Interneuron - Vol 3 - Issue 2 by theinterneuron

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 2 3

Letter from the Editors

Hangry, is it a real emotion? By: Parmida Jafari

Getting it on: Do aphrodisiacs really work? By: Terese M. Pierre

4 6 8 10

Trusting Your "Gut Feelings": Our Second Brain in the Gut By: Kelsey Yang

You Are What You Eat By: Shubham Sharma

10 Foods to Boost Your Brain Power By: Eileen Liu

Music is food for the brain, or is it? By: Eileen Liu

12 14 16

17 18 20 21

The Sweet Science of Chocolate By: Denitsa Vasileva

Need a quick way to detect Alzheimer's? Sniff peanut butter. By: Carol Chen

Making an Anti-GMO: The Psychology of Aversion By: Simon Spichak

Constant Cravings During Midterm Season Stress By: Tiffany Chan

Leptin: The Master Hormone that Regulates Food Intake and Obesity By: Tushar Singh

Meet the Team!

Get involved!

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

Letter from the

Editors

Dear Readers,

At the start of every new year, we each vow to become a better person. Some of us try to study harder. Others try to push their boundaries. Above all, the vast majority of us decided to eat healthier, in hopes of repenting for all the food we have devoured over the winter break. Over a month into the 2016, it is time to reflect on whether we have actually kept our new year’s resolutions. Whether we have succeeded in living off salads or we have succumbed to the temptations of chocolates, there is no denying that food is central to the life of any student. What better way to honour food than to dedicate a whole issue on the topic? The Interneuron team is proud to present you with Issue 3.2: Food and the Brain! Why is it that some foods are just too good to resist? What types of foods should we eat to keep our brains sharp? These are just some of the many questions that our contributors set out to answer. Just like a buffet, this issue has something for every taste.

Contributors Authors Parmida Jafari Terese M. Pierre Kelsey Yang Shubham Sharma Eileen Liu Denitsa Vasileva Carol Chen Simon Spichak Tiffany Chan Tushar Singh Front Page Artwork Andrea Macanović Artwork Wazaira Khan

As we are always trying to improve our publication, we are looking to include a wider variety of pieces. Would you like to see the return of Faculty Profiles? Find out about lab opportunities? Get to see more student research? Let us know! If you have ideas you would like to share with us, don’t be afraid to shoot us an email at interneuron.utoronto@gmail.com. Once again, we would like to extend a huge thank you to all our contributors and to editorial board. This publication would not be possible without their time and effort. If you think you would like to submit an article or artwork for our future issue, be sure to watch our Facebook page for announcements about our next general meeting. Don’t forget, we will also be holding our first every Interneuron Movie Social next month. Stay tuned for details!

Priscilla Chan Layout Ellora Kothare Aileen Zhou Exectuive Team Priscilla Chan Susmita Sarkar Toni Dayno

We wish you all a restful Reading Week and best of luck on your midterms!

Wazaira Khan Ann Sheng

Susmita & Priscilla Editors-in-Chief

Wan Xian Koh Alicja Dobrzanski Suroor Aziz Photography by: Sandy Ma

Hangry, is it a real emotion? Parmida Jafari

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/d4/e6/25/ d4e625e3c3567bb6cd9b7bda54c49dbd.jpg

The Snicker’s commercials depict a bunch of

pre-frontal cortex is responsible for self-control, if your

hangry people instantly satisfied by a single chocolate

brain lacks sufficient energy due to glucose deficiency,

bar. Hangry, is also the name of a Canadian company

executive functions will be impaired. This will reduce the

that provides food services on university and college

ability of the pre-frontal cortex to maintain self-control,

campuses. It targets hangry students by allowing them

resulting in the emergence of anger and aggressive be-

to order online and to avoid waiting in line for their food.

haviour. Bushman et al. (2014) demonstrated this by

From a scientific perspective, does feeling ‘hangry’ real-

looking at the relationship between individual blood glu-

ly exist? Has a neural substrate been identified?

cose levels and the expression of anger by individuals

Hangry is hunger-induced anger. On the other

towards their spouses. They found that lower blood glu-

hand, hunger is a drive with an aim to satisfy a physiolog-

cose levels were correlated with greater expression of

ical need. When you feel hungry, it is because your

anger, measured by the number of pins individuals stuck

body’s metabolic needs are not being met and your body

in a voodoo doll of their spouse.

is driving you to seek food. Hunger is something we

Currently, we have not found a hormone that trig-

perceive internally and is considered an interoceptive

gers hangry in the same way ghrelin causes us to feel

stimulus. Emotions such as anger, fear and contempt

hungry. However, there seems to be a correlation be-

can be triggered by the perception of either external or

tween hunger (low glucose levels) and anger. If you’re

internal stimuli. People experience fear when an exter-

not convinced, take away your friend’s chocolate bar

nal stimulus such as a large angry bear is perceived.

and watch them get angry; now return the chocolate and

Similarly, people can be fearful when they internally de-

see the anger disappear.

tect a lack of oxygen. Following the same logic, anger

References

can be triggered in response to the internal perception

Bushman, B. J., Dewall, C. N., Pond, R. S., & Hanus, M. D. (2014). Low

of hunger.

of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,

Bushman et al. (2014) hypothesized that since your

glucose relates to greater aggression in married couples. Proceedings 111(17), 6254–7. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1400619111

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

Getting It On: Do Aphrodisiacs Really Work? Terese M. Pierre Foods or drugs that increase sexual drives are

ginseng also improves arousal in menopausal women..

called aphrodisiacs (from the Greek, Aphrodite: the god-

Ginseng is helpful because, unlike some drugs, it caus-

dess of love). But since food is the easier and safer

es little to no gastrointestinal side effects.

option, if you’re looking for a way to spice up your physi-

Some other debunked aphrodisiacs include: honey,

cal intimacy, it might be helpful to change your diet. But

chasteberry, gingko biloba and alcohol. Many plant-

don’t go rushing to the grocery store just yet—is there

based aphrodisiacs, like yohimbine and tribulus tetritus,

any evidence to support the effectiveness of these so-

have very few studies showing a positive correlation

called sex boosters?

with sexual activity.Since these studies cannot pinpoint

Since

Aphrodite

arose

exactly how these aphrodisiacs

from sea foam, some have wondered

work, their results should not be

certain

considered definitive.

seafood may have aphro-

you

aren’t

disiacal qualities. Oys-

menopausal or don’t have

ters, for example, contain

erectile dysfunction, those

zinc, which is vital for

famed foods that were ru-

testosterone and spermato-

mored to pump up your sexual

genesis in males. But oysters

experience don’t seem to work.

have not been studied enough to

That doesn’t mean you should stop

establish any link to sexual respon-

eating them—they have other benefits,

siveness of satisfaction; there aren’t any

too—but perhaps it’s time to try a different

randomized control test data to confirm that oysters have any benefits. Putting seafood aside, chocolate has the best reputation for increasing sexual mood. It contains a wide range of pharmacologically active chemical compounds, such as tyramine and methylxanthine, and it increases serotonin levels, which contribute to feelings

method to get yourself and your partner(s) in the mood. Maybe a romantic bath instead? References Shamloul R. Natural aphrodisiacs. J Sex Med 2010;7:39–49. West, E., MD, & Krychman, M. (2015). Natural Aphrodisiacs—A Review of Selected Sexual Enhancers. Sexual Medicine Reviews, 3(4), 279-288. Shamloul R. Natural aphrodisiacs. J Sex Med 2010;7:39–49.

of happiness. Despite what your friend says, however,

West, E., MD, & Krychman, M. (2015). Natural Aphrodisiacs—A

there isn’t enough scientific evidence to concretely link

Review of Selected Sexual Enhancers. Sexual Medicine Reviews,

chocolate with higher sexual function—there was no dif-

3(4), 279-288.

ference in sexual function between chocolate-eaters and non-chocolate-eaters. Korean red ginseng is widely known for its benefits

Salonia A, Fabbri F, Zanni G, Scavini M, Fantini GV, Briganti A, Naspro R, Parazzini F, Gori E, Rigatti P, Montorsi F. Chocolate and women's sexual health: An intriguing correlation. J Sex Med 2006; 3:476–482.

on erectile dysfunction. Seven double-blind, placebo-

West, E., MD, & Krychman, M. (2015). Natural Aphrodisiacs—A

controlled studies have demonstrated the effectiveness

Review of Selected Sexual Enhancers. Sexual Medicine Reviews,

of ginseng, which works through nitric oxide release

3(4), 279-288.

from the smooth muscle of the corpus cavernosum, a sponge-like region of erectile tissue in the penis. This

Ibid Shamloul R. Natural aphrodisiacs. J Sex Med 2010;7:39–49. Ibid

Trusting Your "Gut Feelings": Our Second Brain in the Gut Kelsey Yang You may be familiar with the sensation of “butter-

In fact, recent neurobiological insights have shown

flies in your stomach” or have been told to trust your “gut

that the ENS does much more than maintain gastroin-

instincts”; perhaps you have felt that visceral wrenching

testinal homeostasis. The first human demonstration of

in your belly, or made the right decision based on your

the interaction between gut stimuli and emotional states

gut intuition. Nonetheless, how much truth do these pop-

was an fMRI study that measured the neural activity of

ular metaphors hold?

healthy volunteers before and after an infusion of fatty

Unsurprisingly, there are no flying insects in your

acids. Compared to the control saline solution, re-

stomach. However, research has generated tangible

searchers found that the fatty acid infusion reduced neu-

evidence for the gut-brain connection that these

ral and behavioral responses in a sadness-inducing

metaphors convey. In fact, the interplay of our neural,

test4. This points to the mood-improving role of high en-

hormonal and immunological systems in the gut may

ergy foods, which many of us may be familiar with.

have a stronger influence on the brain than you might

In another study, researchers at the Swiss Federal

think. Let’s take an adventure down your digestive track

Institute of Technology in Zurich generated compelling

and visit your second “brain”, the enteric nervous sys-

evidence for the proverbial metaphor “sinking feeling in

tem (ENS).

the pit of the stomach”. They operated on the vagus

Hidden in the walls of the digestive system resides

nerve in rodents and demonstrated that fear is actually

what scientists often call the “little” brain, an extensive

largely influenced by the gut. Similar to that in humans,

network of approximately 500 million neurons and more

the vagus nerve in rodents connects the ENS and brain,

than 40 types of neurotransmitters — a system that is

transmitting signals both ways: to internal organs via the

by no means “little”. This vast structure directly controls

efferent nerves and to the brain via the afferent nerves.

the gastrointestinal system and is so extensive that it

By severing the afferent nerves, the brain of the rat mod-

can operate independent of the brain and spinal cord if

els no longer received input from the ENS, enabling

needed . Discovered in the 1900s, the ENS has since

researchers to observe the rats’ behaviors in the ab-

been classified as the third subset of the autonomic ner-

sence of their “gut instinct”. Rats lacking incoming sen-

vous system, along with the sympathetic and parasym-

sory information from the gut consistently displayed re-

pathetic systems.

duced innate anxiety-like behaviors5. Strikingly, results

While our second “brain” can’t help much on exams

were consistent across all three procedures typically

like the brain in your skull, the bidirectional relationship

used to induce anxiety in rodent models: elevated plus

between the two systems allows the gut to send sublimi-

maze test, open field test, and food neophobia test. “We

nal messages, including those generated by the intesti-

were able to show that the selective interruption of the

nal microbiota, to the brain in our central nervous sys-

signal path from the stomach to the brain changed com-

tem .

plex behavioral patterns. This has traditionally been at-

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

tributed to the brain alone” says Meyer, one of the re-

References

searchers involved in this paper published in the Journal

of Neuroscience.

Young, E. (2012, December 12). Gut Instincts: The Se-

crets of Your Second Brain. Retrieved February 5, 2016, from New Scientist: https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21628951.900-

Current approaches on animal models have laid the groundwork for identifying the “big brain-small brain” crosstalk mechanism in humans. Some papers even go

gut-instincts-the-secrets-of-your-second-brain 2.

Wood, J. D. (2011). Integrated Systems Physiology:

From Molecule to Function to Disease (Vol. 26). Morgan and Claypool Life Sciences.

further to say that signals from the ENS may have an

effect on motor control and higher-order cognitive func-

the Intestinal Microbiota and the Brain. Nature Reviews Microbiolo-

tions6. These research findings give rise to bold specula-

gy (11), pp. 735-742.

tions about the importance of the ENS and how it may be

Collins, S. (2012, September 24). The Interplay Between

Van Oudenhove, L. (2011). Emotional modulation of fatty

acid induced gut-brain signalling in brainstem, subcortical and corti-

harnessed to boost our wellbeing through gastrointesti-

cal regions: an fMRI study. The Journal of Clinical Investigation,

nal-cognitive therapies. It is empowering to anticipate

121 (11), 3094–3099.

novel treatments for serious conditions such as depres-

Meyer, U. (2014). Gut Vagal Afferents Differentially Modu-

late Innate Anxiety and Learned Fear. The Journal of Neuro-

sion, obesity and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

science , 34 (21), 7067-7076.

through the ENS. Who would have thought that the di-

gestive system could be our way forward?

Mayer, E. (2011, August 13). Gut feelings: the Emerging

Biology of Gut–Brain Communication. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (12), pp. 453-466.

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-t9gdwyBR6To/UKeu3e_2IpI/AAAAAAAACE4/ nN37rT7edPg/s1600/Gut-Feel-cartoon.png

You Are What You Eat Shubham Sharma The adage “you are what you eat” isn’t just a saying

fied as the mediator that connects our gut to our brain2.

to convince you to move from unhealthy junk food to a

Therefore, it is not surprising that scientists have

bowl of salad that’s better for your health. This saying

begun to explain debilitating mental conditions such as

has some inherent truth to it, and has been supported by

depression and anxiety as being influenced by the crea-

the recent surge in research concerning the gut-brain

tures that inhabit our gut and, in a way, control our minds.

axis: the interaction between our brain and the microbio-

Don’t get me wrong. These creatures of the gut that

ta in our gut.

make up our microbiome aren’t all bad; in fact, they’re

Given that our behaviors are governed by the inter-

essential to our existence. This mutualistic relationship

play of neural activities, anything that feeds back onto

we have developed over the course of evolution helps us

this complex circuit has an impact on who we are. The

digest food that are staple to our diet. It might surprise

neurotransmitters in our nervous system are synthe-

you to hear that there are at least as many bacterial cells

sized from simple amino acids that come from our diet

in our gut as there are our own. Yes, that’s right! You are

and are differentially processed by the bacteria that line

more than 50% bacteria3. But rather than dwell into the

our gut1. Our emotions and mental states have been

existential question of who we truly are, we should en-

linked to an intricate dance of these neurotransmitter-

sure that the inhabitants in our body are put to good use.

s1,and cranial nerve 10 (Vagus nerve) has been identi-

In an eight-year study conducted at McMaster Universi-

http://learning.omnivistahealth.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/iStock_000061377620_Medium.jpg

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

ty, researchers found that psychological conditions

These provide a broad combination of bacteria that is

such as depression and anxiety seemed to be risk fac-

likely to benefit our microbiome.

tors for persistent Irritable Bowel Syndrome4. Neurosci-

4) Relax to avoid a constant “fight-or-flight” stress

entist John Cryan’s research on mice yielded similar

response that diverts circulation away from the gut,

results, in which disruptions in the microbiome induced

damaging the healthy microbiome. Constant stress also

anxiety, depression, and autism phenotypes in these

leads to a chronic immune response, which weakens

animals. Further treatment with certain benign bacterial

the health of our guts.

strains was able to restore normal social behavior . This

5) Get good sleep to replenish the microbiome as

rescuing potential shows the positive effect a healthy gut

circadian disorganization can negatively impact our mi-

microbiota can have on mental health.

crobiota and possibly lead to inflammatory diseases6.

So, how do we maintain a healthy microbiota? Recent

Now that you know that you are mostly made of microor-

research has looked at probiotics and how they help our

ganisms, it’s time to start eating right to promote the

brain. These healthy germs aid our mental states by

good bacteria in your gut. After all, we are what we eat,

helping generate the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA,

and we are mostly good bacteria.

calming the over-excitatory fear circuits during anxiety.

References

Recent research has shown that mice that ingested pro-

1) Fernstrom, J.D. (1977). Effects on the diet on brain

biotics, especially those that are rich in the strain Lacto-

neurotransmitters. Metabolism, 26(2), 207-223. 2) Bravo, J.A., Forsythe, P., Chew, M.V., Escaravage, E.,

bacillus rhamnosus, were more relaxed and had lower

Savignac, H.M., Dinan, T.G., Bienenstock, J., & Cryan, J.F. (2011).

stress hormones in response to stressful stimuli. They

Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and

also had altered levels of GABA receptor expression in

central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 108(38), 16050-5.

the brain, indicating a change in the inhibitory circuit in

3) Saey, T.H. (2016, Jan 8). Body’s bacteria don’t outnumber

response to stress . As high levels of cortisol are impli-

human cells so much after all. Retrieved from https://

cated in mood disorders, lower cortisol level in response

www.sciencenews.org/article/body%E2%80%99s-bacteria-don %E2%80%99t-outnumber-human-cells-so-much-after-all

to probiotics, like L. rhamnosus, is encouraging. Similarly, we can promote a healthy microbiota by following a few easy tips: 1) Avoid excess sugary foods to avoid yeast build

4) Marshall, J. K., Thabane, M., Garg, A. X., Clark, W. F., Moayyedi, P., & Collins, S.M. (2010). Eight year prognosis of postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome following waterborne bacterial dysentery. Gut, 59(5), 605-611. 5) Schmidt, C. (2015, Mar 1). Mental health may depend on

up as they may interfere with the ability to absorb nutri-

creatures in the gut. Retrieved from http://

ents. They may also produce toxic by-products that lead

www.scientificamerican.com/article/mental-health-may-depend-on-

to inflammatory responses. 2) Eat fiber-rich food to feed the good bacteria in your gut as dietary fibers give our friendly bacteria plenty to feast on.

creatures-in-the-gut/ 6) Bongiorno, P. (2014, Nov 8). The gut microbiome, anxiety and depression: 6 steps to take. Retrieved February 4, 2016 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/inner-source/201411/thegut-microbiome-anxiety-and-depression-6-steps-take

3) Eat probiotic foods that are rich in the good bacteria you want, like kimchi, yogurt, and fermented milk.

10 Foods to Boost Your Brainpower By Eileen Liu Feeling stressed, tired, or constantly famished? Perhaps the problem lies in the foods you’re consuming. Your brain needs enough nutrients to perform highly complex tasks, in addition to regulating basic survival functions such as breathing and blood flow. A bag of chips or a can of pop just doesn’t do the job. The brain consists of about 2% of our total bodyweight, yet it consumes about half of the body’s glucose. Eating healthy enhances alertness, motor control, perception, and most importantly, cognitive function. Here are ten foods guaranteed to boost your brainpower—keep your brain happy (and your stomach too)!

1. Salmon Who doesn’t like a grilled tender teriyaki salmon dish? Salmon contains omega-3 fatty acids—which improves brain development, enhances concentration, decreases risk of depression, and prevents inflammation in the body and the brain. A study in the journal Neurology found that “older women with highest levels of omega-3 fats would maintain better brain function for an extra year or two.” Many other fish, including tuna, contain omega-3 fatty acids as well.

2. Complex Carbohydrates Studies show that children who eat breakfast regularly perform better in cognitive tasks than those who skip breakfast. And no, the definition of a “healthy breakfast” is definitely not a sugary heaping of Froot Loops or Lucky Charms poured in a bowl of milk. Save your sweet tooth for later, and pick up a box of classic Cheerios or high-fiber bran cereal instead! Oatmeal and whole-wheat bread are good breakfast options too. Fueling your brain with a healthy, nutritious breakfast is the way to start your day!

3. Blueberries Also known as “brainberries.” Blueberries are effective in improving memory, learning, decision-making, and many other cognitive tasks, as well as lowering the risk of pre-mature aging that lead to diseases like Alzheimer’s. Blueberries also contain antioxidants, protecting the brain from producing free radicals that are damaging to the brain.

4. Tomatoes Contains lycopene, another source of antioxidant. Fresh tomato sauce makes oldfashioned spaghetti a yummy and filling dinner!

5. Spinach Don’t forget your fix of veggies! Spinach is an excellent source of all vitamins, particularly vitamin A and vitamin K, and iron. Iron—also found in chicken, beef, and tofu—is crucial in cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and attention. Spinach prevents tumour growth, and slows aging of the brain. Other leafy green veggies, such as kale, are nice alternatives too.

6. Avocado A simply delicious and nutritious fruit! Avocadoes are a source of monounsaturated fats, omega 3 and omega 6-fatty acids, and potassium (even more than in bananas!) It increases blood flow to the brain, lowers cholesterol, contains vitamin E—which protects the body from free radical damage—and prevents the risk of a stroke.

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

References: Edelbaum, M. Foods That Boost Brain Power. Retrieved February 3, 2016, from http://www.eatingwell.com/nutrition_health/healthy_aging/foods_that_boost_brain_power Gunnars, K. (November, 2015). 12 Proven Benefits of Avocado(No. 5 is Very Impressive). Retrieved February 3, 2016 from http://authoritynutrition.com/12-proven-benefits-of-avocado/ Kelly, D. The Best Brain Food You Should Be Eating. Retrieved February 3, 2016 from http://www.rd.com/health/conditions/ best-brain-food/ Lewin, J. 10 foods to boost your brainpower. Retrieved February 3, 2016 from http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/10foods-boost-your-brainpower Mercola, J. (January 12, 2015). Top 7 Foods to Boost Brainpower. Retrieved February 3, 2016 from http:// articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2015/01/12/top-7-brain-foods.aspx Pulsipher, C. (October 21, 2013). 15 Foods to Improve Your Memory Naturally and Boost Brain Power. Retrieved from http:// www.sunwarrior.com/news/brain-foods/ Images retrieved from: http://listdose.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Salmon-237x300.jpg http://purious.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/bowl-ofhealthful-breakfast-cereal_500x3001.jpg http://images.huffingtonpost.com/2014-09-30-Blueberries.jpg http:// botoxjuvedermdoctor.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/tomato.jpg http://i.livescience.com/images/i/000/076/916/original/ spinach.jpg?1435122048 http://science-all.com/images/avocado/avocado-02.jpg https://www.fredlyn.com/MixedNutsPile.jpg http://www.life-saving-naturalcures-and-naturalremedies.com/images/coconut-oilpercent-pure.jpg http://www.agropataki.ro/media/catalog/category/broccoli2.jpg https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images? q=tbn:ANd9GcRAhbC-XHI2R41RJ1jQlwKRLSDh7zc7oJ5OI59bpjDe1wsLlBPf http://www.orangegymrats.net/wp-content/ uploads/2015/08/watermelon-ogr-2.jpg http://www.granini.com/data/images/fruit_images/full/strawberry-04.png

Music is food for the brain, or is it? Eileen Liu

nitive function associated with different areas of our brain. Simply being exposed to a favourite song, we activate several complex cognitive mechanisms of attention, memory storage and retrieval, auditory-processing, and sensory-motor pathways in our nervous system. Ever wonder why we have the instinctive urge to tap our feet to a catchy tune? When our brains are aroused by music, physiological changes take place in the body, such as dilated pupils, quickened heart rate, and increased blood pressure. For example, increasing blood flow to the muscles of our legs may be a reason why we start tapping our feet. Bodily movement may Artwork by: Wazaira Khan

also be due to sensory-motor feedback circuits, through the mirror-neuron system. The mirror-neuron system

Music is an intricate form of expression filled with

acts as an “imitation” system—through communication

intertwined harmonies and melodies that send shivers

means—has the ability to perceive and act upon, or “mir-

down the spine. Whether it’s pop, jazz, or classical—

ror”, another’s actions and intentions. In other words, by

music is popular among all. It is the entertainment we

listening to a piece of music, our motor system responds

blast through little devices stuffed in our ears during a

and acts in a sense that is similar to the musician’s.

boring commute on the subway, the motivation in an

Watching musicians on stage bobbing their heads so

intense workout at the gym, or the relief in a long study

vigorously and making such dramatic body movements

cram period. For others, it is the tunes we belt out

during their performance, we now know why as an audi-

shamelessly behind those shower curtains. For musi-

ence we can’t resist the urge ourselves to drum our fin-

cians, it is those frustrating hours of practice but the glory

gers, tap our feet, or sway to the music.

and pride in performance. Music plays a simple role in

As published in a paper from Nature Neuro-

our everyday lives. However, the magnificent effects

science, Montreal researchers reveal music as “the po-

music can have on us are more than we can imagine. It

tent pleasurable stimulus.” In the experiment, subjects

is what drives our body with energy, brings pleasure to

—who experience “chills to instrumental music”—were

our lives, and enhances cognitive abilities in learning.

told to listen to their favourite songs while their brain

Simply put, music is food for the brain.

activity was monitored using functional magnetic reso-

According to an article in Nature by Zatorre and

nance imaging (fMRI) and ligand positron emission to-

McGill, music is defined as “the food of neuroscience”.

mography (PET) scanning. They discovered that music

Playing and listening to music involves nearly every cog-

triggered the release of dopamine—a hormone linked to

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

pleasurable and rewarding experiences—in dorsal and

to interpret auditory information and increased profi-

ventral striatum areas of the brain. Perhaps food, sex, or

ciency in learning new languages. In addition, the struc-

cocaine aren’t the only things that make us happy after

ture of the brain physically changes throughout years of

all!

musical training. According to a study by Brown UniverProceeding with detailed analysis, it was found that

sity, music builds grey matter in the brain—an area im-

the subject was exposed to a prolonged “anticipation

portant for processing and retrieving information—and

phase” before the period of emotional state—or the mo-

improves neural connectivity. This phenomenon called

ment the music hits the climax. It was found that during

brain plasticity is the ability of the brain to change, to

this period, the caudate, a region of the striatum respon-

rewire and form new connections between neurons,

sible in mediating rewarding stimuli, was active for a

thereby enhancing neural responses—improving aca-

sustained period. This “anticipation phase” acts as the

demic performance in school, such as literacy, mathe-

trigger for an incoming emotional surge. Analogously,

matics, listening, problem-solving and organizational

this is the delicious smell of chocolate cake fresh out of

skills.

the oven, wafting to our noses and making the corner of our mouths start to drool.

Music has amazing abilities to affect our brain in several ways we would never imagine. The physiologi-

Interestingly, scientists found that within the “antic-

cal effects acting upon our system, including the mirror-

ipation phase”, there was a particular surge of dopamine

neuron system, explains why these vibrating sound

before the rise of an emotional experience. Why was this

waves that feed into our brain can make us feel so alive

so? Imagine if we knew exactly which melody line would

and active as if we are the performer himself. Further-

come next. The song would be too boring, too pre-

more, exposure to a musical stimulus increases produc-

dictable. The “anticipation phase” is what keeps the mu-

tion of dopamine, and that frankly, is the same hormone

sic unpredictable so we stay engaged in the music, wait-

released at a satisfying bite into a chocolate bar. In addi-

ing to hear a satisfying harmonious resolution. This

tion, brain plasticity allows the brain to alter, both physi-

heightened suspense is what elicits the increase of

cally and cognitively, through active engagement in mu-

dopamine. As humans, we are triggered by changes in

sic. Therefore, music acts as a healthy energy source,

stimuli. Our brain cells—called neurons—are very

a stress relief, a pleasurable reward, and an intelligence

adaptable to predictable rewards, so when stimulus is

booster. What do these things have in common with?

constant, we lose interest. Similarly, if we were awarded

That’s right—food. So next time, before you pop open

with a chocolate cake every day for the next month, we

that bag of chips, consider cranking up those Mozart

will eventually become sick of chocolate cake and be

classics or picking up an instrument instead.

eager to try something new.

References

The brain is molded by musical experience, both

How Music Affects the Developing Brain- UPMC Heartbeat. (2014, December) http://share.upmc.com/2014/12/music-affects-developing-brain/

cognitively and physically. The Journal of Neuroscience

Lehrer, J. (2011, January 19). The Neuroscience of Music. http://

published a study observing that children who began

www.wired.com/2011/01/the-neuroscience-of-music/

learning music before the age of seven were able to

Margulis, E.H. (2008). Neuroscience, the Food of Musical Culture? Review of

change the way their brain developed in various ways. By actively engaging in a musical activity, they experience cognitive enhancements such as increased ability

General Psychology American Psychological Association, 12(2), 159–169. Molnar-Szakacs, I. & Overy, K. (2006). Music and mirror neurons: from motion to ’e’motion. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 1(3), 235-241. Zattore, R. & Mcgill, J. (2005). Music, the food of neuroscience? Nature, 434, 312-315.

The Sweet Science of Chocolate Denitsa Vasileva Disclaimer: This article may cause you to raid every cupboard in your house in a desperate search of chocolate. Reader discretion advised! 100g of chocolate (less than half a bar) contains more than 500 calories (about a quarter of our suggested daily intake) and at 48g of sugar, it significantly exceeds the recommended daily sugar intake for both men and women.1 Yet, many of us simply cannot get enough of this calorie-filled, teeth-rotting product. Personally, my life is largely a balance between two states: eating chocolate and trying to find chocolate to eat. Do I understand the potentially serious health effects of too much sugar consumption? Yes. Do I care? Theoretically, I should but I am simply toothless against the seductive power of this dark, brittle magic.

What is it about chocolate that makes it so irresistible? Why doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t a fresh, healthy, vitamin-filled green kale smoothie elicit the same gut response as a steaming cup of hot chocolate brimming with fat and copious amounts of sugar? There are many reasons most of us dive into a box of chocolate and not a bag of kale when we are feeling down. For one, many regard chocolate, this wholly unhealthy food, as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;forbidden fruitâ&#x20AC;? and forbidden things are much more tempting. On a side note, if Eve had a chocolate bar nearby she probably never would have been tempted by the poisonous apple in the first place. A more scientific explanation for our insurmountable chocolate addiction is that certain compounds in chocolate release neurotransmitters that can affect dopamine

http://blogs-images.forbes.com/kerryhannon/files/2011/05/girlchoc2203DM_428x269_to_468x3123.jpg

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

centers in the brain, bringing us momentary joy. The most potent compound in chocolate is the world’s most widely used psychoactive drug: 1,3,7-

by the liver before they can even get to the brain; hence, the impact of this compound on our mood is relatively miniscule.2

trimethylxanthine, more commonly known as caffeine.2

The fatty acid glycerides in chocolate can be

As most U of T students can attest to, caffeine is a stimu-

stacked in six different conformations. However, only

lant. It functions by suppressing a natural neurotransmit-

one structural arrangement allows it to melt at precisely

ter called adenosine and leads to increased heart rate

34°C, allowing for that melt-in-your-mouth sensation

and muscle contractions.2 Theobromine, another stimu-

which also contributes to the release of endorphins.3

lant found in chocolate, provides us with energy but makes chocolate poisonous to dogs.2 Chocolate also stimulates the release of serotonin, a well-known mood-lifter neurotransmitter.2 The body makes serotonin from the amino acid tryptophan which is found in (wait for it!) chocolate.2 Perhaps the most interesting constituent of chocolate is anadamide. Aptly named “bliss” in Sanskrit, anadamide plays an active role in activating dopamine

Given the beauty of chocolate, I think we can now appreciate Charlie’s eagerness to visit the chocolate factory a little bit more. References Dyer, Kristi. "Chocolate: Good for the Mind, Body & Spirit." Chocolate: Good for the Mind, Body & Spirit. Web. 04 Feb. 2016. "Why Does Chocolate Make People Happy? - Amano Chocolate." Amano Chocolate. Web. 04 Feb. 2016. "Why Does Chocolate Make Us Happy?" Science Focus. Web. 04 Feb. 2016

– a compound widely associated with the brain’s reward and pleasure centers.2 An activation of dopamine receptors often leads to a feeling of general happiness that is sometimes likened to the effect of certain drugs such as cannabis. Not coincidentally, anadamide binds to cannabinoid receptors in the brain. As you might have already surmised from the name, these are the same receptors that bind THC, the most potent psychedelic component of cannabis.3 However, one would have to consume more than 25 pounds of chocolate in order to experience a “high.” 3 This is not a challenge. The final feel-good compound found within chocolate is phenylethylamine. Phenylethylamine is sometimes referred to as “the love drug” because it causes feelings similar to those one experiences when falling in love.2 It is a naturally-occurring stimulator with a structure similar to that of synthetic amphetamines.2 Phenylethylamine acts by producing endorphins that cause an increase in heart rate and a general feeling of excitement.2 Unfortunately, most of the phenylethylamines that we ingest through chocolate are degraded

http://www.freegreatpicture.net/coffee-chocolate-milk/chocolatepictures-hd-17232

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http://media.lifestyle.bgmedia.rs/2015/03/eurokrem.jpg

Sniff peanut butter. by: Carol Chen

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

Even now as I type, I can smell that oh-so-delicious,

based on trigeminal sensitivity. Peanut butter is one of

addictive smell: peanut butter. For the peanut-butter

the few foods that only triggers the olfactory system and

fans out there, you can all (hopefully) recognize its dis-

does not react with any other smell systems, which

tinct smell as soon as you walk in a bakery store. Howev-

makes it a perfect testable substance for people who

er, recent studies have shown that people with

have olfactory deterioration.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) cannot smell peanut butter.

AD is increasing at an alarming pace every year.

Researchers at the University of Florida asked over 90

According to the Alzheimer’s Association, one Ameri-

participants to smell a spoonful of peanut butter at a

can develops AD every 68 seconds, and they expect to

certain distance from the nose. Those who had con-

see this figure rise to one American every 33 seconds by

firmed diagnosis of AD had difficulty smelling the peanut

2050. Therefore, we need quick, sensitive, inexpensive

butter. They had an even harder time smelling it with

and readily available clinical tests to detect early stages

their left nostrils; in fact, they were able to smell it with

of AD, and a simple peanut butter smell test just might

their right nostrils 10 centimetres farther than their left

be the answer. Currently, spinal taps and amyloid PET

nostrils. Based on these results, scientists are thinking

scans are the most accurate early-stage diagnostic

of using peanut butter as a new quick diagnosis test for

tests for AD – however, these are expensive (i.e. an

early AD!

amyloid PET scan can cost up to $5000!), uncomfort-

So why is a poor sense of smell a possible sign of

able and are not always available. In order to find treat-

AD in the first place? Often, AD patients have beta-amy-

ments that delay and or prevent future memory lost, it is

loid build-up in their brains, proteins that build up in toxic

essential to quickly diagnose people with early AD.

form in the brains. This toxic beta-amyloid may first af-

Next time you think a friend or family member could

fect the smell centres of the brain, including the olfactory

potentially be suffering from a neurodegenerative disor-

cortex, before it spreads to the brain areas critical for

der, give them a jar of peanut butter to sniff. Who knows?

memory and thinking. AD patients usually have more

Perhaps that seven-buck, unused Kraft peanut butter on

degeneration problems in their left hemispheres rather

the shelf could save a life and pave a path for neurode-

than their right hemispheres, and because the olfactory

generative treatments in the future.

epithelium extends mainly to the ipsilateral olfactory cortex, they may have an asymmetrical deterioration of odor detection. Therefore, examining olfactory sensitivity is a helpful way for neurologists to determine early AD. Now you might be asking: why peanut butter out of all foods? According to Dr. Heilman, peanut butter is a “pure odorant” that is only detected by the olfactory nerve and is easy to access. There are three systems

References Sauer, A. (2016, January 20). Can't Smell Peanut Butter? Alzheimer's May Be the Culprit. Retrieved February 03, 2016, from http://www.alzheimers.net/2014-09-19/peanut-butter-test-predictsalzheimers/ Stamps, J., Bartoshuk, L., Heilman, K. (2015, October 15). A Brief Olfactory Test for Alzheimer’s Disease. Retrieved January 30, 2016, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0022510X13003110 Griffin, M. (2013, October 8). UF Researchers Find that ‘Peanut Butter Test’ can help diagnose Alzheimer’s Disease. Retrieved

used for the sense of smell; the olfactory system allows

January 30th, 2016, from http://news.ufl.edu/archive/2013/10/uf-

us to recognize what a smell is, while the second, the

researchers-find-that-peanut-butter-test-can-help-diagnose-

trigeminal system, helps us to identify whether an odor is irritating or pleasing. Most odorants also trigger the trigeminal system, and even anosmic people (people who are unable to perceive odor) can identify odors

alzheimers-disease.html Frasnelli, J., Schuster, B., Hummel, T. (2006, December 5th). Interactions between Olfaction and the Trigeminal System: What Can be Learned From Olfactory Loss. Retrieved February 1, 2016, from http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/

content/17/10/2268.full.

Making an Anti-GMO: The Psychology of Aversion Simon Spichak Does a tomato with a flounder gene seem fishy to

referring to genetically modified products as Franken-

you? Recent controversy surrounding the introduction

food â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a monstrous, unnatural amalgamation3. Howev-

of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in foods led

er, this is largely a result of intuitive and religious biases

to campaigns for labeling these products. Despite over-

rather than fact. Humans have been selectively breed-

whelming evidence regarding their safety and benefits,

ing and modifying plants for centuries. For example,

public misconceptions, which have their basis in the

many carrots had purple skin up to the 16th century until

psychology of aversion, continue to plague GMO prod-

they were selectively bred to be orange4. Further psy-

ucts since their initial introduction in the late 1990s1.

chological essentialism may assert that there is an order

To scientists and academics, a gene from another

for what is natural, and these GMOs clearly are not.

organism inserted to confer pesticide residence and to

However, what is natural and unnatural is merely part of

increase crop yield sounds fantastic; however, to the

an internal categorization.

general public it may be terrifying. Individuals in non-

Since genetically modified organisms may not fit

science fields may not have time to learn about and

into pre existing schemas or categories, such products

understand biotechnology, resulting in an uninformed

stimulate feelings of disgust5,6. Some evolutionary re-

opinion of GMOs which relies on their intuition and inter-

searchers believe that disgust ensured the safety of indi-

nal cognitive biases2,3. Psychological essentialism, an

viduals by promoting hygiene and the adherence to so-

intuitive understanding of what is natural, as well as the-

cial norms5. New ideas and technologies are often the

ories of disgust can explain why these aversions are so

source of apprehension as they may intuitively oppose

common.

the cognitive perceptions of normality. For example,

Psychological essentialism, the concept that or-

public revulsion prevented wastewater reclamation for

ganisms have innate, unchangeable properties that de-

two years in Redwood City, California as the thought of

termine their identity, provides an internal bias against

â&#x20AC;&#x153;toilet-to-tapâ&#x20AC;? disgusted several of the citizens6. Toilet

GMOs2. When we imagine an animal such as an owl, we

water intuitively sounds unhygienic and drinking it goes

have a mental representation of its appearance and its

against the unspoken social convention.

behavior. However, the idea of modifying the genome of

Intuitive biases among the general public are

organisms clashes with this concept. For example, intro-

leading the charge in the anti-GMO movement. There

ducing crops with herbicide tolerance would result in the

should be initiatives to improve scientific literacy regard-

crops becoming weeds. By combining a gene from a

ing this biotechnologyto abolish the psychological es-

weed with the crop, individuals may conflate the identity

sentialism, the misconceptions regarding what is natu-

of the weed with the identity of the crop2. Similarly, some

ral as well as the feelings of disgust. GMOs are a revolu-

individuals possess an aversion to these crops because

tionary agricultural invention that increase crop yield

they are perceived as unnatural, eluding their catego-

and has the potential to reduce or eliminate famine.

rization schemas.

However, as long as there are doubts about their legiti-

There have been several anti-GMO campaigns

macy it will be difficult to start a conversation regarding

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

more important issues – such as the ethics associated

3. Martin, C. The psychology of GMO. Current Biology 23, R356–

with the production of these crops.

R359 4. Roe, J. B. Carrots are orange because of one Dutch family’s Royal

References 1. Ferdman, R. Why we’re so scared of GMOs, according to someone who has studied them since the start. The Washington Post (2015). at <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/07/06/whypeople-are-so-scared-of-gmos-according-to-someone-who-hasstudied-the-fear-since-the-start/>

patriotism. Techly at <http://www.techly.com.au/2015/04/13/carrotsare-orange-because-of-one-dutch-familys-royal-patriotism/ 5. Rottman, J. Evolution, development, and the emergence of disgust. Evol Psychol 12, 417–433 (2014). 6. Schmidt, Charles W. “The Yuck Factor When Disgust Meets Discovery.”Environmental Health Perspectives 116.12 (2008): A524–

2. Blancke, S., Van Breusegem, F., De Jaeger, G., Braeckman, J. &

A527. Print.

Van Montagu, M. Fatal attraction: the intuitive appeal of GMO opposition. Trends in Plant Science 20, 414–418

Constant Cravings During Midterm Season Stress Tiffany Chan Midterm season is upon us. And I’m sure I’m not

of my favourite food: macaroni and cheese. It’s a true

alone when I say that this time of year turns me into a

comfort food that I have enjoyed since my childhood. My

hermit. Like many other students, I will be spending the

mind becomes fixated on the ooey gooey cheese on

majority of reading week finding a quiet place to study.

supple pieces of pasta, topped with a slightly acidic zing

However, you won’t find me in the library. Why you might

of ketchup (yes, I’m that kid). But why do I dwell on the

ask? Because libraries don’t allow food and drinks that

sensation when I should be studying or writing assign-

I will need to fuel my study sessions. Instead, I will be

ments? That won’t get me any marks!

working from the comfort of my room, enjoying a multitude of yummy snacks.

Perhaps this memory is best described as nostalgia. In literature, nostalgia is understood as the longing

See, studying and snacking go hand in hand. Many

for a past experience. Tullet et al. suggested that nostal-

of us find ourselves trying to go through readings with

gia occurs following feelings of isolation and sadness2.

the company of a bowl of chips, having a chip or two

This withdrawal motivation serves as a coping for loneli-

every few paragraphs. Before you know it, you finished

ness by retrieving memories of happier times. Another

a chapter… along with a family-sized bag of chips! But

study by Reid et al. claimed that familiar, arousing, and/

the notion of stress eating isn’t new. In a 2007 review,

or personally relevant scents could also evoke powerful

Adam and Epel proposed that palatable foods activate

nostalgia3. In the study, participants were subjected to

the body’s endogenous opioid system, which in turn,

various scents, ranging from pumpkin spice to baby

decreases the stress response of the hypothalamic-pi-

powder. Scents that were more autobiographical tend to

tuitary-axis (HPA)1.

be associated with more positive emotions, increased

Sometimes, chips just don’t cut it. At times, I can’t

self-esteem, and optimism. Additionally, participants

get through my studying sessions unless I have a bowl

claimed to be more attached to scents that they associ-

ated with memories involving close friends and/or fami-

textbooks. Mac and cheese, pizza, cookies, or hearty

ly. These findings are in concordance with the theory

soup; whatever your comfort food may be, it is sure to

that foods and its consumptions evokes positive emo-

boost your mood when pulling an all-nighter. Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s just

tions4.

hope we wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need a tub of ice cream after midterms

The specific mechanism and pathway involved is

are done!

not yet defined, but the relationship between food and

References 1

comfort is intuitive. The smell of food binds to chemoreceptors in our nasal epithelium. The signals are then relayed towards the glomeruli and mitral cells in the ol-

Adam, T. C., & Epel, E. S. (2007). Stress, eating and the reward

system. Physiology & Behaviour, 91(4), 449-458. doi:10.1016/ j.physbeh.2007.04.011 2

Reid, C. A., Green, J. D., Wildschut, T., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Scent-

evoked

factory bulb. This then provides input to the limbic system, which is responsible for emotion and memory. (Thank goodness for PSL300!) With all this evidence, there is no denying that comfort foods are indeed comforting. It also explains why we

nostalgia.

Memory,

23(2),

157-166.

doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.876048 3

Tullet, A. M., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Inzlicht, M. (2015). Right-

frontal cortical asymmetry predicts increased proneness to nostalgia. Psychophysiology, 52(8), 990-996. doi:10.1111/psyp.12438 4

Vignolles, A., & Pichon, P. (2014). A taste of nostalgia. Qualitative

Mrkt Res/: An Int J, 17(3). 225-238. doi:10.1108/qmr-06-2012-0027

crave them most during our late night dates with our

Leptin: The Master Hormone that Regulates Food Intake and Tushar Singh Obesity Leptin is a protein hormone that is responsible for reg-

neurons inhibiting NPY/AgRP in arcuate nucleus in the

ulating food intake. When this hormone is secreted it

hypothalamus which leads to secretion of a-MSH (neu-

tends to inhibit further food intake. It is produced in both

romodulator and it is derived from POMC) in the par-

white and brown adipose tissue and other areas such as

aventricular nucleus (PVN) of hypothalamus causing an

pituitary gland, ovaries, etc. The majority of leptin is pro-

anorexigenic effect (inhibiting further food intake).7

duced in the white adipose tissue.1 White adipose tissue

Obesity is a condition where a person has exces-

is a type of tissue that is used to store calories or energy

sive body weight and a body mass index (BMI) of over

as triglycerides whereas brown adipose tissue, on the

30. Obesity puts them at risk of getting various diseases

other hand, uses calories or energy in order to generate heat causing weight loss.2 When a body is well-fed, there are high concentrations of satiety signals leptin and insulin causing an activation of POMC and CART

such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, etc.3,4 There are various causes of obesity ranging from genetics to leptin resistance, the latter being the topic of discussion in this article. It was found that leptin resistance and lack

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

of leptin receptor or leptin has been associated with obe-

References

sity. Leptin resistance happens when there is constant

1. Mandal, A. (2010a). What is Leptin? Retrieved February 01, 2016,

secretion at a high level overtime causing a decrease in its effects and its sensitivity.5

from http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Leptin.aspx 2. Saely, C. H., Geiger, K., & Drexel, H. (2012). Brown versus White Adipose Tissue: A Mini-Review. Gerontology, 58(1), 15-23.

There are multiple ways of treating leptin resistance and they range from pharmacological treatment to

3. Rosenbaum, M., Sy, M., Pavlovich, K., Leibel, R. L., & Hirsch, J. (2008). Leptin reverses weight lossâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;induced changes in regional neural activity responses to visual food stimuli. Journal of Clinical

lifestyle changes. Interestingly, one of the treatments

Investigation J. Clin. Invest.

found to be effective was administering oxytocin. Oxy-

4. Ogden, C. L., Yanovski, S. Z., Carroll, M. D., & Flegal, K. M. (2007).

tocin is a hormone that plays role in labour contraction,

The Epidemiology of Obesity. Gastroenterology, 132(6), 2087-2102. 5. A., Mandal. (2010b). Leptin Resistance and Obesity. Retrieved

lactation, and so on.6 This was found in a review paper

February 08, 2016, from http://www.news-medical.net/health/Leptin-

by Altirriba et al., where the team found that oxytocin can

Resistance-and-Obesity.aspx

treat leptin resistance as it has anorexigenic effects (de-

6. Altirriba, J., Poher, A.-L., & Rohner-Jeanrenaud, F. (2015). Chronic

creasing food intake). It was also mentioned in the paper

Oxytocin Administration as a Treatment Against Impaired Leptin Signaling or Leptin Resistance in Obesity. Frontiers in Endocrinology,

about adult mice that removing oxytocin causes re-

6, 119. http://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2015.00119

duced effect of leptin causing increase in food intake.

7. Nelson, R. J. (2011). Homeostasis and behavior. In An introduction

However, one of the pharmacological treatments that

to behavioral endocrinology (4th ed., pp. 453-510). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc.

was found to be ineffective was leptin replacement ther-

8. Paz-Filho, G., Mastronardi, C. A., & Licinio, J. (2015). Leptin

apy, which is when low leptin levels are restored back to

treatment: Facts and expectations. Metabolism, 64(1), 146-156.

normal levels causing a decrease in food intake.3 In a review paper by Paz-Filho et al., it was found that leptin replacement therapy was only effective for people with congenital leptin deficiency (CLD) but not so much for obese individuals as they might develop leptin resistance.8 To conclude, obesity is a multifaceted condition that is hard to define in terms of body mass index and so on. It is known for being a risk factor to various diseases (i.e. diabetes, cardiovascular diseases). Obesity has been associated with leptin resistance causing increase in food intake as proven due to down regulation of leptin. It is not easy to treat obesity as it has a lot of ways. Leptin replacement is one of the treatments that was found to be ineffective however, administering oxytocin was found to be effective. Obesity is a complex issue in terms of treatment as there is ongoing research.

Artwork by: Priscilla Chan

2015-2016

Executive Team

Sandy Ma Photography. https://www.facebook.com/clayhumans/ Top: Priscilla Chan, Susmita Sarkar (Editor in Chiefs); Toni Dayno (Marketing Director) Middle: Wazaira Khan, Ann Sheng, Wan Xian Koh (Submission Editors) Bottom: Alicja Dobrzanski (Webmaster); Aileen Zhou (Layout Manager); Suroor Aziz (Finance Direcotr) Photo not shown: Andrea MacanoviÄ&#x2021;, Ellora Kothare (Layout Team Members)

Interneuron . Volume 3, Issue 2 . February 2016

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