior.

10) A serious, unexpected, and often dangerous situation requiring immediate action.

15) A thing providing protection against a possible eventuality.

11) A thing used for transporting people or goods, especially on land, such as a car, truck, or cart.

17) A medium that can be exchanged for goods and services.

13) Vehicles moving on a road 18) An occurrence of death by accident, in war, or from disease.

14) An event that is not planned or intended: an event that occurs by chance

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16) Damage or harm done to or suffered by a person or thing.

Rainwater Harvesting:

Adapting To Climate Change And Improving Water Security Using An Age-old Technique

By Norma Cherry-Fevrier Programme OďŹƒcer II

Saint Lucia

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“Reducing the Risks to Human and Natural Assets Resulting from Climate Change” INTRODUCTION adaptation measure, its benefits and present rainwater harvesting initiatives that have been undertaken in Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Barbuda.

Harvesting rainwater is an ancient technique now being promoted as a climate change adaptation option to reduce vulnerability and contribute to building resilience in the water sector and increase water security overall. While many Caribbean territories have had an abundance of surface water, with increased development and population growth, the demand for water is also increasing.

Additionally, climate variability and changes in the hydrological cycle driven by climate change are occurring; rainfall patterns are changing and longer dry periods are being experienced. Many water sources have either dried up or their yields have significantly reduced. Coupled with this is an increasing water demand.

RAINWATER HARVESTING AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION OPTION

Climate Change and water resources are connected through the hydrological cycle that illustrates the movement of water above, on and below the surface of the earth (Farrell et al., 2007). According to Pulwarty et al. (2010), water resources are affected by climate change and climate variability in the following ways: (i) intense rainfall over short periods that results in The IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report notes that apart high runoff with little recharge of groundwater from the projected impacts of climate change on aquifers and lower quality surface waters, (ii) long precipitation patterns, the amount of clean water dry periods with high temperatures warranting available can also reduce as a result of negative increased irrigation demands, saline intrusion, soil climate change impacts on water quality such as degradation, and health impacts and (iii) supply the existence of algae producing toxins in major augmentation during drought relies on the use water bodies. Consequently, building resilience in of limited groundwater reserves, truck-borne the water sector and increasing water security is distribution, and even barging to smaller islands. critical for the Caribbean Region. This paper will As a result, Caribbean countries must find ways to discuss rainwater harvesting as a climate change adapt to such scenarios and reduce disaster risks.

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One such measure is the harvesting of rainwater which is the technique used to collect and store rainwater from roofs, the land surface or rock catchments, even jars and pots and complex techniques such as underground check dams (GDRC, nd). Likewise, Conserve Energy Future (CEF) defines rainwater harvesting as a simple process by which rainwater is collected when it falls to the earth, stored and utilised at a later point. CEF notes further that rainwater can be purified and used as drinking water and can be used for daily applications and even large scale industrial purposes.

Given the uncertainty associated with climate change, harvesting rain water is critical to human, agricultural and industrial activities. It can be used as part of a conjunctive water use regime to reduce stress on groundwater resources. It can also assist with reducing unavailability of water during periods of drought; as such periods present significant difficulties in the management of water resources. According to

Pandey et al. (2003) Rainwater harvesting is even more important today that any other time in the Holocene given that:

fluctuations and corresponding adaptation by human society will be crucial to sustainability efforts. In response, rainwater harvesting will enhance the • Over 50% of accessible freshwater resilience of human society. runoff globally is already Such resilience will be critical appropriated for human use; to confronting local and global changes and enabling human • Many human beings still lack society to absorb shock, learn access to clean drinking water and develop. Robust rainwater and basic sanitation services; harvesting policies can therefore be promoted as core adaptation • Human population will grow strategies for achieving security and sustainability of faster than increases in the amount of accessible freshwater water resources in the face of causing per capita availability climate change. (Pandey et al., of freshwater to decrease in the 2003). To ensure the success of coming century; and rainwater harvesting strategies, it is important to factor in • Climate change will cause a disinfection and improving water quality, adequate storage and general intensification of the earth’s hydrological cycle with capitalising on local knowledge in generally increased precipitation, communities, especially among evapotranspiration, occurrence of farmers (ATPS, 2013). Where storms and significant changes rainwater harvesting systems in biogeochemical processes are installed, disinfection of the influencing water quality. water should occur either by using simple household methods Under such circumstances, (chlorine) or by participating rainwater harvesting will be in central Government’s critical and correspondingly, Health Department regime for adequate knowledge of climate disinfection and potable use.

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Peters (2006) as cited by Neff et al. (2012) note that waterborne disease related to rainwater is nearly unknown among the residents of Grenada’s Carriacou and Petit Martinique islands that rely on rainwater for 100% of their water supply. Despite this experience, proper storage is critical so as to avoid the breeding of mosquitoes in light of the many diseases outbreaks that have been seen around the Caribbean namely Chikungunya and Dengue Fever. Further, it is important to note that different types or methods of rainwater harvesting will vary dependent on location and peculiar circumstances. As a result, conducting an inventory of the various types of technologies, advantages and disadvantages will be important to support decision-making (Ayele, 2014).

• Harvesting systems are simple technologies and easy to maintain; • It can be utilised for several non-drinking purposes including the flushing of toilets, doing laundry as rainwater is soft and leaves no limescale, watering gardens and washing vehicles; • Leads to a reduction in water bills as harvested rainwater can be used for drinking; • It is suitable for irrigation as it is free from many chemicals that can be found in groundwater; • It reduces the demand on areas that are reliant on groundwater as increasing water demand places additional difficulty causing severe depletion of groundwater; • It reduces floods in low lying areas and soil erosion and contamination of surface water with pesticides and fertilizers from water run-off into water bodies; • It can be used as a main source of water or as a backup source to wells and municipal water; • The system can be easily retrofitted to an existing structure or built during new home construction;

Benefits Of Rainwater Harvesting The effects of climate change will cause many countries to become further water stressed or water scarce. Rainwater harvesting as an adaptation measure is therefore a critical component of any country’s water resources management strategy. Rainwater is the purest form of water and harvesting it means having total control over one’s water supply as it is ideal for areas with water restrictions. It is socially acceptable and environmentally responsible, promotes selfsufficiency and helps in the conservation of water.

There are many benefits of harvesting rainwater including:

• System are very flexible and can be modular in nature, allowing expansion, reconfiguration, or relocation, if necessary; • It reduces the need for the pumping of mains water, the energy use, pollution and CO2 emissions that go with water distribution.

Rainwater Harvesting Efforts: Saint Lucia And Saint Vincent And The Grenadines Many Caribbean territories have undertaken rainwater harvesting projects and initiatives aimed at adapting to climate change and building resilience in areas that are severely affected by water shortages and to reduce the risk of

• It is a relatively clean and absolutely free source of water; 48

unavailability of water during and after a disaster. Under the Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded (Integrated Watershed and Coastal Areas Management (IWCAM) Project in 2008, rainwater harvesting was undertaken in the Fond D’Or Watershed in Saint Lucia. The initiative utilised a participatory approach including community involvement. Three types of simple rainwater harvesting systems were designed and installed in private homes and public institutions taking into consideration the microbiological quality of the harvested rainwater.

The recommended designs included simple gravity systems installed with first flush diverters, a single cartridge filter and a minimum of a 4,555 litre storage tank based upon the average 5-person household with a per capita consumption of 273 litres per person per day. This storage would allow for a minimum three day supply based on normal use.

a community centre and a boys training facility. The Project has spent approximately one million Eastern Caribbean Dollars installing 70,000 gallons of storage for rainwater harvesting consistent with the project’s goals to undertake interventions that build resilience and enable OECS countries adapt to climate change.

More recently, the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funded “Reducing the Risks to Human and Natural Assets Resulting from Climate Change (RRACC)” Project is funding rainwater harvesting initiatives in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Barbuda.

In Saint Vincent, the RRACC Project is near completing the installation of rainwater harvesting systems at emergency shelters. These include schools,

Rainwater is a viable option for adapting to climate change and improving water security as it can reduce the unavailability of water. Any comprehensive water management strategy should therefore include rainwater harvesting components as it is evident that this technique has proven efficient. Similar to examples in islands such as Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Barbuda, rainwater harvesting regimes employed will depend on location and specific circumstances.

Further, in Highlands, Barbuda, the RRACC Project is funding the construction of an artificial catchment with an approximate 287,000 gallon capacity to capture rainfall runoff from an old quarry in addition to the installation of storage tanks with a 40,000 gallon capacity. This type of rainwater harvesting is harnessing runoff from the land and is an adaptation measure that can reduce the unavailability of water during drought and increase water available to the agricultural sector.

Conclusion

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There are a myriad of benefits to be derived from this age-old technique. It can inter alia, help to building resilience in the water sector and increase water security of a household, community or country. Given the projected impacts that climate change will have on water resources in the Caribbean and climate variability already being experienced, Caribbean governments should make investments where necessary in rainwater harvesting that will have ripple effects such as contributing to food security, human health and disaster risk reduction, among others. Economic incentives should also be utilised to encourage the installation of rainwater harvesting systems on households that will ultimately lead to changes in behaviour towards water use and increase water conservation.

References AfricanTechnologyPolicyStudies Network, ATPS. (2013). Indigenous Rain Water Harvesting Practices for Climate Adaptation and Food Security in Dry Areas: The Case of Bahi District [Deusdedit Kibassa], ATPS Research Paper No. 22. http://www.atpsnet.org/Files/ rps22.pdf. (accessed April 30, 2015).

Ayele, Y., A. 2014. “Rainwater Harvesting for Climate Change Adaptation in Ethiopia: Policy and Institutional Analysis.” Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization, V.R.F. Series, No. 488, 2014. http://phe-ethiopia.org/admin/ uploads/attachment-1944-Rainwater%20 H a r v e s t i n g % 20 a n d % 20 C l i m a t e % 20 Change%20adaptation.pdf. (accessed April 30, 2015).

Cashman, Adrian. “Water Security and Services in the Caribbean.” Water, 2014, 6, 1187-1203.

Conservation Energy Future. “Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting.” http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/ Advantages_Disadvantages_Rainwater_ Harvesting.php. (accessed May 1, 2015).

E-PAO.net.

“Rainwater Harvesting and its Benefits.” http://e-pao.net/ epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=education.

Science_and_Technology.Rainwater_ Harvesting_and_its_Benefits. (accessed May 1, 2015).

for Sustainable Development of Caribbean Small Island Developing States, Curaçao, Dutch Caribbean, March 7-9, 2012. http:// sidsgg.webs.com/2012/proceedings/Neff_ Rainwater%20Harvesting.pdf. (accessed May 1, 2015).

Farrell, D.; Moseley, L.; Nurse, L. Managing Water Resources in the Face of Climate Change: A Caribbean Perspective. In Proceedings of the 8th Annual Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies (SALISES) Conference, St. Augustine, Trinidad, 26–28 March 2007. https://sta.uwi.edu/conferences/salises/ documents/Farrell%20D.pdf (accessed April 30, 2015).

Pandey, D. N., Gupta, A. K. and Anderson, D. M., (2003). “Rainwater Harvesting as an Adaptation to Climate Change. Current Science, 2003, 85, 46–59. https://www.ncdc. noaa.gov/paleo/cv/cv_pubs/Pandey2003. pdf. (accessed April 30, 2015).

Global Development Research Center. “An introduction to Rainwater Harvesting.” http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/ introduction.html (accessed April 30, 2015).

Innovative Water Solutions. “Rainwater Harvesting.” http://www.watercache.com/education/ rainwater/. (accessed May 1, 2015).

Neff, B., Rodrego, S. and M. AkpinarElci. (2012) “Resident Perspectives on Rainwater Harvesting in Grenada.” 2nd International Conference on Governance

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Pulwarty R., L. Nurse and U. Trotz. (2010).

Caribbean Islands in a Changing Climate.

Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 52 (6): 1627. http://www.environmentmagazine. org/archives/back%20issues/novemberdecember%202010/caribbean-islands-full. html. (accessed April 30, 2015).

Winter, T.C., Harvey J.W., Franke O.L., and W.M. Alley. Ground Water and Surface Water a Single Resource. USGS Science for a Changing World. http://www.gw.govt. nz/assets/Ruamahanga-Whaitua/USGeographical-Society-reference-links.pdf (accessed April 30, 3015).

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Issue No. 30 is “Renewable Resources”

The deadline for all entries is August 21st, 2015 Issue No. 31 is “Risk Assessment”

The deadline for all entries is October 31st, 2015 54